ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 0

l%l~

Applications
for reproduction
of this book
or parts thereof, should be directed to:
EMC Proceedings
Editor, ETH Zentrum - IKT,
8092 Zurich, Switzerland.

EMC

Symposium & Exhibition, Zurich

7985

Honorary Patron:
Mr. F. Locher, Berne
Under the auspices of:
Mr. R. Trachsel, Director-General of the Swiss PTT, Berne
Sponsor:
Association of Swiss Electrotechnicians

(SEVIASE)

Organized by:
Institute for Communication Technology of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich
Cooperating:
International Union of Radio Science (URSI), Convention of the
National Societies of Electrical Engineers of W. Europe (EUREL),
international Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR), IEEE Electromagnetic Compatibility Society, IEEE Switzerland Section,
Association of Polish Electrical Engineers (SEP), Committee AE-4
on Electromagnetic Compatibility of the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE), Information Technology Society of the SEV (ITG)

Organizing Commlttee:
Prof. Dr. P. Leuthold, Zurich (Symposium President); E. Diinner, Zurich
(Vice-President); Prof. Dr. F. L. Stumpers, Eindhoven (Vice-President);
Dr. T. DvoNk, Zurich (Organizing Chairman); Prof. Dr. R. M. Showers,
Philadelphia (Technical Program Chairman); H. K. Mertel, San Diego
(Workshops Program Chairman); U. Welte, Zurich (Exhibition Chairman); B. Szentkuti, Berne (Publicity Chairman); Dr. M. lanovici,
Lausanne (Joint Events Chairman); R. Bandle, Zurich; R. Danieli, Zug;
G. Meyer, Stafa; J. @rum, Zurich (Chairpersons, Local Arrangements);
G. Georg, Allenwinden (Treasurer); Mrs. E. Danieli, Zug; Mrs. V.
Szentkuti, Berne (Ladies Program).
Technical Program Committee:
Chairman: Prof. Dr. R. M. Showers
Prof. Dr. P. Degauque, Villeneuve-dAscq; Dr. T. Dvorak, Zurich (Pro
ceedings Editor); Prof. Dr. C. Egidi, Turin; Dr. J. J. Goedbloed,
Eindhoven; Prof. Dr. S. Lundquist, Uppsala; Dr. A. D. Spaulding,
Boulder; Dr. R. Sturm, Munster; Dr. A. Whitehouse, London; Prof.
Dr. F. Zach. Wien.
Advisory CommIttee:
H. Bachmann, Noordwijk; Prof. Dr. F. E. Gardiol, Lausanne (Swiss National Committee of the URSI); Ft. Gressmann, Bruxelles (EBU); J.
Hamelin, Lannion; J. S. Hill, Springfield (IEEE EMCS); G. A. Jackson,
Leatherhead; R. C. Kirby, Geneva (CCIR); J. L. Moe, Fort Worth (SAE
AE-4); Prof. Dr. J. J. Morf, Lausanne; W. Moron, Wroclaw (SEP); Prof.
Dr. J. Neirynck, Lausanne (IEEE Switzerland Section); Prof. Dr. R.
Sato, Sendai; Ch. Scherrer, Berne (BAUEM); Prof. Dr. Ft. Struzak,
Wroclaw; Prof. Dr. A. Wedam, Ljubljana; Prof. Dr. R. Zwicky, Zurich.

79754985:

Ten years of EMC Symposia

Symposium Patrons 1975.1995:

F. Lecher
Drs. Ph. Leenman
R. Trachsel

Symposium Chairman: Prof. Dr. F. E. Borgnis (19751979)

Sympostum President: Prof. Dr. P. E. Leuthold (1981-1985)
Secretary Generallorganising Chairman: Dr. T. Dvorak (19751985)
Program Chairman:
Prof. Dr. F. L. Stumpers (1975-1981)
Prof. Dr. Ft. M. Showers (1983-1985)
Workshops Program Chalrman: H. K. Mertel (19751985)

Sponsoring organlsatfons 19751965:

Montreux Tourist Office, Netherlands National Committee of the IEC,
Swiss Electrotechnlcal Association

Organfslng tnstitutlons 1975.1965:

Montreux Tourist Office, Netherlands National Committee of the IEC in
cooperation with the Institute of High Frequency Electronics of the Federal
Institute of Technology Zurich, Institute for Communication Technology of
the Federal Institute of Technology Zurich

Cooperating organlsations 19751985:

International Union of Radio Science (URSI), Convention of the National
Societies of Electrical Engineers of Western Europe (EUREL), International
Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR), International Special Committee on
Radio Interference (CISPR), Region 8 of the IEEE, IEEE Switzerland Section,
IEEE Electromagnetic Compatibility Society, Association of Polish Electrical Engineers (SEP), Committee AE-4 of the Society of Automotive
Engineers (SAE), Nachrichtentechnische
Gesellschaft
im Verband
Deutscher Elektrotechniker (NTGIVDE), Information Technology Society of
the SEV (ITG)

Certificates of Acknowledgement:
(for outstanding support of the Symposium)
J. S. Hill (1977), H. K. Mertel (1977), J. C. Toler (1977).
Prof. Dr. F. L. Stumpers (1983)

Some data on past svmposia

I Year
Attendance
Papers in Record
Exhibitors
Techn. excursions
Workshops
*15 summaries

of the Session

on Sequency

1975

1977

1979

1961

1963

396
108
18

444
106
19

507
107
23

529
102
25

829
103
29

-4

41

Techniques

not included

Prize Award Papers Honor Roil:

Montreux 1971:
1. (ex aequo, in alphabetical order of the first author):
lR. W. p. King, G. S. Smith: Electrical field probes and their application
in EMC
*V. P. Pevnitsky, L. V. Tigin: A stochastic model of a cumulative. process of man-made radio interference and objective evaluation of srgnal
distortions produced by these interferences
2. D. A. Bull, G. A. Jackson: Interference survey in military transport aircraft
3. Ft. Struzak: Electromagnetic compatibility: Urban electromagnetic environment - Facts models, trends
4. R. Cortina, F. Demjchelis, W. Serravalli: Anew type of 500kHzmeasuring
instrument for long-term recording of radiointerferencefrom power lines
Montreux 1977:
1. (ex aequo, in alphabetical order of the authors):
A. P. Kalmakov: Analysis of statistical characteristics of click
voltages measured with a CISPR measuring set
*A. D. Spaulding: Optimum reception in the presence of impulsive
noise
(ex aequo, in alphabetical order of the authors):
lR. J. Hasler: The measurement of external immunity of domestic
receivers-some problems and their solution
R. G. Struzak: CISPR auasi-oeak
measurino channel with extended
.
.
dynamic range
P. Groenveld, A. de Jong: A simple r.f. immunity test setup
P. G. Galliano: irlmpulsive disturbances on car electric circuitry
Rotterdam 1979:
1. D. Middleton: Canonical non-Gaussian noise models: Their implications for measurements and for prediction of receiver performance
2. (ex aequo, in alphabetical order of the first author):
*I. L. Gallon: EMP coupling to long cables
J. Hamelin, B. Djebari, R. Barreau, J. Fontaine: Electromagnetic field
resulting from a lightning discharge, surges induced on overhead lines,
mathematical model
J. G. Tront, J. J. Whalen: Computer-aided analysis of RF effects in
operational amplifiers
3. (ex aequo, in alphabetical order of the first author):
W. Hadrian: Reduction of electromagnetic disturbances in buildings
caused by lightning using conductive facades
A. P. Kalmakov: Possibilities of reduction of volume of measurements
when checking the sources of clicks for compliance with CISPR limits
T. Takagi, t-t. Echigo, R. Sato: Some characteristics of electric discharge
as a noise source in EMC problems-recent studies in Japan
Zunbh 1981:
1. (ex aequo, in alphabetical order of the first author):
C. R. Paul: Adequacy of low-frequency crosstalk prediction models
*F. M. Tesche, T. K. Liu: Recent developments in electromagnetic field
couolina to transmission lines
2. lR. Bersier: Measurement of the immunity of TV receivers to AM RF
fields in the 3 to 30 MHz range, including the influence of connected
cables
4. M. L. Crawford: Options to open-field and shielded enclosure elec
tromagnetic compatibility measurements
5. M. Borsero, E. Nano: Comparison between calculated and measured attenuation of the site recommended by IEC for radiation measurements
6. B. Demoulin, P. Degauque, M. Cauterman: Shielding effectiveness of
braids with high optical coverage
Zurich 1983:
1. J. J. Goedbloed, K. Riemens, A. J. Stienstra: Increasing the RFI immunity of*amplifiers with negative feedback
2. T. G. Dalby: Linear antenna near-field decoupling using a radial
transmission line
3. lB. Demoulin, P. Duvinage, P. Comic, P. Degauque: Penetration
through an interruption of the shield of a coaxial cable
4. K. Bullough, A. Cotterill: Ariel 4 observations of power-line harmonic
radiation over North America and its effect on the magnetosphere
5. L. E. Varakin: Electromagnetic compatibility of cellular mobile communication systems with pseudo-noise signals
6. J. J. Max, A. V. Shah: Distributed lowpass filters for EMI filtering

* recipients of monetaryawards

___.___

.~ -

Table
of
Contents

A, AutomatedEMC measurements
1Al

E.L.Bronaugh,
P.A.Sikora, Electra-Metrics,
Amsterdam, NY: Automated EMC measurements:
An overview.
2A2D.N.Heirman, AT&T Laboratories, Holmdel, NJ:
Automated immunity measurements.
3A3 J.C.van Essen, ESA-ESTEC, Noordwijk, Netherof an automated EMC
lands: Instrumentation
test facility for spacecraft.
Issy-Les-Moulineaux,
4A4 G.Eumurian, Thomson-CSF,
France: Computer-assisted
control of EMP measurements on major systems.

B, ESD techniques
5Bl P.Richman, A.Tasker, KeyTek Instrument Corp.,
Burlington, MA: ESD testing: The interface
between simulator and equipment under test.
6B2 M.Mardiguian,
D.R.J.White,
Don White Consultants, Inc., Gainesville,
VA: Recent develop:
ments in the understanding
of coupling paths
of ESD through a metallic cabinet.
7B3 L.Inzoli, Honeywell ISI, Milano, Italy: -ESD
susceptibility
and radiated emissions of EDP
peripheral printers.
8B4 B.Daout, H.Ryser, Hasler Ltd., Berne, Switzerland: Fast discharge mode in ESD-testing.

C, TriggeredlightningEMP
WI
I@2

UC3

DC4

H.Kikuchi, Nihon University, Tokyo, Japan:

A new model of triggered lightning.
The St.Privat d'Allier Research Group, France: Applications
of triggered lightning in
France: Possibilitiesand
limitations.
A.S.Podgorski,
NRC, Ottawa, Canada; J.A.Landt,
Los Alamos National Laboratory, NM: Numerical
analysis of the lightning - CN tower interaction.
T.Takeuti, M.Nakano, Z.-I.Kawasaki,
N.Takagi,
Nagoya University, Toyokawa, Japan: Electromagnetic fields on the ground due to lightning strokes triggered with rockets and a
tall chimney.

D, EMC measurements
UDl

J.D.Gavenda,
University of Texas; J.H.Davis,
IBM Corp., Austin, TX: Electromagnetic
wave
propagation
in a semi-anechoic
chamber.
14D2M.Kanda, NBS, Boulder, CO: A methodology for
evaluating microwave anechoic chamber measurements.
15D3 S.C.Kashyap, NRC, Ottawa, Canada: Field distortions in a TEM cell.
16D4J.H.Davis, W.C.Cockerill, IBM Corp., Austin,
TX: Chamber quality assessment.
17D5S.Linkwitz, Hewlett-Packard Co., Santa Rosa,
CA: Discriminating
between narrowband and
broadband EM1 using a spectrum analyser.
18W U.Raicu, G.U.Sorger, Eaton Corp., Sunnyvale,
CA: Broadband YIG-tuned preselector
for VHF
and UHF.
1gD7 G.K.Boronichev,
LONIIR, Leningrad, USSR:
Measurement of the immunity of broadcast receivers according to the CISPR method and
the difficulties
encountered.

Technical University of Wroc2oD8 T.W.Wigckowski,

law, Poland: On the measurement of EM power
density using a double loaded loop antenna.

E. Printedcircuit board EMC

ZEl

C.R.Paul, University of Kentucky, Lexington,

KY: Printed circuit board EMC.
2232B.Danker, N.V.Philips, Eindhoven, Netherlands:
New measures to decrease radiation from printed circuit boards.
23~3D.R.Bush, IBM Corp., Lexington, KY: Radiated
emissions of printed circuit board clock
circuits.
24~4H.W.Ott, AT&T Bell Laboratories, Whippany,
NJ: Controlling EM1 by proper printed wiring
board layout.
25~5R.F.German, IBM Corp., Boulder, CO: Use of
a ground grid to reduce printed circuit board radiation.
26~6J.W.E.Jones, Portsmouth Polytechnic, England:
Achieving compatibility
in inter-unit wiring.
2737J.P.Charles, CNET, Issy-Les-Moulineaux, France: Electromagnetic
interference
control in
logic circuits.

F, Lightningelectromagnetic
pulse
289

C.D.Weidman,
E.P.Krider, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ: Lightning radiation fields.
2%'2F.Heidler, Hochschule der Bundeswehr Muenthen, Neubiberg, GFR: Traveling current
source model for LEMP calculation.
30-3C.Weidman, J.Hamelin, M.Le Boulch, CNET,
Lannion, France: Radiation characteristics,
emission mechanisms and phenomenology
of
lightning.
31F4M.W.Wik, Defence Material Administration,
Stockholm, Sweden: Double exponential pulse
models for comparison of lightning, nuclear
and electrostatic
discharge spectra.
32~5R.L.Gardner, L.Baker, MRC, Albuquerque; C.E.
Baum, D.J.Andersh,
Kirtland AFB, NM: ~Comparisen of lightning with public domain HEMP
waveforms on the surface of an aircraft.
33F6D.Jaeger, R.Rode, MBB GmbH, Ottobrunn, GFR:
NEMP and lightning protection requirements
for modern aircraft equipment.
34F7F.Pigler, Siemens AG, Erlangen; P.Kronauer,
BBC, Mannheim; R.Terzer, KWU, Erlangen, GFR:
Prediction of lightning-induced
interference
voltages on the basis of measurements
taken
in similar installations.
35F8H.Schiippler, D.Ristau, University of Transport, Dresden; H.Lorke, IPF, Berlin, GDR:
Impulse current and voltage propagation
in
underground telecommunication
cables.

G, EM wave interactionwith biological

systems
3&l

Q.Chen, R.C.Huang, B.C.Pan, CARIS, Beijing,

China: The hazard of electromagnetic
radiation and discussion of safety thresholds.
37~2 T.S.Tenforde,
C.T.Gaffey, M.S.Raybourn,
University of California, Berkeley, CA: _...
Influ_-.
ence of stationary magnetic fields on ionic
conduction processes in biological systems.

Centre,
N.Dekleva, D.Vujnovid, Clin.Hospital
Zemun; B.Beleslin, Medical Faculty; V.Majid,
Electrotechnical
Faculty, Belgrade, YUgOSlavia: Magnetostimulation
- A method for reestablishment of antibiotic bactericidal
action.
CNRS, Thiais, France: Specific
3964 A.J.Berteaud,
mechanisms of microwave power dissipation
in
living tissues.
40G5 R.G.Olsen, Naval Aerospace Medical Res.Laboratory, Pensacola, FL: Measurement of specific absorption rate in a full-size man model
near a 10.67-m monopole antenna/ground
plane
system at 2.101 MHz.
41G6G.d'Ambrosio, A.Scaglione, F.De Martino, R.
Pennarola, University of Naples, Italy: Ku_
band radiation effects on the eye.
42~7 D.W.Griffin,
N.Davias, University of Adelaide, Australia: Wideband evaluation of microwave intensity near the eyes with scattering
structures present such as safety spectacles.

3803

H, Statisticalaspectsof noise and limits

43HlA.de

Jong, Dr.Neher Laboratories

PTT, Leidschendam, Netherlands:
Statistical aspects
of noise and limits.
Department of Trade and InA.C.D.Whitehouse,
dustry, London, England: Radio interference
- The probability problem.
45H3B.Audone, R.Cazzola, G.Barale, Aeritalia, Torino, Italy: Statistical evaluation of the
EMC safety margin at system level.
46H4R.Bersier, Swiss PTT, Berne, Switzerland: -The
state of art of TV receiver immunity and recommendations
for appropriate construction
deduced from test statistics.
47H5A.P.Kalmakov, LONIIR, Leningrad, USSR: Probability distributions
of effective voltages
of man-made radio interference and their use
for the calculation of limits.
48H6Q.Chen, Y.C.Zhu, CARIS, Beijing, China: The
application and development of EMC in China.

I, EM Phenomenain Power transmissionand

distribution
4911 H.-J.Haubrich,

VEW AG, Dortmund, GFR: New

ways for interference computation and MonteCarlo-optimization
to guarantee the compatibility of inductively coupled line systems.
5012 W.MachczyAski, Polytechnic of Poznan, Poland:
Potentials and currents along an earthed buried cable exposed to electromagnetic
effects
of a power line under fault condition.
5113J.L.ter Haseborq, H.Trinks, Technical University Hamburg-Harburg;
R.Sturm, NBC Defence
Research and Development
Institute, Munster,
GFR: Coupling and propagation of transient
currents on multiconductor
transmission
lines.
5214F.Paladian, J.P.Plumey, D.Roubertou, J.Fontaine, University of Clermont-Ferrand,
France: Response of a single-conductor
overhead
wire illuminated by an inhomogeneous plane
wave.
5315F.Maumy, B.Jecko, O.Dafif, University of Limoges, France: Time domain scattering by thin
wire structures above a homogeneous
ground.

916

%I1

SchwaA.Strnad, H.RGhsler, Energie-Versorgung

ben, Stuttgart, GFR: Noise sources and interference values in high voltage substations.
T.Yoshino, I.Tomizawa, University Of Electrocommunication,
Tokyo, Japan: Balloon and satellite observation of power line radiation
over northern Europe.

J, Computerprogramsfor the EMC engineer

SJI

J.K.Breakall,
G.J.Burke, E.K.Miller, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore,
CA: The numerical electromagnetic
code (NEC).
5752 D.J.Bem, J.Janiszewski,
R.Zielidski,
Technical University of Wroclaw, Poland: Computer.
aided analysis of electromagnetic
compatibllity in VHF-FM broadcasting
networks.
58J.3 A.Farrar, NTIA, Annapolis, MD: Computer models for determination
of satellite powerflux-density
limits.
University of Tsukuba, Ibaraki,
5qJ4 K.Hirasawa,
-- Japan: Computer programs for calculating
bounds of interference between arbitrarily
shaped wire antennas.
aJ5
G.Azrak, Merlin-Gerin,
Grenoble; Ph.Auriol,
Ecole Centrale de Lyon, Ecully, France: Numecompati~rical simulation of electromagnetic
bility in time domain.
61~6W.Krzysztofik, Technical University of Wroclaw, Poland: Electromagnetic
wire scattering
of thin cylindrical antennas loaded by nonlinear impedances.

K, EMI in microelectronics
62~1J.J.Whalen,

SUNY at Buffalo, Amherst, NY:

Determining EM1 in microelectronics
- A review of the past decade.
63~2J.G.Tront, Virginia Polytechnic and State University, Blacksburg, VA: Comparison of the
RF1 susceptibility
of several typical IC
pin drivers/receivers.
SUNY at Buffalo, Am64~3 Y.-H.Sutu, J.J.Whalen,
herst, NY: Demodulation
RF1 in inverting and
non-inverting
operational amplifier circuits.

L. Nuclearelectromasnetic
Pulse imoact
65~1O.Dafif,

C.Bardet, E.Jecko, University of Limoqes, France: Transient field distribution

in a transmission
line simulator.
66~2H.-D.Briins, D.KBniqstein, Hochschule der Bundeswehr, Hamburg, GFR: Calculation and measurements of transient electromagnetic
fields
in EMP simulators.
67~3T.Karlsson, G.Unden, M.Gylemo, National Defence Research Institute, Linkoeping,
Sweden:
EMP simulation by pulse injection.
68~4 M.E.Gruchalla,
A.J.Bonham, J.Gibson, P.G.
Johnson, EG&G WASC Inc., Albuquerque,
NM:
A portable programmable
pulser and high-speed,
log-weighted peak-level recorder for direct.___
drive testing.
69L5C.E.Baum, AWFL, Kirtland AFB, NM: Black box
bounds.
70L6 P.B.Johns, University of Nottingham; A.Mallik,
Kimberley Communications
Consultants,
Nottingham, England: EMP response of aircraft structures using transmission-line
modelling.

71=7I.L.Gallon, AWRE,

Aldermaston, England: Radiation damping in finite cylinders.

72L8A.Caron, B.Djebari, A.Zeddam, CNET, Lannion,
France; Ph.Blech, Y.Dijamatovic, M.Ianovici,
EPFL, Lausanne, Switzerland: Validation of
EMP calculation methods using the response
of an aerial cable to a lightning stroke.

M. Power and data line transients

EMI

74~2

75M3

76M4

77M5

&

W.T.Rhoades, Xerox Corp., El Segundo, CA:

Characteristics of unusual power main transients.
F.D.Martzloff, GEC Comp., Schenectady, NY:
The development of an IEEE guide on surge
testing for equipment connected to low-voltage AC power circuits.
P.Richman, KeyTek Instrument Corp., Burlington, MA: Changes to classic surge-test waves
required by back-filters used for testing
powered equipment.
V.Scuka, Uppsala University, Sweden: Performance deterioration of metal oxide varistors
by current surges.
M.Tetreault, Digital Equipment Corp., Stow,
MA; F.D.Martzloff, GEC Comp., Schenectady,
NY: Characterization of disturbing transient
waveforms on computer data communication lines.

Statisticaltheory of EMC
78Nl D.Middleton, New York, NY: Threshold signal
and parameter estimation in non-Gaussian EMC
environments.
7gN2 A.D.Spaulding, NTIA, Boulder, CO: Locally
optimum and sub-optimum detector performance in non-Gaussian "broadband" and "narrowband interference environments.
8fjN3N.N.Buga, V.Y.Kontorovich, Electrotechnical
Institute of Communications; Y.V.Polozok,
LONIIR, Leningrad, USSR: Electromagnetic environment control on the basis of system models with random structure.

0, Spread spectrumand mom

communications
8101

P.M.Hopkins, D.N.Cravey, Lockheed Co., Inc.,

Houston, TX: Spread spectrum communications
- Interference considerations.
8202 K.Dostert, University of Kaiserslautern,
GFR: EMC problems in data transmission over
indoor power lines using spread spectrum
techniques.
8303 L.E.Varakin, All-Union Telecommunication
Institute by Correspondence, Moscow, USSR:
The efficiency of the cellular spread spectrum radiotelephone.
H.Ochsner, Federal Institute of Technology,
8404
Zurich, Switzerland: Comparison of spectrum
efficiency of CDMA and FDMA mobile radio
systems.
G.K.Chan, Department of Communications, Ot8505
tawa, Canada: Interference analysis of a
land mobile cellular radio system.

8606 K.Fisher, Department of Trade and Industry,

London, England: Planning of television
band III for use by mobile services.
8707 B.BeriE, Federal Radiocommunication Direction, Belgrade, Yugoslavia: Comparison of field strength measurements and computer prediction in land mobile service.
8808 A.Golas, Telecommunication Research Centre,
New Delhi, India: Compatibility of TV and
UHF communications antennas mounted on the
same tower.
899 S.Satyamurthy, Combat Vehicles R&D Establishment, Madras, India: Design of compatible
equipment for land mobile vehicles.

P, Shieldingand cable coupling

WPl

S.R.Ramasamy, Defence Electronics Research

Laboratory, Hyderabad; S.Mahapatra, Indian
Institute of Technology, Bombay, India:
Attenuation of electromagnetic radiation
from microwave ovens utilizing corrugated
metallic surface combined with magnetic resistive sheets and absorbers.
91P.2W.Hadrian, Technical University of Vienna,
Austria: Low-frequency magnetic shielding
effectiveness of steel-reinforced concrete
platforms.
92P3 B.L.Michielsen, Philips Research Laboratories, Eindhoven, Netherlands: A new approach
to electromagnetic shielding.
93p4V.A.Morozov, N.V.Rodionova, USSR Academy of
Sciences, Moscow, USSR: Field nonuniformity
reduction inside a spherical magnetic shield.
94P5 H.Rahman, St.Louis University, Cahokia, IL;
J.Perini, Syracuse University, NY: EMP enclosure penetration and cable coupling.
!%P6 B.Demoulin, P.Duvinage, P.Degauque, Lille
University, Villeneuve d'Ascq, France: Measurements of transfer parameters of shielded
cables at frequencies above 100 MHz.
96P7 K.H.Gonschorek, Siemens AG, Erlangen, GFR:
Magnetic stray fields of twisted multicore
cables and their coupling to twisted and nontwisted two-wire lines.

Q, Power electronics
97Ql M.Di Stefano, Italian Railways, Roma; G.L.
Solbiati, SIRTI S.p.A., Milano, Italy: -Project of a railway electrification from the
EMC point of view.
98Q2 H.Kunkel, M.Lutz, O.Frey, High Voltage Test
Systems, Basel, Switzerland: Coupling and
filtering possibilities of transients during
EMC tests.
ggQ3 F.C.Zach, Technical University of Vienna,
Austria: A new pulse width modulation control
for.line commutated converters minimizing
the mains hacmonics content.
10op4 J.Sack, H.Schmeer, Hochschule der Bundeswehr
Muenchen, Neubiberg, GFR: Computer-aided analysis of the RF1 voltage generation by small
commutator motors.
101Q5 J.M.Firth, NRC, Ottawa, Canada: Control and
reduction of spurious emissions from small
DC to DC power converters.

1@Q6

B.Brdndli, J.Bertuchoz, R.Steck, NC-Laboratory, Spies, Switzerland: High current fast

pulse measurement with a Rogowski coil.
103Q7 V.Nikiforova, All-Union Research Institute
of Energetics, Moscow, USSR: Electromagnetic
compatibility of electrical equipment in power and industrial supply systems.

S, Systems EMC and protectivemeasures

u@l

H.Cichofi,H.Trzaska, SARU Region 1 EMC Working Group, Poland: Selective interference

in home entertainment electronic devices.
US2
I.Oka, K.Ishida, I.Endo, University of Electro-Communications, Tokyo, Japan: Co-channel
interference in an on-board processing satellite.
R, Key Problemsof spectrumuse
112.53S.Yamazaki, H.Kuronuma, NHK Science & Technil@Rl K.Olms, FTZ, Darmstadt, GFR: Radio frequency
cal Laboratories; Y.Noguchi, Nippon Electric
spectrum management.
Company, Tokyo, Japan: Relation between APD/
l&R2 H.J.Weiss, COMSAT, Washington, DC: The big
CRD of automobile ignition noise and resulsqueeze - A selective look at ORB-85/88.
tant TV picture degradation.
l&R3 A.H.Wojnar, Warsaw Academy of Technology, PoUS4
K.Uchimura, T.Aida, Kumamoto University; T.
land: Deformable lattices for efficient freTakagi, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan:
quency management.
Electromagnetic radiation caused by silver
107R4 R.Sandell, BBC Research Department, Tadworth,
palladium alloy contact switching.
England: The prediction of field strength in
u4S5 W.van Eck, J.T.A.Neessen, P.J.M.Rijsdijk, Dr.
the frequency range 30-1000 MHz and its inNeher Laboratories PTT, Leidschendam, Netherfluence on spectrum management.
lands: On the characteristics of the electro1@~5 G.A.De Couvreur, M.C.Delfour, Department of
magnetic field generated by video display
Communications, Ottawa, Canada: Optimum freunits.
quency assignment strategies for radio celluu5S6 W.Biichler,Meteolabor AG, Wetzikon, Switzerlar
land: Overvoltage protection circuits.
1@R6 P.Vaccani, Department of Communications, Ot116~7 M.A.Bykhovsky, G.G.Gurianov, Ministry of Tetawa, Canada: A second generation mobile speclecommunications, Moscow, USSR: Iterative
trum monitoring system.
interference simulator for the division of
two FM signals.

-c-m-

Authors
4 Aida T.
Andersh D.J.
Audone B.
Auriol Ph.
Azrak G.

113s4
32F5
4583
6055
6OJ5

B
- Baker L.
Barale G.
Bard& C.
Baum C.E.
Beleslin B.
Bern D.J.
BeriB B.
Bersier R.
Berteaud A.J.
Bertuchoz J.
Blech Ph.
Bonham A.J.
Boronichev G.K.
Braendli B.
Breaknll J.K.
Bronaugh E.L.
Bruens H.-D.
Buechler W.
Buga N.N.
Burke G.J.
Bush D.R.
Bykhovsky M.A.

32F5
4583
65Ll
3235, 69L5
3863
57J2
8707
4684
39G4
10296
72L8
68L4
19D7
102Q6
56Jl
1Al
66L2
115S6
8ON3
5651
2333
11657

c Caron A.
cazzo1.3 R.
Chan G.K.
Charles J.P.
Chen Q.
Cichofi H.
Cockerill W.C.
Cravey D.N.

72L8
4583
8505
2737
36G1, 4886
llOS1
16D4
8101

D
- Dafif 0.
d'Ambrosio G.
Danker 8.
Daout B.
Davias N.
Davis J.H.
De Couvreur G.A.
Degauque P.
de Jong A.
Dekleva N.
Delfour M.C.
De Martin0 F.
Demoulin B.
Dijamatovic Y.
Djebari B.
Di Stefano M.
Dostert K.
Duvinage P.

5315, 65Ll
41G6
22E2
SB4
42G7
13D1, 1604
108R5
95P6
43Hl
38G3
108RS
41G6
95P6
72LB
72L8
97Ql
8202
95P6

Gruchalla M.E.
Gurianov G.G.
Gylemo M.

68L4
11657
6n3

Hadrian W.
Hamelin J.
Haubrich H.-J.
Heidler F.
Heirman D.N.
Hirasawa K.
Hopkins P.M.
Huang R.C.

91P2
30F3
4911
29F2
2A2
59J4
8101
36Gl

1 Ianovici M.
Inzoli L.
Ishida K.
J Jaeger D.
Janiszewski J.
Jecko B.
Johns P.B.
Johnson P.G.
Jones J.W.E.
I(_Kalmakov A.P.
Kanda M.
Karlsson T.
Kashyap S.C.
Kawasaki Z.-I.
Kikuchi H.
Kijnigstein D.
Krider E.P.
Kontorovich V.Y.
Kronauer P.
Krzysztofik W.
Kunkel H.
Kuronuma H.
c Landt J.A.
Le Boulch M.
Linkwitz S.
Lorke H.
Lutz M.
fl Machczydski W.
Mahapatra 6.
Majid V.
Mallik A.
Mardiguian M.
Martzloff F.D.
Maumy F.
Michielsen B.L.
Middletoh D.
Miller E.K.

Morozov V.A.

E Endo I.
Eumurian G.

lllS2
4A4

N Nakano M.
- Neessen J.T.A.
Nikiforova V.N.
Noguchi Y.

E Farrar A.
Firth J.M.
Fisher K.
Fontaine J.
Frey 0.

58~3
lOlQ5
8606
5214
9BQ2

0 Ochsner H.
_.
Oka I.
0lms K.
Olsen R.G.
Ott H.W.

5 Gaffey C.T.
Gallon I.L.
Gardner R.L.
Gavenda J.D.
German

R.F.

Gibson J.
Galas A.
Gonschorek K.H.
Griffin D.W.

37G2
71L-l
32F5
13Dl
2535
68L4
8808
96P7
42G7

Index

fl Paladian F.
Pan B.C.
Paul C.R.
Pennarola R.
Perini J.
Pigler F.
Plumey J.P.
Polozok Y.V.
Podgorski A.S.

72L8
783
11152
33F6
57J2
5315, 65Ll
7OL6
68L4
26~6
47H5
14D2
6n3
15D3
12C4
9Cl
66L2
28Fl
8ON3
34F7
6156
98Q2
112S3
llC3
30F3
17D5
3538
98Q2
5012
9OPl
3aG3
7OL6
6~2
74M2, 77M5
5315
92P3
78Nl
56Jl
93P4
12C4
11455
103Q7
112S3
8404
lllS2
104Rl
40G5
2434
5214
36Gl
21El
41G6
94P5
34F7
5214
8ON3
llC3

B R&man H.
Raicu D.
Pamasamy S.R.
Raybourn M.S.
Rhoades W.T.
Richman P.
Rijsdijk P.J.M.
Ristau D.
Rode R.
Rodionova N.V.
Roehsler H.
Roubertou D.
Ryser Ii.

94P5.
18D6
9OPl
3702
73Ml
5B1, 75M3
11455
35FS
33F6
93P4
5416
5214
a34

5 Sack J.
Sandell R.
Satyamurthy 8.
Scaylione A.
Scbmeer H.
Schiippler H.
Scuka V.
Sikora P.A.
Solbiati G.L.
Sager G.U.
Spaulding A.D.
Steck R.
St.Privat d'Allier
Research Group
Strnad A.
Sturm R.
Sutu Y.-H.

lOOQ4
107R4
8909
4166
lOOQ4
35FS
76M4
1Al
97Ql
18D6
79N2
102Q6

1 Takagi N.
Takagi T.
Takeuti T.
Taker A.
Tenforde T.S.
ter Haseborg J.L.
Terzer R.
Tetreault M.
Tomizawa I.
Trinks H.
Tront J.G.
Trzaska H.

12C4
11354
12C4
5Bl
37G2
5113
34F7
77M5
5517
5113
6332
llOS1

u Uchimura K.
Und&n G.

113s4
6n3

V Vaccani P.
van Eck W.
van Essen J.C.
Varakin L.E.
Vujnovid D.

109R6
11455
3A3
8303
38G3

w Weidman C.D.
Weiss H.J.
Whalen J.J.
White D.R.J.
Whitehouse A.C.D.
Wi?ckowski T.W.
Wik M.W.
Wojnar A.H.
v Yamazaki S.
Yoshino T.
z Zach F.C.
Zeddam A.
Zhu Y.C.
Zielihski R.

loC2
5416
5113
64K3

28F1, 3OF3
105R2
62KI, 64K3
6~2
44H.2
20D8
31F4
106R3
11253
5517
9993
72L8
48H6
57J2

Scientific
Contributions

1 Al

1 -

AUTOMATED EMC MEASUREMENTS:

AN OVERVIEW

Edwin L. Bronaugh
and
Paul A. Sikora
Electra-Metrics
100 Church Street
Amsterdam, New York 12010
USA

Abstract
This paper looks at the history of automated EMC measurements and the current technology. It discusses the scope of this session.
A philosophical discussion is included to lead
to understanding the strengths and weaknesses
of current technology and needs for future
development. A present-day computer-controlled
interference emissions measuring system is
described.
Introduction
Background
The desire for automated EMC measurements
found its inception in the decade of the 1950's
with the greatest incentive arising, perhaps,
from the plethora of measurements mandated by
military EMC standards on military communications and electronics equipment. The problem
most pressing at the time could be summarized
as too many measurements to be made resulting
in too much data to analyze all in too short
a time. From this apparent need arose mechanical attachments for the manual radio noise
meters of the day to tune them automatically
over their available tuning ranges while driving the X-axis of an X-Y plotter with a voltage proportional to the position of the mechanical tuning mechanism and the Y-axis with
the envelope voltage from the indicating
instrument drive circuitry. Although these
"automatic" instruments were crude and frequently inaccurate, they provided the data
much faster, more reliably, and in a more
usable graphical form than could be provided
by a human operator tuning, reading an indicator, and writing down the data on a pointby-point basis.
For several years, EMC instrument manufacturers worked to improve upon this early swept
tuned instrument by providing electronic tuning, more responsive detector functions, large
dynamic measurement range by use of AGC or
logarithmic amplifiers, and untuned wide band
antennas and transducers. To this day such
instruments are still widely used to make
measurements in accordance with MIL-STD-461/
462 [4, 51 and other military standards, During this same time, spectrum analyzers or
panoramic receivers were being developed for
somewhat different purposes, but would eventually
come to be used for some EMC measure-

ments.
Then came the era of the computer, and EMC
engineers and instrument manufacturers saw advantages to the use of computers to control the
EMC test instruments. The computer could operate the test instruments; record data; apply
antenna, transducer, cable loss, instrument
calibration, and other correction and conversion factors to the data; and plot this reduced
data on multi-decade plots for ease in comparing the performance of equipment under test
with the limits in the technical standards.
Many such systems for measuring interference
emissions are in use today.
While much automation has been achievedwith
interference emissions tests, automation of
interference immunity (susceptibility) tests
has lagged far behind. One of the many reasons
for this has been the more complicated nature
of immunity tests.
Purposes and Objectives
This paper has two purposes. One is to
introduce this session on automated EMC measurements by giving an overview of the session,
and by discussing the philosophy of automated
EMC measurements. The other purpose is to
present some details on an automated radio
noise (EMI) measuring system incorporating
both self- and computer-controlled test capabilities. The objectives are to bring out some
of the strengths and weaknesses of automated
EMC tests, and to stimulate thinking towards
continuing improvement in EMC measurements.
The scope of this session is to address the
issues associated with the use of computercontrolled or self-controlled automatic and
semi-automatic test equipment and techniques
to make EMC measurements* Both halves of the
EMC test question will be addressed, i.e.,
both emissions (interference) and immunity
(susceptibility) measurements. Some of the
automated EMC measurement issues to be raised
and discussed are:
1. Emissions and immunity testing for regulatory compliance versus testing for engineering and development;
2. The effects of the test equipment scan
rate, the statistics of the radio noise
or disturbance being measured or simulated,
a mixture of signals and noise, and the
characteristics of sources on EMC measurements;
3. Automation of EMC measurements as a tool to

correct deficiencies in present manualmeasurement techniques;

4. EMC measurements for meeting military requirements contrasted with those for commercial requirements (import licensing, type
approval, etc.); and
5. Special characteristics of test instrumentation for automated EMC measurements versus
that traditionally used in manual EMC
measurements.
Automated EMC Measurements
Before we can improve upon the automatedEMC
measurement instrument and extend its use to
non-military EMC measurements, we must ask and
answer a number of questions. Some of these
questions are:
1. Why make automated EMC measurements?
2. What needs to be measured?
3. What are the strengths and weaknesses of
the present technology?
4. What goals should be set for advancingautomated EMC measurement technology?
To answer some of these questions and see
the need to ask others, we must understand the
sometimes conflicting requirements of EMC measurement standards and regulations. What do the
technical standards of such bodies as IEC,
CISPR, ANSI, ISO, VDE, FCC, CSA, JASO, SEV, and
many others, and the military establishments
of several countries have in common and where
do they differ? Can an automated system be
made to adequately deal with the differences?
Should tasks that a thinking human operator can
do easily be automated for an unthinking computer controller to do poorly, e.g., click
measurements [a]?
Why Make Automated EMC Measurements?
This question was basically answered in the
introduction, and the reasons are yet with us
these days. Even though we have achieved some
degree of automation in EMC measurements, the
growth of the use of electronics with its concomitant growth of EMI causes the problem mentioned earlier of "too many measurements, too
much data, and too little time," to be with us
continually. This places us in a dilemma of
needing either more and better automation of
EMC measurements or fewer EMC measurements to
make. The latter choice would tend to imply
less or poorer control of radio noise andelectromagnetic interference, and, thus, a worsening lack of compatibility among our uses of the
electromagnetic spectrum and electrical and
electronic appliances and equipment. Even now,
some regulatory agencies are reducing the
amount of testing for compliance with their
regulations in attempts to achieve a more
acceptable balance between the amount of testing needed and the degree of EMC obtained,with
the economics of both issues being a major
consideration,
What Needs to be Measured?
A complete answer to this question is beyond
the scope of this paper; however, an outlineof
the answer would obviously include both interference emissions from equipment and interference immunity (susceptibility) of equipment.
Also, both conducted and radiated interference
emissions and immunity measurements would be
included. To get into a more detailed analysis
of what to measure, one must study in detail

2 -

the various EMC measurement standards and

regulations along with the current and predicted EMC problems in the geographical area
of interest. The fact that geographical areas
are an important factor is obvious if the interference regulations of high population density, high technology areas are compared with
those of low population density, high technology areas.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Automated EMC
Measurements
The present technology for automated EMC
measurements uses desk-top calculators and
small computers to operate the test instruments, record and reduce data, provide calibration, plot results, and even write test
reports. At its present state, the technology
has both advantages and disadvantages. Some
of the advantages are summarized by Mr. D.N.
Heirman of AT&T in his paper [l] in this
session:
"Automation of EMC Testing should be viewed
as an engineering tool and not as a replacement for the engineer who must determine
compliance with either regulatory or corporate EMC criteria. As a tool, automation if
implemented properly decreases the likelihood of measurement error due to operator
inattention, test instrumentation misadjustments, and inability to recreate all the
test conditions on a repeatable basis. The
cost of automation must also be weighed
against the increased test time normally
associated with manual operations."
The advantages of these automated test systems seem to be abundant, but they also have
serious disadvantages. Automation of EMC
tests now often provides us with much more
incorrect data faster. It is difficult to make
the computer think and understand what is
being measured, while the human operator who
can think and understand can't make measurements as fast and tends to record data incorrectly or lose it entirely. However, a major
reason for the incorrectness of the automated
data lies in the typical understanding of the
state-of-the-art many years ago. Many an EMC
engineer is so happy to have the measurements
done quickly with less labor that he or she
has forgotten that many measurement errorproducing compromises were the state-of-theart years ago and are still present andaffect
the correctness of the data taken by modern
instruments. An example of this is in field
strength measurements. Most EMC field strength
measurements are made under conditions in
which the electromagnetic fields to be measured are not homogeneous, but the antennas
used to make the measurements are calibrated
for and operate properly only in homogeneous,
planewave fields which might be found in free
space many wavelengths from their sources.
Mixed signals and noise can pose particularly difficult problems. An example of this may
be seen in testing a vehicle for ignition
noise emanations. The vehicle is to be usedin
the vicinity of sensitive receivers for long
wave, medium wave, short wave, etc. communications, broadcasting, and navigation; thus, its
ignition noise must meet stringent limits from
10 kHz to 1 GHz. The vehicle is large and the
testing organization has no large shielded
chamber in which to test it, so it must be
tested outside. The outside environment

contains much noise and many narrowband signals throughout the required test frequency
range, and most of these signals are so large
that they produce indications in the EMI analyzer or radio noise meter far above the limit
specified for the ignition noise emanations
from the vehicle under test!
Current EMC Instrumentation Technology
The radio noise meter characteristics [2, 31
are the primary factor that determines if the
ignition noise in the above example can be
measured throughout the range of frequencies
from 10 kHz to 1000 MHz. The regulatory requirements [4, 5, 6, 71 are secondary factors
in the accurate and successful measurement of
EMI
in such a non-ideal real-world measurement situation.
A typical simulation of the array of input
signals and noise which the radio noise meter
must resolve in the example above may consist
of: 1) The signal from an impulse generator
set to produce a level of 52 dB(uV/MHz) which
simulates the vehicle ignition noise; 2) A
pulse generator operating at 50 kHz producing
a pulse amplitude of 0.0025 ~VS [68 dB(uV/MBz)]
which simulates low frequency industrial noise
in the vicinity of the test site; and 3) Two
cw signal generators set to produce signals at
22 kHz and 8 MHz at levels of 64 dB(pV) and
49 dB(llV), respectively, to simulate two of
the many narrowband communications and broadcast signals also in the ambient of the test
site. A thinking, well-trained and experienced
human operator using an ordinary radio noise
mater would have an exceedingly difficult time
resolving this spectrum of noise to determine
correctly the level of the impulse generator,
but this appears to be an almost impossibleto-solve problem using a computer-controlled
radio noise meter unless it and the control
computer software have capabilities that exceed those usually found in "standard" EMI
analyzers or radio noise meters and controllers. In the 10 kBz to 150 kHz frequency
range, the standard CISPR radio noise meter
[2] has a bandwidth of 200 Hz and the standard
ANSI radio noise meter [3] has bandwidths of
200 Hz, 1 kHz, and 10 kHz. In a 200 Hz bandwidth the impulse generator produces a level
of -22 dB(!.N), the pulse generator produces
a level of -6 dB(pV), and the 22 kHz cw generator produces a level of 64 dB(UV). In a
1 kHz bandwidth these levels become -8 dB(lN),
+8 dB(!Jv) , and 64 dB(pV), respectively. In a
10 kHz bandwidth, the levels become +12 dB(uV),
+28 dB()N), and 64 dB(BV), respectively. The
simulated ignition noise (the impulse generator) which must be measured is far below the
interfering signals and may be below the impulse sensitivity of the radio noise meter in
a 200 Hz bandwidth. As can be seen from the
above data, when the bandwidth of the radio
noise meter is made larger to bring the simulated ignition noise UP to a level where it
can be easily measured, the bandwidth is so
wide that the 22 kHz narrowband signal begins
to override the simulated ignition noise in
the skirts of the radio noise meter selectivity characteristic. This effectively prevents the detector in the radio noise meter
from properly responding to the simulated
ignition noise, It may be seen that theproblem of relative noise levels continues on
above 50 kHz,

3 -

1 Ad
A well trained, experienced human operator
using visual techniques with an oscilloscoPe
on the radio noise meter output may be able to
make some satisfactory measurements, given
enough time. A computer-controlled analyzer
would need to be extremely sophisticated to
do as well as the human operator. perhaps the
best that could be done by an automated system,
would be to determine that no satisfactory
broadband noise measurement could be made in
this frequency range under these conditions,
and so inform the operator. Because of problems such as this, the US Air Force has seen
fit to issue an application note [61 recommending that "official" measurements be made
in one bandwidth and compared against one limit
no matter what the nature of the EMI, broadband or narrowband. The United Kingdom is in
the process of issuing regulations to this
effect [7]. Both of these documents assume that
measurements can always be made in a low ambient noise environment, such as a shielded
enclosure, although this is often not possible.
In the current technology, CISPR and ANSI
instruments are specified in such a manner as
to imply that manual EM1 measurements are to
be made. At the same time, the military presumes 153 that some form of automated measurements will be made, and test laboratories performing EMI measurements to comply with military standards are generally making automated
measurements. Also, automation has begun to
pervade EMI measurements made to comply with
standards and regulations, such as those of
the VDE [8] and FCC [9], covering consumer
electronics equipment.
The above discussion applies only to the
measurement of EMI, but similar instrumentation problems exist in making interference
immunity (susceptibility) measurements. From
one viewpoint, the worldwide community of EMC
scientists and engineers is better off with
respect to making immunity measurements since
few regulations exist covering these measurements. This allows those who wish to make immunity measurements much freedom to develop
instrumentation and methods that are timely
and appropriate. Mr. Heirman demonstrates this
in his Paper CU. This does not mean that automated immunity measurements are intrinsically
any easier to make or more reliable than automated emissions measurements. Immunity measurements will be addressed by other papers
in this session.
An Automated Measurement and Analysis System
The problem posed above wherein several
different signals and noises are superposed
was investigated further with the objective of
finding a way to automate the measurements and
yet obtain valid results. First, the needed
attributes of the system are discussed, then
ways one might manually measure the various
signals and noises are investigated, and finally a method combining hardware and software
is realized. The discussion applies to the 10
kBz to 150 kHz frequency range, but similar
problems exist in, and similar techniques can
be applied to, other frequency ranges.
In order to insure that impulsive and cw
signals are properly measured, the automated
system must be able to make several decisions
without manual intervention by the operator.
First the system must be able to identify all

-4-

cw signals. This can be done with the use of a

discriminator which recognizes these signals
when they are encountered. This is relatively
easy to do by monitoring the FM video output
of the receiver for a D.C. shift in the output
level. Once the presence of the cw signal is
determined, a more difficult decision must be
made: Is there a significant impulse level
superposed on the cw signal? Since all NIL-STD
type measurements must be made with a peak detector, the level of the cw signal read includes any additive impulse level; the problem
is to isolate the impulsive signal and measure
its level. Because of the logarithmic scaling
of the radio noise meter output level, a high
level cw signal can almost entirely mask an
impulsive signal. By way of example, consider
a situation where one finds a narrowband signal present at 15 kHz at a relatively high
level, 60 dB(uV). A typical source of such a
narrowband signal would be switching regulated
power supply operating at a switching frequency of 15 kHz. The narrowband signal is one
line, the fundamental, of the spectrum of many
harmonics created by the rectangular switching
waveform, and appears in the 4 kHz bandwidth
of the radio noise meter as a cw signal. In
addition to this signal, there is an impulsive
signal at a level of 50 dB(uV/MHz). Since the
radio noise meter impulse bandwidth (6.31kHz)
is a relatively large fraction of the tuned
frequency (15 kHz), the narrowband signal will
appear to have a very wide response envelope,
and a considerable signal level will be present at the start of the frequency range (10
kHz). In addition, less than four bandwidths
away resides the high level second harmonic of
the switching power supply frequency.
Contrasting the above narrowband signal is
the 50 dE(uV/MHz) impulsive signal. Due tothe
fact that at 15 kHz we still have a 6,31 kHz
impulse bandwidth, now relatively narrow compared to the reference bandwidth of 1 MHz, we
can see only a very small component of this
impulsive signal. The actual voltage level
will be approximately 6 dH(pV), as shown by
equation (1).
The change in impulsive voltage level due to
bandwidth difference from the 1 MHz impulse
reference bandwidth can be calculated as
follows:
actual BW in MHz
ALE = 20 log (
(1)
1MHz

AdB = 20 log(O.O0631/1)
A~B = -44 do
Vi = 50- 44 = 6 dB().lV)
One can then change both levels to voltage,
add them algebraically, then reconvert their
sum back to a level in dH(uV), to find the
difference in meter indication that is caused
by the presence of both signals simultaneously.
These calculations are shown in equations
(2.1) and (2.2):
x

dB(PV)

= 20

(2.1)

and manipulating to equation (2.2)

y )lv= log-l(~)
(2.2)
First, considering the narrowband signal of
60 dB(uV) using eq. (2.2), y = log-1(60/20),
we find 60 dB(HV) = 1000 uV.
Next let us consider the 50 dB(uV/MHz) impulsive signal level, which we have already

calculated to be ~6 dB(UV) in a 6.31 kHz impulse bandwidth, Using equation (2.2) again,
y I.~V
= log-1[6 dH(uV)/20], we find this level
is =2 I-IV.
We now can algebraically add the two volttage levels for a combined signal level of
1002 uV. The next step will be to convert back
to a decibel scale to find the meter reading
of the combined signals. Using equation (2.1),
x dB(uV) = 20 log(1002), we find a level of
~60.017 dB(uV), showing that the 50 dB(uV/MHz)
impulsive signal adds a meagre 0.017 dB to the
level measured with the narrowband signalonly.
d%iV)
605040302010O-lO-2oI

FREQUENCY

IN

KHz

Fig.1: Measurement in Wideband with Detector

in Peak Position
Herein lies a large part of our problem. With
the accuracy and precision of most radio noise
meters being such that a difference of 0.017
dB is insignificant, and probably unmeasurable,
how do we measure a not so insignificant level
of 50 dB(uV/MHz)? Let us first consider the
options we would have in performing these measurements manually, then we will try to develop
an automated method.
The major problem interfering with our
ability to arrive at a correct impulse level
measurement is the presence of a narrowband
signal and its associated harmonics. An obvious solution, therefore, would be to eliminate the presence of the narrowband signal,
with the use of a sharply tunable notch filter,
thus removing the narrowband signal from the
spectrum viewed by the EMI analyzer. In the
same fashion, using additional filters, one
can remove the associated harmonics. Operating
one frequency range at a time, being careful
not to take measurements on the "skirt" of the
filter characteristic, the operator could obtain valid readings on the impulse level
present. This method, however, will be cumbersome and may not yield valid results if the
encountered narrowband signals are spaced too
closely together in frequency. Generally, however, this method can be used to arrive at
reliable, valid results,
If the operator does not have access to a
series of tunable notch rejection filters,
another method must be attempted,,The first
step would be to decrease the I.F. bandwidth
to decrease the frequency range masked by the
narrowband signal on the skirts of the radio
noise meter selectivity characteristic. The
operator must note, however, that by changing
the width of the I.F. bandwidth, he is sacrificing some of the impulse sensitivity of the

1 Ad

-5-

Receiver: NARROWBAND, CARRIER

Recorded Level: -10 dB(1_lV)

radio noise meter as is shown in Table I.

Sensitivity
Impulse B.W.
34 dB(HV/MHZ)
6.31 kHz
1.26 kHz
38 dB(FIv/MHz)
97 Hz
50 dB(lJV/MHz)
Table I. Typical Radio Noise Meter
Specifications

Frequency
15 kHz
15 kHz
15 kHz

Changing to a 1.26 kHz impulse bandwidth

sacrifices approximately 4 dB of impulse sensitivity, but changing to a 97 Hz impulse
bandwidth sacrifices 16 dB of sensitivity -obviously too much. From this observation we
see that we cannot decrease the impulse bandwidth to less than 1 kHz and still get reasonable impulsive sensitivity. The operator must
note, however, that when using a narrower
bandwidth, he must apply the appropriately
increased bandwidth correction factor to reference to a 1 MHz bandwidth. The bandwidth
correction factor calculation is shown in
equation (3).
where x = correction factor
and y = bandwidth used (in MHz)
x = 20 log(1 MHz/y)
(3)
Now that the operator has narrowed the frequency range affected by the skirt of the narrowband signal, he can tune to a point where
the narrowband level is a significantly lower
portion of the total signal level measured.
(The operator must note that the impulse level
will have also dropped, probably by about 14
dB, but the narrowband signal level Will
have
generally dropped significantly more.) The
next step that must be performed by the operator is to identify the impulse and narrowband
portions of the signal. To do this the operator should change the radio noise meter detector function to a carrier or average detector,
tune the receiver to the lowest possible amplitude point on the narrowband signal, and
take an amplitude reading in d.B(HV).
dB&')

FREQUENCY IN KHz
Fig.2: Measurement in Narrowband with
Detector in Carrier Position
The operator must then change the detector
function back to peak and take another reading
in dB(pV) (See Figure 3). The readings can
then be converted back to voltage levels, algebraically subtracted, and reconverted into
dB(pV) and dB(pV/MHz) levels respectively. An
example of these calculations is as follows:
Receiver: NARROWBAND, PEAK
Recorded Level: -3 aB(uv)

where x = level in lJsr

and y = level in dB(HV)
x = log'l(y/ZO)
For Peak reading converting to HV:
x = log'l(-3/20)
x = 0.7079 yv
For Carrier reading converting to HV:
x = log'l(-lO/ZO)
x = 0.3162 HV
The difference is 0.7079 HV - 0.3162 I_IV
=
0.3917 nV. Converting the difference to dB(HV):
y = 20 log(o.3917/1)
y = -8.1 dB(HV)
Calculating bandwidth correction factor using
equation (3),
x = 20 log(1/0.00126)
x = 58 dB
Impulse level in dB(yV/MHz) = level in dB(l.lV)
+ bandwidth correction factor, or -8.1 + 58 y
50 dB(HV/MHZ).
dG!J)
6050403020toO-IO-

-2o-,
IO

I
:5

nw&i3

I
I

IN25~H~

:o

:i

Fig.3: Measurement in Narrowband with

Detector in Peak Position
Now that we have discovered a viable method
of performing these measurements in a manual
mode, we must explore a means to arrive at the
same results using an automated system, Through
experimentation it has been found that the
second manual method lends itself very well to
automation.
The automated system can identify the frequencies of the narrowband signals by monitoring the FM video output. The system can tune
through a frequency segment, identify, locate
and measure all narrowband signals, storing
the data as it goes. Once all signals areidentified in a particular segment, the computer
accesses the data it has stored, and analyzes
the signal pattern it has encountered. During
this analysis the computer locates the best
possible frequencies to attempt to gather valid
broadband readings. Once this procedure has
been completed, the computer then tunes the
receiver to the first selected position, and a
reading is attempted. A narrow bandwidth is
selected, and data is taken first with the detector in the peak function, and then with the
carrier function. When data acquisition is
completed at this frequency, the computer
checks the collected data for a measurable
difference in the peak and carrier levels to
determine if it is feasible to arrive at an
impulsive signal amplitude. Should the analysis
show that it is indeed possible to arrive at a

-6-

valid reading, the computer calculates the impulsive signal level in the manner previously
described, stores the calculated data,proceeds
to the next previously selected frequency
point, and repeats this procedure until all
such points are completed in the frequency segment. A problem arises, however, when the computer analysis determines that a valid impulse
level cannot be arrived at by the previously
described algorithm, At this point the computer notifies the operator that it cannotproceed
with calculations at this frequency point and
that further manual investigation is necessary,
Once the message has been noted, the computer
proceeds to the next point to be analyzed.
After all data collection and analysis have
been completed, the computer adds tranducer
factors and other correction or calibration
factors, if any, and plots the data against
the desired specification limit or reference.

u
r

References
[l] Heirman, D.N., "Automated Immunity Measurements," EMC Syqosium & Exhibition,
&ich,
March 5-7, 1985, Session A
[2] CISPR Publication 16 (1977) and Amendment
1 (1980), "C.I.S.P.R. Specification for
Radio Interference Measuring Apparatus
and Measurement Methods"
[3] ANSI C63.2 (1980), "American National
Standard Specifications for Electromagnetic Noise and Field Strength Instrumentation, 10 kHz to 1 GHz"
[4] NIL-STD-461B (1980), "Military Standard,
Electromagnetic Emission and Susceptibility Requirements for the Control of Electromagnetic Interference"
[5]MIL-STD-462 (1980), "Military Standard
Electromagnetic Interference Characteristics, Measurement of"
[6] MIL-STD-462-Application Note (1980),
"Identification of Broadband and Narrowband Emissions," Aeronautical Systems
Division, Electromagnetic andInterference
Compatibility Branch, (ASD/ENAMA),
Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio 45433
[7] united Kingdom Def. std. 59/41
[8]6DE 0871/6.78, "VDE Specification, Radio
Frequency Interference Suppression of
Radio Frequency Equipment for Industrial,
Scientific, and Medical (IsM) and Similar
Purposes"
[9] Rules & Regulations of the FederalCommunications Commission (FCC), Part 15, Subpart
J, "Computing Devices," and FCC/OST MP-4
(1983), "FCC Methods of Measurement of
Radio Noise Emissions from Computing
Devices"
[lo] van Essen, J.C., "Instrumentation of Automated Electromagnetic-Compatibility TestFacility for Space-Craft," EMC Symposium
& Exhibition, !&rich, March 5-7, 1985,
Session A
@.l]Eumurian, KG., "Computer-Aided Control
of EMP Measurement on Large Scale Sys_.
terns,"EMC Symposium & Exhibition, Ziirich,
March 5-7, 1985, Session A

.
-E-z3
.-L____-_______J:
--c_-_______

t:

still further, but the number of operator interventions can be greatly decxeased by using
this automated procedure.
The technique described above is in opposition to that suggested by the ASD application
note ES], but it provides the correct data
under non-ideal measurement conditions. The
approach suggested by the application note
cannot provide the correct data under similar
non-ideal measurement conditions. Also, we
have not addressed the proper application of
transducers, so if the mandatory measurement
method requires a theoretically unsound use
of a transducer such as an antenna, we may
still be collecting much incorrect data.

_-__-_______

----_I-_____

-30

IO

20

FREQUENCY

30

IN

30

20

IO
FREQUENCY

IN

35

KHz

35

KHz

Fig.4: Automated Systemp;;;dband/Narrowband

Proceeding in this fashion, the computer

(controlled radio noise meter) can perform a
complete EMI emissions test, collecting large
quantities of data and undertaking an immense
number of mathematical calculations, in a relatively short period of time. Unfortunately,
there will be situations encountered that require the judgment of the human operator, showing that inquiry and development must proceed

2A2

-l-

AUTOMATED

IMMUNITY

MEASUREMENTS

Donald N. Heirman
AT&T Information Systems
Holmdel, New Jersey 07733 USA

Automation of EMC Testing should be viewed as an engineering tool and not as a replacement for the engineer who must
determine compliance with either regulatory or corporate EMC
criteria. As a tool, automation
if implemented
properly
decreases the likelihood of measurement error due to operator
inattention, test instrumentation misadjustments, and inability to recreate all the test conditions on a repeatable basis. The
cost of automation must also be weighed against the increased test time normally associated with manual operations. This
paper will address the proper use of automation in immunity
testing. The areas where automation is most useful are shown
by describing a typical immunity test using a transverse
electromagnetic
(TEM) cell.
Introduction
In recent years, the proliferation of a wide range of RF noise
sources
from
commercial
broadcast
stations
to
microprocessor-controlled
appliances have increased concern
for product susceptibility. Of course, in military systems, the
need for product immunity (the positive view of susceptibility)
is vital for strategic and tactical systems. On the other hand,
consumer product immunity is generally designed to respond
to pressures of the market place. A too sensitive product to
the RF ambient would cause customer complaints and lead
them to purchase a competitors product.
The sheer magnitude of immunity testing has created much
automation
in testing in an attempt to meet production
schedules and to ensure that the product has been made
immune to all sorts of RF environments. The advantages and
in some case the disadvantages of automation of susceptibility
tests are presented from the viewpoint of the test engineer
involved with consumer products,
Automating

Engineering

Evaluation

Stage

Even before a product is well along towards prototype or

preproduction
models, testing can be used to assess the
relative immunity of the product during the development
cycle. At this time, it is more important to get sufficient data
in a short period of time to evaluate immunity progress. This
phase is generally
called engineering
evaluation.
Here
automation can provide a quick view of product immunity. All
the test parameters can be held constant from test-to-test,
especially when instrumentation
is computer-controlled
and
the product response automatica(\y recorded.
During engineering evaluation with incomplete or laboratory
models, it is generally more important to see if there is any
immunity response at all with the minimum test time. Typically, levels higher than the anticipated RF ambient are applied
with a frequency scan rate faster than that for a full response
of the equipment under test (EUT). The higher field, faster
scan is traded for a lower (and perhaps closer to the design
immunity limit) level and slower scan for full response. Here

automation is a requirement since an operator may not be able

to keep up with all the necessary instrumentation settings and
EUT monitoring. Response algorithms based on scan rate and
frequency response can be written to guide the chosen scan
speed. These algorithms can be used and evaluated to
ensure that the final compliance test is truly respresentative
of the product immunity.
The engineer evaluation
period also provides a time to
fabricate sensing hardware and to adapt automation software
to determine better the actual EUT performance degradation
as a function of applied level, scan rate, and type of applied
signal (AM, PM, FM, impulse, etc.). The need for automating
the remote operation of the EUT is also studied during this
time. Such operation might be controlled by remote computer
terminals, load simulators, or the instrumentation
controller
itself. If mechanical operations are needed, pneumatics may
be used.
Recreation

of the Immunity

Field

The RF environment
is a complex one in both time and
frequency domain. Electronic products generally respond
undesirably to certain frequencies and waveshapes, not the
aggregate. This response is documented primarily by studying interference cases or by testing to several representative
ambient signals.
Unless specifically designed for immunity, commercial electronic product performance can be expected to degrade at
some point during the life of the product. The seriousness of
the degradation may or may not warrant design or in-the-field
changes. Examples of degradation include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Increased bit error rate

Erratic Operation
Abnormal modes of Operation
Audio Rectification
Seize up modes
M,iscalibration
Component failure

There is always a problem with the ability of any transducer

to recreate the in-use praduct RF envlranment. The literature
in the USA shows that the vast majority of RF data taken is
associated with commercial broadcasters and other licensed
radio services.[l,2,3,4].
Hence most immunity tests attempt
to recreate these narrowband radiated fields. There &much
less data on RF conductedinto
the product via the AC power
mains and other signal or interconnecting
cabling.[5] There
is even less data from impulsive or aperiodic signals produced by switching transients and other localized fields such as
that from a cooling fan for a power supply. Of course, special
RF surveys can be made to better describe the actual
ambient at product locations. This requires considerable time
and must be funded for proper instrumentation. As a conse-

quence, mOSt manufacturers rely on data already contained

in the literature in setting up immunity test levels.
System

Immunity

Test

A typical immunity test program would include both radiated

and conducted tests to include the following:
Radiated
1.
2.
3.
4.

Electric Field
Magnetic Field
Electromagnetic
(Plane Wave) Field
Impulsive Noise
Conducted

1.
2.

Immunity

Immunity

Direct Coupled
Near-field coupled

The radiated test would expose the entire product to a radiated

field. The associated
peripherals,
l/O cables and other
subsystems would also be simultaneously
exposed. The
conducted test concentrates on powerline and signallcommunications lines. The above list is not exhaustive. It is clear
that any automation to help relieve such an extensive test
program activity is highly desirable.
To focus our attention on one of the most used tests, this paper
will concentrate on automation of radiated immunity tests
where the radiated filed is a narrowband electric field typical
of AM, FM, or TV broadcast fields.
The basic instrumentation
for creating broadcast fields in a
controlled chamber is comprised of an RF generator, modulation source, power amplifier, and transducer (antenna). Since
broadcast transmitting antennas are generally far enough
removed so that a plane wave is incident on the product, the
presence of the product does not cause the transmitting power
to increase or decrease. However, the field in close proximity
to the product, does differ from that with the product removed. Most RF environment
surveys measure the field with
antennas removed from any object that would affect the
measurement including the ground, i.e., the antenna is located
several wavelengths above ground except for AM broadcast.
This is close to measuring a free space value of field strength.
Hence, we want to recreate that fiefd in a controlled manner.
All such RF environment simulations have the potential for
errors. Immunity measurements even at open area test sites
must contend with and account for the ground reflection.
Measurements made in enclosed chambers have even more
reflections if the walls are not anechoically treated. That leaves
few choices of test facilities that readily approximated
free
space. One choice is a parallel plate capacitor (stripline
antenna or a transverse electromagnetic
(TEM cell). Both
provide a plane wave for frequencies within the passband of
the transducer. RF anechoically treated shielded rooms (all
six surfaces)
are yet another
choice for free space
measurements.
However, anechoic chambers are usually
more expensive.
Oncethe type of measurement facility is selected, a method
for automating
the recreation and the monitoring of the
immunity field can be implemented.
Generation
of the
necessary fields are relatively straightforward and will not be
discussed further. The monitoring of these fields is not
straightforward and great care must be exercised in monitoring the field around the EUT. The most popular monitoring
procedures are:
1.
2.

3.

Real time leveling using a field probe next to the EUT.

Recalling from controller memory signal source drive
power based on previous measurements of field strength
in the test volume with the EUT removed.
Recalling from memory the source drive to set a desired
field strength based on the calculated field using antenna gain, radiation pattern, and signal level input.

Item 1 has the potential for monitoring a field that is largely

affected by the EUT, especially at frequencies where the EUT
resonates. Items 2 and 3 are preferred if the EUT does not
significantly interact with the transducer to affect the calibration of the applied signal. Both of these latter items to be fully
implemented require automation to look up the calibration data
and control the signal input into the power amplifier.
A Sample Automated

Susceptibility

Test

To further focus on the benefits of automated immunity testing,

we describe a typical test using a TEM cell as the radiating
transducer for launching an RF narrowband electric field ambient. Figure 1 shows typical instrumentation. TEM cell testing
provides a passband of operation from dc to a frequency
where the dimensions of the cell are approximately equivalent
to a wavelength.
For a cell with dimensions as shown, the
useful upper frequency is about 165 MHz for EUTs with
dimensions of up to 10 by 30 by 30 cm. General test guidelines
are contained in Reference 161.We now expand those guides
for this example.
First, the EUT dimensions should be kept small compared to
the dimensions of the cells test volume. If not, errors in the
applied test field will increase due to the capacitive loading
of the EUT. Generally the linear dimensions of the EUT should
be kept to no more than about 30 percent of the associated
test volume dimensions in either the top or bottom half of the
cell. The far field immunity level at the center of the test volume
(midway between the center conductor and ground plane) can
be calibrated by several methods with the EUT removed:
Monitoring input RF voltage using a monitoring Tee for
frequencies typically below AM broadcast frequencies.
Monitoring net power flow into cell using incident and
reflected power and a bidirectional coupler. This technique can be used for all frequencies within the passband
of the cell.
Monitoring the electric field directly with probes.
The first two aproaches are accomplished external to the cell
which has distinct advantages since no cables exposed to the
high RF field. Automation is virtually a necessity to keep track
of these levels and to perform net power flow calculations as
well as repetitively calibrate the meters. The last approach
requires the most care.
In the probe approach an optic link is generally required to
not disturb the field or become a radiating or scattering
structure. The placement of the probe is also critical since at
EUT resonance, for example, the field is most perturbed and
a probe in the near or scattered field will indicate fields that
are different from the nomimal test level.
During the actual immunity test, the fields can be monitored
using the above three basic approaches. The levels will differ
from nominal due to the loading affect of the EUT. If the
dimensions of the EUT are kept to the 30 percent test volume
criteria, the level differences from nominal will be in the order
of &36 dB under cell multimode frequency. The most
useful way to evaluate what is happening to the electric field
is by using an electrically short dipole or monopole probe. To
avoid the near field scatter problem at EUT resonance, these
probes can be placed in the half of the cell not occupied by
the EUT and at a point which is the mirror image (about the
cells center conduct) of the geometrical center of the EUT.
Above multimode, placement of the probe becomes much
more critical to remotely monitor the field at the EUT. The
differences between the nominal immunity level and what is
read by the probe significantly increases making this monitoring method less useful.
Characterizing the effects of all the monitoring methods is a
useful undertaking. For example, one of the benefits of such
probing may be to extend the useful upper frequency limit of
the cell or to allow larger EUTs. In practice, the TEM cell can

2A2

BIDIRECTIONAL

MODULATOR

CONTROLLER

APPLIED

TELEMETRY/CONTROL

IMMUNITY

SIGNAL

LEADS

LEADS

PERFORMANCE
DEGRADATION

SAMPLE

NOTE:
ElJTlPROBE

MONITORING

CABLING

VIA
TEM CELL

FIBER OPTIC OR HIGH IMPEDANCE

LINES INSIDE CELL.

Figure 1.

Typical TEM Cell Immunity

be used above its normal upper frequency

limit. In this
frequency region, the field strength is complicated by the
multimoding of the cell. Only through use of automated data
gathering techniques can the cell be properly mapped to
determine the field throughout the test volume. The mapping
would be much too cumbersome using manual techniques for
recording the orthogonal (and total) field components. In this
case automation is the only practical way to extend the test
capabilities of the cell.
Performance

Degradation

Monitoring

The next area where automation helps is in recording performance degradation as a function of applied field strength, frequency, modulation, degradation type, EUT response time,
etc. Much of this is simple data bookkeeping. However, there
still persists those who want to visually determine performance
degradation. If degradation monitoring were constantly done
by this means, especially by viewing a CRT, errors will soon
occur due to the long, repetitious and boring nature of immunity tests. No matter how conscientious the operator, monitoring of anticipated, slow to materialize, visual EUT degradation is prone to errors and lack of repeatability.
Typical automation of performance degradation would include
monitoring analog signals directly onto the IEEE 488 general
purpose bus or digital information on an RS 2326 interfaces

DIMENSIONS

I = 200 cm
w = 95 cm
h = 65 cm

Instrumentation

cable. These
methods:

signals

are routed

to the bus by one of 2

a.

Direct connection to monitoring points within the EUT via

fiber optic or high impedance transmission lines.

b.

Indirectly via connection to EUT performance monitors,

external controllers, external circuitry, simulated loads, or
peripherals, all of which are not in the test chamber but
are connected to the EUT via cabling.

The former method requires several telemetry links not part

of the EUT. The latter relies solely on using part of the EUT
system that is not exposed to the high fields, except of course
for the interface cabling inside the test chamber. Proper filtering of these leads through the TEM cell walls are needed to
protect the equipment outside the cell from RF on the cables
extending through the walls of the cell.
Once the degradation is recognized by the computer, preprogrammed operations can be implemented. Some operations are shutting down the amplifier if a destructive level of
degradation is reached, sequencing to other EUT modes of
operation, and pausing on particular frequencies to evaluated
EUT response time to the applied field.
Other instrumentation activities can also be conducted while
immunity is being recorded. For example, in the TEM cell,

10 -

there are relatively high cell Qs above its normal upper

frequency (multimode) limit, the output of the signal source
power amplifier chain should be filtered so that the second
and higher harmonics are suppressed by at least 60 dB. This
will avoid a false EUT response at the signal source frequency when in fact the response is due to a harmonic of the
applied signal (generated by the amplifier) which is coincident
with a multimode response. Automatic switching of low pass
filters is a necessity since the test engineer is concentrating
his attention on the EUT degradation and operation and could
easily forget this switching detail.
It cannot be overemphasized the importance of spending the
extra time to automate the performance degradation monitoring. The test controller can do most of this, especially if all
degradation can be sent to the controller using analog (via
an A/D converter) or digital (via the IEEE 488 bus or EIA
RS-232 telemetry) signals. The test engineer should where
at all possible take advantage of performance monitoring by
sensing signals on the same leads which remotely operate
or communicate with the EUT from outside the test chamber.
This will avoid introducing additional cabling which itself might
be vulnerable to the applied field causing a false degradation
indication.
Final Immunity Evaluation
Once engineering evaluation of the product immunity is
finished and suitable mitigation applied, the final compliance
test is performed. This test must be highly repeatable and
calibrated to judge compliance. Here automation will
significantly increase the test repeatability and ensure that
separately derived calibrations are always used. These tests
are generally longer in duration since the full range of performance degradation is checked and recorded for the final test
report. This phase is particularly methodical and a great deal
of degradation bookkeeping is necessary. For example, the
frequency scan rate may be varied to ensure that a degradation response is not missed. The affect of the complex field
within a TEM cell above multimode has to be accounted for
here if used. It may be necessary in the multimode range to
move the EUT in the cell to expose various circuitries to the
full field gradient caused by the standing wave pattern which
can amount to field uniformity errors in the order of 10 dB or
more. Even under multimode, there are undesirable TE and
TM modes launched that at the very least should be accounted
for in the measurement error. All of these factors are best
recorded and controlled via a well thought out and planned
automation program.

Conclusions
This paper described the usefulness and precautious of
automation of immunity testing. Automation if used properly
is a powerful tool that can be used to produce a test with less
operational errors. However, automation which is not
periodically checked by manually performing a test, tends
to lull users into a sense that the results of such tests are
irrefutable. Periodically it pays to manually set all instruments
and see if the results are the same as that found by automation. The paper has also shown the concern for ensuring that
the EMC engineer correctly automates the immunity test to
replicate the appropriate immunity field and to monitor the
proper perform degradation.
References
PI

D. E. Janes, R. A. Tell, T. W. Athey, and N. N. Hankin,

Nonionizing Radiation Exposure in Urban Areas of the
United States, Proceedings, IVth International Radiation
Protection Association, Vol. 2, pp 329 - 332, April 1977.

121 R. A. Tell and N. N. Hankin, Measurement of Radiofrequency Field Intensity in Buildings with Close Proximity
to Broadcast Stations, U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency Report ORPIEAD-78-3, August 1978.
131 D. N. Heirman, Broadcast Electromagnetic Interference
Environment Near Telephone Equipment, IEEE National
Telecommunications Conference Record, Catalogue
No. 76 CH 1149 - CSCB.
141 G. Costache et al., Electromagnetic Field Strength
Probability Profiles for Canadian Cities, International
Electrical and Electronic Conference and Exposition,
Toronto, Canada, October 1981.
[51 FDA Medical Device Standard, Electromagnetic Compatibility Standard for Medical Devices. MDS-201-0004,
October 1, 1979.
PI

M. L. Crawford and J. L. Workman, Using a TEM Cell

for EMC Measurements of Electronic Equipment,
U. S. National Bureau of Standards Technical Note 1013,
April 1979.

3A3

1. Abstract
The purpose of this paper iS t0 give a complete overview of an Automated EMC Test Facility in operation, for Emission-, Susceptibilityand Time domain measurements. The contents include system set-up, specifications and
drawings with a description of different test
set-ups used for spacecraft, subassembly or
unittesting. The narrowband and broadband aspects are highlighted, and a plot of the data
output from the system are included. Conclusions are drawn with respect of specifica'
tions, test time, accuracy etc..
2. History
Since the time when the basic idea of automating the EMC Test Facility was conceived and
initial funding became available, the line of
thinking had changed quit a bit. Due to improvement of the test equipment, measuring
techniques and the budgetary constraints, the
original idea of setting up a separate system
for Emission- and Susceptibility- Testing had
to be abandoned.
Instead, a new design was set up in such a
way that all instrumentation performs a multiple function and will be used for Radiated/
Conducted Emission and Radiated/Conducted
Susceptibility. The existing test equipment
is integrated in this system as well. A block
diagram,, Fig. 1, shows the basic set up.
Due to the fact that a broadband high power
requirement will increase the cost of the radiated susceptibility part of the system by
100% or more, it has been decided to keep the
requirements of 30 - 60 V/m and to accommodate projects with the necessary power at a
given frequency "narrowbanded", which complies
with the experience so far.
All specifications for this system are derived
from spacecraft requirements existing today
and in the near future. The system has been
designed to meet these requirements.
3. Introduction
The system will be used for the following
measurements:
A) Radiated Emission Measurements over a frequency range from 20 Hz - 40 GHz,
B) Conducted Emission Measurements over the
frequency range from 20 Hz - 100 MHz,
C) Radiated Susceptibility Measurements over
the frequency range from 20 Hz - 40 GHz,

D) Conducted Susceptibility Measurements over

the frequency range from 20 Hz- 100 MHz,
With the possibility of injecting CW and
pulsed signals, to test power-, signal- and
commande lines. The block diagram of Fig. 2
outlines the complete system set up.

FIG.1 x-

TEST -FACILITYGENERAL SET-UP

All equipment used in this system is operated

to IEEE-488 standards or equivalent. The possibility of opto-coupler extention is provided for operation in a radiation-hazardous
area. The System Controller is a desktop
model with a large screen, so the facility
engineer is able to program it and to modify
the software during the test.
For the sweep section we stay as long as possible co-axial, in order to facilitate the
test work. However, a synthesizer is a must,
due to the frequency accuracy required. The
exact specifications of each subsystem will
be discussed separately.
For the Radiated Susceptibility testing we
have for the Low frequency range, Amplitudemodulation, for the Megahertz range Frequency-modulation and for the Gigahertz range
Pulse-modulation.
-

2
PRINTER

/_

HP-9876 A

P-F9 HP-B112 A

w
CURRENT-FKE?E
SOLAR. 6741 1

0:

PULSE GEN.
MOO SOURCE

$u-6.

&JNO

4.
SCKUM
AN4LmR
HP-B566A
lCQi-4OGHz

TWT 1077 H12 17

FIELD MONflOR
CONOUCi% D -SUSCEPTIBILITY

SETUP FOR
RADIATED -I CONDUCTED EMISSION
NOTE
C.5W - COAXIM
RL - REIAY

pp&LJ-:_a\,;

L.

v+

r----

--7

HP-37203 A I
:_______--,,_______I
I

15 EXTENDER
,
. ,

RADIATED-! CONDUCTED SUSCEPTIBILITY

SWITCH

ESTEC
%3?2iii;,~____;
/ \,--.

EMC TEST FACILITY

FIG. 2

_
-

Amplifiers from 20 Hz - 18 GIIzwere existing

in the EMC Test Facility and are integrated
into the system. This together with two new
amplifiers; one from 18 GHz - 26.5 GHz - "K"
band and one from 26.5 GMz - 40 GHz - "KA"
band. In this way only one waveguide and standard gain horn will have to be used for each
amplifier.
All
cower for the radiated susceptibility test
will be fed through a dual directional coupler
to the antennas.
In order to control the levels on the antenna
a Dual-Sensor-Powermeter is used in order to
measure set-power and reflected power. For the
radiated- and conducted emission a front-end
receiver is used. It has to supply the necessary pre-amplification over a frequency
range from a minimum of 100 Hz to 18 GHz, and
preselection below 2.4 GHz. The unit will be
used with the HP-8566 spectrum analyzer.
Blockdiagram Fig. 3.
This pre-selection below 2.4 GHz increases
vulnerability to overload, especially on
broadbandnoise, and maximizes sensitivity,
while at the same time maintaining the highest possible instantaneous system bandwidth
and dynamic range. In addition to this receiving system a broadband electric field antenna is used, working over a frequency range
from 20 Hz - 1 GHz.
Apart from the existing spectrum analyzer, a
second analyzer has been introduced, partly
used for susceptibility testing. This in
order to control the injected voltage and
current on the line under test.
Due to the fact that scientific spacecraft
are low-noise, but still produce noise with
its own frequency spectrum, the susceptibility
levels to be injected are small, depending on
the applicable voltage- or currentlimit, which
can be in the order of 20 dBuR. In order to
link the system together several co-axial
switches and relays are used, positions and
number are shown in the blockdiagram of Fig.
2. To control system operations and monitor
the behaviour of the U.U.T. (unit under test)
a digital voltmeter combined with a data
acquisition unit is used.
The data acquisition unit is important for
the system, it includes: channel multiplexers,
relay multiplexer, voltage- and current DAconverters and a real time clock.
Also, time domain measurements are an integrated part of the test activities. A bus
controlled oscilloscope is used for this
purpose. And, last but not least, a printer
iS intergrated with a dump feature, which
gives out the test data, like: a narrowband
plot containing the narrowband signals only
includiny spec-level and frequency printout
with measured levels.
An example of a plot is included. The same
can be achieved for broadband measurements or
conducted- and radiated susceptibility measurements. In fact this system produces a
complete testreport with detailed information
directly after completion of the test.
4. Description and Specifications
In this section the system will be described
with reference to blockdiagram Fig. 2, and
broken down in subsections in order to have
a better overview of the system.

13

3A3

IF-DISPLAY

SECTION

RF SECTION

I Ym.l.b.___._L__=i._ .I7
I_.__._____-__.-.___._.d.q

d1.4
:m-?
521.4

MHz IF

IN

MHz IF

OUT

:...._..._.......__..____....................................:
FIQURE

MOOEL 254EC RECEIVER

SYSTEM.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

4.1 Control part

The "control part" consists of a HP-9836-S
calculator and a HP-9876-A printer. The main
reason for using a "desktop" calculator is
that the controller can be handled and programmed by the facility engineer directly,
without having to ask for software support,
which means no loss of operating time, maintaining and updating of a more complex system
Apart from the above, it:is of utmost importance that the "EMC-Engineer" on the job can
translate his EMC problems directly into the
machine, without external software support.
This in order to avoid unnecessarily complications of already complex problems.
The calculator has a 12" CRT and two built-in
disc-drive units for 5%" floppy disc. Memory
capability expendable up to 2 Mbytes, with
Basic,(extentions) Pascal, graphics dump and
storage. This system is also fitted with an
extra HP-IB and BCD interface. More than 4
bus expanders can be added to provide 16
additional slots for memory- and I/O cards.
In addition there is an HP-IB extender with
fibre-optic interface. The use of fibre-optic
links has a special meaning for this system.
Due to the fact that in our case the system
isa combined one, and used as well for
"Emission Measurements!' as "Susceptibility
Measurements". It is very important to separate the transmitting and receiving sections
to avoid unnecessarily problems due to small
beaks, cable- or small ground loops, which
would limit the dynamic range of the equipment. The use of fibre-optic links has imporved EMC measurements quality considerably
and is now standard in our facility.
The thermal graphics printer can handle a
graphics dump from the 9836-s CRT within 10
seconds.
In this way, the test data are available seconds after the test, a protection against
nailbiting and nose eating customers who are
nervously waiting for the test result to be
produced, to see if they are in- or out of
specifications.

4.2 Receiving part

The receiving part consists of two units:
A- SRD-2548-C precision wideband front-end
receiver.
B- HP-8566 spectrum analyzer.
A more detailed blockdiagram is given in Fig.
3. The specification is the combination of
the two instruments. Up to 2.5 GHz pre-selection is obtained by pre-amplification. Above
2.5 GHz we have Yig-pre-selection.
Use of this front-end receiver in combination
with the spectrum analyzer has imporved the
sensitivity, dynamic range and instantaneous
band width of the spectrum analyzer without
losing any of its features. The system has
been set up to operate over the frequencyrange from 20 Hz - 40 GHz. However, from 20 Hz
to 100 Hz, extra care has to be taken due to
the fact that we have to work so close to the
local oscillator and having to extrapolate
the antenna factor. The combination can perform measurements up to 18 GHz with a typical
noise figure of 10 dB and a dynamic range from
72 dE to 1 MHz BW. From 18 - 26.5 GHz the analyzer is used with a harmonic mixer type HP11970-K and from 26.5 - 40 GHz with a harmonic
mixer type HP-11970-A. With a noise level of
approximately -110 dBm by 1 KHz. Bw. For
equipment layout see Fig. 4.
In addition to Fig. 4 we have Fig. 5. Showing
the same set up, but with the HP-11517-A Bias
Mixer. This has the disadvantage of 20 dB less
sensitivity, plus the fact that each frequency
line has to be investigated. Must be manually
adjusted.
Additional software-driven routines allow for
automatic calibration of external sensors,
such as antennas and current probes. The calibration routines will accept and store externally derived calibration data. Another important feature included is the overload sensing
and warning in all the critical areas of the
RF signal path.
If a signal overload condition ever occurs,
automatically the signal gain will be decreased in the appropriate part of the system.
In the normal remot digital control mode the
interface connects directly the receiver with
the analyzer. In this way the receiver controls the analyzer and the entire receiving
system need only appear as one device for purposes of addressing and control. In this role
the system is both a listener and a talker.
All data transfer functions from the spectrum
analyzer display section are retained.

Fig. 5
The combination of the calculator, front-end
receiver, and spectrum analyzer is the most
powerful tool for EMC measurements I have
seen sofar. It is able to step from one frequency line to the next and evaluate each
data point for narrowband or broadband criteria (according to Mil-STD in our case). If
necessary at the same time coherent and incoherent broadband noise can be separated, and
narrowband and broadband data can be graphed
on separate plots and each individual frequency point can be printed out. For analyzing
the test results is this a very important
piece of information. In our set up a narrowband emission plot will take about 30 minutes
(20 Ilz - 1 GHz)

Fig. 6
This in combination with a relatively new type
of receiving antenna, type SAS-1D from Antenna
Research Associated Inc. (Fig. 6) It is an
electric field antenna over the frequency
range from 300 Hz - 1 GBz. The low-band circuitry is such that the response rolls off at
the rate of approximately 20 dB per decade of
frequency below 300 Hz.
The system consists of two electrically separate antennas, namely a top-loaded monopole
for low-band and a discone for high-band. The
yolarisation is vertical and the directivity

15

is omnidirectional.
Overload for 1 dB comperssion: Lo-hand 0.5
V/m, Hi-band, 0.1 V/m. The antenna is pOrtable and especially suited for indoor applications. For all our conductive measurements
we use the well known Solar current probe
type 6741-1, frequency range 20 Hz - 100 MHz,
which has a flat frequency response over the
frequency range 10 KHz - 100 MHz. Maximum
current: 300 Amperes ac or dc;load Impedance:
50 + j 0. ohms. Direct connection to the conductor is not necessary, since the probe may
be opened for insertion of the conductor.
4.3 Sweep Section
To cover the frequency range of 20 Hz-40 GHz
required for this system, three instruments
are used:
A- HP--8165-A Frequency Synthesizer and Function Generator. 0.1 Hz-50 MHz.
B- BP-8673-D Frequency Synthesizer.
50 MHz - 26.5 GBz.
C- WJ-1204-40 Milli!meter-Wave Frequency
Extender. 26.5 - 40 GHz.
The HP-8165-A programmable signal source is a
versatile function generator with good accuracy. Microprocessor control ensures rapid
programming amplitude output from 10 mVpp 10 VPP, amplitude- and frequencymodulation.
The HP-8673-D synthesized signalgenerator has
precise signal simulation capability. The frequencies are derived from a quartz crystal
time base, via a direct synthesis technique
providing extremely low signal sideband phase
noise. Harmonically related spurious C-60
dBc.SSB Phase noise<-80 dBc. 10 KHz offset
+6 dBm output level at 26.5 GHz.
at 10 GHz
Leveled calibrated output to -100 dBm.
Amplitude, Depth 0 - 908, pulse on/off ratio:
>HO dB and frequency modulation maximum c
peak deviation is smaller than 10 MHz or (see
data sheet). All functions are programmable,
including frequency output and RF level setting (in 0.1 dB steps).
The same synthesizer is used to feed the
Watkins-Johnson frequency extender WJ-1204-40.
The most notable feature of this system is its
excellent frequency resolution, accuracy and
stability.
Input power 0 dBm, output power +3 dBm.
As stated in the introduction, one of the
aims was to stay as long as possible co-axial,
in order to facilitate the test work. However,
one has to realize that starting from 12 or
15 GHz and going up, the attenuation is increasing tremendously and special attention
has to be payed with respect to the length of
cable, connectors etc. For this and several
other reasons we kept our equipment as mobile
as possible and derived a great benefit from
it sofar.
4.4 Modulation part
This part consists of two instruments which
are used for multiple purposes, such as radiated- and conducted susceptibility testing,
for testing as modulation sources and also
for conducted spikes and commandline testing.
From the HP-8116-A, pulse function generator
all functions are bus controlled and provide
sinewave, squarewave and pulses over the frequency range 100 mHz to 50 MHz, pulse width:
10 nS - 999 mS. Amplitude 10 mVpp to 16 Vpp.

A3

The second instrument in this section is the

HP-8112-A, programmable pulse generator with
the following specification:
: 950 m sec. - 20 n sec.
Pulse period
: 950 m sec. - 65 n sec.
Pulse delay
Double pulse : 950 m sec. - 20 n sec.
Source impedance : 50 ohm.
Output voltage: +/- 8 v into 50 ohm.
4.5 Power Meter
Here we use a dual sensor power meter type
HP-438A, with a frequency range from 100 KHz26.5 GHz, using the HP-8485-A Thermocouple
power sensor. This has been introduced to

._/
BLOCK

DIAGRAM

OF THE

438A

AND

ITS

TWO SENSORS

Fig. I
control the power and reflected power on the
transmitting antennas. Measurement modes are
A, B, A-B, B-A, A/B and B/A. The power range
is sensor dependent, dynamic range 50 dB. The
use of the power meter is entirely based on
Mil-STD testing, which implies that the electric field is calibrated with the transmitting and receiving antenna one meter apart in
an empty room, the empty room being the EMC
Test Facility covered with absorbing material,
in order to reduce reflection.
Power levels are taken and stored in the calculator and called up during the test to set
the levels. Diagram on Fig. 7.
A software routine is set up to determine if
the antenna is radiating, check the level and
compare the reflected power etc.
The
been
I_- use of electric field sensors has-completely abandoned, under the assumption
that no source will increase the radiation
power in order to satisfy the form-factor
of a given object.
4.6 Monitor part
This part consists of 4 separate units. Blockdiagram Ref.nr. 11, 12, 13 and 14 (Fig. 2).
First instrument in sequence is the HP-8566-S,
spectrum analyzer with a frequency range from
100 Hz - 22 GHz, using external harmonic mixing with a frequency range up to 40 GHz. Amplitude approximately from -137 dBm to +30
dBm, resolution 0.1 dB. Dynamic range
95 dB.
Accuracy
2.2 dB over the frequency range
from 100 Hz - 22 GHz. With internal software
routines like Peakseards-Signaltrack, Signal
identification Marker aided measurements-Max
hold and saving of control setting.
The above mentioned features are a must if a

16

ESTEC
E
ELECTRIC

real EMC-Minded program has to be set up.

Ref.nr. 12 represents the Data Acquisition
unit HP-3947-A including the extender unit.
5% digit DVM which may be programmed for 300
readings per second (3% digit mode) or 50 readings per second (5% digit). It consists of a
40 channel relay multiplexer with a power rating of 1 VA per channel (170 Vp max), relay
contact 1 Ohm, crosstalk -40 dB, 32 channel
Mercury wetted relays are added, with 100 VA
per channel (100 Vp max). Contact resistance
400...mOhm.
Crosstalk -30 dB. Further we have a
Dual Current D/A converter with an output from
0 to + 10 Volt. These sources can be used to
provide a programmable test stimulus or to
control voltage programmed devices like power
supplies and VCO. And last but not least, this
"Data Acquisition Unit" contains a real time
clock to support all data output.
With Ref.nr. 13 we have our HP-3437-A, High
Speed System Voltmeter, 3% digit, voltage
range 0.1 - 10 Volt with more than 5000 readings/set. in peak- or RMS value.
One of the more important functions of this
monitor sub-section is to control susceptibility testing. Mainly, for conducted susceptibility, we have full control on injected voltage and current and are able to plotbZ-.
To be in full control means y ou have your
~__ hand
on the problems. All this automated equipment
-seems to be a major investment, which indeed
it is, but it pays back in quality, quantity
and time, highly rewarding I would say.
4.7 Amplifiers/Antennas
All amplifiers are well defined on the blockdiagram Fig. 2. The measuring set up for Rad.susc. is shown in Fig. 8.
We work over the frequency range from 20 HZ 40 GHz.
From 20 Hz - 250 MHz : 100 Watt power.
From 250 MHz - 18 GHz: 10 Watt power.
1 Watt power.
From 18 GHz - 40 GHz :
Electric field level is shown on Fig. 9. From
the diagram in Fig. 8 we can see that the EMC
Community is in great need of a much more -.
effective antenna between 30 - 100 MHz.
Nowever, one has to consider that this is the
standard available power. But from project to
project it will be investigated if an effort
will be made to increase the power and field
level.

M C Test
facilities.
FIELD-STRENGTH

GENERRTION

Fig. 8

HP-8165

HP-8673

SYNTH /GEN

-0

20Hz.-50MHz

SOMHz.-26GHz

HP-3497-A
DATA-ACQ.UISITIOA
UNIT

RADIATED SUSCEPTIBILITY TEST SET-UP

_?.mnll

L Gk12

?._..I

LB GHZ

Fig. 9
The Blockdiagram indicates also frequency
range and antennas used. For more detailed information, please refer to the data sheet.
Generally speaking we can say that amplifiers,
couplers and antennas are harmonized to the
maximum extent possible as regards frequency
range and power.
5. Remarks on Measurements
5.1 Radiated Emission
I would like to highlight briefly our measurement criteria.
The narrowband signals are measured in 6 scans
from 20 Hz - 22 GHz, in standard spectrum-analyzer settings, with respect to "span" etc.
Each band is scanned with 2 different band-

HPIR

SYNTHJGEN

--

HP-438

-A

DUAL-SENSOR
POWER-METER

HP-9836..

SYSTEM
CONTROLLER

.FREQ.RANGE-IOKHz-40GHz

- 17 -

A3

Conducted measurements are also carried out

in the time-domain. Although it seems that
this measurement is not EMC related, it is
very important to be able to correlate your
Frequency Domain measurement with your TimeDomain measurements. The instruments used are
arbitrary; in our case we use standard equipment together with a digital storage oscilloscope:
Type TEK-468. BW-ZOOMHZ, buscontrolled. The
use of a digital storage oscilloscope has the
advantage of good triggering possibilities
and thanks to the bus you are able to dump the
picture on the printer, including all information.

10

MHz

Fig. 11
widths a factor 10 apart, and amplitudes from
the first and second measurement are compared
with a 3 dB criterion in our case. Correction
factors are added before printing the signal
output. Fig. 10 shows a narrowband plot.
Broadband noise is measured in 4 scans from
10 KHz - 22 GHz. Scans are made in the Peakhold mode with a relatively wide bandwidth.
The time set to fill each "Bit!'is equal to
the data from an impulse signal with a separation of 50 Hz. Each data point contains half
impulse bandwidth, and stored in a temperaly
file, is compared with 6 data points before
and after; if 4 3 dB (in our case) it will
be processed. Fig. 11 shows a broadband plot.
5.2 Conducted Emission
For conducted emission in the frequency domain
we opt for the same criteria of signal processing as we did for radiated emission. Measurements are carried out on power-and synchronization lines in differential- and commonmode
in voltage and current. Data- and command I
lines are tested in bundles of wires, separated like;
all digital input lines.
all digital output lines.
all serial digital data.
all analogue lines.
The signal ground is always tested separately,
due to the importance with respect to the quality of collected- or transmitted data. Further more I would like to draw your attention
to what we call a "Structure noise Test".
Fig. 12. This test supplies us with important
information, like leak resistance and capacitance, loops etc. This is important when
making the final analyses about the unit
under test.

Fig. 12

CONOUCiED
EM STRUCTURE
--

NOISE

CURRENT

5.3 Conducted Susceptibility

_-.-__
-____
Conducted susceptibility testing is carried
out on Power- and Sync. lines both for CW and
Spike signals. Voltage and Current are controlled and checked against the limits. Voltage and Current injected are plotted together
with the Impedance. If the unit under test is
susceptibleted, impedance is an important piece of information to analyze the problem.
Fig. I3 shows a typical output plot from a
conducted emission test.
GIOTTO
dBuR/dBuV

ESTEC
EMC TEST
FflCILITY
CONDUCTED
SUSCEPTIBILITY
JPR DPERRTfoNRL MODE :EXP ON

DRTE 21-09-1984
TEST

;:;;

: 28 VOLT

Fig. 13
Particularely signal- and commandlines are subject to conducted susceptibility testing. Due
to their important function in a "spacecraft"
a lot of our attention is devoted to test
those lines. A special test box has been developed for this purpose. Fig. 14 shows the
test set up.

The command signal is fed through the box and

the disturbance is injected via an opto-coupler, in order not to load the circuit. In this

- 18 -

.way negative pulses are injected into a "1"

and positive pulses into a "0". Together,
this enables us to determine the safety margin of the circuit. A typical advantage of
this kind of equipment set up is the ability
to supply the customer with a small box in
order to control the test. This box provides
him with the possibility of decreasing the
signal level until the susceptibility has
stopped, and to increase the signal when the
susceptibility has passed.
At the same time the print-out will indicate
the frequency range and the threshold level
of the susceptibility.
5.4 Radiated Susceptibility
Maybe this part of EMC testing has benefited
the most of being automated. We have seen
that in the case of manual operation an
operator has to control the frequency with
one hand, amplitude with the other, check the
modulation, overload of the amplifiers, correct T.A.F., cable losses and check the susceptibility criteria of the UUT.
All this control.and check functions are now
taken over by the system controller. This
provides an accurate and fully corrected,
measurement calibrated on the spot of each
frequency step. Above all one has the ability
to repeat this measurement any number of
times without the slightest diviation.
Also here the susceptibility control box can
be introduced (as discussed under cond.susc.
testing). An important aspect is that the
UUT is not unnecessarily overtested. With
manual operation we have seen errors up to
20 dB or more due either to human errors or
mismatch.
Not only do we avoid overtesting but we have
also the possibility of investigating the so
called "Window" effect by automatically increasing and decreasing the power level. Sofor we have not seen this "Window" effect in
our facility. The fact that we are working
in a shielded room is the cause of other
problems like non-uniformity and antenna position this can be the subject of a calibration routine. Reflections can be controlled
through the installation of reasonably sized
anechoic material. But this will be only
effective from a few hundred megahertz.
Near field problems are even more difficult.
Remember that most of the requirements call
for starting at 10 KHz. Building a facility
where 10 KHz is in the far field is sheer
UTOPIA. And near f!ieldmodeling is a sophisticated guess.
Therefore the only solution to the near field
problem is to move away from Low-Frequency
Radiated Susceptibility Testing.
Fig. 8 shows the test set up used for radiated susceptibility testing. The use of the
system interrupt box and dual sensor power
meter has already been explained.

5.5 Susceptibility to E.S.D.

In our facility we have extremely good use
for the schaffer-NSG-430 discharge gun apart
from normal applications like testing of
"Spacelab" equipment which is subject to discharges from 10 m-joule.
Discharges which are produced by astronauts
during Spacelab missions.
The same test can be made on large ground
stations or computers to detect bonding faulr
ts and ground loops. It cuts back expensive
facility time
considerably.
6. Conclusion
An attempt has been made to set up a system
using commercially available equipment
(micro processor only). Starting on automating, one is afraid to face high cost implementations. The cost can be rather limited on
the basis of "growth system". It is possible
to achieve a very sophisticated system by
planning the cost over a long period of time.
The new system should be developed in tight
cooperation with an EMC engineer, and aim for
achieving flexibility and growth capability.
Automatic measuring techniques has brought
us many additional advantages.
Like the possibility of compensating for
measurements errors, direct comparison of
test results and use the same results for
prediction. And it protects the test-facility against poor preformance.
It is not possible to go deeply into the
theoretical background of the topics discussed. And a routine engineer can ask many
awkward questions. However, it is hoped that
successful innovating, will achieve what we
call "EMC".

4A4

19 -

COMPUTER-ASSISTED CONTROL OF EMP MEASUREMENT

ON MAJOR SYSTEMS
Gregoire EUMURIAN
THOMSON-CSF
ISSY-LES-MOULINEAUX, FRANCE

1. -

INTRODUCTION

EMP experimentation on major systems, for

reasons of cost and efficiency, require accurate prior preparation of the tests. The time
available is limited and most often it is impossible to resume the tests if later analysis
shows inconsistencies.
It is thus necessary to have an automatic
system to avoid handling errors and a control
assisting system which enables refining the
results and adapting the theoretical experimental program to the actual situation.

It enables measuring low excitation fields

(100 V/m to 1 kV/m) .
The passband extends from 70 Hz to 150 MHz.
The sensor takes the form of a sphere with a
diameter of 106 mm.
All these performances (high sensitivity,
wide passband to low frequencies and small
dimensions) were obtained by implementing the
active sensor concept.

The EMP data acquisition system consists

of 5 main elements : sensors, optical transmission lines, optical link processors, digitizers
and a data processing system (fig.17).
Principle
2. - SENSORS
To obtain a minimum volume, optimize the sensitivity, dynamic range and passband of the magnetic and electrical sensors, coil-type highimpedance sensors have been used along with
built-in amplifiers and correctors and also
electronically matched high-impedance electrical sensors.
The total dynamic range of the sensors is extended by a sensitivity change remote-control
system (0 to 70 dB 10 dB steps).
Figurel8indicates the main sensors as well as
their dynamic ranges (between noise and maximum saturation 1evel)passband external dimensions.

The sensor takes the form of an internal

sphexe (comprising the ground frame) surrounded by two half-spheres forming the positive
and negative frames (Fig.)).
The two antennas are connected to a differential amplifier with unit gain, via two highimpedance 40 dB attenuators.

Att~ts-2M6
A,%.&lad6

Figure 1 - Principle and geometrical

characteristics of free-space sensor
(E30)

2.1 - EXAMPLE OF A SENSOR

2.1.1. Free space electric field sensor.
This type of sensor is used to determine the
incident field and the field within cavities.
It has a full-scale sensitivity from 2 1 V/m
to 3.16 kV/m with a total dynamic range of
120 dB (50 dB of instantaneous dynamic range
and 70 dB by switching).

The differential stage is followed by a

20 dB low-impedance attenuator, an amplifier
(gain 46 dB)and a second low-impedance attenuator.
The attenuators can be remote-controlled
(via the optical link) and their sensitivity
is switch-selectable over a range of 70 dB by
10 dB steps.

20

i.e. an effective height of :

_-PARTICULARITIES OF THE SENSOR

- Geometry
Figure 1 indicates the geometrical characteristics of the sensor. The spherical shape .
'was selected to optimize the effective height
of the antenna.
Figure 2 indicates the distribution of the
'electric field over the surface of the sensor.
The field, perpendicular at all points to the
surface of the sensor, depends on the incident
field to infinity (Ei) and its angle with the
sensor axis (0).

6IIrg

EO

(6)

eff = ch+ce

with the values indicated in figure 1.

The effective height is :
h

6Ilx (0,053)2
eff =

= 6.68 mm

(7)

3611x 10g x 70 x lo-l2

-Connection of the sensor to a high load

The utilization of attenuators and high
impedance differential amplifiers (Re = 22 MO)
enables reducing the lower cutoff frequency to
less than 100 Hz.
F

1
2 II (Ch + Ce ) Re

= 69 Hz

(8)

An output voltage directly proportional to

the incident field is thus obtained (non-derivative response).
Figure 2 - Electric field on the
surface of a metal hemisphere
The value of the field is given by
equation (1) :
Er = 3 Ei cos g
It is drawn up from two limit conditions :
-zero tangential field on the surface,
-field indentical to the incident field to
infinity. .
Figure 3 gives the equivalent diagram of
each half-sensor. Ch represents the capacitance between the hemisphere and the internalsphere and Ce, Re, the capacitance and input
'resistance of the amplifier.

.Figure 3 - Equivalent diagram of a half-sensor

_
(free space electrical sensor)
The incident field, Ei, induces a charge
Q (2) within each hemisphere of radius ro :

-Dynamic range
For a given value of the incident field,
the dynamic range depends on the effective
height of the antenna as well as the noise
level (N) at the input :
S
-=
N

Signal p-p = 2 Ei . heff

Noise rms
N

(9)

With a noise level of 50pVrms (100 Hz to

100 MHz band) and an effective height of 6.68mtn
the dynamic range is 48.5 dB for an incident
field of 1 V/m.
2,1,2. Free Space Magnetic Field Sensor
The magnetic field sensors are based on a
coil with one or several turns.
To obtain satisfactory sensitivity to low
frequencies, the section and number of turns j
has to be increased.
Conversely, to increase response to high
frequencies, a low capacity coil (reduced
number of turns) is required and sensor size
should be small with respect to the wave length
Moreover, to obtain satisfactory rejection
of the electrical field, the coil is shielded
which in turns limits frequency response via a
stray capacity,
The first type of sensor consists of a
flat coil shielded with a split shield.

Q =j!S EO Er. ds (2)

where s is the surface area of the hemisphere.
Taking into account the value of Er (l),
the induced charge is :
Q = ~01.f~Er ds = soi/3Ei ds cos 8
= 311r02EoEi

(3)

It can be observed that this charge is

three times that of a disk with a radius ro.
The voltage Ve at the input of the ampli-,
fier depends on this charge, Q, as well as on
the capacitance between the hemisphere and the
sphere and the input capacitance :
Ve =

Q
ChtCc:

31Ir20scEi
-= Ch+Ce

(4)

Under these conditions, the effective

height par hemisphere is :
Ve

heff l/2= Ei

3dso

Ch+Ce

(5)

ThistYpe of device can be obtimized to obtain

satisfactory sensitivity to low frequencies
(large diameter, large number of turns') or
response to high frequencies (small diameter,
small number of turns).
The second type of sensor is a Moebiusloop
formed by two half loops
made of coaxial cable

4 A4
Since the coaxial structure is adapted at
output, the limitation at high freauencies
does not show up as long as the wavelength remains significantly longer than the diameter.

Sensitivity to low frequencies corresponds

to that of a frame of the same dimensions with
two turns, therefore poor.
The approach adopted consists in making
the coil by using a coaxial line.
The outer conductor (shielding) is discontinued at each turn to prevent formation of
short circuit loops.
The effect of the break in impedance due
to the splits in the outer conductor is compensated for by a corresponding adaptation
which is obtained by connecting a network,
corresponding to the characteristic impedance
of the line used for the coil.
To increase this device's sensitivity,
while maintaining compactness, a magnetic core
is place inside the coil.

4. - PARTICULARITIES OF THE TRANSMISSION

CHANNEL.
4.1 - CONNECTORS
The required passband of 100 MHz for
lengths up to 300 m lead to usinggrad indexe
fibers (100/140 urn).
Although actual technology enables manUfacturing connectors
with low optical
lOSS
(1 to 1.5 dB) the use of optical connectors on
the worksite requires particular care at each
connection-disconnection operation to avoid
optical attenuation with the resulting
decrease in cfynamic range.
To prevent this derating and obtain a constant transfer function, the optical elements
and their associated electronic circuits are
enclosed in the electrical connectors. All the
connection-disconnection operations are thus
performed electrically.

This dual sub-channel device with electrical input-output comprises a bidirectional optical modem.
4.2 -TRANSMISSION

This type of sensor provides a maximum

sensitivity of + 1 v/m ( S/N >40 dB ) for
a bandwidth of TkHz to 150 MHz.
3.- OPTICAL TRANSMISSION
PRINCIPLE
The transmission line provides two channels :
-a telecommand channel routing the various
commands to the sensors (switching on, range
switching, calibration, etc..),
-a signal channel transmitting information
from the sensors as well as service signals
(calibration, battery, condition, etc..).
The telecommand channel has a restricted
passband (50 kHz) and makes use of frequency
coding of commands as well as analog storage
of signals (memory capacity) in order to obtain maximum immunity (operation in ambient
electric fields up to severa hundred kV/m).
The signal channel should have :
-a transfer function independent of temperature, ageing, condition of the connectors and
the optical fiber,
-a wide passband (100 Hz - 100 MHz),
-satisfactory linearity (2%),
-a wide dynamic range (50 dB).

Electrical/optical conversion can be performed by a laser diode or a LED.

The laser diode has a passband and a power
input about ten times higher than that of the
LED (500 MHz against 50 MHz and 2 mW against
200 uW) *However, it is not very stable in temperature and requires thermalservo-control of
the transmitted power).
The LED was finally selected since its
association with a compensation circuit enables considerable extension of its passband.
Frequency compensation is obtained by progressively increasing the gain at higher frequencies. However, this operation requires :
-a sufficiently fast diode,
-a slow decreasing slope,
-a passband independent of the level and temperature up to at least 150 MHz.
These conditions are fulfilled by a LED
specially developed for this application 50 pm
chip and micro-lens).
Figure 7 below indicates the frequency
response for this type of diode before and
after frequency compensation. The passband at
-3 dB elec. is increased from 50 MHz to
150 MHz.
?

the LED used in the optical line

-._-.__ before compensation
_------ after compensation.

22

Figure 8 - Shows'the compensation.circuit

diagram..

Figure 8 - Principal of the LED

frequency compensation circuit.
4.3 - RECEPTION
The optical electrical conversion can be
performed by an avalanche orPIN photodiode.
The avalanche photodiode has a gain of
10 to 100 times that of the PIN photodiode.
However, it is very sensitive to the temperature and requires a high supply voltage (100
to 300 V). The thermal instability of the avalanche photodiode can be corrected by a servocontrol device.Its high gain enables building
sensitive receivers with a low input impedance
However, the high dependence between the
junction temperature of avalanche diodes and
their gain results in a non-linear thermal
capacity effect deforming the low frequency
signals (100 kHz).
This deformation shows as a non-linear
differentiation effect (fig.9).

Figure 9 - Deformation of an AF signal

produced by the thermal effect of the
junction of an avalanche diode
For these reasons , preference was given
to a PIN photodiode with a low junction capacitance associated with an impedance matching
amplifier with a very high negative feedback
resistor (20 kQ )(figure 10).

This device applies a reference voltage to the

input of the optical line, detects the level
received by the optical receiver and, after
A/D conversion and linear/log transcoding, commands a set of attenuators. It has the advantage of an extended passband, which is independent of the attenuator position, and a total absence of distortion.
6.- DIGITIZING
The digitizing system developed for acquisition of EMP data enables :
-high-speed sampling (2 ns)
-a large number of samples (5000)
-8 bits precision.
6.1 - OPERATING PRINCIPLE
Actual technology provides no simple means
of sampling followed by digitizing at a speed
of 2 ns. This digitizing is obtained by using
50 samplinq channels which are scanned sequen-

Figure 111- Block diagram of

the high-speed digitizer
Each sampling head thus works at a lower
speed of 50 x 2 = 100 ns (figure 12).
loons
100 s

Figure 10 - Prinzple of the optical receiver

This very high negative-feedback resistor,
after solving certain technical difficulties
(necessity of an unwanted capacitance 0.50 pF
across the resistor) enables obtaining a dynamic range of 50 dB (optical power 30 VW) while
preserving a passband of 150 MHz.
The transmitter-receiver assembly associated with a grad indexe fiber of 100/140 urnenables building a 100 Hz - 100 MHz/50 dB optical
line over 300 m.
5. - OPTICAL LINK PROCESSOR
The optical link processor enables telecommand of the sensors via the optical link
and pre-processing of the signal before digitizing. This pre-processing consists of :
-calibration of the optical link with automatic adjustment of the transfer function,
-filtering of the signal as a function of the
required passband and the sampling rate speed,
-matching the output level to the digitize input level in order to optimize the dynamic range.
The constant transfer function is obtained,
by an AGC device using a calibration signal.

Figure 12 - Distribution in time of the

instants at which the various channels are
w.
After sampling, the signal is stored in
analog memory (100 memory elements per channel)
The process is continuous and after 50 x 100
samples (time = 100 ns x 10 = 10~s ) a part
of the old information is lost and is replaced
by new information (drum memory) (figure 13).
When the equipment is triggered, the sampling procedure is stopped, the 50 analog memories are read and the A/D conversion is performed at a slow rate.
The continuous sampling before triggering
enables providing information of events before
as well as after the instant of triggering.
The digitizer is controlled by a microprocessor which, in particular, performs the corrections required by the inaccuracy of the sampling heads and the analog memories.

23

6.2 - PARTICULARITIES OF THE DIGITIZER

The diqitizer has three main properties
adapted to EMP meaSUrement :
-drum memory associated with a System of Pre
and post triggering,
-very high digitizing rate (2 ns) I
-large number of points (5000).
The drum memory and the pre and post triggering system enable digitizing signals whose
exact shape and polarity are unknown.Figuras 13
& 14 givean example of a signal with a positive and then a negative half-cycle, produced
by equipment adjusted for negative synchronization but with pre-triggering.
The high sampling rate associated with a
large number of points enables digitizing signals which simultaneously have high speed and
long duration (signals occuring on long transmission lines with protecting elements limiting the signal) (figure 15 and 16).
For this type of signal, the digitizer
provides a 150 MHz analysis passband for
5000 x 2 ns = 10 us.
FinalLy, the large analysis window enables
acceptence of signals occurring at different
moments without using delay lines.
7. - DATA PROCESSING SYSTEM
The coreof the data processing system is
the IBM-PC, version AT, with disk drive (20
Mbytes) and floppy disk drive (1.2 Mbytes),
color monitor, graphic printer and color x, y
plotter.
The software consists of 6 modules :
-device management
-results filing (raw or after pre-processing)
-pre-processing of results
-results display (raw or pre-processed)
-firing aid
-mathematical processing.
7.1 - Device Management
This module ensures remote control of the
digitizers and sensors and setting of the optical processors connected to each optical
line. It performs all the channel calibration
operations and monitors system operation (battery status, internal tests, etc).
7.2 - Results Filing
This module enables two results filing
modes : on disk (temporary) and on Flo.ppy
disk (permanent filing).
It also enables accurate description of
the test conditions : date, time, composition
of each system, position and direction of
each sensor.
7.3 - Results Pre-processing
Pre-processing of results enables shifting
the signals to a common time origin and reduction, with operator consent, of the number of
points for each measurement, if the signal
width does notwarrant filing of all the
points.
7.4 - Results display
This module enables display of one or
several signals ; this display facilitates
correlations.
In particular, simultaneous display of the
incident fields and inducted currents and voltages enablesa betterundertanding of the induction processes.

4A4
In the same vein, simultaneous display
from a given
of the fields obtainedviewed
point and with incident fields of different
values enables clear identification of the
system's nonlinearities.
Finally, comparison of the fields obtained from neighboring sensors enables detection
of operating incidents.
1.5 - Firing Aid
This module assists the operator in setting the various parameters in the acquisition
systems :
-sensitivity (sensor)
-filtering frequency (optical processor)
-sampling rate
)
) digitizer
-off-set
-pre or post triggering )
-etc.
One to three fixings are necessary to
reach an Optimal setting.
This relatively rapid setting procedure
is possible due to the sensor's high in&antaneous dynamic range 1>50 dB).
The dynamic range, along with the switched
dynamic range (70 dB) allows measurement
Over
a dynamic range of 120 dB.
Example : Electrical field sensor (ranges :
+ 3kV/m, + lkV/m, 5 38@J/m, + lOOV/m, t 3OV/m,
T lOV/m, 5 3V/m, $- 1 V/m). For the first firing, the SenSOl
iS
Set
On
a lesssensitive range (3 kV/m). If after digitizing, signal amplitude is greater than 3kV/m
the program provides the option to the operator
to change sensors or to decrease the incident
field. If the field is included between 3kV/m
and 30 V/m, the program suggests setting the
sensor to the nearest range.
If the field is less than 30 V/m, the sensor is set at this level of sensitivity and
another firing is started.
The new value obtained is used for resetting the sensor. If the range selected is the
most sensitive and the signal amplitude is
still not adequate, the program suggests
either to increase the incident field (if the
other sensors or installation allows it)or to
improve the dynamic range by using an 80, 40,
20 OX 10 MHz filter (gain of 3 to 12 dB).
Hence, with a 20 MHz filter is it possible
to detect signals starting at 5 mV/m.
If the computer controlling data acquisition is linked to the pulse generator delivering the signal, setting the range in function
of generator voltage is easier. In the same
manner the operator can set the limits for the
ranges by restricting the measuring dynamic
range.
A second important setting is selection of
the filtering frequency and sampling rate best
suited to the measurement.
These selections are made after determining, fwom the fastest transition, the passband of the signal under analysis. Based on
this value, the filter which is best adapted
to the measurement (maximum of dynamic range)
and corresponding sampling rate is used.
This selection is particularly of interest
when examination of long events (low frequency
resonance or computer sequences) require a
large analysis window and slow sampling rates,

24

hence, a risk of undersampling in the absence

of an adequate filter.
7.6 - Mathematical Processing
This model enables calculation of a certain
number of mathematical functions (FFT, correlation, powers, etc.).
When voltage sensors are used and if circuit impedance is knowen,the module allows
going from voltage to current via a Laplace
transformation.
8.

CONCLUSIONS
The simultaneous utilization of active
sensors with high sensitivity and a large
dynamic range, an optical transmission line
with a wide band and stable transfer function,
and solid state high-speed digitizers with a
large measuring time range is perfectly suited
to the measurements required by the EMP simulator.
The associated date processing system also
enables maximum automatizing of the fire control system while leaving the operator the
final decision, but after having provided him
with the elements for that decision.

1~

5!LA

Figure 16. Digitizing in the presence of fast

signals with a long the duration (2)

Figure
13
-Figure 17, EMP data acquisition system block
diagram.

Figure 14.Principle of the drum memory.

(2)

Figure 18. Main Sensors

-

BETWEEN

25

THE INTERFACE
ESD TESTING:
SIMULATOR AND EQUIPMENT UNDER
P. Richman
KeyTek

Corporation

Massachusetts,

Crucial issues regarding the interface

between the ESD simulator and the
Equipment Under Test (EUT) include discharge current peaks that are vastly
different from simply-calculated
Values,
and failures of the EUT at both low
and
high, but not intermediate voltage
These phenomena can be exlevels.
plained and mathematically
modeled in
terms of circuit inductance and freeThe more inclusive
space capacitance.
circuit model that results, gives significantly improved agreement between
calculated and experimental electrostatic-discharge
current waves.

TEST

and A. Tasker

Instrument

Burlington,

Bd

U.S.A.

a hand-held metal object

key, bracelet or ring.

like a tool,

Values called for by various Standards

and used by individual organizations
range from 60 to 300 pfd for C, and
from 10 to 10,000 ohms for R (l-5).
ESD

,-

EUT

Introduction
The peak current that flows during an
electrostatic discharge (ESD) from an
ESD simulator can be vastly different
from the value intuition might lead one
to expect.
It can be at least as low
as one-tenth, or at least as high as
ten times, the value computed by dividing stored -- or test -- voltage by the
simulator's nominal internal resistance
In addition, the discharge current
waveform in both simulator and actual
human-body discharges often bears
little relation to the simple, single
R-C equivalent circuit in widespread
use (l-5).

GROUND

Fig.

1: Conventional,
for Personnel
Discharge

PLANE

Single R-C Model

Electrostatic

Fig. 2 shows discharge current due to a

typical human-body discharge from a
hand-held metal object.
Instrumentation for converting the discharge current into a voltage suitable for oscilloscope monitoring was built as per
reference (1); oscilloscope bandwidth
was 400MHz.
Even though the circuit

The two factors most responsible for

these often huge discrepancies are circuit inductance and capacitance to free
space.
The conventional model for personnel
electrostatic discharge is given in
Fig. 1. It consists of a simple capacitor C, charged to voltage V, and discharging into the victim equipment -the EUT or Equipment Under Test -through resistor R. The "low" end of C
is most often connected to a ground
plane or to a point on the EUT, or
both.
A discharge tip, connected to
the resistor R, is advanced toward the
EUT until an arc occurs, simulating the
spark that leaps from a finger or from

Fig. 2:

Typical @SD Current Discharge

Wave from a Hand-Held Metal
Object.
(Steep-rise edges retouched for readability)
5kV Initial Charge Level
2.5A/half cm, 2ns/half cm

model of Fig. 1 is in common use, there

is simply no way in which it can begin
to account for the real-world Fig. 2
waveform, specifically for the sharp,
high-amplitude initial spike. (Others
have also reported initial spikes (6).)
The single R-C model of Fig. 1 is inadequate in that it ignores:
1.

The human body and/or ESD simulator

circuit inductance, which ranges
from 0.5 to 2 uH.

2.

The 3 to 10 pfd, almost inductancefree capacitance to free space of

the human hand.

3.

The typically 5 to 20 pfd, almost

inductance-free capacitance to free
space of the victim EUT itself.

Circuit Inductance
Reference (l), an IEC draft ESD standard for Process Control, specifies a
one-meter long ground return of 20 mm
width. However for calibration purposes, the same draft standard calls
for a discharge circuit, including the
ground connection, that is "as short as
possible". Calculations, confirmed by
tests, give total circuit inductance
including internal simulator circuitry
as well as the ground return itself, of
about 1.7 yH for the one-meter ground
return. Similarly, a figure of 0.7 uH
results for a typical R-C network with
a calibration-length ground, with a
length on the order of 30 to 40 cm.

26

Fig. 3 shows the addition of total circuit inductance L to the simpler circuit of Fig. 1.
Table 1 shows the large effect that L
can have on network "efficiency" v\ ,
defined as the ratio of peak current Ip
during discharge, to the "intuitive"
peak of V/R; multiplied by 100, to obtain per cent. (Efficiency without L
must be lOO%.) Calculated values of
I were computer-derived from appropria! e solutions to the series R-L-C circuit of Fig. 3, and were spot-checked
via experiment. I was calculated for
a stored voltage o!? 5kV, but for different voltages the values of Ip can be
scaled proportionately; ignoring preionization and other effects.
R and C values come from representative
ESD test Standards, as listed in Table

.te;fy
v

TIP

RETURN,
1

GROUND

PLANE

Fig. 3: ESD Model Modified to Include

Total Circuit Inductance, L

Table 1
R and C Values for the R-L-C Equivalent Circuit of Fig. 3,
with Efficiency hgiven for Realistic Ground Return Inductance, 1.7 uH
Ip is peak current for a stored voltage of 5kV
tp is time of occurrence of Ip

Standard
Organiza- or Draft
tion (l-5) Standard
-

LP
Q. =lOO,lR
(p:d) (ohms)
---

(%)

150

64

Ip for
5kV
(A)

tP
ns

21

18

1.

IEC(1)

65 (Seer)
80 (Draft)

150

2.

MIL(2)

883 B

100

1,500

97

3.2

5.6

3.

NEMA(3)

Part DC33
(Draft)

100

1,500

97

3.2

5.6

4A.

EIA(4)

PN-1361
(Draft)

100

500

87

4B.

EIA(4)

1,

60

10,000

100

.5

1.4

5.

SAE(5)

51211

300

5,000

100

1.0

2.9

60

10

6.

Cart simulation

28

10

1.6

561

27 -

Inductance L was taken as 1.7 uH,

1.
representative of a typical simulator
including a 20 mm wide ground return
of about one meter, the length recommended by the IEC draft standard.
Note the vast differences, particularly for the IEC 150pf/150fi network,
between V/R (33A for 5kV) and the Calculated value, 21A, for peak current Ip
for 1.7 PH circuit inductance. For the
"calibration" circuit inductance of 0.7
uH, the same 150pf/150n IEC network
gives a calculated peak current of 25A.
Typically, arc and corona effects reduce this still further, by as much as
20 to 30%. Thus a 5kV stored voltage
with a 150 ohm resistor will typically
result in a peak current of only 16 to
18A. "Calibration" in test laboratories may report defective simulators,
with only one-half required output!
(The IEC specifies a peak current of
50% to 90% of stored voltage divided
by resistance, thereby covering the
situation quite completely. Unfortunately many calibration laboratories
simply calculate V/R, and either ignore
the IEC specification or neglect to
calculate the effects of even the 0.7
uH "calibration" inductance.)
Neither peak current Ip nor peak time
tP respond to network differences in a
simply proportional way. The effect of
changing from 150 pfd/l50 ohms to 60
pfd/lO ohms, for example, is rather
small; current peak increases from 21
to 28~, time to peak decreases from 1B
to 16 ns. Yet the nominal "efficiencies" of the two networks differ by
over an order of magnitude. The explanation is that inductance is the controlling factor. Until the simulation
circuit resistance gets large -- 500 to
1500 ohms -- or more accurately until
network efficiency exceeds go or g5%,
circuit inductance dominates performance.
Capacitance to Free Space;
Interaction with Inductance
Every object has capacitance to free
space -- or to the walls, floor and
ceiling of the room in which it is located. For a spherical object of diameter dl and a room (also taken as
spherical, for simplicity) of diameter
d29 the capacitance is given by reference (7) as:
C=O.556 x Kdld2/(d2 - dl)
in which dland d2 are in cm, and Km
for air.

(1)
1

For a human hand or arm in a room of

typical dimensions, the term d2/(d2-dl)
approaches unity, so that
c-

0.556 dl

(2)

For a hand of approximately 9 cm "diameter", capacitance is thus on the order of 5 pfd. Note that this capacitance is almost inductance-free. The
inductance of a finger, hand and/or
forearm may be calculated from reference (7) as:
L=O.O021 [2.303 loglO(4j/d-11 uH

(3)

in whichQ and d are length and diameter, respectively, of the finger, hand
or forearm; again in cm. Table 2 gives
results, along with approximate values
of capacitance to free space, for all
body segments involved. Use of a hand
with key has been assumed, as this is
rapidly becoming a de-facto standard
for worst-case ESD simulation. It represents an ESD event involving a handheld metal object such as a tool, ring,
bracelet, or indeed an actual key.

Table 2
Approximate Dimensions, Estimated Capacitance and Estimated Inductance for
Various Sections of the Human Body
(d = diameter,&= length)
d
cm
--

Q.c

cm pf'
---

PH

Fingers holding key

.02

Entire hand
holding key
(to wrist)

7.5

12.5

.02

Forearm (wrist
to elbow)

30

10

.l

Full arm (wrist

to shoulder)

60

20

.27

Torso (shoulder to waist)

30

60

20

.13

Whole body
(torso plus
lower body)

30

120

40

.43

Computer solutions are given in Table

3 for peak current I and peak time tp,
from the differentia P equations that
describe performance of the circuit of
Fig. 3. Solutions are given for values
representative of appropriate combinations of the hand and arm from Table
2, using a compromise inductance value
of 0.1 PH. Solutions are also given
in Table 3 for the R-C values specified in various standards as set forth
in Table 1, for both "calibration"
(0.7 uH) and normal l-meter (1.7 uH)
inductances. A resistance of 200 ohms
is used for the small capacitance val-

28

Table 3
Computed Values of Peak Current Ip and Peak Time tp
Ip computed for 5kV; simply scale for other voltages
(For virtually all parameter combinations except R=lOK,
risetime,T, lies between 25% and 65% of peak time tp.)

(Pfri)

R
(ohms)

c&

I, (amperes) for bandwidth=

Infi400
60
100
MHz
nite
MHz
MHz

50
50
200

:1
.1

10
19
16

6
15

2.4

14

;:",

10

200
200

1
:1

18
18

16
17

60

10,000

.5
;

7.5

100
100
150
300

500
1,500
150
5,000

.7
1.7

.5
.5
;

.7
1.7

;::

.7
1.7
.7
1.7

25
21
1.0
1.0

1.0
1.0

ues that simulate the hand and arm, but

is not a major determinant in Ip or tp,
over a wide range of resistance values.
It is assumed that the victim EUT has
significant capacitance to free space
in the surface area immediately adjacent to the point of ESD application;
i.e., it is another, larger, and also
virtually inductance-free capacitance.
From reference (7), for example, the
capacitance of a 30 to 40 cm diameter
disc to free space can be calculated
as 12 to 15 pfd. This might represent
that portion of a victim EUT panel
or keyboard at whose center the ESD was
applied. Without such a "ground
plane", free-space capacitance effects
due to finger, hand and arm will be
very much lower, due to the lower total
circuit capacitance that will result.
(EUT "ground plane" capacitance is
effectively in series with hand capacitance.)
In this connection it is worth noting
that the IEC-designed coaxial "target"
(1) performs far better in making current-spike measurements when it is
mounted to a ground plane on the order
of 40 x 40 cm.
In add tion to the "infinite bandwidth" theoretical values given in

1:
;::
25

24
21

21
1.0
1.0

1.0

1.0

for bandwidth=
400

loo

60

MHz
_-

MHz
-

MHz
-

.4

.6

.7

.7

:;

1.0
1.2

1.2
1.8

1.3
2.0

1.0
1.1

1.4
1.5

2.1
2.4

2.4

1.4

;::

z-2
. ::

5.2
10.1

5.7
10.6

:::

2::

5:;
.

10
11

.7
1.7

tn_(ns)
Infinite

.6

10
18
1.3
2.9

10
18
3.5
4.0

12
7.9
9.1

2.8

10
14
11
12

12
20

13
21

11

17

11

17

Table 3 for Ip and tp, computer solutions are also included in the table
for the same waveforms viewed with
oscilloscopes of finite bandwidths:
specifically 400 MHz, 100 MHz and 60
MHz.
Data in Table 3 go a long way towards
explaining differences between measurements made by different investigators.
Simulations with 60 pfd and lOK, for
example, will be vastly different depending on the simulation capacitor's
physical size, and on whether the
simulation resistor is 12 cm long -hence not simulating a finger/hand
combination -- or short, and contained
within a metal enclosure to which it
might have, for example, .5 ofd stray
capacitance. For 6Opfd/lOK, Ip is .5A
at 5kV. But if stray capacitance -- or
capacitance of the simulating 60 pfd to
free space -- is considered and a 400
MHz scope used, then from Table 3, I
will be 6A for an arc resistance of !ZO
n; and 10A with infinite oscilloscope
bandwidth. Yet the value shown with
60 to 100 MHz instrumentation will
range from only 1.5 to 2.4A. And after
all, the 0.5 pfd stray is only 10% of
the 5 pfd representative of the human
hand -- which at 400 MHz gives 16A for
2OOn, as shown in the table.

Thus all of the simulation

circuits
in
references
(1) through (5) miss the
the hand/forearm combination
point:

has a 5 to I.5 pfd capacitance to free

space, and it is coupled to the discharge arc with only 0.05 to 0.1 uH.
The result is a super-fast edged,
short-duration (1 to 4 ns) spike of 15
to 30A, for a stored voltage of Only
5kV. Experience shows this spike can
be crucial in causing EUT malfunction,
but it is neglected by all existing
standards. And if it is accidentally
viewed on an oscilloscope, its amplitude is typically underestimated by a
factor between 2 and 4 by the 60 to 100
MHz instrumentation in common use.
Any saving grace that a simple R-C ESD
simulator may have is that the simulation capacitor can itself have a capacitance to free space! This accounts
for the sharp wave-start so frequently
seen in simulator current waves. Fig.
4 shows a typical case, for the EIA
values of 100 pfd and 500 ohms (4).
But this is a far cry from the sharp,
1 to 4 ns spike of 15 to 30A peak (for
a stored voltage
of 5kV) that is generated by a hand-held key, as shown in
Fig. 2.
ESD simulator's
discharge current
output,
the amplitude
of
the sharp initial
edge generated
by the
simulator
capacitor's
own capacitance
to free space, is usually
less than
peak current
due to the simulator's
basic R-C. For this reason
it has been
seen as merely
an unpleasant
anomaly
in the wave, due to "parasitics".
In
point of fact, it provides
whatever
inadequate
sharp-risetime
"punch"
such
simulator
waves do have.

29

5Bl

Corona effects at higher voltages -above 3 to 6 kV, depending on discharge

tip geometry -- reduce the sharpness of
the initial spike or step. This effect
most likely accounts for the fact that
many equipments that can pass ESD tests
at 10 kV, say, at which level corona
has seriously reduced risetime, will
fail at only 5kV, due to the steep initial rise of the spike or step. At
voltages of 15 to 20 kV, failures may
start again, as the sheer magnitude of
the di/dt, even with heavy corona, once
again becomes high enough to cause
equipment malfunctions.
Fig. 6 shows computer-generated current
discharge waves for the Dual R-L-C circuit of Fig. 5, both without (6a) and
with (6b) simulated arc oscillations.
Hand-simulation values are 7.5 pf, 200
n and 0.1 yH. Body-simulation values
are 100 pfd, 5OOfi and 0.7 PH. Fig. 6b
corresponds well with the human-discharge current of Fig. 2; i.e., the
Dual RLC model works.

In the typical

The

New,

Fig. 4: Typical ESD Current Wave from a

Single R-C ESD Simulator (100
pfd, 50051) (4). Sharp WaveStart is due to the Simulator
Capacitor's own Capacitance to
Free Space
5kV Initial Charge Voltage
2.5A/half cm; 2ns/half cm

Dual RLC Circuit Model

Fig. 5 shows the new, Dual RLC Circuit

Model that seems to best replicate the
effects of circuit inductance, plus
hand capacitance, in an electrostatic
discharge.

RB

150-1500

LB

.5-z

DISCHARGE

Two parallel R-L-C paths are provided;

one for the body (CB, RB, LB), the
other for the hand (CR, RR, LR). Since
the impedance from Discharge Tip to
ground during the discharge is generally low -- due to the victim EUT's own
capacitance to free space -- the two
R-L-C paths function as almost independent current sources. Thus the waves
they generate are superimposed. CR/RR/
LH generates either the steep-rise initial spike, or for higher voltages
at
which corona effects
cause pre-ionization, a large initial
step.
CB/RB/LB
then generates
the longer wave that

follows, carrying the often less-damaging energy stored on whole-body capacitance.

Fig.
--

5:

The Dual RLC Circuit Model for

ESD; Incorporating Separate,
Parallel Paths for Body and
Hand Discharge

_
30 -

Fig. 7 shows a typical current-discharge wave from a practical ESD simu.

later that was designed to reproduce
the Dual R-L-C model of Fig. 5.
It
agrees well with both Figs. 2 and 6b.

Fig. 6:

1211s

12

ns

Computer Solution for Discharge

Current from the Dual R-L-C
Circuit of Fig. 5; (a) Without
and (b) With Superimposed, Simulated Arc Oscillations
cH=7.5

pfd RH=2OOn LH=O.l uH

CB=lOO pfd RB=5OGn LB'1.7 I-tH
5kV Initial Charge Level
5A/division, 4ns/division

probably still causes a large proportion of ESD-simulation failures.

4.

A parallel RLC/RLC circuit model

(the "Dual RLC" model) gives excellent
general agreement with initial edge and
initial spike experimental data.
It is quite practical to simulate
5.
the Dual RLC model with physical components, while nevertheless retaining
the convenient one-meter ground return.
Data from such simulators agree well
with both calculations and data from
actual personnel electrostatic discharge. The Dual RLC model represents
the situation well: CH discharges
through a low inductance to give the
initial spike simulating the human
hand; CB discharges through a higher
inductance, to simulate the longer wave
that conveys energy stored on the entire body.
6. Simulators not incorporating the CHRH-LH hand-spike simulation path may
well not be able to induce failures at
3 to 6 kV in the same way that actual
personnel discharges can do. Thus ESDtesting with such instrumentation may
not represent the reality the equipment
under test will face when placed in
service.

References
Cl1

International Electrotechnical Commission IEC 65(Secr)80 Draft Standard: Electrostatic Discharge (for
Industrial Process Control).

i-21 MIL STD 883B, Test Methods and Proceedures for Micro Electronics.
Fig. 7: Actual Discharge Current from a
Practical ESD Simulator Embodying the Dual R-L-C Circuit of
(Steep-rise edges reFig. 5.
touched for readability)
5kV Initial Charge Level
2.5A/half cm, 2ns/half cm

c31 NEMA, Residential Controls, Envi-

ronmental Testing for Electronic

Controls, Part DC33, Proposed June
24-25, 1982.
c41 EIA (Electronic Industries Associ-

ation) Standards Project ~~-1361,

Environmental and Safety Considerations for Voice Telephone Terminals, Draft 5, Nov. 24, 1981.

Conclusions
1. Any ESD circuit model that doesn't
include inductance can't simulate reality well enough for test purposes.

c51

2. Capacitance of the hand to free

space causes a spike at voltages to
5kV, and an initial fast edge at higher
voltages. Both are grossly under-estimated by 60 to 100 MHz instrumentation,
while measured adequately with instrumentation of 400 MHz and above.

C61 King, W.M. and Reynolds, D., Per-

The inevitable 0.25 to 0.5 pfd ca3.

pacitance to free space of the simulator's internal capacitor is the only
tie to fast-edge reality that many simulators have; and it is too small by a
factor of at least ten. Nevertheless it

SAE Standard Recommended Practice

Information Report J-1211, June
1978, P 20.99.
sonnel Electrostatic Discharge:
Impulse Waveforms Resulting from
ESD of Humans Directly and Through
Small Hand-Held Metallic Objects
Intervening in the Discharge Path,
Proc. IEEE Int'l Symposium on EMC,
Aug. 18-20,
1981, pp. 577-590.

II71 Terman, F.E., Radio Engineers'

Handbook, McGraw-Hill, 1943, pp 48,

113.

- 31 -

RECENT
OF COUPLING

DEVELOPMENTS
IN THE
PATHS OF ESD THROUGH
Michel

UNDERSTANDING
A METALLIC
CABINET

Mardiguian
and Donald R.J.
Don White Consultants,
Inc.
Gainesville,
Virginia, USA

Abstract

White

This also serves as a reference to further shielding effectiveness

assessment.
One must remember that the ESD, although quoted

Based on recent studies made on ESD event statistics and

ESD modelization for furniture and human discharge onto a computer frame, in-depth analysis is made of ESD current routes on
a metallic frame and mechanisms of re-radiation inside equipment.
Although a metal box should behave as an efficient shield, it k
shown that this does not happen because high-frequency
spectrum
(up to the Gigahertz region) of ESD excites all existing seams and
slot leakages.
Measured
values of E and H fields (inside the
cabinet) near the discharge area and some peculiar aspects, like
the effect of a discharge on a screw protruding
significantly
inside, arc discussed. The Electric and Magnetic field amplitudes
lead to some discussion on the wave impedance of the ESD reradiation inside the box and its near field/far field transition. This,
in turn, allows a better prediction of the noise voltages induced
in nearby PCB traces or flat cables.

Grounded

Metal Plate

Electric 01 Magnelic
Field Probe
-

Ground

Plane

Spectrum

Background
_____-

Figure

In the past few years, significant

progress has been accomplished
in understanding
the electrostatic
build-up
and
discharge mechanisms,
their simulation and the ESD hardening
of integrated
circuits. Several computer
manufacturers
and independent
experts have disclosed the results of their studies.
However, in contrast with the large amount of data on human
body and furniture
voltages,
capacitances
and resistances,
discharge
rise times and waveforms,
etc., relatively few quantitative studies have been done on field amplitudes around an ESD
discharge [ 1,2,3].
This paper is a follow-up of a study of Ref. 4 which examined
sequentially
the mechanisms
of the ESD coupling via equipment
cabinets and external cables up to the distributed
victim circuit.
Here now is an attempt to quantitatively
evaluate the Electric and
Magnetic fields near an ESD discharge path, and the factor influencing field re-radiation
inside a typical electronic enclosure.
In these tests, the electrostatic
discharge was simulated using a Schaffner
NSG 430 (150 Q, 150 pf Network). The E and
H fields were measured by miniature monopoles,
short balanced
dipole and magnetic loop (electrically shielded). The probes were
connected to an Electra-Metrics
ESA 1000 Spectrum Analyzer.
A slow scan speed and sufficient RF attenuation
were chosen to
avoid Spectrum Analyzer error due to the broadband
nature of
the measurement.
E and H Fields Values and Polarization,
Discharge

to a Vertical

Structure,

B2

from

Over a Conductive

an ESD
Ground

First, the test set-up of Fig. 1 has been arranged to measure

the field amplitude facing to an ESD Zap,
in the absence of
any protective shield. This would be the case of a discharge to
a metal object near an equipment having only a plastic enclosure.

l-Experimental

Analyzer

set-up for ESD field measurement

static,
is certainly anything but a static phenomena:
Within
few nanoseconds,
a localized electric field of several kilovolts per
cm (corresponding
to several hundred kilovolts/meter)
collapses
to zero while in the same time, a localized magnetic induction
raises up to several Gauss! With a scaling factor (a few amperes
discharge instead of ten kilo amperes, and a spectrum of few hundred MHz instead of few hundred kilohertz) the ESD is in fact
a miniature version of a lightning stroke. Few documents
have
stressed this fact [ 1 & 41 and others have reported field strength
values. These values were generally
measured
at one meter.
Although
the non-uniformity
of the field makes
closer
measurements
less accurate,
during our study E and H field
magnitudes
have been measured at 10 cm, 30 cm and 1 meter.
The vertical structure was a 50 cm by 6 cm aluminum plate, firmly
bonded to the copper ground plane. The ESD gun was set to 10
kV and an arc discharge,
with a slow repetition rate was made
on the upper tip of the plate. The ground return for the ESD gun
was a flat strap about 30 cm long to avoid the possible influence
of both inductance and location of the return conductor.
For the
same repeatability
reason, the orientation
of this strap was kept
always in the vertical plane formed by the gun and the structure
which was discharged
upon.
Figs. 2a, 2b, and 2c show the results of electric and magnetic
fields, after bandwidth
and antenna factor correction.
A few remarks

are in order:

a) The 1 meter results correlate within

few other reported
measurements,
discharge simulators

about
done

+ 15dB with
with similar

b) Compared
to the I meter results, the 30cm and 1Ocm
results seem to show a (distance)W2 dependancy
instead

of a (distance)-2 or (distance)
as one would
least in the induction (near-field)
region.

expect,

32

at

structure,
the ESD generates a predominately
magnetic
(low impedance) field in the induction region, tending to
a 120 x ohms wave impedance in the far field zone. Since
the change over of near to far field is wavelength dependant, the transition occurs at different frequencies for the
various distances of the experiment; the change is very pronounced for the IOcm case.

In this experience,
it must be reminded
that the
radiator is the whole circuit formed by the simulator and
Frequency
1

10

I MHz

30

100

300
3MH7

1 30MH/

1 IOOMHI

1 300MH/

1 5OOMHr

~~

m men

a ion u

Table l-Average
.m

10

30
Ftequency

Figure

2a-ESD

Field at

1 meter

10

300

Free Field Radiation

Frequency
3

100
in MHz

30

in MHz
100

300

120

120

sz

100

100 z.

9
%

80

5
80 g

D
s
N
:

60

60

40

40 g

20

20 m
Q

10

30
Frequency

Figure

2b-ESD

100

P
m
I

Wave Impedances

of ESD Radiated

Fleids

The statement that the field is predominately

magnetic near
the discharge path may be surprising.
There is a common belief
that ESD, being electrostatic,
has to be an electric field. A
close look at the discharge network can clarify this: Simple Field
theory says that in near field region, low impedance
(<337B)
sources will radiate predominately
magnetic fields, while high impedance (>377Q) sources radiate predominately
electric fields. The
ESD simulator used follows the IEC-65 recommendation,
with
an internal resistance of 15OQ. Therefore,it
behaves more as a
magnetic
source in near field. Will real-life
electro-static
discharges really appear like this? In the opinion of the author,
the 15OQ value is a fair compromise,
but it has the drawbacks
of
every compromise.
Actual furniture-type
discharges 161 from large
metal objects, carts, chairs, etc. may exhibit dynamic impedances
IO times smaller or even less, creating more magnetic field in the
near region. While human body resistance, being at least 10 times
higher, will create less magnetic field.
The IEC-65 somewhat
makes up for this discrepancy
by
recommending
such voltages (8Kv and 15Kv) that they force a
current about similar to a furniture
discharge current.
The possible effect of wave impedance on victim circuits exposed to the ESD radiated
field will be discussed in the next
section.

300

in MHz

Fields at 30 cm
Frequency
10
30

I MHz
100

d) A rough integration of the electric field spectrum over the

frequency domain gives the following approximation
for
its time-domain
peak value:
at 1 meter = 70 volts/meter
at 30 cm = 120 volts/meter
at 10 cm = 220 volts/meter

300

100 N
:
80 3

Voltages
._____~

Induced

in Nearby Printed Circuit

-___
___-.
and Other Small Circuits

Boards
-.__ .._

m
60 D

10

Figure

30
100
Frequency ,n MHz

In the second part of the experiment,

the antennas
were
replaced by a PCB having a unique trace representing
a loop of
1Ocm x 10cm. This trace was alternatively
terminated
into 1
kilohm, open-ended,
then terminated
into a short. The voltage
picked-up was read on the spectrum analyzer, with all precautions to prevent possible pick-up by the coaxial cable.

300

2c-ESD
Field at IO cm
the vertical discharging
structure. Seen from an antenna
located at <I meter, this structure behaves as an electrically long radiator,
and not a punctual
source or small
doublet.
c) Comparing E dBpV/m and HdBpA/m (see Table 1) shows
a wave impedance varying:
--@ I meter from about lOOI around 30MHz to >3OOB
above 300MHz
--@ 1Ocm from about 1OD around 1OMHz to 500 above
300MHz.

Fig. 3 shows the induced voltages

being oriented tangent to wave front.

that

for actual

arcing

on a metallic

the PCB

The effect of varying the far end terminating

resistances is
interesting in the prospective of understanding
which of H field
or E field coupling predominates.
Fig. 4 shows the traditional
model for a small rectangular
circuit illuminated by an electromagnetic
field. The E field creates
a transverse voltage V2, which appears as a higb impedance source
(current source) with an open circuit voltage:
V2 = E x 2L x h x

This indicates

in dBpV/MHz,

T cos 0 cos o!
x

(1)

110

Frequency in MIir
10
30
100

33

300

90

80

80

70

70

60

60

like

the coupling

l/F

as evident

coefficient

on Fig. 2, while

10 MHz,

in Eq. (3) starts to create series insertion

150-200 MHz,

available

ing the available

voltage

By comparison,

the wir-

loss, caus-

at the 5OQ end. Finally,

the H field spectrum

above

itself decreases like I/F,

to collapse

B2

at the same time

increases like F. Above

ing less and less voltage

100

90

decreases

ing impedance

110

100

even more

caus-

rapidly.

the values for magnetically

induced

voltage

using Eq. (2) and (3), or the graphical

method of Ref. (5) are
shown also on Fig. 3. They are in fair agreement with the measured
data.
Curves

Frequency I MHz
!

10

30

100

300

A and B of Fig. 3 correspond

on far end, which

minimize

left is the electrical

contribution.

is one order
thermore
C, Calculaird
0 Calciilated

voltage based on ti Field coupling

voltage based on E-Field couplmg

the

only
only

of magnitude

supports

standard

Figure 3-Broadband
voltage induced rn a 100 cm:PCB run located
10 cm from the ESD path, parallel to wave front (PCB not oriented
for maxlmum H-Field interception).

less then the magnetic

is,

Then,

the PCB was rotated

wave front,

such as to intercept

magnetic

contribution

termination
contribution.

0 = angle between

the E field

plane of the loop and the direction

trum

the SOQ impedance

analyzer)

a high impedance

will double

the available

will

it.

nullify

On the other
VI

appearing

and the direction

of the victim

receptor

end the H field

as a low impedance

voltage,

while

1kQ

a shorted

creates a longitudinal
source

of

of

that

in

field,

near

one. This

fur-

the radiation

of

predominantly

90 to be perpendicular
the maximum

magnetic

case. In this set-up

is so pronounced

IOOOQ (curve

A)

to the
flux.

The

in exactly

the

however,

the

that even with a far end

it

overrides

the

electric

(voltage

60

of

Frequency
A
B
C

end (spec-

on the far end, like

transverse

is

in a small circuit

u = angle between
propagation.
tiiven

statement

on Fig. 5 and can be interpreted

same way as for the previous

Where

What

It is clear that this contribution

the previous
discharge

results are shown

induced

contribution.

magnetic.

Figure 4-TradItional
model for voltages
illuminated by an EM field.

to a high impedance

the magnetic

or

in all cases,

wlh Ziar end = m (wen)

with Zlai end0
(short)

z,,,,

end (Receptor)=50

I1

end

in MHz

with Zlar end = 1 kll

Figure B-Broadband
voltage Induced In a 100 cm;PCB run located
10 cm from the ESD path perpindicular to wave front (PCB
Intercepting maximum magnetic field).

voltage

source)

with

a value:

In fact the difference

MHz

correspond

between

approximately

curves (A) and (C) below

to the ratio

of

IO

lOOOn to 5OQ

termination.
Interestingly
there the influence
voltage

vx =

of varying

impedances

Vx across the receptor

VI,,,

is totally

different.

The

end is:

corresponds
Effect

Z,
,,,,(,,I,,,
il) -~ ~--.--------~----1, t & + z,,..,,,,,

(3)

-= 5On

Z ,,,,,,,,.=O.l
A

high

magnetically

impedance
induced

Z,

voltage.

n + .iw x 0.4~H
on

the

A shor/

far

end

on /he fur

nullify

the

Metallic

by the normal

Cabinet

shielding

on ESD Radiation
___
____~_

the cabinet

metallized)

of curve (C)

15 volts.

housing

the ESD

field

the electronic
should

effect of the material.

for the external

has been discussed

in a former

pick-up

paper

by I/O

well protected.

real life enclosures

are full of slots, scams, apertures,

disrupt

integrity.

the shield

cables, which

[4], it seems that

boards and wiring should be fairly

be at-

Therefore,
internal
However,
etc., which

end will max.

iUli,lcJ il.

Every shield discontinuity

across the ESD current path will
shine
inside, with an efficiency
proportional
to its length com-

On Fig.
shorted.

(or

the spectrum

of about

and not accounting

circuit

will

of a Typical

is metallic

tenuated
Z,

integrating

If, instead of being plastic,

circuit

in our experiment,

enough,

to a peak voltage

3 the curve

Therefore,

(C),

corresponds

the electrical

contribution

to the far end being

is minimum

while

the magnetic contribution

is enhanced. The flat portion
of the
voltage spectrum corresponds
to the domain where the H field

pared to the half

to and above

wave length.

500 MHz,

hibit
significant
leakage.
mechanism,
the witness

The ESD spectrum

any slot longer

than

extending

up

a few cm wilt ex-

To show this effect

on the ESD
PCB was placed inside in lmm thick

aluminum rack; to calibrate the experiment,

all mating surfaces
have been thoroughly
brushed and screwed and the ESD gun, set
to IOkVolts was discharged on all sides and especially in the seam
areas. No value exceeded the sensitivity level of the test set up.
Then, several typical shield imperfections
have been introduced by removing some of the top cover screws and inserting
Imm cardboard
liners under the seams to simulate an ungasketed
cover with ordinary manufacturing
tolerances.
Fig. 6 shows the
results. The induced voltage could be read up to 100 MHz, for
the enhanced
magnetic coupling (far end termination
shorted)
which demonstrates
two points:
a) the thin seam unequivocally
spoils the protection
by the box to ESD coupling
b) the re-radiated
magnetic.

field inside is, once again,

offered

predominantly

An interesting effect was also simulated: One of the threaded holes used to attach the top cover has been painted and the
cover was mounted using a long screw, protuding
about 2.5cm
(I) inside the box. The results are also shown on Fig. 6. It seems
that the screw generates a secondary arc inside, between the fillets
and the inner box surface.
Frequency

I MHz

100
90
:
E

90
N

80

:
80 s

70

7ov

60

60

m"
u

Discussion
-_____

m"

It has been shown that a circuit illuminated

by a typical
IOkVolts ESD discharge is exposed to field values in excess of
200 volts/meter.
With the 150fi/150pF
of the standard
ESD
simulator, the field in the near region is predominantly
magnetic.
Because of this, the orientation
of the victim circuit versus the
potential ESD areas, and its source/load
impedances
arc determinant: A typical logic circuit wilt consist of a victim
end
being a logic gate input with input impedances of few kfi (TTL,
Schottky) or more (CMOS), while the far end will be a logic output with source impedance ranging from 3013/15OQ (TTL, Schottky) to 3OOQ (CMOS). This arrangement
makes the magnetic contribution
worse. Decoupling
the signal line at victims end wilt
always be beneficial and matching the termination at receptor end
has the same advantage.
Otherwise, decoupling anywhere on the
circuit may have no result, or even (I detrimentul one. Also, a fcrrite bead, though providing series insertion toss, may be disappointing because the bead should exhibit more added resistance
than the gate input resistance, which is impossible to achieve with
small size beads.
To the contrary,
if this is the power supply bus which has
to be protected from ESD induced spikes, ferrite beads can be
very efficient since the impedances
are tow on both sides.

A future study wilt investigate more deeply some aspects of

the ESD re-radiation
through seams and the induced voltages on
ribbon cables running along those seams.

References

1. Michael King: CORNELL

Frequency

I MHz

1kll

ESD on protruding

screw head, PCB terminated

lilt0

ESD on protrudlng

strew

into a short

ESD on vertical or horizontal seam with a forced

PCB being 5 cm behlnd discharge point

Figure 6-Voltage
in an aluminum

induced on the

head, PCB terminated

10 cm

and Conclusions

Finally, it is important
that designers pay attention to the
integrity of the metal housings, even for equipment
which are
neither RF equipment
or highly sophisticated
gear, but simply
have to be ESD immune.

100

34

1mmgap,

IO cm PCB trace housed

2.
3.

4.

rack.

5.
6.

DUBILIER Report on EM1 Susceptibility (December

1973).
Peter Richman (Keytek): ESD Protection/Test
Handbook.
Michel Aguet: Perturbations
dues aux decharges statiques.
(COMPATIBILITE
ELECTROMAGNETIQUE
Ecole
Polytechnique
de Lausanne-1983).
Michel
Mardiguian:
DESIGN
FOR ESD IMMUNITY
RATHER
THAN
RETROFIT--IEEE/EMC
Symposium,
Washington
1983.
Donald R.J. White: EM1 Control METHODOLOGY
and
PROCEDURES
(DWCI, Gainesville,
VA 22065 USA).
Michael King: Impulse Waveforms
from ESD-IEEE/EMC
Symposium.
September
1982.

35

7B3

ESD Susceptibilityand Radiated Emissions

of EDP Peripheral Printers
Luciano

Honeywell
201000

The

E. S. D.

emission

the most
stems
We

susceptibility

(R. E.)
and

particularly

ply with

standard

ship

different

between

E.S.

the

relation-

if

described:
the

spark

of mechanical

gap

sam-

interferences

electrically

between

floating

electronic
parts,

(Printed

differences

only

apparently

xample,

the E.S.

a printer

is then

Last

item

GND

bonding

radiated

D.

and
Board).

mechani-

grounded,are

then
such

is outlined.

As

susceptibility

level

(inside

the influence

the printers)
from

EDP

TEST

Real-world,

E.S.

ted out in ref.

H- field

of

effect
pulse

Thats

and voltage
is,

drops,

respectively,

depend

disrupted

shielded

peripheral

the following

D.air

five

routes:

generated,

ge induction
H-field,

from

ground

mechanical

struc-

effect,

discharge

current

as a matter

in two

differents

on E.U.T.

as poinvia

injection.
of fact,
items:

predischar3.

E-field,
The

last

can be se5a.

E-field

gap,

I.

ESD

loop;

to only

experience

influence

ex-

discharge
plate,

internal

enhance

and

the

effects
weve

evaluation

on

nomena.
For both
lowing

effect

IEC

laboratory

l.,

and in the

bus
our

5a,

methods

64 standard)

and field

diagnostic
first

on signal
focused

oriented,

the

printers
voltage

structure,

discharge

the

out,

in transient

on mechanical

Therefore,

pointed

on peripheral

to be identified

secondary

1)A

effects:

air

generation

generation

spark

as expeto enhance

effect.

main

The

of five

direct

or on E-field

H. I, S.

drops

to the host

by each

gap for

or on H-field

has

1. predischarge,
2.

spark

methods,

, can be used

I.

gene rated

ternal

on the
ca-

discharge

in H. I.S.

last

of

equipments

radiation;

E-field;
5.

noise

date

discharge,

disrupt

different

of

METHODOLOGY

(11,

Two

rienced

As

with

emissions

E. S. D.

parated

current

or strong.

shielded

computer

ESD

weak

e-

predicted.

concerns

connecting

Circuit

to understand

phenomena

on

parts,

between

and a method

troublesome

the E.S.D.

structural

P. C. B.

voltage

analyzed,

4.

tests.

tire.

The

corona

5b.

injected

impedence

ples;

bles,

FIG.

generators

then,

between

coating

.penerator.

of E.U.T.
effect,

are,

interferences

unit of ES.!
.

L Test set&p for table-top9nounbd

equlpmeht, field
printer status :on IihC with compubr.

test).

items

and surface

cal

Italy

prin-

and to com-

D.

structure

under

specific

Pulse

many
parts,

no malfunction

we analyse

mechanical

(equipment

with

regulations.

first

Milan

sy-

E. D. P.

environment

In this paper

The

E.D.P.

with

to exibit

and office

for

concern

be designed

Two

now perhaps

are

topics

peripheral
devices,
and electromechanical

in home

and the

Milanese

Italy

peripherals.

such
ters;
mechanical
must

Systems

and radiated

problems

important

Information

Pregnana

Inzoli

lines.

analysis

5b,

and

0 f ESD

we defined
two test
with

phc_

(folset-up,

different

purpose.
one

reference

a common

is

characterised
plane,

GND

star

under
point

by:
the E.U.T.,
for

as

the dischar-

ging

system

and E. U. T.

2) An electrical
sible

connection,

between

inside

the plane

the EUT,

in ground

data

The

power

cord

path

of ESD

The

second

1) On line

one

The

path

power

first

then,

cords

set-up

re-

without

(fig.

of EUT,

1) by:

frequency

pulse,

invol-

purposes

chanical

equipotentiality

structure

2) Voltage

drops

pressure

are,

printer

level

GND

second

star

set-up

systems

surface

(screws,

of EUT

as function
purpose

of

are

as following:
l)Noise

conversion

unbalanced
tive

signal

cable
their

transfer
Direct
gap:

return

to avoid
its

flat

ground

impedence

direct

external

spark

discharge
H-f;eldESD

and

EUT
cable

.)

effect

in the

case

(n. 5b)

and
ca-

and to

arranged

with

mo re,

S;

internal

Division

as

shown

C=150pF)

oriented
current

spark

with

injection

gap

Sl.

it can be a T. D. R.

Reflectometer,

ARC

stributed

(R= lOOn,

gap

Further

discharge,

or lumped

(Ti-

R=50R

),

to measure

electrical

The

mechanical

side

only,

has

rent

ways:

Ni-coating;ZnCr04,

of

sample,
been

coating

di-

parame-

grounded

coated

one

in two diffechromate

on electro

mechanical

and

arc

-deposited

parts

es

can

where

and current
ESD
generator
c ircuit

The

equ iva lent

with:

delay-lines
wave

reference
floating
tact

as parallel
output

are

inj%%d

model
guide

finger

and sample,

to-end

capa city.

by
IESD

representative
sample

representative

of the sample,

res ist ence,

excited

current

between

CP

re-

voltage

can be built-up

(DL),

plane,
side

ce coating

be verified.

is behaving

circuit,

E.M.

can be evalua-

discharge-surfa

sample

sonant

T.

Interna&ark

method,

a
flat

impedence;

discharge

oriented

inte rferenc

on

or unshielded

etc..

emission

cable,

generator

can be:

ted,

of e-

generated

connections,

can be:
shielded

1.

ESD

printer

struc-

between

radiated

has

2.

path,

characteristic

meters

The

(shielded

oriented,

in fig.

as possible,

cable,

the

sample

Zinc (yellow
and colourless
conversion).
In such a way,
the oscillation
modes
of

capaci-

busses

or fault

connections

comzison

prevalent
__I__

(i.e.

mechanical

or ground

noise

computer

bles,

to dif-

frequency

circuits).

2) Interference
host

of current

between

and power

lectronic

common

due to high

path

coupling

tures

from

mode,

shown

much

conversion

ferential

structural

ters.

point.
diagnostic

invol-

Therefore

current

as

two

mecha-

method

laboratory

as

short,

me

coatings).

se t-up

ESD

the EUT

analyzed.

of a significant

without

on bonding

3) Susceptibility

of me-

of EUT.

contacts,

be first

test

The

between
and the test

verified,

The

and cables.

diagnostic

must

in fig.

with

connections.

current

ved

control

as following:

1) High

The

of EUT,

condition

of ESD

in the

connections.

cables

structure

been

characterised

signal

2) Return
ving

is

interferences

on the

or of

pulse.

condition
cables

running

external

filter

The
nical

behavior

connector.

current

signal

point

identified

is not involved

running

external

as pos-

and the GND

on line

cable

turn

3)Self-test

short

alternatively

connection

external

as

36

between
C,

of

RSURF
ESD

of
and
con-

generator

T,~return

cable

FIG.
Test

end-

2
set-up:

Mechanical
sample
surface
in g.

with
coat-

The

results

1.

can be

Surface
tor
sure

is

face

impedence

2OOgr.
No

bution

is

tact

pressure
lb,

open

are

effect
is

The

pres-

flat

has

strongly

4.

and screw

exposure

to Na Cl

discharge

nerator
As

point

4b.If

corrosion

voltage

measures

ESD

gen.

of smoothed

input

impedence

point

on a mechanical

ranging

then,

if Cp=@,

thats

sonance).

The

generator
input

equivalent
loons).

No

electrical

resonator

is pointed

return

(std.

pulse

is used,

and sheilded
the current
pulse.
the

5,contact

current

shaand-

pressure

The very

dangerous

oscillations

are

spark

ESD

due to ge-

gap S,

series

to disrupt

related

to the

cable

method)

is

is

in fig.
are

circuited

waveguides

as fig.1

injected

6;the

derivated

cy oscillations

generator

arranged

the typical

shown

shape

and the ESD

are

triangular

and

excited

set-

current

high

by CRF

clas-

frequeninfluences.

re

depends-

wn

to lo-

along

structures

if

E-field,

the

If

= 10;

ESD

or if its

E-field

compling

inthe

in the case

effect

to significative

rne-

out.

FIG.

excited

a mechanical

floating

coatings,

discharge

dependent.

one Sl.

If the

sic

fo=55MHz

to surface
from

rela-

to surface

short

resistence,

up indicated,

parasytic

(2:

Sl
in fig.

coating

TIZD

as it can be seen
is deplaced

to

is on

discharge

classic

of a second

related

This

is used,

dependent.

parameter

point

correlation

4c

is

frequency

first

: fo= 150 MHz

coustant

resistence,

the

to

discharge

resonance;

dumping

and no dependencies
thod

from

a lumped

impedence,

the discharge

related

to 0.4KV.

(i. e.

a A/4

thats

is

specific

depends

parameters

cal

high

the peak

structures:

1. 2KV

coupling

if Cp=80pF,

out,

oscillation
at the

from

frequency,

from

ge-

neration

pointed

cable

gen.

pe is shown

(1 OKV) is used.

value

is

dependent.ESD

is an arc

is a tringular

coating

VESD,

parts.

no correlation

return

shape

test.
2.

the

and if ESD

04.

at min.,

This

is

sample,

as dis charge
method
IESD
generator
( 10KV) is used.

4a.If

holes.

colourless,
R,,,__=1;2Ofi(ty2;. 8fi&%%
points).
pically),
Rsupr=*
Ni: RSURF=
+ . 1; RSURF=.
05;. 5flafter
16h,

point

of mechanical

coating.

as

RsURF=10;400~,
edges

parts.

ESD

is ranging

discharge

it is on flat

is,

dependent,

is used.

of oscillation

ted phenomena;

con-

if coating,

value

on edge

0. 5KV

contri-

sharpness

( IOKV)

1. 2KV, fig.4,is

exactly

resi-

edge

peak

from

used.
near

7B3

3 the sur

reflections

RSURF

coloured,

circuits

lb. Zn Cr

skin

dependent,

04,

contact
a contact

wave

out.

genera-

in fig.

merely

to travelling
pointed

Zn Cr

shown

significant

been

la and

lc

As

as
3* generator
ESD

as following:
TDR

SURF
and a typical

is needed,

stence.

la.

summarized

resistence

31

part

(N.

mechanical
_-of prevalent

5-a)

of a printer

structure

groundingimpedence
(high

frequency)

of ESD

effect

is

is

rised

values, the
is the

most

FIG.

TDR

1 OOA/div

pulse

20 ns /div.

FIG.

Peak
value
ZOOV/div.
10 ns/div.

FIG.
ESD

6
current

1 OOA/div
50 ns /div.

38

This

is a common

coating

with

internal
or

grounding

screws

To test
tion,

are

printed

wire

ference

1) with

(as

one

mechanical

capacitive

than

1 pF.

The

results

representative

faced

to printed

is very
surface

input

sharp

mV).

1 limitations,

Th:

logitudinal

the total

A VG zvIN

is neglibible,

more

than

ESD

input

be very
&V will

The

to ESD

is

a real

complex

analysis
matrix

mechanical

methodology

has

printer,

with

structure,
been

set-up

segment
The

H.I.S.I.
significant

parts,

the following

be measured
2a.

electrical

different

with

Characteristics
tion

times,

delling

such

/REF.

resonancies,
must

electrical
a T. D. R.
impedences

of the equivalent

bet-

be pointed
parameters

As

must

lines

trum

mo-

how

resonators.

GND.

accurately

pointed

ILRNiZ

repreand

as noise

can be easely

is solved,

on all

by E.S.

D.

in Ref.[Z,

value

is given

e-

integration
the

spectrum.
of the

spec_

. The

31

by asymin dB,

for

each

of time

peak

on
line

derived.
value

by the integration,

in above

in the

pulse,

program

final

of the
referenced

real

will

of phase

one.

the
range

information

Many
excess
value

redu-

algorithm,
in the

significant
error

of

tranbe a ve-

papers,we

or of the integration

representation.

mated

system,

current

as approximated

then

due to the loss

and propaga-

pulse

is shown

approximation

shown

in the

spectral

a simple

its

ced the excesserr

set-up:
delay

is

obtained

ry good

out.

the

and the equation

predicted

sient,

ween
2. All

g scale

in

drops

involved

modulus

log-lo

an

be deribed.

domain
for

segments;

transform

the broad-band

integration,

ptotic

set-

6. Its spec-

in fig.

circuits,

ranges

spectrum

method

be

test

approxima-

Fourier

of voltage

P.C.B.

A flow-chart,

be

or

the preof 2a

impedences.

provided

frequency

will

shown

from

connecting
value

ones,

must

domain

voltage

in the frequency

Y vESD

time

of the injected

for

of

2 if

are

current,

as

can then

peak

choice

by fig.

if laboratory

is

be calculated

source

by mea-

The

by comparison

pulse

pulse

significant

approximated

t zo)

suscptibility

susceptibility

T.

investigation
1. All

representation,

trum

E. S. D.

relatively

of the

tral

sharp.

poor!

If the E.U.

tion

stimated,
zo/(50

ESD
a good

of the

inductance

2.

results.

up is used,

sentation

suggested

step

the prevalent

indicated

parts,

connected.

parameters

Typically,

can

band-

value.

= 2vESD.

are

inje cted

devices

suggested

measured.

4. All

or

current

no significative
will

20,

resonator

The

voltage

and the printer

very

large.

with

(L

is

as

ones,is

the fi-

noise

is floating,

can be very
IESD,

model,

valent

resona-

high

are

of the

7 if distributed

3. The

if different

mechanical

range

values

results

diffe-

devices.

step

by different

parameter

modulus,

impedence
part

important

by fig.

Zn is

cting

or electromechanical

and 2c measurement

Only
the

can be very

(AVClOO

(Zo=

and capaci-

tonne

electromechanical

lurrped parameters

of the

R of Ni or

Though

impedence

discharged

guide

and resi-

inductances
lines,

low-frequency

surement

less

characte-

(BW<lHz).

condition.

bonding

than

bandwith

resistence

of longitudinal

pulse

The

board,

layout

wave

resonance

nal value

with

only

as following:

is less

of TEM

the

the limiting

2.If

wire

to signal

impedence

impedence

or

is a very

electronic

of a floating

inductances

parasitic

P. C. B.

This

to a reset-up

in the

points

connections.

of the signal

are supported

can be summarized

structure

tor

in test

Lumped

rent

parasitic
of ground

tances

B.

coupling

100;lOOO~)
the low

2d.

in fig.7.

of a metallic

connected

Lumped
stences

due to the

capacitances,
of specific

parts.

equivalent

1. If bonding
ristic

2c.

1 m) to support

tightly

is

part

with

D=O.

parasitic

proximity

mechanical

configura-

is shown

suggested

bonding

second

used

Lumped
mutual

or

connected

mechanical

6 m,

board,

plane

is wire

representative

(l=O.

2b.

if surface
is used

or isolated.

set-up
is

base-plane

The

system

loose

the bench

to solve

conversion

the two typical

The first-one

fig.

problem

chromate

spec-

examples

can be esti-

0 to 6 dB,

has

been

out.

(2)
I

I
FIG.

Resonance
wave -guides
between
mechanical
structures

Example:

max

value

tactresistencz,
In fig.8

forxund

a typical

matrix

printer

tor

with

is

M,

connected,
R:

is

C,
a

via

conductive
squares,with
contact
F and F are wire connected
C
The ma& E.S.D.
pulse volB.

and R+c

c
bonding
to lOKV,
generates
tage, charged
namedAVES
ry pulse voltage,

with

is approximately

Av

A s%s%dary
injected

pulse

from

ground
between

voltage

difference,A

on

hanical

if the electrical
betwe

susceptibility
difference

GND

points

return

paths.

se of R. E.

of the system
such

avoid

the danen different

oriented.

In

between

signal

can be generated

Therefore

an increa-

can be expected.

disappointing

situation

e.

voltage
drops
on GND contact
and RX
, must be estimated.
R
nois:

source

on ground

of P.C.B.

The

logic

thats

steps,

to be calculated,

are

thats
~I?%%D

the parameter

spectral

current

values

as following:

as

transform

shown

modulus

6.

in fig.

2. Z =w. 20OnH,
thats
spectral
transform
modulus
of base -plane
impedence.

= 2.1

3. AVqsIl
sen

4. Z

SD, thats

spectral

of t E e secondary

atlon

=1/u,.

C,

thats

pulse

impedence

= W. L,

d&s

thats

spectral

of impedence;

L=l.

5. I

/(ZI+Z
ESD= %SD
transform
modulus
current.

The

integration
se

FIG.

voltage.

spectral

mo-

pulse

pedence

c%%tnt,

source,

and R
C
unbalance
R=O.Ol

value,

obtained

of time
injected

is equally

connection

Therefore,
must

i 0.1 n.,

PCB,

generated

rence

bVL.

mo-

by the

domain

, is estimated

the two GND

transform
2,&H.

spectral
1, thats
f?
o the secondary
pulse

algorithm,

current

This

peak

as
from

high

shared

their

to avoid

max.

pul-

10A.

R
impe%ence

to the

range

a ground

noise

by the pulse

im-

between

resistences

be reduced

..

PLl.Mf.

repre-

duIIus of C=ZOO pF.

4.

can obtain,

by current

emissions

indeed,

di sconnection

a voltage

cas e,

without

of radiated

Thats,

ESD

printers

be achieved

course,

we

or

is only

To

VL,

appro_

and GND

of peripheral

must

units.

result

connection
parts

been

pulse

is a trangient

mesh

IE

FSD
e then,
D will

n,

same

gerous

has

printers

susceptibility

and met

to dV+i-

the

this

M to t% e P.C.B.

motor

The

resistences
This

current

the

mesh.

equa

a seconda-

for

(R. E.)

in EDP

ce nte rs,

degredatio

GND

=O. 5V,

Emission

ESD

in EDP

and internal

by FI,and

The

ofbVL

assumed.

connection
--

mo-

F;

value

ely

Radiated

of a

capacitance

circuits

supported

max,

ximat

step

structure

electronic

mesh,

The

parasitic

by a metallic

with

ground

structure

represented.

internal

The

con_

connections_

mechanical
is

supported

P.C.B.,

of the surface

7B3

39

voltage

on

diffe-

the numbe
between
An

r and

e xperienc
d by

The

electronic

are

the

the

P.C.B..

cated

noise

between

SW,

chanical
such

(on the
for

noise

GND

cable,

structure
antenna,

GND

reference

remote
The

is behaving
excited

9.

board)

system

on

is then
F.

lo-

I and

on the top side

floating,
F. 2.

P. C.
bus

side,

a paper

is af-

in fig.

plane

connected

electrically

R. E.

shown

voltage

on the other

a s ituation,

smitting

of how

circuits

is connecting

ment

be fixed.

is

sources

connections

must

bonding,

The

signal

of GND

parts

ed situation

GND

the P. C. B.;
ble

location

mechanical

fecte

the

FIG.

ca-

sensing

ele-

fixed
signal

on mecable,

as a local

by V;

an induced

mechanical

structure
coating

of a printer:
resistence

estimation

in

tran-

Typical

of

the signal

current
nical

is then

str?cture

current,

forced

F. 2.

to noise

wed

by GND

The

physical

and its

source

bonding

S,

for

gnal

cable

and power

of GND

bonding

A second

typical

from
jumper

is

signal

been

Again

cables

moduling
rasytic

antenna

L =,k..r
with:

(In 7

8.r

r (a):Mean
: Wire

ble

antenna

The

as
The

L.

common
of loop

bles,

the

source

are
V.

As

dyv/m

at 4OMHz

cy, square-wave,

element

loop

relation

work
of

gards

met

item
vel

s ,
and

pointed

(wire)

radius

shielded

peripheral

hanical

design

along
with

is generated

ca-

or VDE

087 1 cl. B). Both

mu st be pursuived

co herent

design

ment

metnodologies.

Richman,
Intl
Aug.

2 3-25,

GND

1983,

of D.C.

power

diction

an aly zis

main

standard

VA.

Transient

susceptibility

distribution
in time

networks:

5th S ymposium
E.

M.

C.,

L.

INZOLI,

and

Zurich,
EM1

tel eph one

4th S ympo

Technical
March

Exibition

8-10,

problems
switching

siu m and

in the design

Technical

Zurich,

March

N5 8K2

11
circuit

antenna

on

1983.N23F2

systems.

(f=2OKHz,

by internal

do-

I.

an-

freque_n

pre-

or fre quency

ca-

by a low

IEEE

Arlington,

a noise

10

loop

time,

measure-

simulation,

with

of&30

E affected

regu-

same

and

15

on EMC,

EM1

L. INZ OLI,

emitting
FIG.

standard
at the

rules,

ESD

P.,

Symposium

FIG.

emission

this

le-

part

REFERENCES --

Equivalent

Radiated

rules,
basic

susceptibility
F.C.C.

be-

emission

current

to some

C and

power

t:calculate

a radiated

(i.e.

lati ons
with

archias re-

and packaging

the ESD

limits

C.

printers,

reduced

assure

R.E.

the E.M.

antenna
plane

between

out,

EDP

to

drivers.

sion

can be s ignificantly

of new

measurements,

point

loop

The

standard

can be seen

relationship,

pa-

;H]

reference

current

start

tenna

11.

by the

of the

wit
*a

mode

a clamp,

our

on E.M.C.,

GND

connecting

podate

of the x/2

in fig.

can be extimated

haves

of shielded

of loop

capacity

relationship.

to connect

plane.

- 2) tp1/8n
values
lenght

1
The

shown

boards,

is a frequency

L can be extimated

As

tecture

electronic

two internal

circuit

Conclu
_--.

motor

distribution,

used

GND

R.E.

GND

A signal-ground

jumper,

for
is

how

PCB

been

between

PCB

equivalent

inductance

num-

along

can be seen

out.

S has

element
The

cable.

si-

significantly

to a two

area

and

spaced

and GND

to reference

the loop

wer

loop

the two P.C.

bonding

ground

F. 2.

An increased

carried

connecting

and a GND

1 and

moduling

the R.E.,

power

due to printer

is a ti o-

current

to show,

IL=20mA),

of output

R.E.

affect

supply

has

for

range.

A star

a power

system,

F.

equally

situation

can

10.

cord!

shift

frequency

connections

PCB,

of the IL

S,

will

to higher

in fig.

on the

emissions

ber

F. 1 and F. 2,

path

is the frequency

radiated

mecha-

return

between

dimension

inductance

element

on the near

The

40

of the

Exibition
lo-12,1981.

41

8~4

Fast Discharge Mode in ESD-Testm

B.
Daout and H. Ryser
Research Dept. Hasler Ltd.
Bern, Switzerland

The discharge of an electrOstatiCally

charged object to an electronic equipment is a very complicated process
both in the actual case of human (or
equipment) discharge and in the case
of discharging a test circuit. Our
measurements
on discharge current waveforms show that in practical testing
two different discharge modes exist:
A slow discharge mode related to the
nominal circuit values of the test
circuit, and a fast discharge mode related to the distributed capacitance
near the discharge gap. Comparison
with real discharges show that the rising slopes of real discharges are often very high. Therefore the fast discharge mode should be included in the
tests. It is shown that the reproducibility of the fast discharge with
the existing test methods is not satisfactory. Some ideas to improve the
test methods are listed, although we
have not yet been able to carry out
any practical comparison.

rity of the EUTs where they lead to

severe problems, they are also observed to a lesser extent with almost all
EUTs. This observation was also confirmed in discussions with many other
colleagues involved with ESD testing
and most of them agree that this would
probably have to do with the fast rising part of the ESD, which itself
seems to depend on many external parameters of the test.
In the literature on ESD and ESD testing, there is at the present time very
little information on this fast rising
part of the ESD current. We therefore
initiated efforts to evaluate this
fast mode of the ESD. With a fast current probe and a very well shielded
storage oscilloscope
(Fig. l), we were

Abbreviations:
ESD : Electrostatic Discharge
EUT : Equipment Under Test
1. INTRODUCTION
We were led to undertake these measurements on the fast rise time behaviour of ESD for the following reason:
When carrying out ESD Tests with some
of the test objects according to the
most advanced test recommendations
of
IEC SG65 WG4 Cl], we observed some
strange results:

Fig.

1.: Shielded

storage

oscilloscope

(1) - It was sometimes not possible

to reproduce the test results
some days later, even with exactly the same test object.
(2) - Sometimes an EUT (Equipment under test) which is able to sustain a relatively high test
voltage (10 to 15 kV) failed
with much lower voltages (2 to
8 kV).

5 ns

Shield door closed

Fig.

Although these problems are only observed to their full extent with a mino-

_. . .
5 ns
Shield door open

2: Improvement of the measurement

using a shielded storage oscilloscope

able to obtain a clear picture of the

current pulse shape. Fig. 2 illustrates the improvement obtained using the
shield. The left-hand photo shows a
fast rising discharge with closed
shield. The right-hand photo shows the
same discharge with the shield door
slightly open.
After some initial investigations we
found that the discharge is composed
of two distinct discharge modes:

(1)

(2)

- The discharge

of the 150 pF capacitor on a discharge path including the 150 ohm resistor and
the earth connection. This part
of the pulse shape is reasonably well defined and reproducible.

- The discharge

of the test finger distributed capacitance of

some pF which results in a
"pre-discharge", having a very
short rise time of sometimes
less than 1 ns, which is the
limit of our measurement
equipment. This fast rising
mode of the discharge depends
on many as yet unknown parameters, and its relation to the
voltage is non-linear.

42

Test voltage
Polarity
Speed of the approach of the test
finger
Direction of the approach of the
test finger
Shape of the EUT at the point of
the test
Humidity
Ion concentration
of air at the
Barometric pressure 1discharge point
Layout of the earth cable
Other unknown parameters?
It was the aim of our measurements to
find out the influence of at least the
most important of these parameters.
Fig. 3 shows some typical examples of
discharge current waveforms at different charging voltages. It can be seen,
that in general it is possible to differentiate the two discharge modes.
At 8 kV the pulse shape varies greatly
from discharge to discharge. Tow rather extreme examples are shown.

The recommendation
of IEC SG65 WG4 on
ESD testing is aware of this fast discharge mode. In the Appendix, they
state:
uo=15 kV
"Prior to this discharge there is a
small "pre-discharge" of a stray capacitance formed between the discharge
electrode of the test generator and
the standard load. This stray capacitance is estimated to be 5 pF. Rise
time and current of the "pre-discharge" are not measured and not evaluated by the testing procedure" Cl].

60 A

(Fast example)

This is reasonable for the testing of

slow responding objects or for tests,
where the energy content of the discharge is of chief importance (destructive effects). However, for interference testing of equipment sensitive
to fast rise signals, this "pre-discharge" may be the most important parameter, and it is therefore of interest to know more about it.
2.

WAVEFORMS

u =8 kV
0

1
60 A
\I/
(Slow example)

uo=8 kV

OF TEST DISCHARGES

2.1 The Parameters

Waveform

10 ns
I9

of the Current

It was not the aim of our measurements

to evaluate the statistics of real human discharges, but we wanted to evaluate the reproducibility
of the current waveforms with the artificial
discharges when doing ESD tests according to the IEC proposal.
The parameters which possibly influence the test are listed below:

35 A
Tm

u0=4 kV

Fig.

3: Typical
current

10 ns

examples of discharge
waveforms

- 43 -

8~4

We characterized the discharge current

waveform by the 3 parameters indicated
in the idealized current waveform of
4
Discharge
according
IEC

: Maximum

height

th : Pulse width
the current
S

Rising

finger
to the

of the current

at half height

of

slope of the current

Fig. 5: Extremes of the rising slope
depending on charging voltage

Fig. 4: Parameters characterizing

the current waveform

The next question is of course, how

the statistics of this parameter would
be in practical testing. We tried to
this by making 50 discharges
evaluate
at different voltages with an "average" approach, as we supposed it would
be done by an "average person" doing
the test. The result is summarized in
Table 1.

The slope s is taken as a measure of

fast discharge mode because very often
we have some differentiating
effects
on the coupling path within the EUT
(capacitive or inductive coupling) so
that the derivative of the disturbing
signal is the important parameter. Taking the rise time leads to ambiguities in reading the result.

4 kV

8 kV

12 kV

15 kV

15.9

27.8

41.7

46.2

0.7

0.8

2.2

0.7

th m

53.0

52.3

55.3

53.3

ns

"

4.1

4.2

0.7

2.0

ns

11.2

see

2.6

1.8

A/M

text

2.6

0.4

A/IX

2.2 Influence of Speed and Direction

of the Approach of the Test Finger
i: m

At voltages between 4 and 12 kV, the

speed and direction of the approach
of the test finger has a considerable influence on the rising slope of
the fast discharge mode.
Fig. 5 shows the results of measurements which attempt to obtain the two
extremes of rising slope at different
voltages. The slowest slopes are generally obtained with very careful and
slow approaches, holding the test finger exactly perpendicular
to the surface of the EUT. The lower curve of
Fig. 5 is measured using a mechanical
fixture to avoid abrupt movements. The
upper curve of Fig. 5 is the result of
discharges with fast approaches. It was
often easier to obtain the maximum when
the test finger was inclined to the EUT
surface.
It can be seen from Fig. 5 that the
slope has a very pronounced maximum
between 4 and 12 kV. This picture is,
however, slightly misleading, because
the probability of reaching the maximum slope seems to be higher below
about 6 kV than above.

(r

fl

3.9

,
m
0

: Average
: Standard
Table

deviation

1: Statistical results of
"average" approaches

Between 5 and 10 kV, the result is

very sensitive to the speed and direction of the approach of the test finger
and also to other unknown parameters
changing from day to day.
50 discharges with 8 kV made by "person
A" gave an average of 2.2 A/ns with a
standard deviation of 0.5 A/ns.
50 discharges with 8 kV made by "person
B" on another day, gave an average of
15 A/ns with standard deviation of

44 -

8 A/ns. "Person A" tried to make the

discharge in a relatively regular manner. "Person B" tried to vary the kind
of approach both in speed and direction as would probably be the case in
real testing. It was, however, not
possible to reproduce the slow average
at 8 kV by "person A M at the date of
the second test. It seems that in this
voltage region, the discharge is very
sensitive to subtle effects, which are
not understood at present.
These effects seem to be related to
the corona effect. Changing the shape
of the test finger, for example, does
radically change the result. (Fig. 6
compared to Fig. 5).

2.3 Influence
out

of the Earth Cable Lay-

Fig. 7 shows seven discharges with

different earth connections, starting
with lowest possible inductivity (extra short connection used for calibration in the IEC recommendation)
increasing
to unrealistically

0-1
24 A

and
high in-

Extra short earth

connection as it
is used by the
IEC for calibration.

1
IEC earth cable

Sharp cone as
discharge finger

(2 III)
attached over
most of its length
close to the ground
plane, resulting in
the smallest possible
inductivity.

--T-

IEC earth cable

(2 m) attached to
the ground plane
near to the discharge point.

21 A

1
Fig.

6: Extremes of the rising slopes

with sharp cone as discharge
finger

It should be noted, that this is not

the solution to our problem, because a
sharp finger at the point of discharge
will result in rising slopes which
compared to real discharges will be
too low. Also, above 10 kV increased
corona effect totally prevents proper
discharges. A sharply pointed finger
for direct contact, combined with an
auxiliary discharge of an appropriate
form, however, is useful, because it
makes better contact with the EUT.

04

T
18 A

(2 m) attached to
the ground plane
far from the discharge point.

-L-

IEC earth cable

(2 m) attached to
the ground plane
near to the discharge Point, but
leaving part of it
rolled up, resulting
in an increased inductivity.

Another phenomenen which should be

mentioned at this point and which appears to be present with all discharges made with an approach test finger
is as follows:
Each test finger approach generally
results in a multitude of individual
discharges (during the approach movement) with a repetition rate determined by the relaxation oscillation of
the voltage resulting from the elements of the discharge path and the
spark (1 to 100 ms between the individual discharges). The behaviour of
these relaxation oscilations again depends on many parameters of the test,
in particular the speed of the approach. We have, as yet, made no detailed studies of this effect.

IEC earth cable

06

Extra long earth

cable

Inductivity of

4.3 tnHyin the

earth cable.

10 ns

Fig. 7: Influence of the earth cable

=
5 kV
UO

45

~4

ductivities. To avoid masking of the

results by the effects explained in
the preceding section, the measurements
for Figs. 7 and 8 were made
fixed test finusing a mechanically
and @
represent the
ger. Photos @
average measurement condition. Photos
are added to illustrate the
,@ and 0
independence of the fast discharge mOde with respect to the main discharge
The inductivity
of the earth
circuit.
being part of the circuit
connection,
defining
the slow discharge
mode, influences
the slow discharge
mode, while the fast discharge mode is almost

Discharge to a
screw head (uo= 5kV)

Discharge to a
flat surface (uo= SkV)

unchanged.
Fig.

would also like to point out,that

the current pulse shape for the avere test condition (photos 0
and
from the pulse shape seen
calibration
(photo 0).

We

This series of photos clearly illustrates the independence of the two

discharge modes at tests using the
method according to the IEC.
2.4 Influence of the Shape
charge Point

of the Dis-

8.: Influence
discharge

of the shape of the

point.

sp
0.6 A

10 ns

1 ns

Discharge with bare finger (2 kV)

The shape of the discharge finger and

its counterpart, the discharge point
on the EUT, also influence the fast
discharge mode. While the shape of the
finger is defined in the IEC proposal,
the shape of the EUT at the discharge
point cannot be standardized. Thercfore this influence on the discharge
will remain. Fig. 8 shows two examples
measured using a mechanically
fixed
test finger.
2.5 Influence of Humidity,
re and Ionisation

Air Pressu-

We assume that these parameters do

have an influence
on the discharge,
but at this time we have not been able
to find any clear relationship. We
will repeat some of the tests during
winter under different climatic conditions.

3. COMPARISON

WITH

REAL ESD DISCHARGES

The main goal of our work was to evaluate reproducibility

using the test
method itself. For real ESD discharges
and for model representations
of such
discharges, some literature
[e.g. 2,
3, 41 exists. We did not want to repeat this work, but we made a few measurements to relate our results to the
practical case and to make clear that
the fast rising slopes also exist in
real life.
human ESDs at 2 kV.
The rising slopes of the human discharges were equivalent or even faster
than the discharge with the test generator.
Fig.

9 shows

two

ns

Discharge with metallic tool (2 kV)

Fig.

9: Real

human

ESDs

In human discharges via metallic tools

we often observed a second discharge
some 100 to 500 ns after the first
one. This second discharge is due to
dielectric
breakdown
of the human skin
and it is observed
at voltages
higher
than about 2 kV. It is no way related
to the relaxation
oscillations
experienced
with the ESD test discharges.
We also observed
that the rising slope
of the fast discharge
mode depends
on
the shape of the tool used, but is the
highest
with a bare finger or with metallic
objects
of similar
size (such
as the IEC test finger).
4. SOME IDEAS
METHOD

FOR

IMPROVING

THE

TEST

There is an obvious need to improve

the test method in regard to the fast
discharge mode ("pre-discharge"
). The
list below is not complete
and not all
of the ideas will lead to the solution
we are searching
for. Being aware of
this, and as we have not been able at
the time of writing
this paper to compare all these alternatives,
we do not
want to make any definitive
proposals.
Some ideas are listed here:

- 46

Use of an auxiliary spark gap adjusted to trigger at the proper voltage and mounted at the test finger.
Use of spark gaps with fixed distances under controlled gas atmosphere,
exchangeable
for several voltages.
Use of a relay in the test finger
to trigger the spark (air or gas
atmosphere).
Use of a Burst Generator-Type
of
Generator with spark gaps of appropriate voltages as signal generator. (These spark gaps must be
close to the point of test on the
EUT).
Use of other
works.

types of discharge

net-

Use of the surface capacitance of

a metal plate representing the distributed capacitance of the human
body.
These ideas can grouped
categories:

into two main

(1) - Making the discharge not directly

at the surface of the BUT, but
as part of the test equipment
under more controlled conditions. The auxiliary discharge
will have to be located relatively close to the test point on
the BUT in order to preserve the
fast rise part of the signals.
This change would bring another
advantage in that it will allow
the repetition rate of the discharges to be increased thus
making the test more efficient.
(2) - Changing the form of the parts
defining the distributed capacitor of the "pre-discharge"
and/
or using more complicated discharge models.
Combinations of the two categories are
also possible, and the definition of
the nominal circuit values has to be
reconsidered, whenever the method of
discharge is changed.
In defining the best test method, there are many other parameters to be taken into account:
The test should cover the main properties of the real events it is
supposed to represent.
The test should be reproducible under average laboratory conditions
and should not change due to uncontrolled parameters.
The test should be simple
to specify.

and easy

The test equipment should not be

too expensive, and the test should
be simple and fast to perform.

- The radio emission aenerated durina

the test should be Tolerable. (This
problem could occur with higher discharge repetition rates in tests
using an auxiliary spark gap).
- An attempt should be made to unify
the test methods and specifications
world-wide.
There has to be a compromise between
these partially conflicting parameters. With the actual IEC proposal,
which is the most advanced at present,
we have a starting point, fairly close
to the real discharge situation. It is
our opinion, however, that in the
longer term, we will need to improve
the test in respect to the fast discharge mode for better reproducibility. The auxiliary spark gap in one
form or other appears to he the most
promising way.
5.

CONCLUSIONS
The rising part should be characterized by rising slope instead of
rise time.
The pulse shape of discharges in
real tests differs from the pulse
shape obtained in the calibration
set-up with a very short earth connection.
In real tests as well as in human
ESDs, the fast discharge mode is an
important part of the pulse shape
and should be considered.
The reproducibility
of the fast
discharge mode with the actual test
methods is not satisfactory and
should be improved.

References:
Cl1 IEC 65 (Secretariat)80
Draft-Publication
654-5: Operating
Conditions - Part five: Electromagnetic Compatibility,
Section
II: Electrostatic Discharge Requirements.
CZI W.M. King:
Dynamic Waveform Characteristics
of Personnel Electrostatic Discharge EOS/ESD Symposium, Denver,
1979, p. 78-87
c31 R. Simonic:

ESD Event Rates for Metallic Covered Floor Standing Information

Processing Machines.
IEEE/EMC Symposium Santa Clara
1982, p. 191-198
c41 W.W.

Byrne:
The Meaning of Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) in Relation to Human
Body Characteristics
and Electronic
Equipment.
IEEE/EMC Symposium Arlington 1983,
p. 36'3 - 380.

47

9Cl

A NEW MODEL OF TRIGGERED LIGHTNING

H. Kikuchi
Nihon University, College of Science and Technology
Tokyo 101, Japan

Based upon observations of lightning triggered by a rocket with a trailing wire grounded, a new but tentative model of triggered
lightning is presented in relation to natural
lightning in the following terms: (1) downward- or upward-moving leaders; (2) electrostatic field discontinuities; (3) space charge
distributions and effects; (4) a new concept
of electric cusp and electric merging or
localization, electric field reconnection or
interchange; (5) effects of the RF component
on discharge threshold; (6) circuit model of
lightning discharge; (7) electromagnetic pulse
(EMP) emitted by lightning discharge. In
particular, a new concept (4) is introduced as
a mechanism of multi-clouds-to-ground lightning
triggered by a rocket-trailing wire in relation
to other items (l), (2), (3), (5) and (6).

or line may be called an "electric cusp

analogus to the magnetic cusp familiar to
plasma scientists. Consider the case when a
rocket-trailing wire is impinging on a cusp
region. Then the electric field merging,
reconnection, interchange and energy localization take place, generating electromagnetic
precursor pulse that triggers lightning discharge and produces main electromagnetic pulse.
Thus electrostatic energy accumulated and
localized can be released in the form of a
discharge current in a process similar to a
conversion from magnetic energy to plasma flow
in the process of magnetic field reconnection.
Such a cusp model seems to well explain observations obtained from rocket-triggered
lightning.
Requisites for Triggered Lightning

Introduction and Summary

Natural cloud-to-ground lightning is usually initiated by a step-leader moving downward
toward the ground. In contrast, in many
strikes to towers and rockets, the leader is
observed to travel upward into the cloud from
the top of the tower or rocket.
When the leader is initiated from the structure or spacecraft, the lightning is termed to
be triggered by them. That is, no lightning
would occur in the absence of the structure or
spacecraft. In the case of a tall structure
or a rocket-trailing wire, the electrostatic
field at its top exhibits a singularity in an
ambient electric field, providing an important
factor of triggered discharge. The field lines
and equipotential surfaces in the presence of
sharp objects are presented on the basis of
electrostatics, for example, taking into
account the result that a perfectly conducting
plane or line structure represents a singularity, where the electrostatic field tends to
infinity. However, the electric field at the
tip of the structure or rocket and even at the
ground is reduced by space charges produced by
corona streamer currents from sharp objects,
shielding them from the field of the cloud.
When two clouds with opposite polarities are
facing each other nearly horizontally, a point
or line of zero electric field should exist
between the two clouds and the ground, and a
region of low electric field around its point

1. Uoward-moving leaders
Natural cloud-to-ground lightning is usually
initiated by a step-leader moving downward the
ground. In contrast, in many strikes to towers
and rockets, the leader is observed to travel
upward into the cloud from the top of the tower
or rocket 111. These upward-going leaders are
characterized by upward branching of the channel into the cloud. Since the leader is initiated from the structure or spacecraft, the
lightning is termed to be triggered by them.
That is, no lightning would occur in the
absence of the structure or spacecraft. This
indicates that the presence of a sharp object
such as a tower or rocket-trailing wire is
definitely the most important factor for triggered lightning.
2. Electrostatic field discontinuities
The question arises why and how the leader
is initiated from the top of a tower or rocket,
in other words, what the real function of a
sharp object is. This is simply a function of
electrostatic field discontinuities at the top
of the structure
or rocket,
where a large electric field is expected particularly for metallic
structure. The field intensity around its tip
can be estimated theoretically if one neglects
the space charge effect. According to 'electrostatics: the electric field at the edge or tip
of a perfectly conducting plane or line structure exhibits a singularity of the order of

48

1
r -2or r-1 respectively, where r is the distance alon; the boundary from the tip [2, 31.
This indicates that the elctrostatic field
becomes very large near the tip of a sharp object, causing the electric field merging and
electrostatic energy localization between the
cloud and the tip of the object, further leading to discharge triggering.
3. Space charge effects
In the preceding section, the space charge
effects at the surface of a sharp object have
been neglected. Under the actual circumstances,
a large electric field at the tip of the object gives rise to the corona streamer current
from its tip, pulling out some induced positive
or negative charges from the object. Consequently, space charge layers are formed over
the surface of the object and tend to shield
it from the field of the cloud. The shielding
distance may be of the order of the Debye
length that is defined as
EOKT
hD =
7.434 x lo3 F(m)
(I)
$=z=
JJ--where KT (eV) is the plasma temperature, N(m -3 )
the plasma density, VT the thermal velocity,
wp the plasma angular frequency, e the electronic charge and ~0 is the dielectric constant
of vacuum. For a rough estimate, let N =
lo6 m-3, KT = 0.02353 (OC = 273K). Then, we
have A = 1.14 m, f = 8.98 kHz. Thus, the electri!? field near ' the tip of a still structure is reduced to some extent by space charges
surrounding it. If the relative velocity be-

ELECTRIC
-----

tween air and a moving rocket is greater than

the ion drift velocity (about 100 m/s), the
screening space charge cannot develop, and the
enhanced field strength penetrates in full
force to the emitting point, going back to a
situation closer to the preceding subsection 2.
The chances of initiating a lightning discharge
should then be increased [4].
4. Electric cusp and merging or field reconnection (Refer to Appendix on magnetic cusp)
It has recently been observed that the cloud
shape and charge distributions are extended
more horizontally due to wind shears in winter
in contrast to their vertical extent in stsmner,
from lightning experiments in a coastal region
of the Sea of Japan [5]. Based upon those observations, the author proposes a cloud configuration and charge distribution as shown in
Fig. 1 as a favourable situation for triggered
lightning, particularly when accompaning cloudto-cloud lightning or repeated strokes. When
two clouds with opposite polarities are facing
each other nearly horizontally as shown in Fig.
l(a), a point or line of zero electric field
should exist between the two clouds and the
ground, and a region of low electric field around its point or line may be called an "electric cusp" analogus to the magnetic cusp familiar to plasma scientists. The solid and dashed
lines represent the electric line of force and
equipotential surface, respectively, while the
shaded region indicates an electric cusp.
Consider the case when a rocket-trailing
wire is impinging on the cusp region as shown
in Fig. 1 (b). Then the electric field merging,

LINE OF FORCE

EQUIPOTENTIAL
,/

SURFACE
,/---I,

/I

ROCkET-TRAILING-WIRE

(a) Case of no object

Fig. 1.

(b) Case of a sham

object

Schematic diagram illustrating a role of electric cusp and merging in triggered

lightning.

49

reconnection, interchange and energy localization take place, generating electromagnetic

precursor pulse that may trigger lightning
discharge when an upward-moving leader has
been well developed. Thus electrostatic energy accumulated and localized can be released
in the form of a discharge current in a process similar to a conversion from magnetic energy
to plasma flow in the process of magnetic
field reconnection. Then main electromagnetic
pulses are produced and emitted mainly in a
kHz range. Energy thus released is partly expended in the form of Joule heating in the
wire and the earth, for instance vaporizing
the metallic wire, although some can be transferred still into electrostatic energy but associated with the other cloud. These phenomena of triggered lightning discharge can well
be described in terms of an equivalent ekCtric circuit as shown in Fig. 2.
As seen in Appendix, the magnetic cusp is
one of the most stable schemes for plasma confinement by balancing the plasma pressure inside the cusp with the magnetic pressure outside. For the case of electric cusp with no
object in Fig. l(a), the electric pressure in
Faraday's flux tube balances the total air
pressure inside the cusp region. Since the
total pressure consists of both static and dynamic pressure, this might suggest the possibility of producing a kinetic pressure due to
wind circulation with a need of electrohydrodynamic (EHD) treatment. For the case of electric
cusp with an upward-going rocket-trailing
wire in Fig. l(b), rapid electric merging,
field reconnection and interchange take place,
relocating Faraday's flux tube and a cusp region in such a way that the rocket-trailing
wire becomes a centre of the electric cusp or
neutral line. From the pressure-balance point
of view, it is also inferred that sudden injection of an artificial electric cusp or neutral
line may introduce an unstable situation in
terms of electric and air pressure, for instance , producing a strong wind shear or circulation. This facilitates a triggering of
lightning flash.
5. Effects of RF precursor EMP
Many observations show that a large number
of triggered lightning flashes are preceded by
large activity of electric field fluctuations,
although the main discharge occurs at the time
of a maximum electric field [6],
Let us take a typical example of the discharge current and the electric field at the
ground during the ascent of a rocket in winter
in a coastal region of the Sea of Japan, as
shown in Fig. 3. When the rocket reaches a
height of approximately 100 m one second after
launch, a predischarge current containing RF
precursor pulses starts flowing and is growing
until the main discharge takes place. The frequency of RF precursor pulse can roughly be
estimated from the resonance frequency of the
equivalent circuit in Fig. 2. Take an example
of the 27 December, 1977 experiment. Then we
assume C1 = 1.3 uF, C2 = 0.5 pF, C,2 = 4 pF,
L = 0.1 mH, as seen in the next subsection 6.
Then we have f = 27.5 kHz.
Incidentally, some explanation should be
mentioned about Fig. 3(b). It is seen that
the electric field at the ground is decreasing

9Cl

RIZ

Fig. 2.

Equivalent circuit representation of

triggered lightning discharge for the
case of two clouds with opposite
polarity.

kA
lot

:
i IOO-

10.
l-

,"mA
%lOO3
v) 10.
ii
l-

ALTITUDE

(a)

150
m

Predischarge current

-kVfm

5 lo?
E
z_ 5cl
$0
c
0

(b)
Fig. 3.

50

100

ALTITUDE

150
m

200
7

Electric field intensity

at the ground

Altitude dependence of the predischarge

current and the electric field intensity at the ground during the ascent
of a rocket.

during the ascent of the rocket until the main

discharge takes place. This is not a manifestation of space charge effects but because the
rocket-trailing wire is artificially forming
an electric cusp or neutral line around itself
by producing electric field merging at its tip
as described in the preceding subsection 4.
Consequently, the electric probe at the ground
tends to enter a cusp region as shaded in Fig,
l(b) where the electric field should be low.
On the contrary, if an electric probe were

- 50 -

borne on the rocket at its tip, the electric

field measured would have been rapidly growing
during the ascent until the main discharge took
place.
6. Circuit model
As already introduced in the subsection 4,
Fig. 2 represents a typical model of two-cloudsto-ground lightning triggered by a rocket-trailing wire in terms of an equivalent circuit. Cl
is the capacitance between the cloud 1 with negative charge and the ground, C2 the capacitance
between the cloud 2 with positive charge and
the ground and Cl2 is the capacitance between
two clouds 1 and 2 with opposite polarity. RI
is the resistance of a discharge channel between the cloud 1 and the tip of a rocket and
RI2 is the resistance of a discharge channel between two clouds. R and L are the total resistance and inductance of a rocket-trailing wire
and a discharge channel of the ground. R
should also include radiation losses. The model appears to be suitable particularly for explaining mechanismus of bipolar lightning, multiple cloud-to-ground and cloud-to-cloud lightning discharges.
Let us take again an example of the 27 December, 1977 experiment chosen in the subsection 5.
From measurements, we have E = -7.5 kV/m, L =
153 m = height of rocket at the time of lightning flash. Assume hl = 2 km = height of cloud
1, h2 = 2.5 km = height of cloud 2, 2a = 1 km
= linear size of each cloud, 1 = 2 km = distance between cloud centres. Then we roughly
estimate Cl = 1.33 pF, C2 = 0.5 pF, Cl2 = 4 uF,
R = 17.3 n, L = 0.1 mH (for some tens kHz), RI
= 20 ka. Consequently, we have r = 35 ms =
time constant as a measure of the duration of
triggered lightning discharge.
Consider the case when a cloud-to-ground
lightning flash is succeeded by a cloud-tocloud discharge while a cloud-to-ground discharge channel is still alive. Then, a discharge channel between two clouds is newly
formed. Denote its resistance as R12 and let
iI2 = R, = 20 kR. Then, a discharge current
ows from the cloud 2 toward the ground through
a new cloud-to-cloud discharge channel and the
cloud-l-to-ground conducting channel established already, succeeding the initial cloud-l-toground lightning flash where the discharge current had flown in the opposite direction from
the ground toward the cloud I. Thus, the bipolar lightning flash has been established.
The duration of the new cloud-to-cloud discharge
is estimated as T = (Cl + C12)R1/2 = 53.3 ms.
If the cloud-to-cloud discharge is initiated
nearly at the end of the cloud-to-ground flash,
the whole duration of bipolar discharge becomes
'C= 35 + 53.3 = 88.3 ms in good agreement with
experiment. Thus, the mechanism of bipolar
lightning flash is well described in this way
in terms of a circuit model. In fact, a study
of transient phenomena based on such a circuit
model provides more detailed information about
current and voltage characteristics associated
with bipolar and multiple lightning flashes.
7. Electromagnetic pulse (EMP) radiation
When a discharge current containing RF components flows through a rocket-trailing wire,
the wire acts just like a transmitting antenna
over a wide range of frequencies up to a VHF or
MHz range [7]. Such a broad band radiation is

FLARE
Fig. 4.

Magnetic cusp (neutral line) and merging or reconnection associated with

solar flares.

probably facilitated by nonlinear effects introduced in a discharge current loop or channel.

In any case, radiation losses are described by
the radiation resistance which must be included
in the total resistance R in a network in Fig.3.
Conclusion
A new circuit model of triggered lightning
based on a novel concept of electric cusp and
merging or reconnection appears to well describe main features of discharge phenomena
such as bipolar or multiple lightning flashes.
A study of transient phenomena based on a circuit model may provide more details such as current and voltage characteristics associated
with triggered lightning discharge.
Appendix
Magnetic cusp and merging or reconnection
Fig. 4 represents a model of solar flares
proposed by J.H. Piddington and illustrates a
role of magnetic cusp and merging or reconnection in solar flares. When magnetic field
lines in opposite directions approach each other, a magnetically neutral point, line or sheet
surrounded by low magnetic field should exist.
This region is called a magnetic cusp where the
magnetic pressure is so small that a plasma
flow is induced to balance the magnetic pressure outside the region. Magnetic energy can
be released and be converted into plasma kinetic energy by magnetic field line reconnection
across the cusp.
References
1. Fieux, R.P. et al., IEEE Trans. PAS-97, 725

(1978)
2. Goto, M. and Kikuchi, H., Bull. ETL, 2, 169
(1951)
3. Felsen, L.B. and Marcuvitz, N., Radiation and
Scattering of Waves (Prentice Hall, 1973)p.89
4. Brook, M. et al., Naval Res. Review, Apr.
(1970)
5. Horii, K., Mem. Faculty Eng., Nagoya Univ.
34, 77 (1982)
6. chang, J.-S., Proc. 6th Wroclaw EMC Symp.
(1982), p.467
7. Hamelin, J. et al., 1984 Wroclaw EMC Symp.
8. Piddington, J.H., Cosmic Electrodynamics
(Wiley, 1969)

51

lOc2

APPLICATIONS OF ARTIFICIALLYTRIGGERED LIGHTNING IN FRANCE:

POSSIBILITIESAND LIMITATIONS

The St,Privat d'Allier Research Group

ABSTRACT
Lightning was artificially triggered for the first ti?e above the ground in July 1973. The experiment was carried out
in the centre of France, at St PRIVAT D'ALLIER (Haute
Loire).
For the triggering of these first flashes we used a rocket
wire technique similar to that previously used by NEWMAN and
tested by him above the sea off the coast of Florida.
The advantages of triggering lightning lie in the possibility of knowing in advance the place and the time of
occurrence to within a few seconds accuracy for the latter.
The mastering of the technique of lightning triggering has
enabled us to make a significant contribution to knowledge
of thunderstorm discharges. Simultaneously the ressemblances
and the differences between natural and triggered lightning
have been estimated. The choosing of the lightning impact
point has the advantage of making field tests of electric or
electronic systems possible, either by striking them directly or by analyzing distant effects.
These experiments enable us to establish a connection
between the lightning currents measured directly (direct imfield
(distant
pacts) or the radiated electromagnetic
effects) and the consequences on the equipment order test.
Not with standing its great interest this technique is however limited by its dependance on the existence of suitable
atmospheric conditions and by the difficulty of conciliating
the triggering criteria with the erratic variations in the
electric field during active storms.
This paper describes the lightning triggering technique, the
criteria necessary for positive results, and tests which have already been carried out on various systems.
1. INTRODUCTION
In July 1973, lightning was triggered artificially for the
first time above ground at St PRIVAT D'ALLIER in France
/1,2/.
Artificial triggering using a rocket-wire technique was previously suggested and tested successfully by MN NEWMAN off
the coast of Florida /3,4/.
The triggered
advantages :

lightning

technique

offers

some

specific

the discharge is triggered within 2(-l, +3) seconds after

the rocket is fired. This enables us to activate most of the
experimental equipment during a specific period only.

- the location of the foot of the arc is generally well defined ; precise measurements of channel properties or electromagnetic radiation analysis can therefore be achieved
conveniently ; in particular the interaction between the
lightning flashes and any instrumented object can be studied
with the proper diagnostics.

Recognizing these advantages a number of laboratories in

Germany, Japan and USA have begun similar triggered lightning programmes.

In France, the site at St Privat d'Allier has become a station for the study of lightning bringing together many laboratory or university teams, called the St Privat d'Allier
research group /5/ (see list at the bottom of the page).
Since 1981 certain teams (CEA and ONERA) have participated
in experiments to characterize storm discharges in the Unlthere,was
responsability,
Their
principal
ted
States.
artificially triggering lightning discharges and appropriate
measurements 161.
In nearly
have been
study the
ning such

10 years of experiments about 200 lightning storms

triggered (see figure 1). They have enabled US to
various aspects of the physical nature of lightas :

a) lightning discharge channel properties : return-stroke

current intensity, return-stroke propagation velocity, light
emission, precursor phenomena associated with downward and
upward leaders. /7, 8, 9/

b) electrical field variations at ground and at an altitude

during lightning flashes ; with several measurements performed at different ground locations, amplitude and localization of neutralized charges have been analyzed and correlated with the instantaneous current collected at the impact
point ; in some cases these parameters were analyzed as a
function of local atmospheric properties such as precipitation densities and three dimensional wind fields in storm
celles. /lo, 11, 12/.
c) electromagnetic signals radiated from the different phases of the lightning arcs ; evolutions of the electromagnetic waveforms have been observed at different distances
from the ground impact ; spatial evolution of the VHF electromagnetic sources associated with the different phases of
a lightning discharge have been reconstructed and compared
to the propagation path of the main channel. /13, 14, 15,
16, 171.
We have also been able to study the effects of lightning on
systems.
We will refer to the latter in this paper after having shown
the similarities which exist between triggered and natural
lightning. As the success of triggering lightning depends on
mastery of the triggering technique, we will first of all
describe its development.
2. THE DEVELOPMENT OF TRIGGERING TECHNIQUES
2.1. Lightning triggering techniques
Different systems for triggering lightning flashes have been
used during successive campaigns between 1973 and 1983 ;
they are presented in figure 2. For all of them, rockets of
the anti-hail type (diameter 70 mm, length 847 mn, weight, at
launching 2.7 kg) have been used.

!LIEMBER LABORATIES
OF ST PRIVAT D'ALLIER RESEARCH
GROUP
: Electricitide France (EdF), Clamart, France. Commissariat i IEnergie Atomique
(C E A), CENS/DPhG,
Saclay, France ; CENG/ASP,
Grenoble, France ; B3/LDG,
Bruyke
Le Chatel
France.
Centre National
d'Etudes des TtXcommunications (CNET) Lannion, France. Office National
dEtudes et de Recherche:
A&ospatiales (ONERA), Chatillon,France. Institutet Observatoire de Physique du Globe (IOPC), Clermont Fd, France. Laboratoire
de Physique de IAtmosphkre
(LPA), Toulouse, France. Ecole Polytechnique
FCdCrale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland.
MAILING
ADRESS OF THE GROUP : CNET - LAB/MER
- B.P. 40 - 22301 LANNION
CEDEX - FRANCE

ANNUAL

DISTRIBUTION

AT

NUMBER

FLASHES

OF

FIRINGS

STORMS,

DALLIER

( F)

AND

, LANGMUIR

LIGHTNING

LAB

i N M ) ,

FLASHES

TRIGGERED

MELBOURNE

FIRINGS

OF TRltCjERED
ACCORDING

L
-SPRIVAT
D : PERSISTANT
C : LIGHTNING
A : ANORMAL

( FL)

OF FIRING5

OF CORRECT

NUMBER

StPRIVAT

52

CURRENT
FLASHES
LIGHTING

DALL1ER.F.

(r630chys)

-NM.FL(73days)

DISCHARGES
CONTAINED
FLASHES

Figure:l.TRIGGERED

ONE
AND

SEVERAL

PULSES

TIPSY

LIGHTNING

FLASHES

a) Classic triggering device

In this case, (fig. 2a) lightning strokes are triggered by
the firing of a rocket fitted with a conducting wire, the
end of which is connected directly to a coaxial shunt used
for the current measurement. This type of device has been
employed successfully at St Privat d'Allier and at the
Langmuir Laboratory, from 1973 to 1982 /l, 6/.
The steel wire, 0.2 mm in diameter, is fed out from a spool,
which limits_lthe maximum speed of the rocket to approximately 180 ms . Several firing pads are arranged around a
single impact point at ground level ; in our tests, 6, 9 or
12 launchers were used. These figures represent the number
of flashes which we could hope to trigger during the same
storm.
The lightning flash is due to the production of an upward
leader generated at the tip of the wire by a very intense
electric field. A leader current of about 40 A is sufficient
to melt the wire. The conducting plasma produced in this way
carries the current to the measuring equipment located at
the bottom end of the wire where the fast and slow processes
of the lightning current can be recorded.
b) Device for triggering at altitude
In order to observe the lightning properties of a downward
leader or to simulate a flying object struck by lightning,
the triggering technique has to be modified (Fig. 2b). The
principle of this device is to unwind a conducting wire, not
connected electrically to the ground or to the lightning
strike object. The flash travels freely from the lower end
of the conducting wire up to the ground over a chosen distance between 50 and 200 m. This new technique (called
Tipsy) was first successfully employed in 1980 at St Privat
d'Allier and in 1981 at the Langmuir Laboratory. With this
method, measurements on close downward leaders near the
ground are made possible. The current does not flow through
the shunt, but its maximum amplitude and waveform can be
measured with magnetic sensors situated near the lightning
channel.
c) New Triggering device (LRS Patented)
In order to increase the reliability of the system and to
reduce the cost of the equipment, a new technique has been
developed and used successfully in Florida in 1983 and
1984.
The wire is connected electrically to the
spool is directly fitted to the rocket.

ground but the

In this case spool design is simpler and the nozzle at the

wire exit point is not necessary. A 0.2 mm diameter, kevlar
coated, copper wire is used, and the total weight of the
equipped rocket is about 2500 grams.In the first two triggering techniques, the top of the rocket is filled with nitrate explosive so that it is destroyed at the end of its

BETWEEN

1973

AND1983

flight. With the new technique it may be possible, because

of the better control of the flight path, to equip the
rocket with a parachute which would be ejected at the end of
its ascent.
The advantages of the new system are numerous

- mounting is simplified (the system of attachement to the

wire spool is unnecessary)
- the flight path is more nearly vertical (in the old system, the wire exerted a sideways force on the rocket)
- the firing ramp is simpler (guiding pipe)
- the wire, whose length is limited to 700 m, separates from
the rocket at the end of the flight path, if a discharge has
not been triggered, and then falls close to the lauching
equipment
- the rocket has increased speed.
2.2. Criteria necessary for Triggering
The principal criterion for triggering is the value of the
electric field measured on the ground. Experiments have
shown that for sites at altitude (St Privat d'Allier 1130 m
ASL, Langmuir Laboratory N.M 3200 m ASL) a value of 9-10
KV/m is necessary in order to trigger a lightning stroke
with a 70 to 80 % chance of success. In Florida, however,
this value need only be 6 KV/m.
Another criterion
more subjective
is storm activity. A
certain "finesse" 7s necessary to tr;gger a lightning stroke
when electric field fluctuations are frequent (9 to 10
lightning flashes per minute for example). We can roughly
schematize the evolution of the electric field during a
storm as a function of time, and indicate the phases favourable to triggering,
Durations of phases 1, 2, 3 are of course extremely variable. For example, for a single cell, the following figures
are representative :

phase 1, several minutes

- phase 2, from several tens of minutes to several hours

- phase 3, from several tens of minutes to one hour
This simplified representation, however, is rarely found in
practice.
It is generally complicated by the interference of several
cells which develop separately.
Finally, the decision to launch a rocket must take into consideration the demands of the different experiments to be
carried out (switching on of cameras, magnetic recorders

53

lOc2
ROCKET
wz!25oog
v N 220 m/sI--+

Covered
cotton
steel wire
0

0,2mm

R,8n/m

covered kevlar
copper wire

covered kevlor
:opperwire

P(-;0,12mm

0=0,2mm

R,l,Sfl/m

R=O,SSfi/m

Figure2: EVOLUTION

OF THE

TRIGGEREDLIGHTNINGMETHODS

J
,d

a) CLASSIC TRIGGERING

DEVICE

b)

TRIGGERING
IN ALTITUDE

DEVICE

( TIPSY)

etc). These demands mean that the launch must announced

several seconds before the actual the firing of a rocket
(from a minimum of 2 seconds to between 7 and 10 seconds
when it is necessary to wait for rapid cameras and magnetic
recorders to reach their proper functioning speed). The
prolongation of this period leads to an increase in the
probability of occurrence of a close natural lightning.
Despite these demands, the success rate is nearly 70 % for
ten years of experiments (172 lightning strokes for 252
successful firings).
3. COMPARISON OF NATURAL AND TRIGGERED LIGHTNING
A comparison of natural and triggered lightning must take
into consideration the great diversity of types in each category. For simplicity we will only examine the most frequent case in which negative charges are drained from the
cloud to ground.
Triggered lightning is always of the ascendant type, as it
is started by a positive upward leader which emerges from
the upper extremity of the metallic wire where the intensification effect of the electric field is at a maximum.
During its progression, this leader develops upwardly, directed branches which, when viewed distantly, have the characteristic appearance of upward lightning strokes.
In a "classic" triggered event, the progression of the
leader is accompanied by a continuous current which continues after the fusion of the wire with an intensity of several hundred amperes, This current transfers important quantities of charge ; sometimes more than a hundred coulombs.
Occasionally, the event ends with the extinction of the
continuous current in which case we call this a "slow
discharge". In more than 50 % of cases, however, the slow
discharge is followed by the appearance of one or several
discrete impulses which obey the same "dart leader-return
stroke" mechanism found in the subsequent impulses of
natural lightning.
The risetimes of these impulses are often very rapid (durations less than a microsecond) and peak intensities can
reach several tens of kiloamperes.
In "abnormal" triggering, the continuous current ceases
abruptly when it reaches an intensity of about 40 amperes as
the fusion of the wire acts as a short circuit fuse. The
charge transfer, at this point, is only about 0.5 coulombs,
but this is enough to create instability in the cloud which
causes, a few tens of milliseconds later, the appearance of
a downward leader. The latter follows the upper part of the
initial channel but towards the botton it avoids the part
contaminated by the wire residues and propagates in virgin
air in the same way as the stepped leader which marks the
beginning of a natural lightning stroke. When the leader

c) NEW

TRIGGERING DEVICE

arrives at the ground it initiates the "return stroke". The

first stroke is always followed by a period of continuous
current interspersed with numerous impulses. With the exception of "slow' discharges, triggered lightning strokes are
always of the "hybrid", type ; in a total of 142 examples
observed, we noted only one which did not have a period of
continuous current.
Figure 3 gives examples of the current variations for a
classic triggered lightning stroke (3a), an abnormal triggered lightning (3b) and the "slow discharge" triggered lightning (3cI. These recordings were made with an instrument
whose bandwidth was inadequate to accurately reproduce the
impulses. The latter have been sketched above curves 3a and
3b as vertical lines showing the time of occurence and the
maximum amplitude.
On a quantitative level, figure 4 compares,. in a simplified
way, certain parameters which characterize natural and
triggered lightning.
It appears that the peak intensity and the total charge
transfer are far greater in triggered lightning, than in upward natural lightning strokes. If a comparison is made with
downward natural lightning strokes, we find that peak intensity is larger and the displaced charge smaller in natural
lightning. Figure 5 gives a simplified comparison of the
PrOpertieS
of the impulses. Mean values are shown. The first
two references concern lightning triggered in France /5/ (St
Privat d'Allier) and in NEW MEXICO /6/ (LANGMUIR Laboratory)
whereas the latter two concern observations of natural
lightning made in Switzerland /19/ and Italy /20/ respectively. We find that if all impulses greater than 3kA are taken into consideration, triggered lightning strokes are characterized by a great number of small impulses, whereas if
only the impulses with an amplitude greater than 1OkA are considered, the number of impulses per lightning stroke and
charge per impulse, are very close in both cases.
With the exception of measurements made at St Privat
d'Allier, where a rapid 100 ns/div oscilloscope was used,
values given for the rise times of subsequent impulses
mUSt
be considered as upper limits, because recordings were made
either
with oscilloscopes with lOfls/division sweep speeds
or with magnetic recorders with 1 MHz bandwidths. It
appears, nevertheless, that all observations are zOt%iStent
in
indicating a rise time of less than or equal to I )~s.
This consistency is equally remarkable for the subsequent
impulse pulse widths at half maximum.
We can therefore conclude that triggered lightning strokes
are an excellent means of reproducing the subsequent strokes
of natural lightning.

Iw
20 f

EVENT

54

8129

0.6

EVENT

8140

I,,,-

Figure

3 :EXAMPLES

OFFELECTRIC

DURING

A TRIGGERED

EVENT:

(d)ANOMALOUS.THE
INDICATE
MAIN

THE

VERTICAL
POSITION

AND

CURRENT

VARIATION

(a)CLASSICAL,(c)SLOW.
THE

BARS

ABOVE

PEAK

A.SPRIVAT
8
LANGMUIR
LABORATORY
C _ SAN SALVATORE
DOWNWARD
LIGHTNING
Cl-IS
RELATED
TO FIRJT
STROKE
AND
C2_TO
SUBSEQUENT.
STROKES
D _ SAN SALVATORE
UPWARD
LIGHTNING

THECURVES

INTENSITY

OF THE

PULSES

Figure 4 : MAXIMUM
INTENSITY,TOTAL
CHARGE,
AND OVERALL
DURATION VALUES
EXCEEDED
WITH 90,50,AND
10 PER CENT PROBABILITY
RESPECTIVELY

I
BERGER

Figuw5:

IO
3

10
2

1.6

6.6

COMPARISON

OF THE

PARAMETERS

MEASURED

0.6

0.95
0.35

14

0.5

4.5

0.95

4.5

1.5

MEDIAN
BY

VALUE

OF

DIFFERENT

35

35

0.6

75

32

50

30

LIGHTNING
AUTHORS

4. THE POSSI6ILITIES AND LIMITATIONS OF THE TECHNIQUE

The principal interest of the triggered wire technique iS
that
the
impact point of the lightning stroke may be fixed.
This is because the latter coincides with the attachment
point of the wire which is either directly on the ground, or
on some structure, placed on the ground. We c~ot;;e;ef;;;
bring together many different instruments,
measu- rement of currents passing through the lightning
channel, and make detailed cinematography.
The second advantage of this technique is that the moment of
triggering is known to within a second's accuracy. This permits precise control of acqulsltion times and the use of
measurement apparatus with fast time resolution.
During various field experiments carried out between 1973
and 1983 at St Privat d'Allier, numerous measurement instruments were installed to characterize the physical parameters
of discharges. This equipment is essential for an understanding of discharge processes but it also enables us to correlate the physical parameters of each lightning stroke with
the signals measured on test systems (electronic equipment,
cables, etc .. .1.

S' PRIVAT
D'ALL'ER

(FRANCE)
I<ERAUNIC LEVEL
THE SUMMER

DAILY DURING
MONTHS

0,172

LL2,G_l$jI$
I
MELBOURN E
(FL1

Nb

EXPERIMENT

YEARS

Nb

EXPERIMENT

DAYS

630

73

N b

DAY5

WITH

ESTIMATED

KERAUNIC

ACTUAL

N b

OF

STATIONS

ACTUAL

STORMS

STORMS

which provokes a connecting leader and thereby determines

the striking distance, we are not able to study the various
phenomena with which "electro geometric models" are concerned.
In paragraph 5.2.4 we describe how we can compensate for the
absence of a first stroke in classic triggering.

5. APPLICATIONS EXAMPLES
5.1.

Study of the
Discharges

TRlGqpRED

LIGHTNING

TRIGGERED

LIGHTNING BY DAY

TRIGGERED

LIGHTNING

BY ACTUAL

STORMS

Figure

DAY

: WILY

LIGHTNING

PROBABILITIES
IN FRANCE
AND

48

27

0,08

0,37

74

90

I11
0,16

III
57

FOR TRIGGERED
IN THE USA

The principal draw-back of the triggering technique is the

number of lightning triggerings which are possible. The
latter depends, of course, on the Keraunic level of the area
where the experiment station is situated and will determine
the number of active storms during field experiments
(figure 6).
Therefore, at St Privat d'Allier where the Keraunic level is
35 (yearly) but 21 for the Imonths of June, July, August and
September, there is, on average, one active storm for every
12 days of experiments. In New Mexico, however, or in
Florida where the annual Keraunic levels are 60 and 90 respectively, one can expect on average one active storm per 3
days of experiments. This means an average of one triggered
lightning per day in the United States to one every 6.25
days of experiments in France. (1) the last figure, however,
includes a period of ten years experiments in France where
the technique has undergone set-backs due to the up-dating
of existing equipment. With the present technique, today's
figures would give an average of one lightning stroke per 4
days of field experiments.

Characteristics

of

Storm

Before listing the various technological applications of artificial triggering, we nest emphasize the essential contribution of this procedure to research into the physical properties of lightning.
The considerable increase in probability of impact of a discharge in a chosen place (for a surface of 100 m x 1OU m.at
St privat d'Allier, the probability of impact is rmltlplled
by a factor of about 500) and knowledge of impact time,
have. as we have shown enabled us to use analysis materials
with'fast time resolution.
Similarly, knowledge of numerous electrical or Optical
parameters recorded during the same lightning stroke enables us
to systematically investigate correlations between the.parameters measured. This is the first stage in the creation of
physically realistic models. Models of electromagnetic radiation have thus been developed /21/ and dCCurate
m%wJwJJents of leader or return stroke propagation speeds have been
obtained /8/.

These applications concern essentially the study of the

effects that lightning can produce on the most varied types
of material and installations. We can place these effects in
four main categories.
5.2.1.

BY

Physical

108

LEVEL

AT THE

The other drawback of the triggered lightning technique is

associated with the fact that triggered strokes are of the
upward type. In the absence of the first downward leader

5.2. Technological Applications

STORMS

FROM

lOc2

55

Although these figures might appear to be relatively

insignificant, they are well above what we could expect if we
waited for natural lightning.

The effects
structure

of

lightning

currents

on

To test a certain structure, we must place it in the path of

the lightning current which means, in practice, between. a
grounding rod and the attachment point of the wire carned
by the rocket.
This technique has been used in the study of the properties
of an electric pylon /5, 22/ and its grounding rod in order
to determine the voltage rise at the top of the pylon. We
must recall that this phenomenon is at the origin of line
defects when struck by lightning. The systematic study of
grounding rods of various configurations has therefore been
carried out, giving accurate information about the relatlonship between their configuration and dynamic impedance.
Similarly it is possible to study by the same method the behaviour of any protective housing containing sensitive material.
An experiment of this type has been carried out by the U.S.
Air Force in conjunction with French teams in the United
States. The experiment involved placing a cylinder representing an airplane fuselage in the path of a triggered
lightning stroke /6/. The measurement of current passing
through the outer rim of this cylinder and the resulting
fields inside the cylinder, enable us to define the impulse
transfer impedance resulting from a lightning stroke.
Similarly the behaviour of transmission meterial whose
connection cables were in contact with, or in close proximity to, the lightning stroke, has been analysed. In this case, galvanic insulation existing between the cable and electrical system was tested.
5.2.2. Perturbations
gnetic fields

caused by Discharge Electroma-

It has been possible, by placing sections of medium and low

voltage electric power distribution lines or telecommunication lines (either buried or above ground), in the vicinity of the lightning triggering point, to systematically
study the overvoltages which are induced by a triggered
stroke.

56

In all cases,
there was an idealized wire, i.e. rectilinear
and terminated in their characteristic impedances. In addition to statistics of recorded values of perturbations, knowledge of both the parameters of the lightning current and
the electromagnetic fields, has enabled us to verify theoretical couplage models /5, 13, 23, 24/.

A second aspect is the study of the effects of radiated

fields on single systems or systems linked to cables, the
latter however being placed in configurations as close as
possible to reality. The systmes analysed in this way included detonators for explosives, security equipment for
nuclear power plants, fiber optical and 2 Mbits/s Telecommunications systems.
5.2.3 Characterization of the Electromagnetic
Ifnvironment
Many measurments made between D.C. and one gigahertz using
electric and magnetic field sensors with narrow and wide
as well as interferometers, permit a better
bandwidths
understanding of the phenomena, but have also helped define
the thunderstorm environment which may disturb sensitive
equipment 113, 14/.
These two motivations are present in all of our work on the
characterization of the EM radiation produced by lightning
discharges. This work covers the entire range of frequencies,
where processes other than the most energetic return strokes
may be important. 1251
5.2.4. --~Lightning Rod
-___Tests
With the discovery of abnormal triggered lightning strokes
we are able to forsee how they might be used in an assessment of the "attractive power" of lightning rods, whether
simple Franklin rods or more elaborate devices. In fact it
is a simple question of placing the test object on the
ground near the rocket launching pads, and then observing
whether or not the first lightning stroke of abnormal, triggered lightning moves preferentially towards one or the
other objects.
The tneasurement of the characteristics of the first impulse
enables us to make a comparison with what is predicted in
"electrogeometric theory' or any other theory on the
subject. Attempts of this nature were tnade at St Privat
d'Allier between 1974 an 1978 using the 25 m metallic pylon,
then in 1980 and 1983 with special rods at LUGOS /26/ and in
1982 at the Langmuir Laboratory to test CB MOORE's theory
1271, that is, whether a rod with a rounded tip has a
greater power of attraction than that of a rod with a
pointed tip.
As shown previously /G/ and in figure 5, these tests have
produced results of little importance since the first stroke
of abnormal lightning generally contains a weaker charge
than that of natural lightning, meaning a fairly small
radius of attraction for the rods studied. According to
GOLOE /28/ this radius would only be 25 m for a charge OF
0.8 C which is shown in figure 5.
The new wire launching technique described in paragraph
2.1.3. greatly facilitates experiments of this type and
should therefore enable them to be put into general use.
The first tests using this method have shown that triggering
efficiency decreases with an increasing length of insulating
wire. A reasonable compromise could nonetheless be found,
given that a first impulse of 19 kA peak intensity was observed with an insulating length of 200 m.

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
C. Gary, P. Hubert, ArtificiallyTriggered
Lightning above Land Nature, 257, 212, 1975

/l/ R. Fieux,

/2/ Fieux R. et al, "Research on artificially

France, IEEE Transac on PAS, 97, 725-733,
131 Newman, M. M., Problems of atmospheric
Elsevier, 482-490, 1965.

lightning

in

and space electricity,

/4/ Newman, M. M., Triggered lightning strokes

J. Geophys. Res., 72, 4261-4764, 1967.

at very close

range,

151

Saint-Privat
d'Allier
Research Group, "Eight years of lightning
experiments at Saint-Privat d'Allier, RGE N"9, 561-582,1982

I61

P. Hubert,

I71

P. Hubert, R. Fieux, Mesure des courants

de St-Privat d'Allier, Revue Gen. Elec.,

/a/

P. Hubert, G. Mouget, Return stroke velocity

two triggered lightning flashes, J.G.R.,
86,

191

V.P. Idone, R.E. Orville, P. Hubert, L. Barret, A. Eybert-Berard,

Correlated observations of three triggered lightning flashes,
J.G.R.
vol. 89 O-l, 1385-1394, 1984

P. Laroche,

A. Eybert-Eerard,
L. Barret, Triggered
vol. 89 D-2, 2511-2521,

lightning in New Mexico, J.G.R.,

avril 1984.

de foudre I la station
5, 344-349, 1981
measurements in
5253-5261,
1981

/lo/ Walteufel, P., P. Metzger, J. L. Baulay, P. Laroche,

and P. Hubert, Triggered lightning strokes originating
clear air, J.G.R., 85(5), 2861-2868, 1980.

in

/ll/ S. Chauzy, P. Raizonville

- Space charge layers created by
coronae at ground level below thunderclouds
measurelnent and
modeling. J.G.R., 87, 3143-3148, 1982
/12/ P. Laroche, P. Metzger, J. Testud, S. Chauzy, Electric field
variations produced by natural and triggered lightning and
related radar measurements,
Proceeding in Atmospheric Electricity, Deepak Pub., 233-236, 1983.

/13/J.
Hamelin, B. Djebari, J. Fontaine, R. Barreau, Electromagnetic field resulting from a lightning discharge, surges
induced on over-head lines, mathematical model,
EMC ROTTERDAM, Mai 1979.
/14/ C. Leteinturier, J. Hamelin, Analyse experimentale des caracteristiques Clectromagnetiques
de d&charges orageuses dans la
bande 200 Hz - 20 MHz, Annales des Telecommunications,
mai/juin 1984.
/15/ C. Leteinturier, C. Weidman, J. Hamelin, M. Le Boulch,
The phenomenology
of natural and triggered thunderstorm
discharges, VIIth International Conference on Atmospheric
Electricity - Albany, Juin 1984.

/16/

M. Le Boulch! C. Weidman, J. Hamelin, C. Leteinturier,

Characteristics
and mechanisms of VHF/UHF radiation from
lightning processes, VIIth International Conference on Atmospheric Electricity - Albany, juin 1984.

I171

Richard, P., G. Auffray, VHF-UHF interferometric

imagery.
Application to lightning, Radio-Science
(to be published).

/IS/

P. Hubert, Proposition d'experiences

sur des eclairs
chEs d'un nouveau type, Note DPH-EP-79-487,
novembre

I191

Berger, K., Il. B. Anderson,

lightning flashes, Electra,

/20/

Garbagnati,
Elektrotech.

/21/

B. Djebari, J. Hamelin, C. Leteinturier, J. Fontaine, Comparison between experimental measurements

of the electromagnetic
field emitted by lightning and different theoretical models influence of the Upward velocity of the return stroke, EMC,
Zurich, mars 1981.

I221

Fieux, R., et al., "Measurements of impulse response of groundings to lightning currents", 15th European conference on
lightning protection Uppsala K4-40-55, 1979.

1231

Johannet, P., Bouake, T., "Phenomenes d'induction sur les

liqnes creees par la foudre, Etude theorique, exploitation
r&ultats
d'essais", EDF - Note HM 71-04610, 1981.

6. CONCLUSION
In this paper we have tried to describe the possibilities
offered by a mastery of the triggered lightning technique
and the information we could expect to gain from it, taking
the results of I2 years of experiments into consideration.

triggered
1978

and H. KrDninger,
41, 23-37, 1975.

E.,

and G. B. Lo Piparo,
Z., 103, 61-65, 1982.

Parameter

declen1979.

Parameters

of

von Blitzstrbmen,

de

technique, however is far from being complete, despite triggering developments. The artificial triggering of lightning depends still on uncontrollable meteorooperator
considerable
requires
and
conditions
logical
skill.

I241

A. Caron, 0. Djebari, A. Zeddam, Ph. Blech, Y. Dijamatovic,

M. Ianovici, Validation of EMP calculation methods using the
response of an aerial cable to a lightning stroke, EMC Zurich,
L.8, 1985.

If triggered lightning is of importance for a knowledge of

the physical processes
of storm
discharges
and their
action

I251

C.,Weidman, J. Ijamelin, M. La Doulch,

;;;;slon mechanisms and phenomenology

l26l

P. Hubert,
1979.

/27/

C.

1201

&o;le,

Mastery

on

of

the

system

that

(as

the

we

information

should

not

effects

produced.

ficance,
development
therefore

have

be

Although,
are

and

being

verification

general

to

gained

restricted

efforts
more

tried

indicate),
from

to

tests

direct

this

type

applications.

and

must

emphasis

of

more

result
above
global

Rediation characteristics,
of lightning, EMC, F.3,

measurements

observation

concentrated,
of

we

of

is

of

all,

the

signion

models

the
and

Paratonnerre

0. Moore, J. Franklin

autostimule,

inst., Vol.

R. Ii. (Cd.), Lightning,

Vol.

Note DPH-EP

- 79-114,

315, 61-85,

1983.

2, 556, Academic,

New York,

57

I-k3

NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF THE LIGHTNING-CN TOWER INTERACTION

Andrew S. Podgorski
Division of Electrical Engineering
National Research Council Canada
Ottawa, Ontario KlA OR8
Canada

A frequency domain computer code, based

numerical
solutions
of
on
the general
Maxwell's equations, is used for time domain
modelling of the interaction between lightning
and the CN Tower.
The modelling approach
implemented in this study can easily be used
fo; predicting EMP and HMI induced -by lightning in other free-standing structures.
Introduction
The 553 m CN Tower in Toronto. Canada
(Fig. 1) is the tallest free-standing structure in the world, therefore offering a unique
opportunity for measuring lightning induced
EMP.
Since 1976, measurements of lightning
currents have been made on the CN Tower under
the auspices of the CN Tower Lightning Studies
Steering Committee [I], and during the next
few years an expansion of these measurements
can be expected.
The free-standing character and dominating height OF the structure, combined with the
proposed expansion of measurements, qualify

c--

HEIGHT 553111

c--

CURRENT MEASURING
COIL 473m

__

SHUNT

385m

Jeremy A. Landt
Alamos National Laboratory
LOS ALAMOS, New Mexico 87545
U.S.A.

LOS

the CN Tower as an excellent subject for

advanced theoretical studies of lightningstructure interaction.
Recent measurements of lightning currents
conducted by many researchers have suggested
the existence of risetimes as short as 100 ns
For tall
in lightning-induced EMP [3,4].
towers, such risetimes violate the quasistatic EM field conditions imposed by transmission line (TEM) models which have been
extensively used for tower modelling [2].
For the purposes
of this study, an
assumption was made that the wavelength of
spectral components of the fastest risetimes
generated by lightning may be shorter than the
height of the tower being modelled.
This
assumption led to the implementation, for the
first time, of a frequency domain computer
code based on numerical solutions of the
general Maxwell equations, for time domain
modelling of the lightning-CN Tower interaction.
The ability of frequency domain computer
codes to accept ground and metal losses, and
tower footing resistances, resulted in a model
that realistfcally predicts the details of
lightning waveforms and the fastest risetime
which can propagate along the tower.
The
relationship between lightning and tower currents, and the apparent tower wave impedances
are also predicted.
A range of results was
obtained when soil (ground) conditions and
tower footing resistances were modified in
order
to analyze
their effects
on the
lightning-Tower interaction.
Modelling of the CN Tower
Numerous 3-D comuuter codes. based on
numerical solutions of Maxwell's e uations,
have recently been made available [54 . These
codes are based on the spectral structure and
field distribution, and operate in the time or
frequency domain.
The existence of the highly nonlinear
lightning
channel
in the model
of the
lightning-tower interaction indicates that the
time domain approach may be the best alternative. At present however, there is a lack of
commercially available, versatile, time domain
codes that accept ground losses and nonlinear
network elements.
In order to assess the
effects of ground losses on the lightningstructure interaction, a frequency domain code
had to be employed.
a

MODEL

REALSTRUCTURE

:
THE C.N. TOWER, TORONTO, CANADA

Fig. 1:

The CN Tower, Toronto, Canada and its

proposed model.

- 58 -

The most advanced and user-oriented frequency domain code was developed at Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory for modelling
This code, called
antennas and scatterers.
the Numerical Electromagnetic Code (NEC), has
During the
been implemented in this work.
implementation of this code for the modelling
of
HV systems, it was shown [6] that the
code's segment length rule defined as
10_3h < R ( .lh

(1)

results in a height-to-wavelength ratio for a

single NEC model given by
,025 < 3 < 2.5.

(2)

This rule, implemented in the modelling of the

553 m high CN Tower, resulted in a single 3-D
model operating in the frequency range between
Since the low frequency
20 kHz and 2 MHz.
limit of the 3-D model prevents restoring
frequency components below 20 kHz, a second
model based on the TEM mode transmission line
Both the 3-D and TEM mode models
was added.
were used to generate the transfer functton
(amplitude and phase) between the lightni.ng
current at the top of the Tower (553 m) and
the currents generated at two other positions
on the Tower. These two positions were chosen
to coincide with the exact location of the
measuring devices at present installed on the
Tower.
One of them is at a height of 473 m
where a 6 m diameter Rogowski measuring coil
is situated, while the other is at a height of
365 m where a structure current shunt is
located.
Separate amplitude and phase transfer
functions were generated by combining the two
models together using approximately 10 values
of the TEM model and 30 values of the 3-D
model. After interpolation and extrapolation,
256 values of the complex transfer function,
were generated and convoluted with the Fourier
transformed lightning input impulse.
The
results of the convolution operation, when
inversely Fourier transformed, resulted in a
time domain representation of the current at a
specific measuring point on the Tower (473 m
or 365 m). A typical lightning current calculated at 473 m is presented in Figures 2 and
3.
Risetime Prediction
Much uncertainty exists regardtng the
fastest risetime found by different researchers in measuring initial return lightning
strokes.
Our intention was to analyze the
different conditions which may affect the
risetimes of impulses generated by lightning
at the CN Tower. One of these conditions, the
lightning attachment process, plays a very
important role in the effective elongation of
the Tower.
In this analysis we assumed that
the lightning attachment occurs at the top of
the Tower. This completely arbitrary assumption should result in generating the fastest
risetime possible.
Analysis of time domain
currents, generated for different ground conditions, resulted in the graph presented in
Fig. 4. This figure shows that the dispersion
taking place during the travel of the lightning impulse along the Tower is responsible
for modifying
the risetime.
Wet
soil

TIME (/JLS)

!i5

30.0 325

35.0 37.5 40.0 42.5 45.0 4

TIME (ps 1

Fig. 2:

Lightning impulse generated in a 3-D

model
for wet soil
(Ed = 15,
6 = .03). The current is calculated
at the Tower position corresponding
to the current measuring coil at
473 m.
The calculated current is
normalized to the maximum current
value of the triangular lightning
impulse at the top of the Tower a) the whole impulse, b) the expanded
front of the impulse.

59

Ilcs

= 15, 6 = .03) results in a risetime

(E
mo dification similar to that introduced by a
perfect ground. However for dry soil (Ed = 5,
6 = .OOl), the resultant risetime modification
Fig. 4
is twice as severe as for wet soil.
illustrates that a lightning impulse entering
at the top of the Tower (553 m) with a risetime of 100 ns will have a modified risetime
of 360 ns measured at a height of 473 m. The
same lightning transient will reach the bottom
of the Tower with a risetime of 800 ns. Since
the risetime of radiated fields is proportional to the risetime of lightning currents
generated along the Tower, it is obvious that
Fig. 4 could be used for estimating the risetimes of radiated fields.

2\
\

,
2,
IO

20

40

60

60

100

120

TIME(/.as)

k
9
O27.5

30.0 32.5

35.0

b
IO'

I02
LENQTH

Fig. 4:

37.6 40.0

425

45.0

'

TIME (/L s 1
Lightning impulse generated in a 3-D
model
for
dry
soil
(E
= 5,
6 = .OOl). The current is cafeulated
at the Tower position corresponding
to the current measuring coil at
473 m.
The calculated current is
normalized to the maximum current
value of the triangular lightning
impulse at the top of the Tower a) the whole impulse, b) the expanded
front of the impulse.

IOJ
OF TRAVEL

I04

(ml

Risetime introduced by the Tower as a

function of the lightning impulse
The
travel length along the Tower.
results are calculated for different
soil (ground) conditions.

Tower Wave Impedances and Velocity of

Propagation
The electromagnetic (EM) field components
along the Tower surface were calculated using
frequency domain analysis. A current source,
located at different heights above the Tower,
was used to excite EM fields which facilitated
A
the prediction of the wave impedance.
knowledge of the standing wave impedances
along the Tower made the prediction of the
Tower wave impedance, the velocity of propagation, and an apparent footing impedance of the
Tower possible.
The wave impedance of the Tower for two
soil conditions is presented in Fig. 5.
As
illustrated, this impedance is approximately
equal to the free space wave impedance.
The Tower's apparent footing impedance,
for both dry and wet soil, is presented in
Fig. 6. It should be noted that this apparent
footing impedance is not the same as the footdefined by the "currenting resistance
It does however correspond to the
method.
effect seen by the EM wave propagating along
the Tower and being reflected at the ground.
For a short initial time, such a Tower footing

60

*lo
3.0
-ii
$
c
2.0

B
5

I.0

100

200

300

400

500

600

HEIGHT (m)

Fig. 7:
FREQUENCY

Fig. 5:

( ktiz)

CN Tower wave impedance as a function

of frequency for different soil conditions.

* r

The velocity of propagation of the Em

wave travelling along the surface of
the CN Tower.

Conclusions
The study which implemented a 3-D frequency domain model for analyzing lightningstructure interaction resulted in a realistic
model of the electrical properties of lightning and can be used to define the methods of
needed to confirm theoretical
measurement
predlctlons. A further expansion of the model
into the time domain has been initiated. This
new model Will
incorporate the nonlinear
behaviour of the lightning transition, and
should create a basis for further understanding the properties of lightning.
References

Cl1 T.R.
40
\
t

/WET

SOIL

121
FREOUENCY

Fig. 6:

(kHz)

The apparent footing impedance of the

CN Tower as a function of frequency
for different soil conditions.

correct,
and
representation
is
impedance
results in the prediction of a ground end
reflection coefficient for the high frequency
components of the transients.
For dry soil
conditions, the real components of this apparent footing impedance are approximately three
times larger than the corresponding "current"
footing resistance. For wet soil conditions,
the difference is more pronounced.
Fig. 7 shows the velocity of propagation
of the EM wave travelling near the surface of
the Tower.
The average velocity of propagation is in the order of 2.8 x lo* m/s. Two
regions of wave slowdown are visible; one at
approximately 350 m corresponding to the
the
increase of the Tower diameter, with
second occuring at a height of 200 m.
At
is not understood why the wave
present, it
slows down at the second position.

bl
@I

II51

b1

McComb, E.A. Cherney, H. Linck, and

w.
"The
preliminary
Janischewskyj,
measurements of lightning flashes to the
CN Tower in Toronto," can. Elec. Eng.
J*, Vol. 5, No. 4, 1980.
W.A.
Chisholm,
Y.L.
Chow
and
K.D.
Srivastasa,
"Lightntng
surge
response of transmissi.on towers," IEEE
Trans. on Power Apparatus and Systems,
Vol. PAS-102, No. 9, pp. 3232-3242,
September 1983.
K.
Berger,
R.B.
Anderson
and
H. Kroninger, "Parameters of lightning
flashes," Electra, Vol. 80, pp. 23-37,
1975.
M.A. Uman and E.P. Krider, "A review of
natural lightning: experimental data and
modelling," IEEE Trans. on Electromagnetic Compatibility, Vol. EMC-24, No. 2,
pp. 79-104, May 1982.
B,J. Strait, "Available
computer programs
based on the method of moments," Proceedings 4th Symposium on Electromagnetic
Compatibility,
Zurich,
pp. 471-476,
March 10-12, 1981.
A.S. Podgorski, "Three dimensional modelline of HV systems," IEEE Trans. Power
App. and Systems, Vol. PAS-103, No. 10,
pp. 2899-2903, October 1984.

-if&x

- 61 -

ELECTRCMAGWETIC

FIELDS

ON THE GROUND
WITH

T.Takeuti,
Research

ROCKETS

DUE TO LIGHTNING

of Atmospherics,
Toyokawa,

We measured electromagnetic
fields
on the yround due to lightning flashes
triggered with a tall chimney, the
height of which is 200 m, and those
triggered with wired rockets. Some
characteristics
on the field due to the
triygered lightning flashes are similar
to those due to the natural flashes but
some other characteristics
are very
different to the natural flashes. The
characteristics
of fields are generally
not same between the flash trigqered
with the chimney and that triggered
with the wired rocket.

The triggered liqhtninq flash is

initiated by the upward streamer which
originates at an elevated sharp point
on the ground. The necessary condition
for the development of the upward
streamer is the strong electric field
around the streamer by a charqed cloud
over there. The height of the cloud,
accordingly also the heiqht of the
charge in the cloud, is lower in winter
than the height in summer, so that the
electric field on the ground in winter
is in general stronger than that in
summer. Therefore, the winter is more
preferable season for the development
of the upward streamer, in other word
preferable season for occurrence of the
triggered lightning flash. By reason of
this, we observed the triggered
lightning flashes durinq winter at
Hokuriku, coast of the Japan sea, where
is one of the most active thunderstorm
region durins winter in the world. We
observed two types of the trigqered
llqhtninq flashes, those triggered with
a tall chimney, the heiqht of which is
200m, and those triggered with wired
rockets.
lightning flashes with
tall chimney

and N.Takagi

Nagoya

University

Japan

flashes. We observed the lightning

flashes at a observation site about
1 km from the chimney durinq the winter
of 1981-82. In the period, we observed
four lightning flashes struck to the
chimney. The strike to the chimney was
confirmed by not only the video picture
taken by us but also lightning current
measurement at foot of the chimney by
Yokoyama et al. [ll. One liqhtninq
flash out of the four is thouqht to be
natural one from the video picture, so
that the three lightning flashes listed
in Table 1 should be discussed herein.
Table 1: Triggered liqhtninq flashes
with the tall chimney

Introduction

Triggered

TRIGGERED

AND A TALL CHIMNEY

EI.Nakano, Z.-I.Kawasaki,

Institute

STROKES

the

The tall chimney located in a steam

power station is struck every winter
with many lightning flashes, most of
which are the triggered lightninq

No.
Date
1
Dec.23,1981
2
Jan.09,1982
3
Jan.O9,1Y82

Peak current by
+7 kA
-3 kA
-5 kA

[II

The electric fields on the ground

due to lightning flashes were recorded
with two instruments, so called a slow
antenna and a fast antenna. We can
record with the slow antenna the
electric field in the freouencv range
between 0.1 and 1000 Hz, and with the
fast antenna in the frequency range
between 1 and 1000 kHz. We recorded
maqnetic fields due to trigqered
lightning flash with only wired
rockets.
Flash No.1
Fiq.la is the electric field due to
the flash No.1 recorded with the slow
antenna and Fiq.lb is that recorded
with the fast antenna. Fiq.la shows a
similar pattern with a natural positive
ground flash composed of two return
strokes. Two sudden field jumps with
time interval of about 30 ms are
preceded by each field change with
durations of about 10 ms. This value,
about 10 ms, is thouqht to be same
order as duration of stepped leader
in a natural lightning flash. The rise
times of the fast jump in Fig.lb is
about4OO/is,
which coincides with tne
typical value of that of a natural

- 62 -

positive

return

so that we can not disc,uss on the

records. The electric fields recorded
with the fast antenna are shown in the
paper by Nakano et al.[2'J. The flash
No.2 iscomposed of two neqative return
strokes and No.3 single neqative one.
The rrse times of the electric field
due to the three return strokes are
estimated to be a fewAs.
from the
records of the fields, which coincides
with that due to the natural neqative
return stroke. The durations of the
three leader strokes are estimated to
be about 200fls. from the records of
the electric fields. Thus value seems
to be less'than that of the natural
leader stroke.

stroke.

Trrqgered

I
0

I
1uo

ms

Frq. la: The electric field wrth the

slow antenna. A and B
indicate the first jump and
the second one respect$vely,

Table

I
2

3
4
6
7
8
9
1u

Flash No.2 and No.3

Nakano et al. reported already on
leader and return stroke velocities
of
the flash No.2 and 3 [ZI. Tne records
of the field due to the both flashes
wrth the slow antenna were saturated,

the

Trigqered lightninq experiments

using wired rockets are repeated
almost every winter at Hokuriku by a
research group. We joined to the
experiment from November to December
1982 and we recorded the electric and
magnetic fields due to tne triggered
lrqhtninq flashes with the wired
rockets. The electric fields were
recorded with the slow antenna and the
fast one. The magnetic fields were
picked up with a srngle turned loop
antenna. The frequency range of the
recordina svstem of the masnetlc field
is Between 100 Hz to 1 ICHz.
We recorded the fields of ten
lightning flashes triggered wrth the
wired rockets as listed in Table 2.

No.

Frg. lb: The electric frelci correspondinq to B in Fig.la recorded

with the fast antenna. The
field correspondinq to A was
saturated.

lightninq flashes wrth

wired rockets

2: Triqqered lightnrnq flashes

with the wired rockets

Date
Dec.U2,1982
Dec.12,1382
Dec.12,1982
Dec.12,1982
Dec.12,1382
Dec.15,1982
Dec.15,1982
Dec.18,1982
Dec.18,1982
Dec.18,1982

Peak current by
?
+15.8 kA
-30.0
+16.0
?
?
-12.0
?
-1.0
+1.0

[33

Three flashes are thouqht to be of

positive polarity and another seven
negative from the records of the
electric fields. Horii et al. [31
measured the lightning currents of the
six flashes out of above ten flashes.
The polarities of the currents measured
by Horii et al.
coincide
with those
deduced from the records of the
electric field by us.
Electric fields recorded wrth the slow
_____
antenna
The electric fields due to the nine
flashes changed only monotonously and
only one negative flash showed similar
pattern as to the natural negative
qround flash composed of multiple
return strokes. The durations of field

63

12~4

change of the three positive flashes

are from 0.6 ms. to 14 ms. Those are
very short compared with the duration
of the natural lightning flash. On the
other hand, the durations of that of
the negative flashes triggered with
the wired rockets are longer than
those of the positive flashes, i.e.
between 30 ms. to 200 ms. Those values
are thought to be still short a little
compared with the duration of the
natural lightning flash.
Electric fields recorded with the fast
antenna
We obtained the records of electric
field of the six flashes out of above
ten flashes with the fast antenna
simultaneously with the slow antenna.
On the records of the electric fields
of the six flashes with the slow
only one record of the
antenna,
negative fl.ash showed similar pattern
as to the natural negative ground flash
composed of the multiple return strokes,
and other five showed only monotonous
changes as mentioned in former section.
However, there are a series of pulses
in all records of the electric field
due to the six flashes recorded with
the fast antenna. The numbers of the
pulse in a record of a flash are
ranged between 7 and 32. Most of the
pulse are confirmed by optlcal
observations
as to electric
field due to stroke oontdctiug to the
ground thouqh we can not say deflnltely
as a return stroke.
Fig.2a is an example of the record
of electric field due to the lightning
flash trigqered with a wired rocket
recorded with the slow antenna,

L-1

100

200

ILI

300

400

500 ms.

Fiq. 2b: The electric field due to the

same flash as shown in Fig.2a
recorded with the fast antenna.
Magnetic

20

fields

40

60

100

80
ms.

1---r---l---11-~
Fig. 3: An example of both electric
field (EJ and magnetic one (B)
due to a lightning flash
triqqered a wired socket. The
electric field was recorded
with the fast antenna.

L__I___L_L___I__L
'100
300
200

As shown in Fig.3, the magnetic

field is corresponded with the
electric field recorded with the fast
antenna. We do not analyze on the
magnetic fields In this stage.
400

500 ms.

Fig. 2a: The electric field due to a

lightning flash triggered a
wired rocket recorded with
the slow antenna.
Fig.2b shows the electric field due
to the same flash as shown in Fig. 2a
recorded with the fast antenna.

Conclusion
Let us compare the observational
results on the triggered lightning
with those on the natural lightnig
to find any special characteristics
of the triggered lightning.
Polarity
Most of the natural qround flashes
occuring in summer are of negative

- 64 -

polarity and most of those occuring in

winter are generally of positive. On
the contrary to the natural ground
flashes in winter, only 30% of the
triggered flashes in winter, both the
flashes triggered with the tall
chimney and those triggered with the
wired rockets, were of positive
polarity. However, it is thought to be
not peculiar. The natural positive
ground flashes are thought to start
from the upper positive charge region
in winter thundercloud by the effect
of wind shear !4,51. The negative
charge locates in lower portion in
thundercloud even during winter [51,so
that the strong electric field should
generally appear when the negative
charge is over the chimney or the
rocket station. This is preferable
condition to occur the triggered
negative lightning flash.

The durations of the leader strokes in

the negative flashes triggered with
the chimney are about 2OOfls., which
is very short compared with the
duration of the leader stroke in the
natural ground flash. Now, we can not
discuss by our observational data on
the leader strokes in the flash
triggered with the wired rockets.
Rise times of the return strokes
F7e measured onlv rise times of the
return strokes in the flashes triggered
with the chimney. The rise times, both
negative return strokes and positive
ones, are as same as those of natural
negative return stroke and natural
positive one respectively. We can not
discuss from our data obtained on the
flashes triggered with the wired
rockets.
References

Multiplicity of the return strokes

The flashes triggered with the tall
chimney are composed of one to two
return strokes. Further discussion on
the multiplicity seems to be difficult
for lack of data. We can say only
following. The multiplicity of the
return strokes in the flash triggered
with the chimney is the same order as
the multiplicity of the strokes in the
natural ground flash. The multiplicity
of around strokes in the flash
triggdrcd wii;h the \rlLredrockets is
higher than that of the return strokes
in the natural ground flash. However,
it is not clear whether the qround
strokes are as same as the return
strokes in the natural q.round flash or
not, Each qround stroke in the flash
triqgered with the wired rocket is
not so intensive, because we could not
find any sudden jump on the records of
electric field with the slow antenna.
Duration of the leader strokes
Though we did not yet confirm with
an optical instrument, we supposed that
the changes precedinq the sudden jump
in the record of electric field d,ue to
the positive flash triggered with the
chimney indicate the leader st,rokes.
The durations of two leaders in the
positive flash are about 10 ms.

111 Yokoyama,S .,H.Mitani,K.Miyake,Y.

Inaba and S..Cshibashi: Investigation of Lightninq Protection
Characteristics
on Distribution
Line Systems by ??easns,of Observations of Natural Lightning.
Reports of Central Research
Institute of Electric Power
Industrv No.18~Olj. o.16 11982)
121 Nakano," .,T.Takeuti,?.-I-Kawasaki
and N$Takaai; Leader and Xeturn
Stroke 'Velecity Measurements in
Lightning From a Tall Chimney.
Jour. Meteorological
Sot. Japan
Vo1.61, No.3,33Y-345
(1983)
131 Horii,K.: Report on the Experiments
of Triggered Lightning with Wired
Rockets, p.10 (1982)
141 Takeuti,T .,S.Israelsson,M.Nakano,
B.Ishikawa,S.Lundquist
and A.Astrom:
On Thunderstorms Producing Positive
Ground Flashes, Proc. Res. Inst.
Atmospherics, Nagoya Univ. Vo1.27-A
5-7, (1980)
and
[51 Rrook,M.,M.Nakano,P.Krehblel
T.Takeuti: The Electrical Structure
of the Hokuriku Winter Thunderstorms, J. Geophys. Res. Vol.87
No.C2, 1207-1215 (1982)

1301

- 65 -

ELECTROMAGNETIC

WAVE

PROPAGATION

IN A SEMI-ANECHOIC

J. D. Gavenda
University
of Texas at
and
J. H. Davis
International
Business
Machines
The

Austin,

A theoretical
model for electromagnetic
wave
propagation
in
a
semianechoic
chamber
successfully
reproduces
many of the features
of the reused
sponse of an actual chamber
for
EMC
testing
in the 30 - 200 MHz freNear-field
effects
quency
range.
are
included,
since they make significant
contributions
to the response
of
the
chamber
at
the lower end of the frequency
range.

CHAMBER

Austin

Corporation

Texas

chamber
modifications
and
measurements.
It only takes about
15 seconds
to generate
a chamber
response
curve
for
fixed-height
antennas
when
the
model described
below
is
implemented
in
APL
on
an
IBM
370 using a 3330
processor
that
is
VM-contended.
A
response
curve for a receiving
antenna which is scanned
from one
to
four
meters
requires
about five minutes.
Theoretical

Development ._

Introduction
-----a
technology
The
EMC
highly-shielded
bers is well-developed.
the chamber
surfaces
reflections
absorbing,
levels
to be
signal
from
less than those
site.

constructing
of
measurement
chamHowever,
if
are not perfectly
measured
cause
either
greater
or
an
ideal
open

walls and ceilings

Typically,
the
lined
with
of a shielded
chamber
are
pyramidal
cones of absorbing
material.
the
treated,
since
The floor is not
is to reproduce
the conditions
object
where
a
measurement
of an open-site
The
plane exists.
ground
conducting
when
effective
they
cones are quite
least half a wavelength
long,
are
at
satisfy
practical
to
not
but it is
this condition
at 30 MHz, where
h = 10
actual
surfaces
of
Treated
meters.
this criterion
only at
meet
chambers
frequencies
around
100 MHz and higher.
theoretical
This paper develops
a
model for calculating
signal
transmischamber
and
semi-anechoic
sion in a
the results
with non-scanned
compares
chamber
which highlight
measurements,
in an actual chamber.
If
resonances,
the model is found to be valid, it can
then be used to study the cost effectmodifications
of
iveness
for various
the chamber
parameters,
such as absormeasureber cone length,
location
of
dimensions,
chamber
antennas,
ment
etc.
Model studies
and
time
less

considerably
require
than do actual
money

The effect
of an infinite,
perfectly-conducting
plane
on
the
signal
transmitted
from
a
linear
antenna
located
at a height
h above it can
be
calculated
by
assuming
that an image
dipole of the appropriate
polarity
is
located
h below the plane and summing
the two signals
[l].
If the dipole is
parallel
to
the
surface,
the image
signal is 180 out of phase; if it
is
perpendicular
to
the
surface,
the
image signal is in phase.
If the surface is not perfectly
conducting,
only
reflected
and
part of the signal
is
its
phase depends
on the conductivity
constant
of
the
and
dielectric
surface,
as
material
composing
the
well as the angle of incidence.
In the treatment
which
follows
we
will assume
that the source antenna
is
In the initial
devela point dipole.
opment we calculate
the electric
field
at distances
r >> A from the source
so
far-field
approximation
is
the
that
the
generalize
Later we will
valid.
to include
the near fields as
results
usually
are
well, since measurements
at a range of 3 m, which is only
made
0.3X at 30 MHz.
Our model semi-anechoic
chamber
is
with a perfectly-conductrectangular
partially-reflecting
floor
and
ing
The chamber
has
and
ceiling.
walls
The
length L, width W, and height
H,
antennas
transmitting
and
receiving
respecand
h
are at
heights
h,
The
Fioor.
above the chamber
tively,
transmitting
antenna
is located
on the
axis of the chamber
at a discentral

The rewall.
tance
D from the back
ceiving
antenna
is located
at
distanwall
and R from the
ces
D from a side
transgitting
antenna.
plane
conduc ti ng
single
While
a
only
one image,
a source
beproduces
tween
a pair
of conducting
planes
will
have an infinite
set
of images
in each
reflecmu1 tiple
plane,
representing
of planes
one
pair
let
tions.
We
with
represent
the floor
and ceili.ng,
transmitting
antenna
h, above
the
the
A second
pair
of planes
reprefloor.
the front
and back walls
of the
sents
with
the source
a distance
D
chamber,
of the chamber.
wall
the
back
from
represents
planes
The third
pair
of
the source
at
with
side
walls,
the
w/2.

66

Here
equations.
suppressed
in these
efthe
= FR(Oi)FT(O
)Ri(Oi)
is
Ki
surf vity
fective
reflect
of the
ith
account
also
the
into
taking
faces,
transml. tthe
angular
dependences
of
receiving
antenna
patterns,
and
ti ng
phase
net
The
and
FR(Oi)*
R (Oi)
an image
is computed
by
s X ift
@L for
each
of
summing
the phase
shifts
for
that
produce
which
reflections
the
includes
that
Eq. (3)
image.
Note
only
the far-field
radiation
term.
The

E = E

the
floor,
The reflectivities
of
front
wall,
and
walls,
side
ceiling,
back wall
are assumed
to .be fR
f y. Z:
TRY,
-RF,
and -RR,
respective
verttcally-polarupper
signs
are for
while
the lower
signs
signals,
ized
are for
horizontal
polari. zati on.

Its
by

(2rL
f

r,s,t
where
corresponding
are

rst

+ D>i
(2tH

(2sW

f2,

(1)
. . .
for

+The
rst

=: (-RF)f(r)(R,,RF)IrI(~Rw)f(S)
x Rw21sI(*Rf)

f(t)RCitl,

when
the upper
Eq. (I),
and
lower
signs.

(2)

signs
f(i)

We

can
now calculate
the electric
field
E at any point
in the chamber
by
generalizing
method
of Reference
the
1. We sum the contributions
from
the
source
and the various
ima es,
noting
that
the signal
from the i!!_ P; image
is
given
by
KiEO
= ()exe[j(Bd
di

i + $i >I,

(3)

where
di
is
the
distance
from the
image,
g = 2x/h,
and
i
represents
a
particular
combination
of .r, s, and t.
E. is the electric
field
a
unit
distance
from
the transmitting
antenna.
The
time
dependence
exp(-jwt)
is

squared

= R02J$$

N -CO6
Ki Kk

c
i>k=ldidk

Comparison

+ W/2)?

+ h&,

= 0,
fl,
reflecttvities

where
f(i)
= 0
are
chosen
in
= sgn(i)
for
the

Ei

+2

9
= f

from

exe[j(Pdi

magnitude

[El2

for
imA general
position
vector
ages
representing
all
possible
combfnfrom
the
reflections
Of
ati ons
different
surfaces
is given
by

zrst

si.gnal

combined

N images

iS

(R*g)

Ki

(4)

@,)I.

is

given

g(di-dk)+$i-$kl

with

(5)

Measurements

receiving
antenna
at
a
We locate
x = x
The
distance
z = hr.
Y = y,,
the (r,s,t>
image
to the refE:rn
di
ceiving
antenna
is
found
from

di

b$st

x,2

y,;

h,x(* 2 9

(6)

If we take
the antennas
to
be
point
FT(O )FR(Oi)
= Sin2(OI).
dipoles,
near-field
Note that
ef I ect
the
of
terms
be
$nc$uycl,
b:)
addi;:
can
(3 cos20i
- 1)(1/g
di
when computing
the Ki for
use In
this
Kq. (4)
[21.
The calculated
chamber
response
is
sensitive
to
the phase
$i as well
as
the magnitude
Ri
of
the
reflectivities
of
the
various
surfaces.
If
there
is a frequency-dependent
absorpti on
in the wall
surfaces,
there
must
also
be
a
frequency-dependent
phase
shift
to
satisfy
the Kramers-Kronig
dispersion
relations.
Al though
some
measurements
of R are available,
there
are none of
4.
Consequently,
it
has
been
necessary
to model
an absorbercoated
wall
as a
partially-conducting
surface
with
some assumed
conductivity
and dielectric
constant.
For these
preliminary
calculations
we have chosen
a very
simple
model
the wall
surfaces,
and we
ignore
effects
of non-normal
incidence
of

for
the
the

1301

- 67 -

A
proper model should also
signals.
the
from
scattering
include
diffuse
uneven surfaces
resulting
from the use
The
cones.
absorbing
pyramidal
of
reflectivity
of
a
normal-incidence
with
a
surface
partially-conducting
constant
E = 1 is given by
dielectric
t31:
A - 1 1/2

R=(-)

where
A

-+{[I

+ ($2]12

+ 1}12,

(8)

2
reflecand f is the frequency
of the
The phase shift of a signal
ted wave.
reflected
from such a surface
is
4 = tan_1(1/S),

(9)

where

l3 =

2&

{[l +

($)2P2

- 1}1'2.

(10)

We can choose
the conductivity
a as
for fitting
measured
reparameter
a
flectivity
to that calculated
from Eq.
simplest
way to do that is
The
(7).
to replace
2a/f by fl/f, where
f1
is
However,
this
fitting
parameter.
the
falls
which
reflectivity
loads to a
as l/f at high frequencies,
while
off
reflecthe reported
measurements
of
tivity fall off approximately
as l/f 2 .
replacWe can model this Qehavior
by
ing 2a/f by (f2/f)
, and using f2 as a
fitting
parameter.
signal
Figures
1 and 2 compare
the
amplitude
calculated
for 258 different
measurechamber
with
actual
paths
chamber
Is 18.3 m long,
The
ments.
Wall and
12.2 m wide, and 6.1 m high.
ceili.ng surfaces
are covered
with pyrCone
lengths
amidal absorbing
cones.
1.22 m, and 0.66m, with
are
1.83
m,
the
the longer cones in regions
where
occur.
Transreflections
principal
antennas
were
receiving
mitting
and
94455-l
biconicals.
Model
Ailtech
deterwas
Measured
signal amplitude
subtracting
antenna
factors
mined
by
from measured
data, so it is sensitive
to errors in the antenna
factors.
to emphasize
the effects
In
order
fixed
chosen
of reflections,
we have
which
highlight
the
antenna
heights
actual
resonances
in the chamber.
In
the
attenuation
measurements,
site
antenna
is
the
receiving
height
of
4 meters and the
from
1
to
scanned
maximum
signal at a given frequency
is
This reduces
the effects
of
recorded.
measureresonances
on
the
chamber
Some of the discrepancies
bements.
signal
measured
tween calculated
and
amplitudes
may be caused
by failure
to
size
of
take into account
the finite

biconical
diFinite
antennas.
the
response
angular
poles not only have
differ
from that of a
which
patterns
driving
their
point dipole,
but also
will
be affected
by nearby
impedances
conducting
surfaces.
that
It has been found empirically
some of the effects
of reflections
can
be reduced
by choosing
a direction
of
is not parallel
to
which
propagation
verticallySince
the chamber
walls.
polarized
antennas
remain either
parachamber
all
lel or perpendicular
to
the equations
derived
above
surfaces,
are valid for this case.
horizontally-polarized
anHowever,
neither
parallel
nor perare
tennas
arbitrary
pendicular
to the walls for
The equaof propagation.
directions
separately
to
applied
tions must be
different
sets of images:
one for
two
current
antenna
the component
of the
parallel
to the walls,
and one for the
walls.
component
perpendicular
to the
net signal is obtained
by summing
The
the two results
before
squaring
to get
the amplitude.
Summary

and

Conclusions

for
signal
model
A
theoretical
chamtransmission
in a semi-anechoic
developed
which incorber
been
has
porates multiple-reflection
paths in a
Current
limitations
systematic
way.
of the model include:
Lack of measured
data on the phase
1.
amplitude
of the reflectivity
and
of absorber-coated
walls.
Assumption
of
point-dipole,
in2.
stead of finite-length,
antennas.
the crudeness
of the
In
spite
of
used
in
the
simplifying
assumptions
calculations
reported
here, the generdata
are
al features
of the measured
The next step will be to
reproduced.
adjust
the various
parameters
in order
to improve
the ability
of the model to
reproduce
actual measurements.

it
has already
been possiHowever,
draw some general
conclusions
ble
to
regarding
the effects
of the different
Here we
chambers.
surfaces
of
the
situation
where
the
consider
the
and the receiving
antennas
are
source
(the
nearer to one end of the chamber
other (the
than
to
the
back
wall)
front wall).
dominate
Floor-ceiling
reflections
for horizontal
polarization,
producing
the large oscillations
at the low freend of the curves in Figure
1.
quency
and
The relatively
small side, front,
wall
reflections
can be reduced
back
propagating
at
an
even
further
by
angle to the walls,
rather
than paralThe resulting
image
anlel to them.
further
away from
then
point
tennas
the receiver.

200

30

30

FREQUENCY (MHz)
Fig.

1:

200

FREQUENCY (MHz)

Measured
(left) and
calculated
(right)
sIgna
transmission
between
horizontally-polarized
antennas
located
one meter above the floor of a
semi-anechoic
chamber.
The distance
between
the
antennas
-Ls three
comparison,
the signal calculated
for an ideal open site
meters.
For
(perfectly-conducting
ground plane,
far field terms on1 > is
shown
by
1 /E02).
the dashed
Line.
Signal amplitude
S = 10 log10(49.2)E(

__.___-.

____

_____.P\

._.__,_....-- _.._..__.--

~~~~~~~

200

30

30

FREQUENCY (MHZ)
Fig.

2:

FREQUENCY [MHZ)

Measured
(left)
and
calculated
(right)
signal
transmission
between
floor
of
a
vertically-polarized
antennas
located
one meter above the
the same as for Fig. 1,
chamber.
The
conditions
are
semi-anechoic
signal
is
except
for the polarization.
ideal
open
site
Again,
the
shown by a dashed line.

back
For vertical
polarization
the
causes
a long-period
oscillation
wall
function
of
in signal amplitude
as a
distant
more
while
the
frequency,
but
front wall causes a short-period,
When the receivoscillation.
weaker,
ing antenna
is on the central
axis
of
reflections
from the side
the chamber,
signals
other
walls combine
with the
relatively
sharp dip
the
produce
to
When the
shown in Fig. 2 near 35 MHz.
off the
moved
antenna
Fs
receiving
from the
centraL
axis, the reflections
walls travel different
dissLde
two
other.
tances and tend to cancel each
This greatly
diminishes
the dip.
have not yet had time
Although
we
to find the optimum
parameters
for
an
is already clear
chamber,
it
actual

only
that model calculations
will not
existing
lead
to
improvements
of
provide
also
chambers,
but they will
future
guidance
for
designers
of
chambers.
REFERENCES

[II

Burrows,
12,
J.

C.R.: Bell System

45-75 (1937)

The
121 Ring, R.W.P.:
Harvard
Antennas,
700 (1956)
t31 Good, R.H., Jr.,
Classical
Theory
Magnetic
Fields,
383-388
(1971)

Theory
Univ.

Tech.

of Linear
Press,

Nelson:
and T.J.
Electric
and
of
Academic
Press,

69

1402

A METHODOLOGY FOR EVALUATING

MICROWAVE ANECHOIC

CHAMBER MEASUREMENTS

Motohisa Kanda
Electromagnetic Fields Division
National Bureau of Standards
Boulder, Colorado 80303 U.S.A.

field, and the methodology for evaluating the

corresponding errors associated with antenna,
EM1 and EMC measurements in an anechoic
chamber.

The anechoic chamber measurement is

evaluated in terms of the net power delivered
to a transmitting antenna, the near-zone
gains of open-ended rectangular waveguides
and
horns,
pyramidal
rectangular
and
The on-axis
reflections from chamber walls.
field intensity of the standard transmitting
horn in an anechoic chamber is calculated in
terms of the net power delivered to the
transmitting antenna. The resulting data can
the
overall
estimating
used
for
be
chamber
the
anechoic
uncertainty
in
measurements. The statistical control of the
of transfer
process
by use
measurement
the
will
monitor
antennas
standard
This
uncertainties.
measurement
paper
for
evaluating
methodology
discusses
a
anechoic chamber measurements.
I.

The Measurement of the Net Power

II.
to Open-Ended Waveguide and Pyramidal Horn
Antennas
Open-ended waveguide and pyramidal horn
antennas
are used to establish standard
electromagnetic (EM) fields in an anechoic
chamber.
Part of the uncertainty in our
knowledge of the EM fields arises from the
uncertainty in the net power delivered to the
horn. In turn, this uncertainty reflects our
lack of knowledge of the amplitudes and
reflection
and
phases
of
the
various
transmission
coefficients
in
the
power
delivery system, as well as the uncertainty
in measurements of the power incident upon
and reflected from the horn.

Introduction

anechoic
chambers
are
Microwave
currently in use for a variety of indoor
electromagnetic
measurements,
antenna
and
electromagnetic
interference
(EMI)
The prime
compatibility (EMC) measurements.
requirement is that an appropriate transmitting antenna at one location within the
plane-wave
field
generates
a
chamber
throughout another volume of the chamber of
dimensions sufficient to perform EM1 and EMC
measurements.
This volume is frequently
referred
to
as
a quiet
zone
and
its
'quietness", or reflectivity
level, will
determine the performance of an anechoic
chamber.
The National Bureau of Standards (NBS)
anechoic chamber is shown in a side view in
figure 1.
Pyramidal horns or open-end
waveguide (OEG) antennas are used as sources
of chamber illumination, positioning them in
the
access doorway with their apertures
inside the plane of the absorber points on
the chamber wall. A cart on precision tracks
located under the measurement axis can be
moved horizontally through a distance of 5 m
by a stepping-motor drive system. There are
gaps in the absorber on the floor to
accommodate each rail.
The purpose of this paper is to discuss
how to establish a standard electromagnetic

In our system for establishing standard

electromagnetic fields, we compute the net
delivered power to a standard transmitting

___

DIRECT
PATH
L____

DE0
OR
HORN

_-_

LABORATORY..

----$/A?3

PROBE
REFLECTBN
FRO,
REAR WALL

c---.-a-___

t
40 ml
1

rcrx&~,
FWY CA,

6.63 m

Fig. 1: A side view of the NBS anechoic

chamber

U.S. Government work not protected by copyright.

antenna from measurements of incident and

reflected
power
obtained
with
a
dual
directional coupler.
Our power delivery and
measurement system can be represented by a
four port black box as shown in figure 2.
The port terminations and numbering are:
(1)

power meter to monitor the forward

(throughput) power,

(2)

power meter to monitor

reflected
from
the
transmitting antenna,

(3)

source of the cw rf power,

(4)

transmitting antenna.

the power
standard

70

In an ideal coupler, i.e., zero

reflection coefficient for all coupler input
ports and infinite directivity (Sll = S22 =
s33 = s44 = S14 = S41 = S23 = S32 = 0), and
for a matched power meter at port 1, i.e.,
Cll.

rl = 0,
it
g(S,r) = h(S,r)

can

be

shown

Cl]

that

The terms,

= 1.
g(S,r) and
h(S,r) involve the products of complex values
of the system S-parameters and the reflection
coefficients.
For this reason, unless the
phases
of
the
system
magnitude
and
S-parameters and the reflection coefficients
are well determined, g(S,r) and h(S,r) are
not calculable. The extent of deviation from
unity is, therefore, taken to be an error
contribution in the determination of the net
power delivered to the standard antenna.
Although the degree of deviation from unity
is a function of the system S parameters and
the reflection coefficients r, it is found to
be in general, less than 1% Cl].
To determine the net power delivered to
a transmitting antenna, the terms S34/S13 and
Although the
l/S24 need to be determined.
magnitudes of S13, S24, and S34 could be
measured with a network analyzer, the system
establishing
implemented
here
for
being
standard electromagnetic fields is a selfcalibrating system which utilizes a standard
flat-plate short and a matched termination.
When a short (r4 = 1) is placed at port 4,
the ratio of power measurements P2 and P1
gives

Fig. 2: Measurement of the net power to

a standard gain antenna

The net power delivered to the transmitting

antenna is the difference between incident
and reflected power and is given by Cl]

!L

I I
'24 '34

s13

p1

(2)

P
inc - 'refl
net = Pa
2

p1

II
s34

= (1 - (rJ2)

p2

s13

lg(S,r)12

lh(S,r)12 (1)

where Al(S,r) is a complex quantity much less

The
second
step
in
than
unity
Cl].
evaluating the net power delivered to a
transmitting antenna, Pnet, is to replace the
short at port 4 with a well matched power
two
power
ratio
of
the
meter.
The
measurements PI and P4 is

(1 - lr212) lS2412

The symbols PI and P2 are, respectively,

power meter readings at ports 1 and 2.
rl
and r2 represent the corresponding reflection
coefficients observed
looking into power
meters 1 and 2.
Sij is the scattering
parameter defined as the ratio of the complex
wave amplitude emerging from port i to that
incident in port j.
g(S,r) and h(S,r)
are
functions of the system S-parameter and the
reflection coefficients of ports 1, 2, and 4

p1=

s13

p4

s34

21

- lr1j2
2 (1 + b2121.

1 -

Ir,l

(3)

where ~~ is a complex quantity much less than

From (2) and (3), a value for
unity [ll.
is
obtained.
In summary, we perform
ll/S2412

- 71 -

two power ratio measurements with a standard

short and a matched termination in order to
determine /S34/S131* and (S2412.
Al

and

A2

involve the

products

The terms,
of

complex

the
system S parameters and
values of
Since
the
coefficients
r.
reflection
of these
complex
phases
and
magnitudes
quantities cannot be easily determined, the
extent of deviation from zero is, therefore,
taken to be an error contribution in the
determination

of

14~2

for the TEIO mode equals JlT

, with k

being the free-space wave number, and r is

the reflection coefficient of the TEIO mode
from the end of the waveguide.
The constant
AE, which is related to the amplitude of the
incident TEIO mode, will be defined later.
Z

IS34/S1312 and IS241**

Moreover, the uncertainty in the power ratio

and the
measurements,
and
Pl/P4,
P2/Pl

uncertainty in the reflection measurements

r1, r*, and r4 also contribute an error in

I
I
I
I

the determination of IS34/S131 and IS241. The

detailed discussion on this topic will be

given elsewhere Cl]. The net power delivered
to a transmitting antenna is then determined
from two absolute power measurements, PI and
P2, using (1).

-Y

r:

Near-Zone Gain of Open-Ended

Rectangular Waveguide

III.

The electromagnetic field measurements

in an anechoic chamber are usually performed
in the near-field region of the transmitting
standard antenna, and the approach used to
establish the standard field is to calculate
the radiated field intensity in the nearfield region of the transmitting antenna.
These antennas consist of a series of openended waveguides below 500 MHz and a series
of rectangular pyramidal horns above 500 MHz.
The near-zone gain of an open-ended,
unflanged rectangular waveguide is calculated
from forward near-field power patterns, which
is determined from theoretically predicted
far-field power patterns by use of the plane
wave scattering theorem [2].
The
open-ended
geometry
of
the
rectangular waveguide is shown in figure 3.
The E-plane pattern, EE(e), is predicted
quite accurately by inserting the E and H
fields of the propagating TEIO mode into the
Stratton-Chu formula and integrating over the
aperture of the open-ended waveguide [3].
Thus, for EF(n),

EE(o) = AE

X
Fig 3:

Geometry of open-ended rectangular

waveguide

In the case of the H-plane fields, the

aperture
Stratton-Chu
integration of the
formulas with the electric and magnetic
f-i;lcIcIt;fa;c!;T~~e~~$
neglects the fringe
produces much too
broad an H-piane pattern:
Using an accurate
estimate of the fringe currents on the
x = f a/2 sides of the rectangular waveguide
from a numerical solution to the electric
field integral equation applied to the openended rectangular waveguide [4], we obtain
for H-plane pattern

(case t
EH(e) = AH[

f) + r(cose

(Jj)*- (%

- f)

sine)*

+ Co1

[l + a case + r(1 - # cose)l

[1 +a

+ r(l -

0 cos(%

f-11

sine) .

(5)

sin(J$ sine)
!$ sine

(4)

where the normalized propagative constant R/k

The constant AH is related to AE by

AE = AH{(i)* ((1 + f) +

r(l - I)] + Co} .

(6)

- 72 -

Ihe constant Co is calculated by equating the

radiated power determined from the far-field
to the total power input power determined
from the TEIO mode field.
Once the far-field power patterns of a
open-ended
rectangular
waveguide
are
determined, the plane wave scattering theory
enables us to predict its near-field power
patterns [5]. The near-zone gain of an openended
rectangular
waveguide
is
then
determined by integrals of its near-field
power
pattern.
The evaluation
of the
uncertainty of the near-zone gain of an openended rectangular waveguide will be performed
by comparing the theoretical near-zone gain
with the experimental results using the plane
wave scattering theorem and will be reported
elsewhere 161.

IV.

where C and S are the Fresnel integers defined

as

C(w) - jS(w) =

jw exp(- jft2) dt

(9)

and their arguments u and v are defined as

;' = f
(*ha;+/2

+&)

l/2

f-1
H
AH=-------.
r + RH

(10)

Near-Zone Gain Calculations of

Rectangular Pyramidal Horns

The approach used at NBS to establish a

standard field at frequencies above 500 MHz
involves the use of a series of rectangular
pyramidal horns.
In deriving the near-zone
gain of a pyramidal horn by the Kirchhoff
method, Schelkunoff accounted for the effect
of the horn flare by introducing a quadratic
phase error in the dominant mode field along
the aperture coordinates [7].
Geometrical
optics and single diffraction by the aperture
edges
yields
essentially
the
Kirchhoff
results. The proximity effect in the Fresnel
zone can also be approximated by a quadratic
phase error in the aperture field.
To improve Schelkunoff's equation by
taking into account the reflection of the
diffracted fields from the horn interior and
double diffraction at the aperture, the
concepts
of
the
geometrical
theory
of
diffraction are used to determine the on-axis
near-zone
E-plane
pyramidal
gain
of
an
Taking into account the preceding
horn.
considerations, the improved near-zone gain
of a pyramidal horn is given by [Sl

G _ 32 ab
- --2-- RE RH ,

7lh

Fig 4: Pyramidal horn dimensions

The E-plane factor RE is given by (7)

RE =

1 + cos@o
exp(- jkREcos@,)

4w2

(7)

+ 2 v (Xi, n: - 4,) + Z's2

where RE and RH are the gain reduction
factors due to E-plane and H-plane flares,
respectively.
The pertinent horn dimensions
used in (7) are shown in figure 4.
The
factor 32 ab/(rh2) is the gain of an in-phase
distribution
uniform
across
field
one
dimension
of a rectangular aperture and
cosinusoidal across the other.
The H-plane
flare of the horn is given by (7)

where

w=
RH = %

(11)

12

2 {C(u) - C(v)\2 + {S(u) - S(v)12

, (8)
2

(2hR~)I'2cos~o/2

(u - VI

Xi=-.

rRE
r + RH

1402

- 73 -

= - exp(kx 2COSa) {1

v(a,a)

4ka

[C ((-$

I/2

4kRo I/2
-jS((--$

(1

The failure of the chamber to provide a

truly free-space test environment affects the
anechoic
the
accuracies
in
measurement
The performance of a
chamber measurements.
can
be
chamber
anechoic
rectangular
rf
checked by measuring the relative insertion
loss versus separation distance between a
source antenna and a receiving antenna [91.

j)

cos :,

(12)

cosF)l} .

The factor S2 is defined as

m

v(R~, $ - ibo) f(di,

Jl

s2 =

Reflections from Anechoic Chamber Walls

V.

The factor v(ro, a) is given by

71 -

$,,

T - i@,)
(13)

Insertion loss is the ratio of power

received by a receiving antenna or probe for
the initial test position to that received
It is assumed
for different test positions.
that the source and probe input impedances
the
that
power
constant
and
remain
transmitted by the source remains constant.
If the anechoic chamber is a perfect freespace simulator, the relative insertion loss
varies with distance according to the freespace transmission loss formula given by

where

(d,

oo) =

0,

v(d, 8 - e,) + v(d, e t no)

(15)

Pr/Pt = gsgp(h/4nd)2 ,

(14)
di = 2~ sin(ig,) is the ray-path length
between single and double diffraction, and m
is the largest integer less than ~/2@~.
The near-zone gain of a pyramidal horn
is used to calculate the radiated field
intensity
in the
near zone of a gain
antenna.
The typical gain reduction factors
HE and RH expressed in decibels are shown in
figure 5. The evaluation of the uncertainty
of the gain reduction factors for pyramidal
horns will be performed by comparing the
theoretical gain reduction factors with the
experimental results using the plane wave
scattering theorem C2] and will be reported
later C61.

-l.O-

I
r.o-

2.0

I
3.0

4.0

6.0

Range (meters)

Fig. 5: Near-zone gain-reduction factors RE

and RH of a pyramidal horn
(a = 0.828 m, a' = 0.248 m,
R = 0.612 m, RE = 0.812 m,
RH = 0.943 m, @o = 0.386 rad) at
1000 MHz

(
8.0

where

net power transmitted

source antenna,

power received
antenna

near-zone
antenna

near-zone
probe

antenna separation distance, m

wavelength, m.

pt
pr
gs

gP

by

gain

gain

the
of

of

by

the

probe
source

receiving

Measured data are compared to free space

transmission
loss
calculated
using
the
appropriate near-zone transmitting antenna
gains.
Disagreement between the measured
insertion loss and calculated transmission
loss is a measure of reflections from chamber
surfaces,
the
assuming
near-zone
gain
calculations are exact for the separation
distance considered.
The measured relative
insertion
loss versus antenna
separation
distance provides voltage standing wave ratio
(VSWR) data by means of a longitudinal probe
scan.
Rear-wall reflections and source-toprobe interactions are often resolvable at
all frequencies, but reflections from the
ceiling, side walls and floor are difficult
to identify at frequencies below 500 MHz
because the VSWR period is so long. Figure 6
shows
an
example
of
measured
relative
insertion loss with calculated free-space
transmission loss along the on-axis of the
horn antenna.

standard
antennas
will
measurement uncertainties.

monitor

the

References

Cl1

Orr, R. David and Kanda,

"Evaluation
of
microwave
measurements."
chamber
published.

La

Kerns, David M. Plane-wave scatteringmatrix theory of antennas and antennaantenna interactions. Nat, Bur. Stand.
(U.S.) Monograph 162; 1981 June.
162
P*

c31

Stratton, Julius A. Electromagnetic

theory. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1941.
615 p.

c41

Yaghjian,
Arthur
D.
Approximate
formulas for the far fields and gain
of open-ended rectangular waveguide.
Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.) NBSIR 83-1689;
1983 May. 34 p.

CSI

Arthur
D.
Efficient
Yaghjian,
computation of antenna coupling and
fields within the near-field region;
IEEE Trans. Antennas and Propag., Vol.
AP-30, 133-138; 1982 Jan.

II61

Motohisa,
Near-zone
gain
Kanda,
calculations of open-ended waveguides
and rectangular pyramidal horns for
anechoic chamber measurements. To be
published.

c71

Schelkunoff,
S. A.
York:
New
waves.
Reinhold; 1943. 530 p.

C81

Errors
in
the
Edward
V.
Jull,
predicted gain of pyramidal horns.
IEEE Trans. Antennas and Propag. Vol.
AP-21, 25-31; 1973 Jan.

c91

FitzGerrell, Richard G. Using freespace transmission loss for evaluating

IEEE
chamber performance.
anechoic
Trans. Electromagnetic Compatibility,
Vol. EMC-24, No. 3, 1982 Aug.

SEPARATION, i

Fig. 6: Relative insertion loss between horn

antenna and probe along the on-axis
horn
of
antenna
with
free-space
transmission loss curve fitted at 1 m
VI.

Concluding Remarks

A
methodology
is
presented
for
evaluating an anechoic chamber measurement in
terms of the net power delivered to a
transmitting antenna, the near-zone gains of
rectangular
open-ended
waveguides
and
rectangular pyramidal horns, and reflections
from chambers. The measurements of net power
delivered to a transmitting antenna are
determined by using a short and a matched
termination in a self-calibrating system.
gains
of
an
open-ended
The
near-zone
waveguide
and
rectangular
rectangular
pyramidal horns are calculated from forward
which
-e
patterns,
power
near-field
determined from theoretically predicted fi;field patterns by use of the plane wave
scattering theorem Lll.
rectangular
performance
of
a
The
anechoic chamber is evaluated by measuring
the relative insertion loss versus separation
chamber
the
source
of
between
distance
illumination and a receiving antenna. A lack
of fit between the measured insertion loss
and calculated transmission loss is a measure
The
of reflections from the chamber walls.
resulting data can be used for estimating the
overall uncertainty in the anechoic chamber
measurements. The statistical control of the
process
by use
of transfer
measurement

Motohisa,
anechoic
To
be

Elc tromagnetic
Nostrand
Van

75

15D3

FIELD DISTORTIONS IN A TEM CELL

S. KASHYAP
DIVISION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
OTTAWA, ONTARIO
CANADA
KlA OR8

ABSTRACT
The distortion effects due to an equipment
under test in a TEM cell are calculated assuming static conditions. It is shown that the
size as well as grounding conditions determine
the field in the TEM cell and must be taken into account for electromagnetic compatability
measurements.
INTRODUCTION
This paper concerns the calculation and
measurement of fields in a TEM cell in the
presence of an equipment under test. Figure 1
shows a typical TEM cell.
It consists of a
rectangular or a square coaxial transmission
line.
The ends of the line are tapered to
allow coupling to an ordinary coaxial line.
The TEM cell provides a shielded test environment with an essentially uniform and linearly
polarized TEM field.
Various uses of the TEM
electromagnetic
cell
include
compatibility
measurements [1,2], study of biological effects
[31, and calibration of electromagnetic field
probes [4,5]. It has also been shown [6] that
the TEM cell can be used for accurate antenna
factor measurements even if the dimensions of
the antennas are larger than the recommended
one-third of the distance between the center
conductor and the cell wall.

CONNECTORS

CENTRE
ACCESS

TEM
DISTORTION EFFECTS
In this paper, the distortion effects due
to an equipment under test in a TEM cell are
calculated.
Both grounded and ungrounded
equipment are treated and results of some
measurements are also reported. Static approximation is used which implies that the dimensions of the equipment under test are much
smaller than the wavelength of the incident
wave. Electric fields are first computed for a
cross-section of the TEM cell using an iterative procedure [7]. The effect of the tapered
ends is excluded in this calculation. Figure 2
indicates
how the iterative
technique
is
applied in finding fields in the TEM cell. It
shows a cross-section of a square TEM cell.
Only one quarter of the TEM cell is considered
because of the symmetry.
In the method of
iteration, the voltage at each point marked *

(2.74

CONDUCTOR
DOOR

X 2.74

CELL
X 5.48m)

Figure 1

ITERATIVE TECHNIQUE FOR FINDING

IN A TEM CELL

76

ELECTRIC

FIELDS

FOR

FIELD

ENHANCEMENT

A METAL

CYLINDER

IN A TEM

CELL

,
LA-UL

CELL

NBS

MEASUREMENTS

-*-

G. MEYER

PRESENT

WORK

WALLS

Figure 2
0.6

0.4

0.8

1.0

h/b

Figure 4

ELECTRIC

FIELD

VARIATION

IN A TEM CELL

x TIPPET

& CHANG

ITERATION

METHOD

2
?
2
5:
5
5:
wm
i.oiiD
"2
z"
I- !A!0.9 0
Li:

0.8 9
F
I:
&

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

x/b

Figure 3

I
1.0

is first assumed to be a certain value (say

half of the center conductor voltage).
The
voltage at any point is calculated by averaging
the voltages
around the point.
This is
repeated until the voltage at any point does
not change. Figure 3 shows some of the results
obtained by this method.
It shows the variation of the electric fields in the TEM cells
with square or rectangular cross-sections. The
results obtained by the iterative method agree
quite well with those obtained by Tippet and
Chang [B] using the method of conformal transformation.
The fields in the presence of a metallic
rectangular cylinder in a TEM cell are calculated in similar way. The fields are then compared with the fields at the same point in the
TEM cell in the absence of the rectangular
cylinder.
Figure 4 shows some of the results
obtained.
For comparison the field enhancement reported by Meyer [q] and experimental
results of Kanda [lo] are also plotted. Figure
5 shows the field enhancement for a grounded
metal cylinder as a function of its height from
the TEM cell wall.
It shcws that the field
distortion increases with the distance from the
cell wall.
Figure 6 shows the field enhancement for an ungrounded metal cylinder. Comparison with Figure 5 shaws that the field distortion is less severe when the metal cylinder is
not grounded.
These results suggest that both
the size of the equipment and the grounding
conditions nest be taken into consideration
when a TEM cell is used for electromagnetic
compatability measurements.

15D3
ELECTRIC

ELECTRIC

FIELD
METAL

ENHANCEMENT
CYLINDER

FOR A

IN A TEM

FIELD

GROUNDED

ENHANCEMENT
IN

A TEM

BY

A DIPOLE

CELL

CELL

4.0
r
20

&_-

b/a

------t

= 0.6

MEASUREMENTS

NBS

h/b

Figure

x/b
-se

UNGROUNDED

Figure 5

GROUNDED

15

20

25

JO

FREQUENCY
ELECTRIC

FIELD

h/b-0.210

w/a=0.175

0 I

02

0.3

0.4

0.5

40

45

Wiz)

ENHANCEMENT
IN A TEM

35

EQUIP.
EQUIP.

BY AN EQUIPMENT

CELL

Figure 8

0.6

x/b
ELECTRIC

FIELD

ENHANCEMENT

EQUIPMENT

IN A TEM

Figure 6

BY AN UNGROUNDED
CELL

TEM cells are often used for calibration

of probes [5]. However, the field disturbance
caused by the probes is not very well known.
Figure 7 shows the field enhancement due to a
dipole in a TEM cell at a point directly above
the dipole.
Figure 8 shows some experimental results
obtained for an equipment in a TEM cell.
It
shows that the field enchancement is much
higher in the case of a grounded equipment.
The location and height of the peak in the
grounded case is dependent on the size and
length of the ground cable. The effect of the
ground cable on field enhancement will be discussed in detail in a future paper.

78

CONCLUSIONS
Field enhancement due to an equipment
under test in a TEM cell has been calculated
assuming static conditions. Both grounded and
It has
ungrounded cases have been treated.
been shwn that both the size of the equipment
and the grounding conditions determine the
field in the TEM celt and must be taken into
account
for electromagnetic
compatability
measurements.

(41

M.L. Crawford, "Generation of Standard EM

fields using TEM transmission cells", IEEE
Trans. Electromagnetic Compat. Vol 16,
pp. 189-195, 1974.

[51

E.B. Larsen, "Techniques for Producing

Standard EM Fields from 10 KHz - 10 GHz
Monitors,"
Evaluating
Radiation
for
Symposium on
Proceedings of the 1978
in Biological
Electromagnetic
Fields
Systems, Ottawa, Canada, June 28-30, 1978,
pp. 96-112.

[61

S.C. Kashyap,
"Measurement of Antenna
Factors with a TEM Cell," Proceedings of
IEER 1984 National Symposium on Electromagnetic
Compatibility,
San Antonio,
Texas, April 24-26, 1984, pp. 9-11.

[71

W.H. Hayt, "Engineering Electromagnetics,"

McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967, pp. 167177.

[al

J.C. Tippet and D.C. Chang, "Radiation

Characteristics of Small Devices in a TEM
IEEE
Trans. ElectroTransmission Cell,"
magnetic Compatibility, Vol. 18, pp. 134140, 1976.

[91

G. Meyer, "The TEM Measuring Ltne - A

Critical Review"
Proceedings of 1981 EMC
Symposium, Zurich, pp. 407-412, 1981.

t101

M. Kanda, "Electromagnetic-Field Distortion Due to a Conducting Rectangular

Cylinder in a Transverse Electromagnetic
Cell" IEEE Trans. Electromagnetic Compatibility" Vol. 24, pp. 294-301, 1982.

REFERENCES

[II

r21

[31

M.L. Crawford, "Generation of Standard EM

Fields using TEM Transmission Cells," IEEE
Trans. Electromagnetic Compat., Vol. 15,
PP. 189-195, 1974.
I. Sreenivasiah, D.C. Chang and M.T. Ma,
"A Method of Determining the Emission and
Susceptibility Levels of Electricaly Small
Objects using TEM Cells," NBS Tech. Note
1040,
National
Bureau
of Standards,
Boulder, Colorado, April 1981.
W.T. Joines,
C.F. Blackman
and M.A.
Hollis,
"Broadening of the RF PowerDensity Window for
Calcium ion Efflux
from Brain Tissue," IEEE Trans. Biomed.
Eng. Vol. 28, pp. 568-573, 1981.

79

16~4

CHAMBER QUALITY ASSESSMENT

J. H. Davis and W. C. Cockerill

International Business Machines
Austin, Texas

The IBM Austin 045 semi-anechoic chamber

compares favorably to an open field site
when measured against two models of site
attenuation currently being used to measure
site performance. The IBM Austin chamber's
site attenuation measured to within 2.7 db
of the OST 55 theoretical model of an open
field site and, compared to the ANSI model,
the Austin chamber shows a maximum positive
deviation of 3.5 db.

CHAMBER DESCRIPTION
This test facility is a semi-anechoic
chamber with all surfaces covered with
pyramidal absorber materials except for the
floor which is steel with a covering of
vinyl tile. The steel enclosure is 60 feet
long, 40 feet wide, and 30 feet high. The
primary anechoic cone material is 6 feet in
length. For some secondary reflection paths
smaller cone material is used. The free
area in the chamber is 48 feet long, 28 feet
wide, and 14 feet high.

both horizontal and vertical polarizaion,

2) over the entire frequency range of 30 MHZ
to 1000 MHz, and 3) taking into account
product volume. The model as described in
the proposed revision to ANSI C63.4 is:
A = 279.1 AFRAFT

Max
MHzED

Where:
= frequency in MHz
FMHz
AFR = antenna factor of receiving
antenna
AFT = antenna factor of transmitting
antenna
EMax
- maximum electric field in
D
receiving antenna scan range
(See Reference [l] for equation)

OST 55 Model
To show consistency with other data
taken for open field registration, we used a
tuned dipole to measure the horizontal
attenuation of our chamber against the
OST-55 site attenuation model [3]. We made
the measurements with a set of Roberts
dipole antennas.

i,,f;

logloD+20

kk'lOFM

-Gs -G -27.6-R+B
R

81

D = 3 meters
FM = frequency in MHz
G = antenna gain = 2.15 db
R = 4.2 for 3 meters reflection factor
B = 2x.5 db balum loss

V rtical--Theoretical

ANSI Theoretical Model

To show chamber quality, we made site
attenuation measurements using a biconical
antenna for the 30-200 MHz band and a log
periodic antenna for the 200-1000 MHz band.
The results were compared to the model in
the proposed ANSI C63.4 [2], to answer
questions of chamber performance 1) for

Fig. 1:

Theoretical 3 Meter Site

Attenuation, 10 db/div, 30+200 MHz

Method of Measurements
The technique we employed to make all
site attenuation measurements is described
in the proposed revision to ANSI C63.4,
Reference [2], where site attenuation equals
the two antenna factors plus space loss. We
made all open field measurements at
Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio,
Texas. This 30 meter site is a registered
class B site. All measurements (unless
noted) are with a source height of 1 meter
and the receive antenna scanned 1-4 meters.
Site Attenuation Model Verification
To verify the ANSI model and check
antenna factors, we made measurements in the
open field at 10 meters and 3 meters.
10 Meters: The site attenuation for
horizontal polarization at 10 meters dis
tance was compared to the theoretical site
attenuation showing the delta between the
theoretical and actual. The difference is
within t2.5 db. The maximum difference for
vertical antenna polarization on the open
field at 10 meters and the model was +2,
-3 db.
3 Meters: Because our class B chamber
measurements are at 3 meters, we also made a
set of measurements on the open field at
3 meters to compare to the model. The
results (Figure 2) show that the model
describes an open field at 3 meters to
within +2 db, -3 db. Because both vertical
and horizontal polarizations are within +2,
-3 db, we can say the model is an excellent

80

representation of a good open field. These

measurements also verified our antenna
factors since a significant error in the
antenna factors would produce a common
offset in these results.

Antenna Factors
To make all site attenuation measurements, we used a biconical antenna (AIL
TECH 94455-l) from 30 MHz to 200 MHz and
a log periodic antenna (AEL-APN 113C) from
200 MHz to 1 Ghz. Using the standard
antenna method, we measured the biconical
dipole antenna factors from a set of dipole
antennae calibrated by the National Bureau
of Standards. The log periodic antennas
were calibrated using the standard site
method with the source antenna at 4 meters
high, distance of 10 meters, and the receive
antenna scanned 1-4 meters on the open
field. Since the horizontal and vertical
antenna factors are almost identical, we
used the average antenna factor.
_

111

boritortal-A?tennz

Facto

-_

-33

.--i
--3:

i_.
_

_.--.-_-

a
--

11,11,1IN 15
___._.__-.__---

Y---t-t----t----t-f--l

* --1

Vetical:

Measured-Theor

tical
---.----

g 18

---

-L
r:
.___.
.i
I-,
Fig. 2:

Open Field Minus Model At 3 Meters,

30 MHz to 200 MHz, 2 db/div

Fig. 3:

._.-i.._
,.._._,_____
...i_.._
..-.._.
.,~..
.._
_. .f

...i.-._

-c

_.__..

-.__

__-_--__I_

~._. .j_..._
__.. .-^__i__..._

t ..-..
-...._
_

__.__.

._.

____.._._.._

. .___..

_.._.._

_._..__

Measured Antenna Factor For Log

Periodic Using Standard Site
Method,10 db/div

- 81 -

FREQUENCY
(IN MHz)
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
120
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
900
950
1000
FIG. 4:

ATTENUATION
(MEASURED)
13
13
12
13
13
15
16
17
17.5
18
18
19
21
22.5
23
23.5
24.5
27
26
27
29
29.5
30
30.5
31.5
33
34
33.5
34
33

DIFFERENCE
(MEAS-CALC)
2
2
1
2
1.8
2.6
2.6
2.7
1.6
.1
-1.2
-1.4
-.4
.2
-.
z
::7
.6
-1.4
-1.3
1
::4
-.6
-.7
-.3
.6
1.1
.l
.l
-1.3

Chamber MeasurementsVs. The FCC

OST-55 Model

16~4
Chamber Quality Data
The IBM Austin chamber's site attenuation measured to within 2.7 db of the
OST 55 theoreticalmodel of an open field
site and compared to the proposed ANSI
model, the Austin chamber shows a maximum
positive deviation of 3.5 db.
Chamber Quality Vs. OST 55 Model
Figure 4 shows the chamber results
when compared against this FCC model of an
open field.
Chamber Quality Vs. ANSI Model
To give a more complete picture of the
chamber quality, we compared chamber meas
urements to the proposed ANSI model [2].
The maximum positive differencebetween
the chamber data with the source at the
center of the turntable and the theoret
ical model is +2.5 db and the maximum
negative error is -4 db. Above 80 MHz,
the error is within +2 db, -3 db for both
polarizations.
Horizontal: Figure 5a shows the meas
ured attenuationdata for the chamber with
the antenna in the horizontalpolarizations.
Figure 5b shows the differencebetween
actual data and the theoreticalopen field
model for horizontal polarizations. The
horizontal results are within +2.5 db. The
positive errors will result in the apparent
EM1 from a product to be lower than it
should be on an ideal open field.

L-_._I.____L__/&_-._I
lDDDHl

Fig. 5a:

Chamber Site Attenuation,Horizontal,

30 MHz To 1000 MHz,10 db/div

.,l
*I
+B
.l
.I

Fig. 5b: Chamber Minus ModelJHorizontal,30 MHz to 1000 MHz, 2 db/div

- 82

Vertical: Figures 6a, 6b and 6c show

similar data for the vertical polarization.
Figure 6a shows the chamber site attenuation. Figure 6b shows the theoretical open
field. Figure 6c shows the difference in 6a
and 6b. The site attenuation vertical error
(Figure 6c) is within +2.5 and -3 db of the
theoretical.

Fig. 6a:

Chamber Site Attenuation, Vertical, 30 MHz To 1000 Mhz, 10 db/div

a?----

---

----

--.-----.-~.

--

.--.-

-....

-.-

.._.

__

._ ._._

.._..

_.__...

--r-.
..-.

..

-...

----.---..-____

.-.

_.__

J-

__._.__.___.____

High Band

Fig. 6b:

Fig. 6c:

Theoretical Open Field Site Attenuation, 10 db/div

Chamber Minus Model, Verti cal, 30 MHz To 1000 Mhz, 2 db/div

__..__

,...

I_

Chamber Quality With Source Position

Variation
To assure that these 3 meter measure
ments are representativeof data which would
be obtained from the volume occupied by a
product, a series of tests were made in
which the position of the source antenna was
varied. For both horizontal and vertical
polarizationswe used four source positions.
Since all sources in a 1 meter square
product rotate to within the distance of 3
to 3.5 meters of the receive antenna when
the turntable is scanned, measurementswere
taken at both 3 and 3.5 meters. The maximum
positive deviations over this volume in our
chamber measurements,which would cause a
tested unit to read low, are within 1.5 db
of the open field results. Therefore,we
expect similar results as measuring in a

a3

good open field. The maximum negative

deviations are also within 1.5 db of the
open field results.
Horizontal: Figure 8 shows the source
antenna positions for the horizontal polarizations. Figures 9 and 10 show the most
positive and most negative deviations from
the ANSI model for the four horizontal
source positions. The most positive maximum
deviations in the chamber is 3.0 db above
the theoreticalmodel. As seen in Figure 2,
on the open field, we measured deviations of
2 db above the model. Therefore,we expect
chamber horizontalpolarizationmeasurements
to be essentiallyequal to those on a good
open field.

RECEIVE
SCANNED l-4M

1M

\1

Fig. 7:

Horizontal Source Position

Variations

MOST POSITIVE/NEGATIVE

Fig. a:

DEVIATIONS

FROM THE THEORETICAL

Chamber, Max. Deviations From

Model, 30 MHz To 200 MHz
Horizontal, 2 db/div

Fig. 9:

FOR SOURCE

POSITIONS

SHOWN

Chamber, Max. Deviations From

Model, 200 MHz To 1000 MHz
Horizontal, 2 db/div

- 84 -

Vertical: Figures 12 and 13 show the

most positive and most negative deviations
from the ANSI model for the four vertical
source positions. The maximum positive
deviations is 3.5 db above the theoretical,
which is within 1.5 db of the results we
saw in the open field test. The most
RECEIVE

negative deviations are also within 1.5 db

of the 3 meter open field results. Therefore, we expect chamber vertical polarization measurements to be essentially the same
as those on a good open field.

SOURCE

Vertical Source Positions

Conclusion
111

For the total frequency spectrum,

horizontal and vertical polarizations, and
positional variations of the source, the IBM
Austin 045 semi-anechoic chamber compares
very closely to the theoretical models of an
ideal open field and should give results
essentially the same as a good open field.

.a
*.
.z
I

-2

-4

Acknowledgements
d

AA

-II

Fig 2:

Chamber, Max. Deviations From

Model, 30 MHz To 200 MHz
Vertical 2 db/div

II

The authors wish to thank Albert A.

Smith, Jr. of the IBM Poughkeepsie EMC Lab
for his advice in preparing this paper. We
would also like to express our appreciation
to the IBM Boulder, Boca Raton, and
Lexington EMC personnel who participated in
the review effort.

to
.8

References
111 A. A. Smith, Jr., R. F. German,
J. B. Pate:
IEEE Transactions on EMC Vol. 24,
No. 3, August, 1983, 260-265

[21 "Open Area Test Sites," draft No. 5

(April 1982) addition to American
National Standard C63.4
-

II

a*a

Fig. 12:

Chamber, Max. Deviations From

Model, 200 MHz To 1000 MHz
Vertical 2 db/div

[31 "Characteristics of Open Field Test

Sites," FCC Bulletin OST 55

85

1705

DISCRIMINATING BETWEEN NARROWBAND AND BROADBAND EM1

USING A SPECTRUM ANALYZER
______ ___----__--____- __--__--____________________-Siegfried Linkwitz
Hewlett Packard Co.
Santa Rosa, California, USA

Abstract
The discrimination between narrowband (NB) and
broadband (BB) interference is important for
commercial and military EM1 tests because
different interference limits apply. The
measurement of NB signals which are mixed in
with BB signals can be difficult using
commercial test methods. In MIL-STD tests the
selection of bandwidth and their corresponding
correction factors can lead.to errors. These
issues are investigated and alternate test
methods presented.

Since the bandwidth is not specified for MIL

regulations, a test has to be performed to
determine whether the EM1 is NB or BB. For BB
signals a bandwidth and signal type dependent
normalizing factor has to be applied to
compare the measured voltage to the BB limit.
This approach can lead to misinterpretations
of signal types and errors in determining the
appropriate normalizing factors. (1)

Introduction
Electra-magnetic interference is classified as
NB if its spectrum is contained within the
bandwidth of the measuring EM1 receiver and BB
if the spectrum is wider than the receiver
bandwidth. In CISPR type, commercial tests,
the bandwidth of the EM1 measuring receiver is
specified. In addition, quasi-peak detection
is specified in order to properly evaluate the
annoyance level of BB interference.
It has been found recently, that a low level
NB signal which is mixed in with a larger
amplitude BB signal can be more annoying to TV
viewing than the BB interference by itself.
The quasi-peak level, though, might give
little indication of the presence of the NB
interference.
MKRD.B HZ
fP RE
IB dW

Fig.2:

Measured signal amplitude depends on

receiver bandwidth. The normalized BB
signal strength in dBuV/MHz is constant only for a few bandwidth
settings.

To properly measure the interference potential

of different signal types it becomes important
to understand the characteristcs of the
measuring instrument, how they affect the
measured signal amplitude and how they can be
used to distinguish between signal types.
Spectrum Analyzers
The correct evaluation and measurement of EM1
is simplified by observing its spectrum on a
spectrum analyzer display with varying
bandwidth, frequency span, sweeptime or video
bandwidth.

tENTER18.9822
HHZ
RESBW 18 kH7.
Fig.1:

VW 108kHZ

SPAN588.8kHZ
SW 38 al*00

A lower amplitude NB signal is

masked by quasi-peak detection.

Fig.3:

Spectrum analyzer block diagram.

- 86 -

The absence of preselection below 2000 MHz

spectrum analyzers may lead to overload of IEe
input mixer and a false spectrum display.

analyzer, a dB change in input attenuation

will give an identical dB change in the
amplitude of the displayed spectrum.

This can easily be detected by changing the

input attenuation. In linear operation of the

Four basic methods are available to

distinguish between NB and BB signals. (3)

METHODS

TUNINGTEST
"TUNE"

A BWi

PRFTEST
A

SWEEPTIME

NB

A AMPL

) 3dB

NO A SPACING
(LINE

PEAKVS.AVG.DET

CRTRESPONSE

BB

MODE)

A AMPL

< 3dB

SPACING
(PULSE MODE)

NO A AMPL

A AMPL

NO A AMPL

A AMPL

AVIDEOBW

BANDWIDTHTEST
A RESOLUTIONBW

Fig.4:

Methods for NB and BB analysis.

In the Tuning Test, the variation of the

spectral amplitude over the bandwidth of the
analyzer is the criterium for classifying
signals.

Detector Parameters

1.

2. The PRF Test looks for changes in spectral

line spacing as function of the analyzer sweep
time. True spectral lines are unaffected by
sweep time but impulsive signals with PRF's
less than the analyzer bandwidth will change
their line spacing and therefore be recognized
as BB.

CISPR EM1 receivers employ quasi-peak

detection (QPD) for anannoyance weighted
signal indication, while spectrum analyzers
use peak detection to determine the absolute
signal amplitude. As a result, a BB signal
such as a constant amplitude pulse train with
a PRF less than the analyzer bandwidth, i.e.
with several spectral lines within the
analyzer bandwidth, will be displayed as
constant amplitude time domain pulses. The
QPD indication, though, will increase with PRF
but always be lower than the peak indication.
110

3. In the Peak vs. Average Detection test, a

reduction in the post detection video
bandwidth reduces the amplitude of BB signals
(smoothing) without affecting NB signals.
4. The Bandwidth Test looks for spectral
amplitude changes with varying analyzer
bandwidth. A signal whose spectrum is
contained within the analyzer bandwidth will
display constant amplitude and is NB. With an
increase in bandwidth by a factor of 10 the
signal display will increase 20dB for a
coherent BB signal and 1OdB for a random BB
signal. A measurement ambiguity arises when a
signal behaves as BB only over a certain range
of bandwidths. Fig.2

100
90

Fig.5:

BAND
B 10.1540
vpz= l/Z

MHz,

x 0.316p*

= 9 kHZ x 1.05 = 9.5 kHz

Peak, quasi-peak and average detection

of pulses according to CISPR Publ.16

31

The average detected signal indication

increases linearly with PRF and coincides with
the QPD and peak detector readings when the
PRF exceeds the analyzer bandwidth, i.e. when
individual spectral lines are measured. For
B8 signals the average detected signal
amplitude is lower than either QPD or peak
detected indication. This property can be
used to determine the amplitude of a NB signal
which is mixed in with the BB signal. (2)
Average detection with a spectrum analyzer is
obtained by reducing the video bandwidth to
less than the resolution bandwidth. The
amplitude display has to be in Linear mode.
In the Log amplitude mode, video filtering
smoothes the logarithmically distorted detector output signal. For BB impulsive signals
the smoothed indication is considerably lower
than the average value of the impulses.

20 -

RESOLUTION BANDWlDTkl10
KWD BANDWIDTH
lOOkHl ,PEAKI
3 Hz IAVG & SMOOTHED,

17D5

Impulse Bandwidth
The absolute measurement of BB signals
requires knowledge of the effective analyzer
bandwidth in order to normalize the measured
amplitude to that of a reference bandwidth as
is necessary for MIL-STD tests. For coherent
BB signals the impulse bandwith is determining, for random BB signals the noise
bandwidth has to be known.
The impulse bandwidth relates the peak output
pulse voltage from a filter to the spectral
intensity of the pulse at its input. A short
duration, large amplitude pulse at the input
to a bandpass filter results in a reduced
amplitude but longer duration pulse at its
output. Consecutive filtering stages in a
receiver decrease the pulse amplitude, each
contributing to the impulse bandwith.

kHI

NONE

Fig.6:

Post-detection video filtering of

impulsive signals.

This smoothing effect in Log mode allows a

more accurate measurement of the NB component
in a mixed NB/BB spectrum than average
detection in Linear mode. Furthermore, the
measurement dynamic range is larger so that
even low level NB signals in the presence of
larger amplitude BB signals can be measured.
The video bandwidth needs to be reduced only
to the point where the rapid fluctuations of
the BB signal are smoothed. Further reduction
will not change the measured value but will
increase the required settling, analysis and
measurement times. Using a spectrum analyzer,
mixed NB/BB signals can often be measured
without the help of video filtering since the
NB signal is clearly visible on the display,
especially in Log amplitude mode.
1. AVERAGE DETECTION

2. DISPLAY SMOOTHING

IN LINEAR AMPLITUDE

IN LOG AMPLITUDE

Fig.8:

The impulse bandwidth is often assumed to

equal the 6dB bandwidth. A relatively simple
procedure allows the accurate determination of
impulse bandwidth. By measuring the response
to a pulse train of variable PRF where the
first measurement is taken at a PRF
significantly below the receiver bandwidth and
a second measurement at a PRF at least three
times higher than the bandwidth, the impulse
bandwidth can be calculated.

MODE

MODE

Fig.9:

Fig.7:

Pulse amplitude reduction from bandpass filtering in a receiving chain.

Mixed NB/BB signals in Lin and Log

amplitude modes and with video filtering.

Determination of impulse bandwith

from measurements of a variable PRF
pulse train.

The only assumptions for this test are a pulse

shape which is constant and independent of the
PRF and a pulse spectrum envelope of constant
amplitude over the resolution bandwidth. The
latter condition can be verified from the
spectrum analyzer display or by detuning the
receiver.

Every bandwidth limiting element in the

receive chain affects the impulse bandwidth.
In particular, the video bandwidth has to be
three to ten times wider than the resolution
bandwidth to minimize its influence and for
the impulse bandwith not to vary with pulse
width.

120 c

BW 100 Hz
-2,

lMPLSE
BANDWDTH
M

100 80 -

BW3ds=100Hz

60 -

lOO&lSEC

10 PSEC

1000 @SEC

10.000 @EC

PULSE WIDTH TEFF

Fig.10: Variation of impulse bandwidth with

pulse width for different post-detection video
bandwidths.

aa For commercial EM1 measurements, low level NB

signals with serious interference potential
can be "masked" by impulsive signals when
quasi-peak detection is used. Peak detection
allows both NB and BB signals to be observed
on the spectrum analyzer display. NB signals
can be further "enhanced" on the spectrum
analyzer display by using video filtering,
especially in the Logamplitude display mode.
Military EM1 measurements which require the
discrimination between NB and BB signals
seldom specify bandwiths for these measurements. Often, the normalized BB measurement
results are constant only over a specific
bandwidth range. Furthermore, the actual
impulse bandwidth should be determined before
normalization. The spectrum analyzer's display, range of bandwidths, frequency span
rates, peak and average detection are
powerful1 aids for the analysis and measurement of NB/BB signals.

The change of impulse bandwidth with pulse

width is caused by the non-linear relationship
between the peak voltage at the video filter
output and the width of the pulse at its
input. It becomes significant when the video
bandwidth is less than the resolution
bandwidth.
Once the impulse bandwidth is known, a
measured BB signal voltage in that bandwidth
can be normalized to a reference impulse
bandwidth, i.e. 1 MHz for MIL-STD tests. The
normalized voltage is then compared to the
appropriate BB limit level.

COMMERCIAL
LOW LEVEL

NB AND

BE SIGNAL

. SA DISPLAY
USING PEAK DET
. VIDEO
FILTERING
FOR AVERAGE
. LOG AMPLITUDE
FOR INCREASED

To overcome the additional testing required

and the ambiguity in the choice of bandwith
for the measurement of a signal, a new
bandwidth specification is being considered
such that a BB signal measuring at the NB
level would normalize to the BB limit
level.(l)
120

DET
DYNAMIC

RANGE

OBWi = NB LIMIT-BBLIMITdB
-20

NB/BB

. WIDE
. FOUR

401

10 ldiz

Fig.12:
0

100 ktlz

1 MHZ

10 MHZ

100 MHZ

1 GHZ

UJll

10 GHZ

FREOUENCY

Fig.11:

NB/BB limits for MIL-461 REOZ and

impulse bandwith required to match BB
with NB limits.

In practice, the continuously changing

bandwidth will have to be approximated by
discrete settings which in turn requires a
single limit level without consideration of NB
or BB siqnals.
Conclusion
Performing commercial or military emission
tests can result in unique measurement
difficulties.

SIGNAL
RANGE
NBIBB

DISCRIMINATION
OF BWSAVAILABLE
DISCRIMINATION

METHODS

Difficult EM1 measurements simplified by the versatility of spectrum

analyzers.
References

(1)

R.B. Cowdell, An analysis of MIL-STD-462

Application Note: Identification of BB
and NB Emissions, IEEE Symp. 1983,
CH 1838-2/83/0000-0038.

(2)

FCC Rules & Regulations, Vol. II, July

1981, Part 15, Radio Frequency Devices,
Subpart J, Appendix A, Section 4.2.2.

(3)

MIL-STD-462 Application Note: Identification of BB and NB Emissions, 5/1980,

Electromagnetic and Interference Compatibility Branch, Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base, Ohio 45433.

BROADBAND

YIG-TUNED

89

18

PRESELECTOR

D. Raicu,

R&D Center

California

The dynamic range of a spectrum analyzer extends between its noise level
and the highest signal level for which
the nonlinearity remains tolerable.
The measurement range is, however,
broader, since the use of input RF
attenuators makes it possible to handle input levels up to the available
power of the signal source.
A low noise preamplifier
improves the
overall noise figure, extending the
measurement range of the spectrum anaMeanwhile, the dynamic range
lyzer.
decreases, since the input nonlinearity
threshold is affected stronger than
the noise level.
Broadband preamplifiers bring about an
additional problem.
When different
signals with widely varying levels are
present at the input, they may overload the first stages and distort the
spectrum analyzer indication.
It is
recommended therefore to use at the
input a very linear tracking filter,
which eliminates the undesired frequencies and their overloading effect.

Widely used in the microwave range

are the magnetically tunable YIG filAt frequencies in the VHF and
ters.
UHF range (below 1 GHz), regular YIG
filters up to now were not available.
The reason is that achieving ferrimagnetic resonance without early limiting
below 1 GHz requires a totally new
YIG filter design.

Low frequency limitations in

the range of YIG filters
Two factors are mainly responsible for
the low frequency limitations of the
YIG filters as presently built.

U.S.A.

field H, the internal

magnetic
Hi is

field

= H - Nz 41rMs

Hi

where N is the axial demagnetizing

factor 2nd 4nMs the saturation magnetization.
The resonance frequency
spheroid is given by
w

Y
"-0

The first is related to the effect of

the demagnetization.
For a ferrimagnetic spheroid immersed in an axial

FOR VHF AND UHF

G. U. Sorger

Eaton Corporation,
Sunnyvale,

~6

y,

of the YIG

[II - (N 2 -ii T) LITMUS=

Hi+NT

4nMs

(2)

in which y stands for the gyromagnetic ratio a8d N is the transverse

demagnetizing T actor.
It appears that
even neglecting the internal field required for saturation, there is a lower limit of the resonance frequency
l*)

= yoNT 4nMs

(3)

min

For spheres of pure YIG, this gives a

limitation at about 1.6 GHz, and YIG
microwave filters operate mostly above
this frequency.
By using oblate spheroids and doping the crystal, both NT
and 4nM
can be decreased by an order
of magn?tude.
Under such conditions, however, a second factor takes over.
It is related
to the anisotropy field.
The resonance frequency of an anisotropic material depends on the orientation of the
field with respect to the crystallographic axes as well as on the magnitude of this field.
For negative
anisotropy crystals magnetized along
the easy axis, for instance, the minimum resonance frequency is
w

2
=--y
0 Ha
min
3

where H is the anisotropy field.

For
pure YI8, at room temperatures, this
means about 150 MHz.
taking into account onTheoretically,
ly the first order anisotropy, there
exist certain directions of the magnetization vector for which the resonance frequency can reach zero for a
certain field magnitude.
Our goal was
to determine the locus of these directions and to select one of them as the
spheroid axis, along which the magnetic field is directed.
As mentioned
before, an oblate spheroid should be
used rather than a sphere, and the
crystal should be doped for low saturation magnetization.
This complete
set of conditions should make possible
to obtain a sharp resonance down to
significantly lower frequencies.
We
were interested to cover a range starting at 100 MHz, and extending up to
2000 MHz.
LOW frequency

ferrimagnetic
in an
anisotropicaterial

without affecting the generality of

In a spherical system of
the results.
coordinates, this becomes, for example
cos$*

Tf,

RAO

(7)

vu u*

(8)

From

(7) and (10) we obtain

Hij=H

2K1
K1
3
.+-- oi- 21\11 U.
oJ MO
J
0

Normalizing
and denoting

spherical
h

ix

ferrimagnetics
2

(11)

HM
field h=L
21K11
we obtain, in

the magnetic
K1
s =-,
/K1/

coordinates

= cos+sinO[ho+s(l-cos2$sin20)]

11. = sin$sin8[ho+s(l-sin2$sin28)]
lY
= cos?[ho+s

sin201

(12)

The spherical coordinates $. and oi of

the vector E
should satisf$, in
turn, a relation similar to (6), which
implies a minimum magnitude for the
d.c. field, ho, which can be obtained
For posialong the direction (S,$).
tive anisotropy s = 1 and the calculation yields
ho> -cos20+

For negative
obtain

sin2$sin$cos8

anisotropy

(13)

s = -1 and we

(14)

We normalize
the relation
Q=

the frequencies

VA = K,, (ix1 ~1~ + o/22c13+ a3 ~1~ )

(9)

by using

lL
IKll
STY

and we introduce

the variable

ho + s
x=------3
Then, the normalized
cy is given by

in which VclUA is the gradient of the

energy with respect to
anisotropy
the components of the unit vector z
parallel to the magnetization
(see, for
example, [ll).
For cubic

(10)
0

ho& sin2 0

where G?. is the internal field and E

the d.c? part of the anisotropy fiel 4:
defined as
TI, = -

HA= -

(6)

In a saturated crystal, the magnetization vector is produced by an equivalent d.c. field parallel to it, whose
expression is
=

where ~1. are the projections of z on

the axe&, and K the first order conConsequently
stant of anisot&opy.

hiz

(5)

HO

resonance

Consider a cubic single crystal in a

coordinate systern with axes parallel
to the cube edges.
A given direction
is characterized by the angles $1, $2,
Due to the symmetry,
$3 to the axes.
we can confine the study to a domain
within which the angles JI. satisfy a
J
relation of the type

sin 0+sin @ 2 sine.

>cose>o

90

resonance

frequen-

n2 = x2-2sx(sin28sin2$cos2+cos28)
+ 3 sin40 cos28sin2$cos9

(15)

Now, the conditions for the lowest

possible resonance frequencies can be
found by looking for the roots of the
equation (15) and imposing for them
the requirement to be consistent with

91

the conditions
tively.

(13) or (14), respec-

For negative anisotropy, the calculations show that this is possible only
for fJ = n/3?. Extending this condition
from the elementary domain considered
to the complete range of spherical
coordinates, it defines the orientations of the magnetization
lying in
crystallographic
planes (100).
For positive anisotropy, one of the
roots of Equation (15) is acceptable
for $ = r/4.
Again, extending this
condition over the complete unit sphere
it defines orientations of the magnetization lying in (110) planes
but only
within the angles between pairs of adjacent 11111 axes separated by one
LllOl axis.

18~6

polygones whose contours constitute

the sets from Firr. 1. The dashed
lines represent the maximum tolerable
departure from the contours, defined
by the requirement of reaching a given
WO=&, small but still different from
zero.
It appears that the accuracy
requirements are less tight in the
neighborhood of the polygone vertex
(that is, in both cases, around the
axes of hard magnetization),
and most
critical around the axes of the [110-J
type.

The second root of (15) is consistent

with the condition
(13) for orientations of the magnetization
covering a
narrow two dimensional domain around
the tllll axis - which is the hard
axis of magnetization
for positive anisotropy crystals. In order for the magnetization to be that close to the
hard axis, the applied field should be
even closer.
In fact,the tolerable
departure from the [llllis so small,
that we can assume that the condition
is met only along the CL111 axes, so
that we have no practical extension of
the one-dimensional
domain obtained
from discussing the first root of Equation (15), and we can restrict our
considerations
to the former.
Fig. I. shows the loci of the intersections of the unit sphere of coordinates
with the orientations of the magnetization vector which make possible a
low frequency resonance.
For a negative anisotropy, the sphere is separated into eight spheric equilateral
triangles and for a positive anisotropy, it is separated into six spheric squares.
In Fig. 2, a detail of
the locus for positive anisotropy close
to one [ill] axis is represented, showing the small two-dimensional
domains
previously discussed, mentioned for
the sake of theoretical completion.
It should be kept in mind that orienting the magnetization vector along an
axis belonging to the loci in Fig. 1
is just a necessary condition for
achieving a minimum (theoretically
zero) resonance frequency.
A further
requirement is for the equivalent field
to have the precise magnitude obtained
from Equation (15).
Any orientation belonging to the locus
from Fig. 1 can be selected, but from
a technical viewpoint, it is important
to find one which is less sensitive to
unavoidable slight misorientations
of
the single crystal disk.
Fig. 3 and
4 show separately two of the spherical

Fig. 1:

Magnetization
orientations
compatible with a zero frequency ferrimagnetic resonance

This is a reason for considering the

hard axes of magnetization
as the
optimum choice.
An additional benefit comes from the fact that only along
the main axes are the internal magnetic field and the resulting magnetization parallel, which makes the design
simpler and potentially more accurate.
As shown before, the demagnetization
effects should be also considered.
They account for a difference between
the applied field and the internal
field.
A flat shape, normal to the
direction of the applied field, is
required for having a possible low
resonance frequency.
When the flat
rotation ellipsoid is obtained from
a single crystal so that its rotation
aXiS
is parallel to the hard axis of
magnetization,
all the conclusions
derived before, by considering the
effects of anisotropy, remain valid
if a corrected value of the affective
field is used (Bo+N
471-MSinstead of
Y
Ho).

92

Pure YIG has a negative anisotropy.

The most common way to decrease its
saturation magnetization
is to dope
it with Gallium, which does not change
the character of the anisotropy.
The
calculations presented above covered
the general case because for other
compositions the ferrimagnetic material
can have a positive anisotropy.
Actually, it could be beneficial to dope
the crystal with ions whose effect
would be to reduce the negative anisotropy, to compensate it completely or
even to cause a positive resulting
anisotropy, if Kl remains small.
A
reduction in the magnitude of the first
order anisotropy constant, no matter
what its sign is, makes the relative
orientation of the ellipsoid rotation
axis and the crystallographic
axes less
-_)....--I
1 c1
critica1 .
mL.z,.-..7
2 J.t.dU
7 -,r-lto slrrlpu_II11,122c;"UIU
cations in the technology of the ferrimagnetic body used as a resonator and
in the construction of the filter.
Design

Fig. 2:

The vicinity of a rlll] axis

where the magnetization vector
can satisfy (15) and (13)
for positive anisotropy.

Fig. 3:

Tolerable misalignment
(dashed
line) of the magnetization
from the optimum orientation
(full line) for negative anisotropy.

Considerations

A one stage filter was designed based

It is
on the YIG resonator described.
desirable to use the uniform precession
mode only, avoiding the effect of other
modes.
This is not easy to achieve,
particularly considering the fact that
for a disk shaped resonator, the density of the magnetostatic modes is substantially higher than for a spheric
resonator [?,I. It is important to have

Fig. 4:

Tolerable misalignment
(dashed line) of the magnetization from the optimum orientation (full line) for
positive anisotropy.

95

19D7

MEASUREMENT OF THE IMMUNITY OF BROADCAST RECEIVERS ACCORDING

TO THE CISPR METHOD AND THE DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED
G.K.Boronichev
The USSR Ministry of Telecommunications
Moscow, USSR

Difficulties are conaidered,which

arise when controlling the immunity
of broadcast receivers by a CISPR
method. It is shown that a response
of an AM receiver to a test interfering-signal (a test stimulus) is critical not only to the parameters of
an interference but to a greater
extent depends on a difference between the frequencies of a wanted signal and interference, on the relationship between their amplitudes,
on the frequency stability of the
measuring generators which are used,
etc. A thesis is questioned, that
it is no use controlling the immunity of USW FM broadcast receivers in
that case when an interference affects an IF stage. Data of experimental investigations are given, which
confirm the results of the performed analysis. A conclusion is drawn
that the CISPR methods of controlling the immunity need further improvement.
l.Introduction
Solution of EMC problems by guaranteeing a required immunity of
radio facilities to external interference is very promising. This stimulates development of corresponding
investigations. In this connection,
attention should be drawn to a CISPR
document [I] where an attempt is
made to work out methods of measurement of immunity of TV and broadcast
receivers to external electromagnetic fields as well as to interference currents and voltages Induced by
these fields in connecting cables
and other elements of the receptor
circuit.
These methods were tested on TV
receivers but they seem not to be
polished enough when applied to broadcast receivers. The present Report
is devoted to analysis of reasons
which allow to draw such a conclusion.

2,Rffect of an interference
on the RF and IF stages
of an AM receiver
2.1. Theoretical considerations.
In accordance with 117 . the immunity of IF and LF stab& is controlled
in AM receivers. The immunity of RF
.*+#%nnr.
.8nIL""
n** rllralaur=iu..
mn~-..rn~a
o"oe~'u
.bL9
A test interfering-signal (a test
stimulus) is introduced into the radio receiver by means of a TEM cell
which simulates an interference
field, or by means of special devices which inject interference currents and voltages into different
points of the receptor. AM oscillations are accepted as a test interfering-signal, and during the. tests,
at the input of the radio re&iver,

It is shown in [2, 3] that currents

and voltages which arise in the most
sensitive points of the receptor
under the influence of the electromagnetic field of an interference
source, are a basic mechanism of the
effect of interference on a radio
receiver. The RF and IF stages of a
radio receiver should be assigned to
such sensitive points. Thus, the
problem resolves itself into a detern,4nn+ir\n
nC a response of a receptor
III.l.IIcI"I"~I
V.I.
to an effect of an AM interference
in the presence of a wanted unmodulated signal. This response should
be determined at the output of a
low-pass filter which has a cutoff
frequency f > 1000 HI,and which is
connected t8 the output of the radio
receiver.
As a first approximation, this
problem can be solved on the basis
of analysia of the voltage at the
output of the detector to the input
AllI mirm.a,
..-A
--lr\.....*
of *h-i-h
en
a&I%4 a
ElL11UrYIdal"'~~~$"a~~ ~~~~?~d [4] :

frequency part of the range and causes

a slight increase in the insertion loss
at the higher frequencies.
The input l-dB compression point of the
filter was higher than+10 dJ3m over most
of the range.
It decreased at the lower frequencies rather sharply, but at
100 MHz remained higher than 0 dBm.
In order to keep the filter response
in the passband spur free, the measures
described before for suppressing spurious magnetostatic modes had to be
complemented by a controlled nonuniformity in the DC magnetic field, obtained
by a slight departure from the parallelism of the two planes limiting the
This proved to
electromagnetic
gap.
be effective, especially in the higher
part of the frequency range, where the
problem of mode purity was more critical.
A low noise amplifier was built to work
Its
in conjunction with the filter.
frequency characteristic was designed
so as to complement the insertion loss
characteristic of the filter throughout
Since the increase in the
the range.
measurement range brought by the combination is accompanied necessarily by
a decrease in the dynamic range, the
gain of the amplifier was selected SO
as to maximize the sum of these two
It was thus possible to imvalues.
prove the overall measurement range
by 17 dH, with a reduction of only 3 dB
The gain of the
in the dynamic range,
cascaded amplifier and filter was flat
in the frequency range, and the decrease in the filter response at the
frequencies close to the lower limit
remained manifest only in the corresponding increase of the overall noise
figure at these frequencies.
Conclusion
A variety of technical problems impedes
the operation of YIG filters at frequencies as low as 100 MHz, but the
most important of them is the theoretical limitation imposed by the anisotropy of the single crystal resonators.
Our analysis produced the conclusion
that it is possible to substantially
expand downwards the operating frequency range of such resonators by properly
orienting their crystallographic
axes
with respect to the applied DC field.
On the other hand, in order for a low
frequency resonance to be compatible
with the requirement of magnetic saturation of the material, the resonator
has to be shaped like an oblate ellipsoid (or disk), rather than a sphere,
with the DC field applied along its
Both conditions can be
rotation axis.
met simultaneously only with the resonator axes and the crystallographic
axes accurately positioned with respect
to one another at the time when the
resonator is manufactured from the

94

single crystal.
This problem does not
a.r:lse,obviously, for spheric resonators which have no preferred axis, but
is essential for achieving the ferrimagnetic resonance at relatively low
frequencies.
Once the resonator as described is
available, a whole series of measures
(related to the coupling circuits, to
the magnetic circuits, to the details
of the resonator shape etc.) become
effective in improving the filter performance up to levels which make possible its application as a preselector
in spectrum analyzers.
Together with
a low noise amplifier, it brings a
very significant improvement in the
instrument performance, in a frequency
range where the advantages of preselection with YIG filters seemed to be out
of reach.

References
Ill Sodha, M.S. and Srivastava, N.C.:
Microwave Propagation in Ferrimagnetics.
Plenum Press, New
York, 1981
Magnetostatic
ISI Walker, L.R.:
in Ferromagnetic
Resonance.
Rev. 105, p. 390, (1957)

Modes
Phys.

Magnetostatic
I31 Dillon, Jr., J.F.:
Modes in Discs and Rods.
J. Appl.
Phys., 31, po 1605, (1960)

97

19D7
receivers requires additional confirmation because it could happen that
the test data were affected by the
measurement errors which were left
out of account. At the same time, a
comparison of data of Tables 1 and 2
shows that the immunity parameters
of receivers at the frequencies of
the second channel of reception are
lower than at the intermediate freu
quency.

to some degree. Toward this end, having calibrated a receiver by means

of a wanted signal whose modulation
factor remained at the previous level, a test interfering-signal was
generated, which had a form of unmodulated harmonic oscillations. l3y tuning the generator that produced these oscillations, it was achieved that
zero beats appeared at the output of
the receiver under test. Then, while
removing the modulation from a wanted signal and modulating the interference oscillations, the interference level was varied so as to obtain,
at the receiver output, an interference voltage which corresponds to the
receiver output power that is by 20 dB
lower than its standard output-power.
Thus, conditions were created, for
which expression (3) is valid. It turned out that, with a suitable stability of HP generators being used, the
tests of radio receivers made by such
a modified technique lead to obtaining stable results. Tables 1 and 2
give averaged data of experimental
investigations of immunity parameters.
Table 1 pertains to that case when
the frequency of a test interfering
-signal was equal to the frequency of
the tuning of the radio receiver to
the second channel of reception.
It follows from Table 1 that broadcast receivers are sensitive to effect
of interference at the frequencies
cf the second channel of reception,
the receiver immunity decreasing with
increasing tuning-frequency.

3. Effect of an interference
on the Kr' and JP staQes
of an FM receiver
3.1. Theoretical considerations.
It is indicated in tll that when an
electromagnetic field affects the IF
stages of USW FM broadcast receivers,
the control of immunity of such receivers is not of great importance.
This is accounted for by the presence of an amplitude limiter before a
frequency-sensitive detector. It can
be shown that this assertion is not
quite true. Let us suppose that an
interference affects an RF or IF
stage of a receiver. As a result, at
the input of a frequency-sensitive
detector, there will be an interfeaddition to a wanted
;;;;;lUflFI in
Let us assume for simplicity tha?*an interference has a form
of unmodulated harmonic oscillations.
Suppose we have that f is a wantedsignal carrier-frequency, f PI is
an interference frequency 4 4dif 111

=/fs-f&

K>1

Table 1
Type of a receiver and the
frequency of its tuning, ft

Method of introduction of interference

energy
An open TEM
cell,
V/m

Type I, ft = 0.25 rm~

357

w3

!Cype1, ft - 1 MHz

221

10'3

Type 2, ft I 0.25 MHz

Type 2, it zc 1 MHz

1.8

Table 2 pertains to that case

when the frequency of interference
is equal to the intermediate frequency of the receiver.
Data of Table 2 evidence that broadcast receivers respond also to interference whose frequency coincides
with the intermediate frequency of
the receptor. It turned out that for
type 1 radio receivers there is no
dependence of the measured immunityparameters on the tuning frequency.
The fact of such dependence for type 2

Into the antenna input,

V
1.6

Into the
supply
mains, V

0.5

lO-3
10-3

45

10'3

29

10'~

29

10-3
0.4

50 103

Then (according to [4])a signal frequency proves to be modulated by a

difference frequency
and its
harmonics. In this case,
Afdhffrequency deviation Af
depends on a diffeT;ic;:frequency Aidif and on a va-

1 + mosd
Af=Afdif I+k2+2kCOSd

'

(4)

96

US
USm
+xCOS
Ad +
COS(Sl+AO)t
+
E

+~KhCOS(J2-A@t

.a, ]

(I)

where Kd is a detection coefficient;

U is a signal amplitude; URFI
mSand 9, are, respectively,
amplitude, modulation factor
and modulation frequency of the
interference carrier*
K ,#I$
AOis a difference between a
wanted
.
_ eignal frequency and an
interference fre uency.
After oscillations ?I) have passed
through the amplifier and low-pass
filter, the voltage measured at the
output of the radio receiver becomes
equal to

(2)

where r is a gain factor of the amplifier.

It is seen from (2) that at the
output of a radio receiver, besides
the oscillations of frequency SL , in
the case of AO,CB the oscillations
of frequencies AO, SL+AO and P-00
can be present whose amplitudes are
appoximately 36 times as high (Kc30)
as the signal of frequency B , i.e.
the signal whose value is used for
controlling the immunity of the radio
receiver. The amplitude of oscillations of frequency A0 is the highest
and is not dependent on the modulation factor m. It follows that the
error of measurement of immunity of
RF and IF stages of a receiver may
prove so high that it becomes of no
use to carry out the above-mentioned
operation. In this case, the variation
of the modulation factor of the interference carrier is of no importance
both for a receiver response being
measured and for a decrease of a measurement error.
Moreover, under the influence of
frequency instability of generators
which are used to simulate a wanted
signal and interference, the response of a radio receiver to a test
interfering-signal is instable in

time. This fact makes the control

operation difficult and leads to an
additional measurement error.
The situation can be improved if
a generator which causes an interference at the input of the detector,
is tuned in such a way that AO=O,
and if this condition is not broken
under the influence of frequency
instability of RF generators used in
measurements. In this case, the receptor response being measured will
correspond to the expession

2.2. Experimental investigations. Two types of broadcast receivers (three receivers of each tvne4
were taken for measurements. Typ& 1
was an all-wave receiver, type 2
was an all-wave receiver with a builtin tape recorder. Measurements were
made by means of an open TEM cell
(Fig.1 in CIS'PRdocument ['1]) as
well as according to a circuit of
Fig.16 of the same document (by injecting the interference currents into
the antenna input of the radio receiver and injecting the interference voltage into the mains input).
Each radio receiver was tested at
its tuning frequencies of 0.25 and
1 MHz. Because (as it was indicated
in Clause 1.1). there were reasons
to suppose that an interference can
affect both an RF stage and an IF
stage of the radio receiver, as a
test interfering-signal such A&Ioscillations were used, whose carrier
frequency corresponded to a secondchannel frequency or to an intermediate frequency of the radio receiver. All the requirements of document [I] were fulfilled in the measurements.
The experimental investigations
showed that their results are considerably affected by frequency instability of generators which simulate
wanted signal and interfesence, A
variation of a modulation factor of
an interference practically does not
influence a measured value of a receiver response. Thus, the conclusions drawn in Clause 2.1 were fully
confirmed, Moreover, it was found
out that it is also difficult to make measurements of a receiver response which in accordance with IN
should be by 30 dl3lower than a standard output-signal, because this response is at the same level as the
internal receiver-noise.
In order to overcome the abovementioned difficulties it was decided
to change a measurement technique

RP generators is sufficiently high

and that a measuring procedure and
a criterion of evaluation are changed. It should be noted that the
CISPR methods do not cover a control of immunity of radio receivers
to interferences which affect the
receivers at such frequencies as
the frequencies of the second channel of reception, intermediate frequencies (for FM receivers), etc
though the corresponding tests may
be of great importance. Thljs, the
methods of control of immunity of
broadcast receivers, which were set
forth in /'I/, need further improvement.

99

19D7
References
1
2

;;;II/E(Secretariat)27,August
.
M.Borsero, E.Nano Some considerations about interference vol.tag@ measurements and relevant
Limits, EMC, 1983, Zurich
CbSCr~P/E/Pr%(6oySoH~r.reB,l~aCMAbeB,
$~pMUHOl3/ccb,;P)
J. ,HO.W$ b !-9:x)
0 CkUl3M N!ieXJ.Jy
p%3JIWJH1_rMI4
IiO3@$l/lqMe~~aMMI'lOMexO3a~~eHHOCTM
TeneBM3MomHx l7pMeMHBKOkl.

L3:d .H.liono~
~~:ELTeMaTMYeCKMifj
aHtUIM3
GuemM. SocaIie)rovra~aT,ElocEtsa~lewmrpa~~, I95 E,T.

98

Table

Type of a receiver and the

frequency of its tuning, ft

Method of introduction of interference

energy
An open TEN
Ctjll.

Type 1,

ft

= 0.25

!Pype1,

Tt

I 1 MHz

MHz

IO

35 70-3

IO

28 1O-3

150 10'3

2.1

0.4

7 10-3

Type 2, ft = 0.25 MHz

Type 2, ft SI1 MHz

'V/n1

Into the anten- Into the

input,
supply mains,
V
V

na

where d
23dA fdif t.
It can'found
from (4) that
the frequency-deviationamplitude
will be equal to

(5)
Let us consider the simplest cxample. Suppose we have that the upper
frequency of an LF amplifier of a
receiver is equal to 15 kHz, and when
testing a radio receiver its output
is not terminated by a low-pass
filter. If during the setting a standard output power of a radio receiver an FM signal with a deviation of
22.5 kHz was used and
II15kHz,
'fd&d the
then an interference level
radio receiver output wi_llbe by
30 dB lower than a reference level
in that case when gf = 750 kHz, to
which KI 40 corresponds. It the modulation of interference oscillations had been taken into account,
the calculated value of K would have
been even higher. This, an USW FM
receiver proves to be sensitive to
an AM interference which affects its
RF or IF stage.
At the same time it should be noted that the abovementioned effect
will also take place when a lowpass filter with a cutoff frequency f >I000 Hz is connected to the
radi.8receivex. But this will happen
io:yK;; the case of Afdif<lOOO Hz
.
3.2. Experimental investigations. The experimental investigations described below were maimedat
a qualitative confirmation of considerations given in Clause 3.l.The
allwave receivers indicated in Clause 2.2 served as a test object. These remeivers were exposed to an A&l
electromagnetic interference-field
by using a converted three-metre method. The carriers of interference

frequencies were selected equal to

the intermediate frequency of a receiver as well as equal to frequencies which were higher and lower
than the frequency of its tuning.
The interference field was set at
such a level that the interference
could be audible but the maximum level was 0.4 V/m. A low-pass filter
was not connected to the output of
a receiver.
The results of the investigations
were as follows. The USW FM receivers responded to the above-mentioned test interfering-signal.In so
doing, it turned out that there were some individual frequencies at
which the receiver response was the
strongest and manifested itself in
the form of an audible signal whose
frequency was IO-12 kHz. In the frequency intervals between these individual frequencies, the response
of a receiver to a test intexferingsignal had a lower level but still
it was noticeable. These experiments
qualitatively confirmed the considerations presented in Clause 3.1.
Y.Conclusions
When controlling the immunity of
broadcast receivers by the CISPR method, some difficulties may be faced,
which cause an impermissibly high
measurement error or render a measurement impossible. In the case of
AM receivers these difficulties consist in the dependence of a measurement result on a difference between
the frequencies of the generators
which simulate a wanted signal and
interference, and on the stability
of these frequencies; low dependence of a receiver response on the
modulation factor of interference
oscillations; complexity of the measurement of this response at the
level of internal receiver-noise.
At the same time, the above-mentioned difficulties become surmountable provided that the s*ability of

101

20D8

ON ThjjMkASUBEI%l3NT
OF EM YOWER DE%SITY USING A D'JUBIS
L0ADE.DIQOP ANTENNA
-_

,.I_.

T.W. Wieckowski.
Technical University of Wroclaw
WrocYaw, Poland

The paper includes the analysis of a

double-loaded circular loop antenna acting as a broad-band probe for 614power
density measurement. The application of
a double-loaded antenna and an appropriate system for voltage control in
the loads of the antenna enabled determination of the output signal which is
influenced by the,actual values of the
Poynting vector,

multaneous measurement of both EM field

components; To achieve this, a doubleloaded circular loop antenna seems to be
best suited; The current flowing through
such an antenna depends on the following
two factors: the component of the magnetic field normal to the surface on whioh
the antenna has been located, and the
component of the electric field tangen,tialto thia same surface.

I'ntroduction

Double-loadedcircular loop antenna

Tae state-of-tne-artin the domain

of EM fields investigations and in the
study of EM field impact on living organisms does not yet allow for a sueeessful answer to the following quea'tions: whether or not both components
of the EM field exert an unfavourable
influence on living organisms and, if
not, which of them does, having these
all in mind, it beoomes necessary to
perform measurements not only for each
component separately, but for the EM
field power density as well. But measurements of this kind are difficult
and troublesome,apeoifioallywhen the
EM fields to be measured exhibit a corn-plex structure so that no relation between magnetic and electric field can be
it is
anticipated. In this s.itud%tion
advisable to use broad-band probes eq.uipped with antennae, which enable a si-

Let as consider a receiving circular

loop antenna of a radius b, placed in
the vioinity of arbitrary EM field aources. The antenna of interest is made of
an ideal conductor having a thickness 2a,
and haa been loaded with two impedances
21 at points 4 = 0 and @ P 'p(Fig.1>.
If the antenna diameter is several times
smaller than the distance to the nearest
NM field source, the field acting in the
vicinity of the antenna consista of the
superposition of fields generated by
elementary eleotria dipoles which have
been placed uniformly along the radiant
sources [5,7]
l

H(p) =$H:(Phikrq

where:

,thecomplex amplitude of
magnetic component :2X4
field at the centre of ,the
antenna produced by q elementary electric dipole,
3 the distance from Taint
P = 0 to point which is
orthogonal projection
of point p on q direction.

102

Eiq(0)e complex amplitude of the

even electric field component at the centre of
the antenna; this component depends on odd magnetic field component [5,7],
dependent from
W,cPI = fwzction
the magnetic component of
the EM field and the anten*a parameters [L5,7] ,
X,(@ = function dependent from
the electric component of
the EM field and the antenna parameters [1,5,7] ,
"1
= impedance loaded circular
loop antenna.
If the size of the antenna is smaller
than the wavelength, ]kbl<<l,the voltages of the antenna loads depend primarily on the complex-amplitudevalues
of the magnetic and electric fields at
the antenna centre.

U(0)=-jwynb2~H~~(O)W4(0)[YL+ZYol~
Cpl

13)

Fig. 1: Double-loaded circular loop

antenna situated near the
sources of the EM field

-2nb~~E~~(OlX~(O)[v,+2Y,

The current flowing in the antenna is a

function of both components of the EN
field acting in the immediate vicinity.
I(Q)

*
I-

Ulnl=-j~~n~2~,H:$O)Wq1011Y,t2Yol-1+
(4)
+27&

E&(O)Xq(o)[Y~+2Y,

q=l

I"

=-jupnb$
H~g(O)Wq(@)-

-2*b$$
E&(0
,=l

where:

(21

where:
H,i,(O)=complex amplitude of the
even magnetic field oomponent at the centre of the
antenna,

y.

the first component of the

input admittance; the form
of the component depends
from the even Fourier expansion coefficientsof
the kernel of the integral
equation

y1

[4,5,6,7]

the secound component of

the input admittance; the
form of the component

- 103

depends from the odd

Fourier expansion coefficients of the kernel of
the integral equation [2],
By

virtue of relations (3,4)

the following generalizationcan be made: while

the summation of voltages occurring in
the antenna loads yields a signal which
is primarily dependent on the component
of the magnetic field, the subtraction
of the voltages gives a signal depending on the component of the electric
field. If the impedances applied are
significantly lower than impedances Zo
and Z, of the antenna, ,theoutput signals of the adder-nubtractorunit will
take the following values:

2008

of time t, even though ,theposition of

the two vectors in soace may differ
from their position at time to [3] .
Taking these into account, a Circular,
double-loadedloop antenna was used in
the probe for EM field power density
measurement. The choice of such an antenna was additionally substantiatedby
the fact that the current flowing in a
circular loop antenna depends both on
the magnetio field component normal to
,theplane on which the antenna is located, and on the electric field component tangential to this plane,

(5)

The signal influenced by ,thecomponent

of the magnetic field is a linear function of frequency and its phase is
shifted by an angle r/2 as compared to
the phase of the incident magnetic field. The signal influenced by the oom.ponent of the electric field shows no fxequency-dependence,and its phase is consistent with the phase of the incident
electric field (Pig. 3.) .
Probes for the measurement of EM field
power:densite

II

I " ,J

L_-___-_-_______-___-__-_I

Fig. 2. Block diagram illustratinga

broad-band probe for EM field
power density measurement:
Irrespectiveof its structure, the
l- double-loadedloop antenna,
EM field has a characteristic feature
2- adder-subtractorunit,
which consists in that the vector of the
band filter,
3magnetic field intensity and the vector
filter
responsible for the
4of the electric field intensity are peramplitude-phasecharacteripendicular to one another at an arbi'trastics,
ry moment of time to. This condition is
multipling unit,
5satisfied for each consecutive moment
6detector of maximum value

[VI -

E=l

7-

[VImI

H=l[A/ml

b -0,l

104

Relation
Indicate

[ml

a=5*10-4[m]

5 and the diagram of Pig. 2

that it is necessary
-to
con.the amplitude-phase
characterisof the signal influenced
by the

trol
tics

magnetic field,
LZSthis signal is a
linear
function
of
frequency,
and
its phase is shifted
by an angle of
r/Z,
compared to the phase of the incident magnetic field.
The input
nals of the multiplicator
should

IF,t_

;;

[degl

R=5+10[521
c=l

*IO-[Fl

- +90

sigexhi-

bit a study-state
attenuation
diagram
in ,the measuring band, and their phases
should be consistent
with the phase of
the incident
magnetic and electric
fieIds. Admissible
is a simultaneous
shift
of the phases of both signals
by a constant value A$0 . The output signal
of
the multiplicator
is directly
proportional
to the cross product of the vectors of both magnetic-J.i.eld
and electric-field
intensities.
This means that
the output signal is also directly
proportional
to the EN field
power density
indicateci

by the Foyating

vector.

S(t)=Re[ i!(tllx Re[iWl

(7)

!J!heprobe
-90

3.2-

I I
10

,
F[MHzl

of Fig.
2 enables
measurement
the maximum EN field
power density

of

W&s shortcoming,
value alone.
may be successfully
eliminated
ing an array

Fig.

7:

Fxequency characteristics
broad-band probe
with

of a
double

loaded

EM.po-

loop

antenna

wer density:
the output

u.z -

for

signal

of

the

of the

of the
upL: - the output signal
filter
for control
of amplitude-phase
characteristies,
the
output signal of the
s(t)multiplicator.

three

by apply-

douole-loadad

an-

tennae perpendicular
to each other, and
by introducing
an apprOph.ate
unit fox
the control
of the voltages
Occurring in
the loads
unit

adder unit,
ULI - the output signal
subtractor
unit,

of

however,

is

of the antennae.
ahown in Pig.

The probe

of Fig.

4 not only

determination

of

power density

value,

measurements

The control.

4.
enanles

the maximum tiPI field

but also

permits

of the mean and rms values.

Summary:
The paper
circular

includes

loop

as a broad-band

antenna
probe

the analysis

of a

which may be used

to measure the

- 105

20~8

rement of NM fields of an arbitrary

structure,A slight modification in the
outputs of the probes shown in Figures
2 and 4 makes them fit for an independent
and quasi-point measurement of both components of the electromagneticfield.
Thus, probes involving double-loaded
loop antennae raise particular interest
when considered fox application to the
measurement of electromagneticfields
having an arbitrary structure.Probes
of that type allow for aquasi-pointand
independentmeasurement of practically
all af the field components.
References_

cI
1

Fig. 4: Unit for control of voltages in

the loads of three loop antennae
perpendicular to each other:
I- amplifier,
8- indicator,
9- array of three double-loaded
circular loop antennae perpendicular to each other,
10- multiplicator,
ll- adder,
12- rooter,
13- detector of mean value,
14- detector of rms value.
power density of an electromagneticfield. Application of a double-loadedloop
antenna that is significantlysmaller
in size than the wavelength permits making use of such a probe for the measu-

Bern

D.J., Wi%ckowski T.W., On the

Measurements of Hazardous EM
Fields in Lossy Media Using a
Small Loop Antenna, Proceedings
of the Vth InternationalSymposium on EMC, Zurich 1981.
[2] King R,W;P., Harrison J.C.W., Antennas and Waves, MIT l'xess.,
Massachussetts 1969.
c 3I Stratton J.A,, Electromagnetic
Theory, Mcgraw-Hi.11Book Compan;y,Inc. New York 1941.
[4] Whiteside H., King RrW.I",,Loop
Antenna as a Probe, JHEE Trans.
on Antennas and Propagation,
vol. AY - 12, No. 3, May 1964,
pe 291 + 297.
5 Wigckowski T.W., Loop Antenna as a
Probe fox EM Field Strength
Measurement in Lossy Media,
Technical University of Wrockaw,
Report No. I28/PRE-004/80,
Wroc%aw 1980 in Polish .

[I

6 1 Wic;ckowskiT,W., Loop Antenna Near

a Boundary Plane, Proceedings
of the VIth InternationalSymposium on EMC, Zurich 1983.
7 Wiqckowski T,W,, Analysis of a
[ 1
Receiving Circular Loop Antenna
in Dissipative Media, Yroceedings of the VIIth Intrnational
Symposium on EMC, WrocXaw 1984.

- 107

21El

PRIlllTED
CIRCUIT BOARD EMC

Clayton ii.Paul
Department of Electrical Engineering
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40506
USA
I.

Introduction

have
Printed
circuit
boards
(PCBs)
virtually
all
become an integral
part
of
There are,
of
course,
electronic
systems.
many advantages of PCBs over discrete
wiring
Perhaps
the
for component interconnection.
important advantages are in compactness
most
A very large
section
and manufacturability.
system can be placed on a
of
an electronic
board and occupy a relatively
small
portion
In addition
to the
the available
space.
of
advantage of size reduction,
the manufacture
and testing
of these boards can be automated
thus reducing cost and increasing
testability
and quality
assurance of products.
The controlled
layout of components
and
relieves
a considerable
interconnect
traces
inherent
in older,
variability
amount of
interconnection
techniques.
discrete
wiring
Thus predictability
of a boards
performance
This has led to an increased
increased.
is
computer-aided
design
interest
and use of
computer-aided
manufacturing
(CAD)/
(CAM)
techniques
and software.
Unfortunately,
very
few of those CAD/CAMprograms have the capability
of modeling the effects
of trace
layThus the controlled
nature of the PCB
out.
layout is not fully
utilized.
Even though this controlled
layout
has
the advantages
of
repeatability,
automated
testability,
reliability,
etc.,
there
are
a
number of EMCproblems which may (and usually
do) arise.
Simply having a controlled
architecture
does not do away with these problems,
although proper choice of layout can mitigate
many of these problems.
This session will be
devoted to examining the EMC implications
of
PCBs.
Perhaps of paramount importance
in
PCB
EMC is limiting
the interference
which may be
generated by them.
In the U.S.
the
Federal
Communications
Commission (FCC) has mandated
under FCC Rules
and Regulations,
Part
15,
Subpart J, that all commercial products which
use digital
techniques
and generate
or
use
timing
signals
or pulses at a rate in excess
of 10,000 pulses per
second
(virtually
all
electronic
equipment today) must not radiate
interference
or conduct interference
into the
in excess of a certain
power mains
amount.
The radiated
emission
limit is measured at a
distance
of 3 meters and the conducted emission is measured with a line
impedance
stabilization
network (LISN) [l-4].
These limcompanies
in
its have caused
manufacturing
to
devote
a significant
share of
the U.S.

their efforts
to not only testing
their
Products
for
compliance
but more importantly
fixing
those products so that they
pass
the
Today functional
performance of a
FCC tests.
product is often not the primary
problem
in
passing the
meeting
development
schedules;
FCC test is.
This trend is, of course,
not
peculiar
The various countries
in Europe
to
the U.S.
have no less stringent
requirements.
These
are
related
to the recommendations
of the
International
Special
Committee
on
Radio
Interference
(CISPR) which
is
part of the
International
Electrotechnical
Commission
(IEC).
The West German EMC interpretation
of
the CISPR recommendations
are embodied in the
VDE
(Verband
Deutscher
Elektrotechniker)
regulations.
Products produced in the
U.S.
for
export
to
Europe must be tested for
interference
generation
according
to
the
relevant
regulations.
Quite
often this is
the VDE regulation.
Nevertheless,
the signal
levels
which
a
device
radiates
or
conducts into the power
mains are
now of
considerable
concern
to
manufacturing
companies.
Until
1979 (the
year of the release
of the FCC requirements)
the concern of manufacturing
companies in the
U.S. with regard to electromagnetic
compatibility
(EMC) was primarily
motivated by military specifications.
These are
outlined
in
MIL-STD-461[5].
In addition
to the unintentional
generation
of interference,
the
susceptibility
of equipment to unintentional
as
well as intentional
signals
is also important
to
the military.
Thus,
MIL-STD-461
also
places limits
on the susceptibility
of
systems.
In the commercial arena, FCC and VDE
requirements
only limit emissions.
That may
change in the future.
Therefore,
until
1979 EMCwas of concern
to manufacturing
companies in the U.S. only
if (1) the signals
emitted by a device caused
functional
problems within that device or (2)
the device was procun
the
military
or
(3) the device was intended for sale abroad.
Subpart
With the imposition
of FCC, Part 15,
J, it can be truthfully
said that EMChas now
become the concern of virtually
all
manufacturing companies in the U.S.
interest
Thus there has been a renewed
in the ability
to model and predict
the unininto
tended emissions
(radiated
or conducted
electronic
devices.
the
power mains)
of
There are
a
Where does one turn for help?

- 108

consulting
organizations
private
number of
courses,
on site
which offer
(for
a fee)
computer software,
etc. to aid in
assistance,
designing
electronic
products
SO
that
they
The Instipass the rigid
FCC and VDE tests.
Engineers
tute of Electrical
and Electronics
sponsors numerous sympo(IEEE)
in the U.S.
in the
sia relating
to EMC. A major change
paper topics
at these symposia is in the subpapers
on
ject of commercial EMC. Tutorial
design various aspects of Systems so
how to
that they comply with the FCC and VDE specifA great
often are in the majority.
icat ions
deal of useful
information
can be obtained
from the
proceedings
of
these symposia as
The
well as the IEEE Transactions
on EMC .
increased
interest
in EMCrelated
symposia in
the U.S. is by no means isolated
nor pioneerby this
symposium and a
ing
as evidenced
similar
one sponsored by the IERE in England.
There are also several
handbooks
availuseful
design information
which
give
able
with regard to emission reduction
and predicThese books (as well as tutorial
tion [l-41.
prediction
papers in symposia) give
simple,
models for estimating
the expected emissions.
One of the primary sources
of
unintentional
radiation
from devices are llloopst formed by
traces on PCBs as well
as
in
interconnect
cables.
It
is
generally
inferred
that one
can calculate,
using these simple models, the
levels
of
radiated
interference
one will
measure when the device is tested.
Although
the models
are discussed
primarily
from the
point of view of design,
i.e.,
what variables
to
control
in the design to limit the emissions,
there is the inherent implication
that
the models can be used to provide accurate
or
reasonable
predictions.
Several
papers
in
this session
will address the radiation
problem.
,.
radiation
from interconnect
cables
in a system is often the primary contributor
to
the
overall
system
emission.
One paper in this
session
will address this problem.
Interconnect
cables
whether within boxes or between
boxes often form very
efficient
radiators.
Common mode currents
on these cables
(which
are very difficult
to predict)
often
provide
the
dominant
emission.
In Mr. H.W. Otts
paper in this session
it will be pointed
out
that
common mode currents
on interconnect
cables on the order of only IOuA could
provide
enough radiation
in the 30 MHz to 100
MHz range to violate
the FCC radiated
emission
levels!
It seems clear from this that
radiation
from interconnect
cables
could
be
the
dominant source in the 30 MHz to 100 MHz
range and the
author Is experience
supports
this.
This
author
has found that current
probes placed around interconnect
cables
can
(and should)
be an important first
step in
assessing
the source of radiated
as well
as
conducted
emissions.
For current
probes
which have a constant
transfer
impedance over
the
frequency
range
of
interest
one can
correlate,
not absolute
levels,
but
spectral
shape of cable common mode currents
and their
associated
radiation.
The author
recommends
this initial
approach quite enthusiastically.
Until one locates
the source,
one can do little (sensible)
to reduce the emission.

There are numerous situations

in which
board
layouts to perform the same
different
functional
result
can yield widely
different
Close
proximity
of traces allows
results.
between
inadvertent
electromagnetic
coupling
A portion of a signal on
traces
(crosstalk).
couple
to
adjacent
will
one trace-circuit
of these crosstalk
If
the
levels
traces.
and/or
magnitude
sufficient
signals
are of
they may degrade the funccontent,
spectral
tional
performance of devices
which
are
on
(via cables)
to the
the
board
or attached
is said to
In this case, interference
board.
It would be highly desirhave taken place.
able to be able to predict,
apriori,
whether
layout will be unacceptable
because
a given
If this capability
existed
in
of crosstalk.
current CAD/CAMsoftware,
one could determine
whether crosstalk
would be a problem while at
the same time performing the usual simulation
Unfortunately,
tests of board functionality.
are not an integral
crosstalk
models
these
Even simpart of current CAD/CAMsoftware.
first-order
crosstalk
prediction
models
ple,
would be better
than none at all
(as
is
currently
the situation).
In this paper
we will
concentrate
on
first-order
crosstalk
examining
a simple,
into
inclusion
for
model which is suitable
Some experimental
standard
CAD/CAM codes.
usefulresults
will be provided to show the
ness as well as the limitations
of the model.
The other aspects
of PCB EMC such
as radiaon boards and interconnect
tion
from loops
will
be
cables,
proper board layout,
etc.
addressed
in other papers of this session.
II.

Printed
-___-

Circuit

Board Crosstalk

Metallic
etchings
(lands)
on PCBs quite
of ten are
routed in close proximity
to each
board
other to make maximum use of available
Signals
on a pair
of
lands
space.
(or
between a land and an interplane)
electromagnetically
couple
to adjacent
lands inducing
elecThis
signals
onto
those
circuits.
tromagnet ic
coup1 ing
between
lands
is
This type of
coureferred
to as crosstalk.
The critical
pling
always occurs on boards.
question
is whether
the
levels
of
induced
signals
(along with shape properties
such as
cause
rise
time)
will
be sufficient
to
improper
functioning
of
the circuits
which
are attached
to or
interconnected
by the
lands.
Methods for determining
these induced
signals
CAD/CAM
should
be
included
in
software since the crosstalk
can affect
functionality
of the board.
There are, of course,
a large number of
land
configurations
possible.
For example,
lands
only
on
single-sided
boards have the
one side
of
a substrate
which is usually
glass-epoxy
having a dielectric
constant
of
approximately
er t 5.
Double-sided
boards
typically
have lands on opposite
sides of the
substrate.
A similar
type of board which we
sometimes
will investigate
experimentally
is
referred
to
as microstrip
and is shown in
Fig. 1.
This board has a ground
plane
on
one side.
The signal-carrying
lands are on
with
the other side and each forms a circuit
the ground
plane.
One land with the ground

109

21El

avC(x,t)

ai,(x,t)
---px--

-cc, + Cm)-at--

avR(x,t)
c

3iR(x,t)

---.-

ax

av,(x,t)
= c at_.-m

(ICI

at

avR(x,t)
cc R + Cm)---- at

(Id)

Direct solution
of these equations
and incorporation
of the terminal
constraints
is quite
difficult
these
direct
Furthermore,
c71.
solution
techniques
are not well suited to
implementation
in CAD/CAMsoftware.
Fig.

There are several

methods for
obtaining
approximate
solutions
to
these
equations.
Per haps
the most popular
is
the
use of
lumped-circuit,
iterative
models [6,81.
The
philosophy
is to use lumped circuit
representations
of electrically
short sections
of the
line.
In this
paper
we will
discuss
an
alternative,
simple
method of
estimating
time-domain crosstalk
which is
suitable
for
inclusion
in CAD/CAMcodes.

1. PCB configuration.

plane is driven with a (pulse)

source
v,(t)
RS at one end and 8 erand source resistance
minated to
the
ground
plane
with
a load
This circuit
resistance
R at the other end.
will be refebred
to as the
generator
cirThe other land with the ground plane
cuit.
receptor
circuit
and is
terforms the
minated
to
the ground plane at the end near
the source (the near end) with resistance
R
and at
the
other
end (the
far end) wi!f?
resistance
RFE. These terminations
represent
the input to modules which the lands connect.
We will assume that they are purely resistive
although
the method can be adapted to handle
reactive
loads.
The object
here
is
to
predict
the
time-domain,
induced signals
at
the ends of the receptor
circuit,
vWR(t)
and
VF@.
Typically
these
circuits
can be ademodeled with the distributed
paramequately
ter, transmission
line model [61.
For examthe microstrip
board in Fig. 1 can be
pie,
modeled as shown in Fig.
2.
The line
axis
is
denoted
as x and a small,
Ax section
of
modeled
with
inductances
the line
is
and
capacitances
.
We assume the line to be uniform so that the elements are per-unit-length
values.
The elements 1 and lR (c
and CR)
represent
the
per-unit- Eength
se1 E inductances
(capacitances)
of
the generator
and
receptor
circuits,
respectively.
The elements
1
and c
are
the
per-unit-length
m
mutual i;ductance
and capacitance,
respecbetween
the two circuits.
tively,
The line
currents
are denoted as i (x,t)
and i (x,t)
and the
line
voltages
&o the
Fwith respect
ground plane)
are
denoted
as v,(x,t)
and
The
distributed
parameter,
v,(x,t).
transmission
line equations
can be obtained
by relating
the voltages
and currents
at the
two ends of this Ax section
and taking
the
limit as Ax+0 [63:

2.1 -~
A Simple,

Time-Domain Crosstalk
~-

It would be desirable
to have a direct,
time-domain solution
of (I).
Such a solution
is not
generally
posssible
unless
certain
simplifications
are made.
First consider
the
case of sinusoidal,
steady-state
excitation
of the line.
Let us suppose that (1) the two
circuits
are weakly coupled and (2) the lines
are
sufficiently
short,
electrically,
at the
frequency of interest.
For these
restrictions
it
was shown in C91, from an exact,
literal
solution
of (l),
that
the receptor
circuit
may be modeled as shown in Fig. 3(a).
Since the line is assumed to be electrically
short,
the generator
line voltage and current
are approximately
independent of position
on
the
line
and can be computed from D-C considerations
as
D
VG(f)

= &&VS(f
s
L

I($f)

= +&f)

+
V,(ll

J-l

RN, V,,(l)

ax

ai,(x,t)
=

-1G

at

aiR(x,t)
- - lm

at

(la)

(2b)

(,$

i
R

I Z : = I

V,(X,,)l c,Ar

I
I
I

:I

::c,AX

Ground
Plane

ax

ai,(x,t)
=

-rn

at

Fig.

aiR(x,t)
- $3

at

(lb)

I
,

I
I

'-Ax-.---j
I

x=0

avR(x,t)

(2a)

I
I

. _ I
avC(x,t)

Model

2. The equivalent

RL
+

V,,(1)- RFE

I
I
I

x=Jt

circuit.

110

clock
the typical
For example, consider
If the rise and
shown in Fig. 4(a).
pulse
fall
times, T and -if, are assumed equal,
an
asymptotic
en?elope
of the pulse spectrum can
The exact
be obtained
as shown in Fig. 4(b).
spectral
amplitudes
are

V(f)

sin(y)
-___

= F

(Y)

nnT
sin(-+)
_._--._
_
n7rxr
(,---)

(4)

to a
Note that the enyelope is constant Out
and decreases
at a ratelof
frequency
of
E
-20 dB/decade
up to
a frequency
of
71~.

(b)
Fig.

3. Low-frequency

crosstalk

circuit.

The radian frequency of excitation

is w = 2af
and j =F
denoting a +90 phase angle.
The
contribution
due to the voltage
source
(conthe
mutual
inductance,
taining
1)
is
inductive
referred
to as
coupling,
wEereas
the
contribution
due to the current source
(containing
the mutual
capacitance,
c ) is
referred
to as capacitive
coupling.Themsolution to the circuit
in Fig. 3(a),
substituting (2),
is
VNE(f 1
-VS(f)

RNE
1 2 __.- RL
+
+ RFE m RS + RL
= j%----NE
RNERFE
R
NE + *FE

VFE(f 1
~
=
VS(f)

jw[-

R+--

RFE

NE

FE

orff
roll
amplitudes
spectral
Above this,
From
quite fast at a rate of -40 dB/decade.
that
the high frequency
this
it
is
clear
limited)
(or
spectral
content is determined
If we mulby the pulse rise (fall)
time rrl
tiply
the input pulse spectrum given in
Fig.
4(b)
and the transfer
spectrum given in Fig.
3(b) we obtain the spectrum of the resultant
Suppose that we
shown in Fig. 5
crosstalk
choose fU to be well past --$,
say,
r
f+X-Jr
freso that erroneous predictions
of higher
For example,
quencies
are
of
no concern.
choice of a=10 will
mean that
the output
will
have decayed by 20 dB from the
spectra
maximum value.

(3a)

lmZr- RL
+
s + RL

-___RNERFE ct -_- 1
1
+ RFE m RS + RL
RNE

(3b)

Note that these voltage

transfer
ratios
vary
linearly
with frequency
(so long as the
termination
impedances are resistive).
This
is
manifested
plot)
as 20
(on a log-log
dB/decade increase
in frequency
response
as
shown in
Fig.
This behavior of the
3(b).
frequency response is valid only for
excitation
frequencies
where the
line is sufficiently
short,
electrically
(below
f ).
Nevertheless,
for printed circuit
boards &d
excitation
pulses which have rise times which
are
not extraordinarily
fast,
this model may
cover a sufficient
portion of the input
signal
spectra
so that incorrect
processing
of
those components above f
is of little
consequence.
In other words,the
majority
of signals on PCBs have spectra
which
decay
in
amplitude
with increasing
frequency.
Consequently,
the major spectral
content
may lie
below
f and those components above f decay
in amp11.Kude at
a sufficiently
rapid
rate
such that they are of little
concern.

Fig.

4. Bound on trapezoidal

pulse

spectra.

111

21El

VFE(W)
-=
V,(w)

Input Pulse Spectrum

ju

MFE

Consider a periodic
vS(t).
Fourier series
of this signal
is
m
v,(t)

The

jnwot
(IO)

1 Vs(w)e
n=-m

= 2rf0 = g
is
the
wO
the pulse
radian
frequency
09
that the time derivative
of v,(t)

fundamental

where

n=-m

The near-end,
is

train.
is

Note

j nwOt

dvS(t)

__I=
dt

p-Fr:

complex

jnwO VS(w)e

time-domain

crosstalk

(11)

voltage

j nwOt
vNE(t)
=iF

Fig.

fu

5. The net
pulse.

spectrum

of

the

log,o(f)
Subst ituting

crosstalk

(12)

? V (w)e
n--m NE

(9)

into

(12)

yields
j nwOt

VNE(t
The transfer
can be related
to
the line.
Suppose
of a wavelength at

function
upper
limit,
fu,
the one-way transit
time of
the line is some fraction
fu,

= kh

1 =

MNE T jnw O V,(w)e

n=-m

(13)

where we substitute
w=nw . Comparing (13) to
(I 1) we observe
that if
one models
the
crosstalk
transfer
funcYZ0n-G
increas=
linearly
with frequency
(for
allfrequencies)
-as jwM, --then the time-domain
crosstalk
voltage
is
simply
M mmierbxe
time
-der ivacve=(
t-)_:
dv_(t)

where v is

for
2
=v

yields
T r r -sk

one-way

line

vFE(t)

dvs(t)
= MFE~ dt

(14b)

(7)

0.

T
d

(8)

Thus the pulse rise time, yr, must be elonger

For
than the line one-way delay,
ad, by 3.
example, if we choose CI = IO and k = 1 /I 0
So one can estimate,
based
then
T E 30Td.
on timerdomain properties,
the range of pulse
rise
times
which
can be handled with this
method.
The transfer
function
shown in Fig. 3 is
modeled as jwM. The constant M can be deterthe measured
mined either from the slope of
For the
frequency
response
or
from
(3).
corresponding
time
domain model
we simply
note
that
the
frequencydomain transfer
functions
in (3) and Fig 3(b) are modeled as

VNEhJ)
v,(w)

= MNE ~ :t

thy velocity
of propagation
on the
Substituting
(6) into (5)

delay,
d

vNE(t)

= jw MNg

(9a)

An example is shown in Fig. 6 for

v (t)
a llperfectll
trapezoidal
pulse train.
s ote
that the crosstalk
pulses are shown as being
rectangular
with amplitudfs
depevdent on the
slew rates of the pulse, -r and -r,
as well
as
the
crosstalk
constaAts
MN: and
MFE.
Thus,
large
amplitude
interfering
signa s
and/or
rise/fall
times can result
in
short
large crosstalk
pulse levels.
Note also that
the rise/fall
slopes
of
the input voltage
v (t) are shown as being constant.
In real1?? y these will typically
not be constant
but
will be continually
changing (perhaps only by
slight
amounts).
Thus, (14) shows that the
rectangular
crosstalk
pulse shapes
shown in
6 will
probably not be observed.
The
Fig.
pulses will be rounded at the edges since the
instantaneous
slope of v,(t)
will not be constant,
for example, over 06t<T . Other factors
such
as the
ideal
asgumption on the
crosstalk
behavior as varying
linearly
with
frequency
for
all
frequencies
will affect
__this also.

- 112

qT,()~

I
I
I
r----

Map +

A 1 MHz trapezoidal
pulse
train
was
the
generator
line
and the
applied
to
rise/fall
time of the pulses was adjusted
to
two values,
50 ns and 100 ns.
The values of
are
resistances
termination
to
The input voltage
R = RNE = RFE = IkS2.
the line was set to transition
from -1.25V to
Thus
swing
of
2.5V.
+I .25V for
a total
The near end crosstalk
for
100 ns
RS = 0.
8(a).
This
rise/fall
time is shown in Fig.
( The
signal .
input
is superimposed on the
signal
per-division
amplitude
of
50
mV
input
The correct
value is 500 mV.)
is incorrect.
for
a 50 ns
result
corresponding
The
8(b).
rise/fall
time signal
is shown in Fig.
end crosstalk
was also measured and
The far
the results
are virtually
identical
to
the
near end crosstalk.

I
I

w
I
1

Fig.

6. Crosstalk
domain.

I
1

I
I
L---J

-M+

____A

prediction

in

the

time

Note also that in (3) MFE may be positive or negative

depending on whether capacitive coupling
dominates
inductive
coupling.
Thus the
far end crosstalk
pulses may be of
the same or opposite
polarity
as the near end
crosstalk

pulses.

Nevertheless,
the
resu1.t
in
(14)
and
illustrated
in Fig.
6 provides
a simple
(almost trivial)
way of estimating
crosstalk
levels
on PCBs.
Of course
one must be
assured that
this
approximation
is
valid,
This
means that
one must ensure that the
pulse rise time and line
delay
satisfy
(8)
for a suitable
choice of c1 and k.
The term k
can be determined
from a frequency-domain
plot
(experimental
or
calculated
[9]).
In
addition
to its simplicity
this method offers
other
advantages.
The primary advantage is
that one can measure
the
frequency-domain
crosstalk
once
and for all and use that to
predict
the time-domain crosstalk
for a multitude
of
time-domain input signals.
Moreover,
the method serves
to
relate
the
frequency-domain
and time-domain crosstalk
so
that one can easily
determine how to
affect
the time-domain crosstalk.

2.2

Experimental

Results

As an example, we constructed
a board
similar
to
the one in Fig. 1.
A photograph
is shown in Fig. 7.
The board consists
of
a
glass-epoxy
substrate
62 mils in thickness
with a ground
plane
on one side
and two
parallel
lands on the other.
The metal is 1
oz. copper
( .035 mm thickness).
The lands
are
100 mils
in width
(2.54
mm) and are
separated
by 100 mils.
The line length is 20
cm (;t= 20 cm).
The line is driven and terminated as shown in Fig. I.
The source is
a
Hewlett-Packard
8015A pulse generator
and the
terminations
are resistors
inserted
into
BNC
connectors
for easy attachment.
The voltages
were measured with a Tektronix
7834 oscilloscope using P6201 FET probes.

Fig.

7. The PCB used in the experiment.

The frequency-domain
crosstalk
was measured
from
10 kHz to 500 MHz. This is shown
in Fig. 9 for near end crosstalk.
Below 1
MHz we used HP 3400A rms voltmeters
whereas
above 1 MHz we used an HP 84054 Vector Voltmeter.
From these frequency-domain
results
we
obtain values for M as
MNE

= 6.29

x ICI-~

Note that below 10 MHz the

curve
increases
linearly
with
frequency
(20 dB/decade)
as
illustrated
in
Fig.
3.
For the
far
crosstalk
we
obtained
= 6.37x1 o-Yi
MFE
Phase measurements at 1 MHz reveal
that
the
phase
angles
of
both
near end and far end
crosstalk
are +90.
Thus it
is
clear
from
(3) that capacitive
coupling
dominates inductive coupling
as is expected for these
high
impedance
(1 kQ) terminations.
(The line
individual
characteristic
impedances
are
approximately
52 a.) It is quite often stated
that far end crosstalk
is opposite
in polarity to near end crosstalk.
This is only true
if inductive
coupling
dominates
capacitive
coupling
so that MFE in (3b) is negative.
In
fact,
using RL = RNE = RFE = 5 R shows this
to be true.
Using the
frequency-domain
values
MNE and MFE and V = 2.5 V we obtain
results
shown in Table I using (14).

for
the

- 113

Maximum Crosstalk

21El
Levels

_______.-._.___-__

____.__------The

correlation

betwoen

V
NE

15.7

mV

14 mV

FL;

15.9

mV

14 mV

31.5

mV

31.9

mV

NE

= 5Ons
7 =.I
f
r

---_._-

Experimental

Predicted
(14)

= IOOns
T
r = Tf

____

VW

.---.---.--.--

experimental

25 mV
25 mV

____._______.____
Table I

_____

____I--

and

is quite good.
Note that
predicted
results
the experimental
resul.ts vary almost directly
SlCW
rate;
reducing the rise time by a
with
factor
of two al-most doubles the crosstalk.
more extensive
Additional,
contained
in [IO].
2. :i _._-Implementation

results

are

Programs
-in _CAD/CAM
----

The ulti.mate use of

this
model
is
i.n
CAI)/CAM codes to allow checking for crosstalk
while at the same time checki.ng
other
lunctional i ty properties
of a proposed hoard layin
a
CAD/CAM
0 ut . To implement the model
code
we observe,
from the frequency domain
model i 3 Fig. 3(a),
that we may replace
j(ti
and obtain the same result
with
given by
X
Thus equivalent
sources
may
be
(14).
inserted
i.nt 0 all
receptor
li.nes and the
vn.lues of
these
equivalent
sources
depend
only on land geometry (through 1 and cm) and
the
derivatives
of
the
sign&
on other
lands.
This
is illustrated
in Fig. 10.
In
this way, nonlinear
load terminations
may be
handled
since
we only
model
the
induced
sources
in the receptor
line.
The degree to which
this
approximation
1s va1i.d
is usually
difficult
to determine.
Nevcrthelesn,
it represents
a simple approach
to
estimating
the
solution
to a difficult
problem.
IV.

Summary
----

The topic of printed circuit

board
EMC
encompasses
many
areas.
The effect
of
interference
generated by PCBS falls
into
two,
general
categories;
(a)
that
which
affects
functionality
of
other
systems
and
(b)
that
which affects
functionality
of the
system gencrat ing the interference.
Control
Of
interference
which affects
other systems
is
generally
mandated
through
regulations
such
i3.S
those of the FCC and VDE. Manufacturers al-so have their
own regulations
to
limit
emissions
so as to guard against
their
products causing
problems.
Radiation
from
printed
circuit
boards
can be controlled
through proper board layout as several
papers
in this
session
will show.
Radiation
from
interconnect
cables can also
cause
radiated
interference.
Quite
often
this
is
the

Fig.

8. Crosstalk
train
T
r=

pulses

for

a 1 MHz pulse
= IkQ.
(a)
= :FE
I, = of = 50ns.

3Cond

Near

End

ZL=l

114

Fig.

10.A first-order
CAD/CAMuse.

equivalent

circuit

for

-40

Fig.

domain
9. Frequency
RL = RNE = RFE = IkQ

crosstalk

primary source of problems

even
with properly designed boards.

for

Practical
[4]
R. F. Ficchi,
--_____tromagnetic
Compatibility,

Design for ElecNew York: Hayden,

1971.

on

systems

The affect of interference

generated
on
PC8 on that system itself can be an impOrtant aspect of the overall, system
EMC.
We
in some detail, a
to
examine,
have chosen
crosstalk
prediction
time-domain,
simple,

[5] Electromagnetic
Emission I_
and SusceptibilRequirements
for
the
Control of Elec-.ity
tromagnetic
Interfe~ce~IL_STD_461B,
Naval
--Electronics
Systems Command Defense Standardization
Program Branch, Dept.
of
the Navy,
Washington,
D. C., 20360,
U.S.A.

suitable
for
inclusion
into CAD/CAM
model
Experimental results
were given to
software.
so long as the interfering
illustrate
that,
pulse risetimes
are much longer
than
the
delay time of the circuits
involved,
one-way
with
good accuracy
and a
one can predict
computational
effort
the maximum
minimum of
time-domain crosstalk.
One additional
topic not
considered
in
of
this
session
is
that of
other
papers
suppression
interference
characteristics
of
The author
strongly
advocates
components.
added
that
before
a component
is
for
suppression,
the relevant
funcinterference
tion of that component should be measured
-at
the desired suppression
frequency.
---systems
so
Designing
electronic
that
do not
they
cause
interference
problems
within that system or with other systems is a
difficult
task.
One can only expect that use
of sound, EMC design
practices
through
an
understanding
of interference
generation
and
propagation
will result
in a product
which,
when tested
for
interference,
will
allow
rational
suppression
methods to be effective.
References

Cl1

Noise
Systems,

H. W. Ott,

Electronic
Sons, 1976.

Reduction
New York:

[21
R. K. Keenan,
Digital
Interference
Specifications,
ginia:
The Keenan Corporation,

Techniques in
John Wiley&

Design
Vienna,
1983.

for

Vir-

D.
R.
J.
White,
Electromagnetic
Interference
and Compatibility,
1-7,
-Vol.
Germantown, Maryland: Don White
ConsultaFt;,
Inc.,
1973.
[31

Applications
of MulticonducLine Theoryto
the Predicling, ~
vol._I,
--MultiGGductar-
Transmission
Line
Theory,
Technical
-___
Report., RADC-TR-76-101, Rome Air
Development
Center, Griffiss
AFB, NY, April 1976.
C61

tor

R. Paul,
Transmission

C.

F.
Y.
Chang,
Transient
Analysis
of
Lossless,
Coupled Transmission
Lines In Inhomogeneous Dielectric
Medium, IEEE Trans.
on
Microwave Theory and Technique-o-T-2c
No. 7, pp.m57,July
1973.
[7]

II81

W. W. Everett,
III,
Lumped
Model
Approximation
of
Transmission
Lines: Effect
of Load Impedances
On Accuracy,
Technical
Report, Rome Air Development Center, Criffiss
AFB, NY, to appear.
c91 C. R. Paul, Solution
of
the
Transmission
Line
Equations
for
ThreeConductor
Lines in Homogeneous Media, --IEEE Trans.
on
Electromagnetic
Compatibility,
Vol. EMC-2;
No. 1, pp. 216-222,
February 1978.
Cl01 C. R. Paul and W. W. Everett,
III,
Prediction
of
Time-Domain
Crosstalk
in Printed
Circuit
ZardsTechnical
Report, --KOYG--XF
-.A
Development
Center,
Griffiss
AFB, NY, to
appear.

115

22E2

NEW MEASURES TO DFCREASE RADIATIce\T

FROM PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS

B. Danker
Philips Advanced Audio Projects Laboratory
Eindhoven, The Netherlands

ABSTRACT
Theoretical background is presented on excita-

strength correspondinqto 18 dBuV/m at the

tion of magnetic fields by supply lines and

location of the ferrite aerial is acceptable,

integratedcircuit packaqes. Measures to re-

and assuming the distance between aerial and

duce this radiation are indicated.

interferencesource is 15 cm, this field

The results of experiments that are included,

strenqht represents a level of

confirm the theory.

18 dBuV/m - 201oq (g)3=

- 60 dBuV/m at a

distance of 3 meter.
1. INTRODUCI'ION
_-

This is more than 100 dB below the mentioned

When digital circuitry is applied in radio

50 dEuV/m level.

receiving equipment with luilt-in ferrite

The noise radiation by digital circuitry in

aerial, intrasystemFM'Zcan only be achieved

AM-bands is mainly caused by radiation of

if radiation from these circuits is at least

supply lines and by the dual-in-linepackaqes

100 dB below levels that nowadays are con-

of integratedcircuits.

sidered acceptable in view of intersystemEK

(approx.50 dBuV/m at a distance of 3 meter).
This can be explained as follows :
qood AM

broadcast receivers with hilt-in

ferrite aerials have sensitivitiesof 2 2 uA/m,

which is equivalent to 2 750 uV/m.
(S/N=

26 dD, tiulation = 30 %). This means

the maximum noise level is equivalent to a

signal of f 20 nA/m (2 8 uV/m or 18 dBuV/m).
When digital circuitry is applied in receivers
like that, the distance between this noise
producing circuitry and the ferrite aerial is
frewently IO - 20 cm only.
The magnetic field strength produced by diqital signals and their harmonics with frequencies in the Mi4broadcast band may not be larger than the above-mentionednoise level
(18

dRuV/m) to avoid interference.The maqni-

tude 11of the interferinqfields is approximately proportionalto ' d bainq the dis7
tance to the interferencesource, when r<&
(nearfield)
.

If

maximum magnetic field

2. RADIATION OF SUPPLY I,INEs.

The object of power distrilnltion
is to supply
a constant d.c. voltage under conditions of
varying load currents ; the ideal power supply
is a zero impedance voltage source.
Most loads can be considered as sources of alternating currents, frequentlyof RF currents
(oscillators,etc.).
These RF currents should not cause RF voltages across the power line or radiation of maqnetic fields.
However, each power supply has a finite RF impedance, which is mainly'determined by wiring
inductancesand decoupling capacitances.
When a RF current source is connected to a
supply line that is decoupled with a capacitor, to which a second capacitor is connected
in parallel (see fig. I), the RF current is
distributedover these tm capacitors.
At very low frequenciesthe distritition is
proportionalto the capacitancevalues. If the

116

frequency increases,more current flows

IO k foil or ceramic plate capacitors, see

throuqh the capacitor that is nDUnted furthest

1%. 3.

HZ

MRRKER

XF

away.

-11

IO

-,Yj-g;--;,
I

_!-

C,=lOOnF

3 =lOOnF
I 2
I
I

- _---_---I

+!II

Fiq. 1
RBU

HZ

This is because the equivalent capacitance in-

UBU

HZ

ST

SEC

Fig. 3

creases due to series inductanceof the prinIn practical circuits many capacitorsmay Je

ted circuit board conductors :

C
Ceq =
1-(2rrfPLC

connected in parallel, causinq a multitude of

Theoretically,at the (seriesresonance) fre-

commonly used capacitors of 10 k or 22 k are

quency

resonances in the AM broadcast band, when

applied on standard printed circuit boards.

f, = 2n\li-F;

The wiring loops of these decoupling capaci-

all the current flows through C2 because its

tors cause considerableradiation of maqnetic

impedance

fields, because loop areas are frequently

z=h2

100 cm2 or mxe

- 2ti,L

(dependenton p.c.b. lay-out).

is zero.

This radiation is even increasedbecause of

In practice, current through Cl is not zero

the mentioned RF current qain, and because

because of circuit losses.

RF currents tend to flow throuqh the capaci-

At the parallel resonance frequency

1
f2 =
2
6-

tors that are mounted furthest away from the

source for frequenciesbelow the resonance.
Note : The resonances also explain the ringinq

ClC2
F-5

the impedance of the decoupling network is

caused by switching currents in digital cir-

now very hiqh :

cuits ; in addition to radiation this may

&

z=

x(2&
,2'

22

- 2flf*L)

cause crosstalk and false triqqerinq.

To avoid resonances in the supply line it is

21rfpL

m-=5-%

necessary that capacitors are never connected

This results in current gain ; the RF current

in parallel when mxnted in different places

through each capacitor is only limited by the

on a p.c.b.

circuit losses, see Fig. 2.

Each RJ?current source mn.xst

therefore be individually decoupled, preferably with an
RC filter.
The resistancemust be large in relation to
the capacitor impedance at the lowest frequency injected by the current source.
In most cases a 100 Ohm resistor and an electrolytic capacitor with low equivalent series
resistance or a 1 uF multilayer capacitor is
adequate. If a series resistor causes too much

1.592 2.244

DC voltage drop, an RF choke of e.g. 100 uH

can be applied - the reonance frequency of

Fig. 2
Althouqh in practice the quality factor of

choke inductanceand decoupling capacitance

should be sufficientlybelow the lowest inter-

this resonance circuit is very low, current

ference frequency,produced by the RE'source.
qains of 6-12 dB have been measured with

- 117

This

guarantees

that no large interference

22E2

3. RADIATION OF INTEGRATEDCIRCUIT PACKAGES.

currents will flow through other parts of the

DC supply line.

Many current sources (microprocessors,

RAM's,

In Fig. 4 one can see the magnetic field radi-

digital to analcgue convertors,etc.) produce

ation from two p.c.b.'s, one with a cmn

RF currents of 1 mA rms or more over a wide

supply line, the other with RC and IX filters

frequency spectrum. See for exam@e Fig. 5,

installed in the supply voltage connection

where the RF current, drawn fram the DC supply

(Vcc) of each individual inteqratedcircuit.

by the nmos microprocessor8420, is indicated.

The difference in radiated magnetic field

-l

strength is IO-15 d.B.

Fig. 5 HF current to Vcc of microprocessor

8420. For diagram see Fig. 6.
+

Fig. 6 Measuring diagram

At various discrete AM
ST 156 SEC

Pip.

broadcast frequencies

currents of I=1 mA rms can be distinquished.

(Note : It can also be shown that at these

4b

frequenciesgate drive currents are neqliqiby

Fig. 4: Typical magnetic

field at 25 cm from

small).

diqital printed circuit toard :

This current flows through the loop :

a- before

silicon chip - bonding wire - Vcc connecting

b-

after installmentof RC- and IX-

pin - decouplinq capacitor - ground track -

filters in the supply line to

V ss connecting pin - bonding wire - silicon

each digital current source.

chip. See Fig. 7.

silicon

Note

: IC suppliers frequently specify a de-

couplinq capacitor to be connected between

Vcc and Vs,(groun$ From the above it can be
concluded this specificationis incomplete,
because the capacitor combined with the impedance of the supply line may cause a high impedance in series with Vcc which certainly is
not the intention I
Fiq. 7. Radiatinq loop of HF current source.

Fig. 8 illustratesa spherical coordinate

The 1~

system of a loop conductor source.

on a standard 1.6 ranone-sided p.c.b. is

area of a 28 pins DIL-packaqemounted

The observationpoint has coordinates r, 8, 9.

approx. 220 nKn2.

fmhen the

IC

is mounted in a socket, the loop

area increases to approx. 550 mm2 depending

on the type of socket !).
This

large loop is a direct result Of the con-

struction of the DIL-package and the fact that

the bonding pads for supply voltage (Vcc) and
ground (Vss) are located at opposite edqes of
the silicon chip.
Because shielding is very expensive and unpractical (requiredattenuationf 55 dB) a logical
solution is the decrease of the 100~ area.

Let

Comronly proposed constructions (horizontal

W = radian frequency = 2Zf, where

'rbusbar"
maunted between DIL-package and prin-

f = frequency in Hertz.
(Note : Af = c = 3 x IO8 m/s, the velocity of

ted-circuitboard or a mltilayer capacitor

built into a socket) do not sufficientlyde-

light)

crease the loop area.

P = phase constant = 2z/d

One solution is to design a lay-out where Vcc

6 = permittivityof free space

-9
farad/meter.
~1/36nx 10
The field from a loop of infinitesimallysmall

and *ss are connected to adjacent bondinq

pads (loop area + 15 nm2). Although this might

area A that carries a current I consists ac-

require slightly larger chip area, the increa-

cording to Maxwell's laws of three ccanp-

se in cost price is less than proportional

nents, He, Hr and E$,,respectivilygiven

because circuit complexity remains the same ;

only line widths will increase.

by equations :

Another possibility is to mount the decouplinq

sin 0

capacitor inside the DLL-package.

Other possibilitiesare the use.of small out-

&$=-

1Ap4
4nwe,

-1
__I
(Or)

line~packagesor naked chip mounting.

1
j(b)

sin 0

A substantialattenuationof the magnetic field

can be obtained usinq a quadruple constuc(If the diameter of the loop is small in corn-

tion, see Fiq. 9.

parison with r, and withx, and if I does not

vary around the loop, the conditions for
"infinitesimallysmall" are met.).
$1

If r<xthe expressions are reduced to

He = d+

sin 9

H,

cos

The max.m

= 3

magnetic field near a small loop

Fig.

is thus
Hr = 3

Quadruple construction

At larqe distances the fields of the tm

loops

If we reguire that a microprocessor8420 moun-

ccmpensate each other more or less, the resul-

ted at 15 cm from a ferrite aerial should not

ting field becomes proportional to f , where

give any interference (I-I,<20

x IO-'A/m), it
follows that the radiating area A must be

r is the distance between olx;ervati&point

and source.

smaller than

Such a quadruple can be constructedby means

H * 2nr*
A<,

20.10-9 ~2nv3.15~~ n?,0.45

1 *lo-3

m2

of a metal bracket mounted over the Ic

package. This bracket adds a second qround

119

22E2

c:onnection
lxtween the decoupling capacitor
nnd the ground reference pin (Vss) ; see

silicon

metal
brackej

current

ChiD

,soye

bonding

11

Fig. 10.
The results of measurementsof He at
r = 15 cm made on test samples of the above
mentioned constructionsconfirm the suitability of these constructions to reduce magnetic
L

MLC

radiation ; see Fig 11 and Table 1.

Fig. 10. Quadruple grounding.

i
3

nm to III

mz

Microproceeeor
mounted on 1.6

.15

AmIt

ST 1% 9EO

.Y

1;2

1.5

1.65

I ii

.o)sz
lm

3 Km

i i If i i i i

.6

.Y

10 III

1;s

1.5

11
1

.Y

11

1
I

1;2

1.5

1.6:

8T 1% SEC

wa to II6

3 ml2

I iHi

.15ar

mn 1 Ia6

8T 156 SEC

Microprocessor
8420 in SOT 117 D package
mounted on 1.6mm phenolic paper p.c.b.
Cuadrupole grounding construction
see fig.

I!

Microproceaeor
8420 in SO-28 package mounted
on printed circuit
with metal base.

0420 in SOT 117 D dil-package

phenolic paper p.c.b.

mm

.6

.6

.lCm*
rn

1 :

.6

, .Y:
1
I

vm 10 111

I
,

i.l

I
,

1 1.5I
,

If

1.60

156 IBC

Microprocessor
8420 in SOT 117 D package
mounted on 1.6 mm phenolic paper p.c.b.
Vq e (ground) bonded to pin 27 1.8.0.
to pin 14

1.6;

91 (56 SEC

Microproceaaor
13420 with built-in
1 UP MLC
mounted on 1.6 mm phenolic paper p.c.b.

Fig. 11 : Magnetic field strength A, at 15 cm

from microprocessor8420.
For measuring diagram see fig. 6.

em

3 ml2

Naked-chip

10 RX

If

8420 bonded to thick-film

1%

BE0

qubstra

Parameter

I. Chip
in S0T 117 D package
-ted
on 1.6 mn phenolic

-+ 220

66.5

+ 550

74

-1.5

+ 2 x 220

51.5

24

4. Chip in SUI? 117 D package -ted

on 1.6 mn
phenolic paper p.c.b. Vss (ground) lxxded t0
pin 27 i.s.0.
to pin 14

15

43

23.5

5. Chip in SOT 117 D package -ted

phenolic paper p.c.b. Vc tided
Vss txznded to pins 26 ang 28

+2x15

34

32.5

36

30.5

47

19.5

2 2 x 27

33.5

33

2.5

21

39.5

0.25

paper printed-circuit

board

2. Chip in SOT 117 0 package -ted

in socket type IC foot 28 ~1.
on phenolic

Dil

paper p.c.b.

3. Chip in SOT 117 D package munted On 1.6 IIW

phenolic paper p.c.b. Quadrupole grmdhg
construction

see Fig.

10

on 1.6 mn
to pin 27.

f
6. Chip in SOT 117 D package mxlnted on 1.6 IWI
phenolic pawr p.c.b.
1 uF mltilayer
decoupling
cap. -ted
inside package
7. Chip in SC-28 package -ted
circuit with metal base

on printed

8. Chip in SC-28 package -ted

on printed
circuit
with rretal base. @adrupole grqding
construction
see Fiq. 10
9. Naked chip hxded face-up
thick film substrate
0. Naked chip Landed face-dfilm substrate

4.

on thick

on 1.6 mn
assenbly

+ 220

circu<ts
with

7
(estim.

60
(estim.)

31.5

Mnenetic
field
strength
II produced
by microprocessor
84?0
886.5 kBz. Distance
1 betddeen center
of radiating
loop and
obcervation
point
1 F, cm, For measuring
diagram
see Fig.
6.
Note: 0 dBuV/m is equivalent
Lo -51 dWA/m.

Conclusion

When digi.tal
ewipnent

1:

27

on

Il. Chip in SOT 117 D package -ted

phenolic paper p.c. b. Carplete
-ted
in shall screening can
Table

7.5

35

at

References
are

appliti

in

audio

1. H.W. Ott, Noise Reduction Techrigues in

tiil-t-inferrite aerials, the

Electronic Systems, pp 97-108,

New York : Wiley, 1976.

near-field radiation of these circuits poses

a major problem.
The usual way of supply voktaqe decouplinq

2.

D.R.J. White, EM1 Control in the Desiqn of

must ?x substitutedby individualfilterinq

Printed Circuit Boards and Backplnnes,

of each current source. The usual mountinq

third Edition pp 2.11-2.28,Yainesville,

method of standard DIL-packagescannot be ap-

Virginia : Don White Consultants, Inc.

plied anymore. Use of small-outlinepackages

1982.

or naked chip mounting in combinationwith an

improved lay-out on the silicon chip will
solve the problem.
It is to h

hoped that the result of this in-

vestigationwill stimulate IC-suppliersto

provide their products with tuilt-.indecouplinq capacitors or to use two adjacent pins
for qround and supply voltage connections.

3.

Henning C. Juhl ; Electra Magnetic Noise

Emission from Small Computer Systems,
pp 53-77,
Elektronik Centralen, 1984

121

23

E3

RADIATED EMISSIONS
OF
PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD CLOCK CIRCUITS

D. R. Bush
International Business Machines Corporation
Lexington, Kentucky

SUMMARY

One of the major contributors to

the radiated EM1 from desk-top
electronic products such as
typewriters, personal computers and
printers are the harmonics, and
possibly the fundamental frequency of
the system crystal oscillator or clock
circuit. This paper will show a
reasonable amount of correlation with
a modified predictive model for this
radiation. The use of this model will
enable those involved with P.C. board
design to evaluate the oscillator
circuit radiation before hardware
is available.

U.S.A.

show that in some instances, if care is

taken, prediction will equal measurement,
and credible design guidelines may be
documented.
RADIATION

MODELS

The approximate equation for a

loop which is small in diameter with
respect to a wavelength is, from
[6], the following:

E=

120 rc2 I Sin e

__________-_-R

(1)

INTRODUCTION
Where:
Ott [l] and Keenan [2] have given
formulae for the prediction of the
radiated levels of these circuits at
distances of three meters, which is an
antenna distance used for Federal
Communications Commission (FCC)
computing device measurements.
Radiated levels for other distances
are typically extrapolated using the
inverse distance relationship.
Costa [31 gives measurement data that
agrees well with his prediction, but
the method of measurement is not well
described. Cooperstein [41 essentially
states that "designing" rather than
"fixing" is difficult, if not
impossible. This paper will not
dispute that point. However, data
have been collected which will show some
correlation with prediction.
Palmgren [51 had problems with radiated
EM1 prediction agreeing with
measurements. In this particular
case, the problem was apparently
due to common mode radiation that
exceeded by orders of magnitude
the loop, or differential mode
radiation. As mentioned before,
this paper will not dispute this
difficulty, nor will it offer a panacea
for reliable EM1 prediction, but it will

R=

distance from the loop (in

meters)

I=

current in loop at frequency

of interest (in amperes)

A=

area of loop (in sq. meters)

h=

wavelength of frequency of
interest (in meters)

0 = 90' for maximum radiation

E=

maximum field strength at R in

volts/meter.

Equation
(1) may be rearranged to Ott's
.
equation, which is the following for
R=3 meters and F is the
frequencey in Hertz:

E =
=

Kf2 AI
4.38 x 10-15f2AI

(2)

Keenan's equation is similar to this

with the addition of a near field
correction factor:
4
(3)
E=

122

It appears from equation (6) that

the level will increase as the cube of
the frequency, but each of two sinx

The near field correction factor

becomes less than one dB at
frequencies above 32 mHz when
the measurement distance is
three meters.

When the current, I, is known at a

particular frequency of interest, these
equations are easy to use to predict
the radiation from a particular circuit
on a particular printed circuit board.
However, the current is seldom, if
ever, known.
Since the current is an unknown,
it must be modeled with respect to the
source voltage and impedance of the
oscillator and the load impedance of
the loop being driven.
For loops that typically exist on
a printed csrcuit board (i.e., loop areas
up to 10 cm ), the loop impedance is
essentially equal to the input impedance
of the module (or modules) being driven.
Anyone who has allowed a loop on a P.C.
board to exceed this area has many other
problems which will not be discussed
here.
If the loop is small, the voltage
source (oscillator) assumed to have
zero impedance, and the loop impedance
is assumed to be the input capacitance
of the module being driven, the current
in the loop may be approximated:
I = WC

(4)

If the clock is assumed to be a

symmetrical trapezoidal waveform
Figure 1, the magnitude of the nth
harmonic may be calculated from Fourier
analysis by the following:

Cn

2vi(ing)(3)

(5)

terms in Cn decrease proportionally

with frequency as each break point is
reached. This is graphically shown in
Figures 1 through 4.
If V is assumed to be 1 volt,
equation (5) may be used to calculate a
per unit decrease of each harmonic for
the oscillator circuit under
investigation and this value inserted
in equation (6) for evaluation.
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Others [2] [3] [4] have mentioned
experimental results over limited
conditions and with limited frequency
These data
ranges and limited success.
are different only in that they
were taken on an actual machine
containing a printed circuit board
using an oscillator module driving a
single integrated circuit whose
parameters are known. Three different
oscillators with different rise times
were used in an attempt to verify the
predictions. The P.C. board trace is
show in figure 5.
On this board, a standard 14-pin
DIP oscillator is driving a custom
module a very short distance from it.
The loop area enclosed by the ground
and signal traces2between these two
modules is 6.5 cm . Other traces have
been deleted for clarity.
Two different oscillators were
measured when placed under identical
conditions in the same board. The
technical information on each is given
below:
Oscillator

Where:
V = amplitude in volts of
square wave
tr = transition time (rise or fall)

Note:

period

Equations (4) and (5) may be rewritten

and combined with (2) to obtain:

2nKf3ACnC

4.5v
5ns
67ns
7.5Mhz

The predicted and experimental results

are given in Figure 7.

All times in nanoseconds

E=

3.3v
Ins
65ns
7.68MHz

Figure 6 shows the oscilloscope

traces of the two oscillator
waveforms.

t = pulse width
T=

Amplitude
Rise time
Pulse width
Frequency 1
T

(6)

Oscillator A, because of the

faster risetime, is obviously the
more prolific radiator. The
predicted results were
calculated only at the
breakpoints (l/rrTand l/r&r)
as shown in Figure 4.

23

1
?rt r

1
77

123

Pulse

Spectrum

Fig.

Log

I (fl

I-

-c

V(f)

Capacitor
Fig.

Lo<

Current

_.
:ItT
I

l-

It--_-

Loop

Radi

Fig.

Pulse
Fig.

Radiation
4

at i on

Log

meters

__j(

E3

124

OSC. = Clock
A = Loop Area
B = Driver,
Module

Figure

OSCILLATOR

OSCILLATOR
FIGURE

- 125

23

--

Frequency,

Radiated

Levels

MHz

of Board with Oscillator

0
30

40

50

60

60
70
_L
r't,

Radiated

Frequency,
Levels

Experimental

MHz

of Board with Oscillator

FIGURE

300

200

90 100

and Predicted

Results

400

E3

- 126

Note that Figure 1 gives a bound

on the amplitude of the spectrum
and does not use the exact Cn as
listed inxuation
(5).
The same was done with
oscillator B using only the
l/xtr breakpoint and
extrapolating upward at a
20 db/decade rate.
CONCLUSIONS
Experience has show that the most
critical area of EM1 radiation from
desk-top electronic products in
non-metallic enclosures is in the range
from 30 to 200 MHz. The oscillator
circuits in these boxes typically have
a crystal in the range of two to
sixteen MHz, and it is concluded that
the predictions calculated in this
paper are valid under these
conditions. Other areas of concern,
such as interconnect cables, and larger
products or systems with clock signals
running from board to board and/or box
to box will obviously not fit the
loop area limitations of this model.
From any of the models mentioned
here it is apparent that the design of
clock circuits on printed circuit
boards are critical to the EM1
performance of desk-top products. The
areas of primary importance in the
design are the oscillator rise time,
the proximity of the driven circuit
(or circuits) to the oscillator, and
the input capacitance of the driven
circuit. Any or all of these
parameters may cause even a small,
relatively low cost device to exceed
the EM1 legal requirements which exist
in many countries.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to thank
C. R. Paul of the University of Kentucky
for his technical and editorial
assistance in the preparation of this
paper. Special thanks go to C. G. Newton
for the preparation of the figures and
to B. J. Wasson for the preparation of
the manuscript.
REFERENCES
Ott, H. W., "Digital Grounding and
Interconnection", 1981 IEEE
Symposium on EMC, P. 292.
Keenan, R. K., "Digital Design for
Interference Specifications", The
Keenan Corporation, 1983, P. 3.6-l.
Costa, M. et. al., "On Radiation
from Printed Circuit Boards", 1981
IEEE Symposium on EMC, P. 246.
Cooperstein, B., "Radiation from
Printed Wiring Boards", 1982 IEEE
Symposium on EMC, P. 103.
Palmgren, C. M., "Shielded Flat
Cables for EM1 and ESD Reduction",
1981 IEEE Symposium on EMC, P. 281.
Klaus, J. D., Antennas, New York,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
1950, P. 161.

- 127

CONTROLLING

EM1 BY PROPER

24~4

PRINTED

WIRING

BOARD LAYOUT

Henry W. Ott
AT&T Bell Laboratories
Whippany,

New Jersey

07981

USA

When laying out digital logic boards

EM1 should be one of the primary considerations.
This paper presents
simple layout guidelines to minimize
radiated emission in a cost effective
manner, by the proper use of grounds,
proper power distribution, decoupling,
and minimum "loop-area" signal interconnections.
Introduction
In recent years, high frequency
radiation has become a serious concern
to manufacturers
of digital electronic
This is because the Federal
products.
Communications
Commission
(FCC),
Verband Deutscher Electrotechniker
(VDE) and other governmental agencies
now have regulations limiting the
allowable radiation in the frequency
range of 30 to 1000 MHz.
The first
step in meeting these legal requirements is the laying out of the Printed
Wiring Board (PWB) to minimize radiation.
To do this in a cost effective
way, consideration must be given to
emission when the board is initially
designed.
Emission from digital electronics
can occur as either differential-modeor
common-mode radiation.
Differentialmode radiation is the result of current
flowing around loops formed by the conductors of the circuit, as shown in
Fig. 1. These loops act as smallantennas radiating magnetic fields. Although
these signal current loops are necessary
for circuit operation, their size and
area should be controlled, during the
design process, in order to reduce
radiation.
Common-mode radiation, on the other
hand, is the result of undesired voltage drops in the circuit that cause
some parts of the system to be at a
common-mode potential above "true"
ground.
This often is the result of
voltage drops in the digital ground
system.
When external cables are then
connected to the system they are driven
at this common-mode potential and act
as electric field radiating antennas,

Fig. 1:

Differential-mode

radiation

as shown in Fig. 2. Since these

undesired voltage drops are not intentionally designed into the system,
common-mode radiation is harder to
control.
However, steps should be
taken, during the design, to insure
that methods are available for handling
the common-mode emission problem.
Differential-Mode

Emission

Differential-mode
emission can be
modeled as a small loop antenna.
For a
small loop of area A carrying current I
the magnitude of the electric field
measured at a distance r, in the far
field, is equal to [ll.
E = 131.6~10 -16[f2AIl [l/rlsin 0, (1)
where E is in volts/meter.
A small loop is one on which the
current is in phase everywhere on the
loop.
This will be true if the perimeter is less than one-quarter wavelength.
For larger loops, the current
is not all in phase and therefore may
subtract from, instead of adding
directly to, the overall emission.
Eq. (1) therefore, predicts a maximum
field strength.
It is accurate for
small loops and approximate for large
loops.

I/O

CABLE

128

Eq. (2) shows that the radiation is

proportional to the current (I), the
area (A), and the square of the frequency (f). Therefore, radiation can
be controlled by (1) reducing the magnitude of the current, (2) reducing
the frequency or harmonic content of
the current, or (3) by reducing the
As far as circuit layout is
loop area.
concerned, the primary method of controlling differential-mode
radiation is
by minimizing the area enclosed by curThis means placing signal
rent flow.
leads and their associated ground
This is
return leads close together.
especially important for clock leads,
backplane wiring and interconnecting
cables.
For example, if 25 mA of current at
a frequency of 30 MHz is flowing around
a 10 sq cm loop, the electric field
strength measured at a distance of
This is
three meters will be 197 pV/m.
almost twice the allowable emission for
an FCC Class B product (intended for
residential applications)
in the USA.
This level also exceeds the German VDE
requirements for similar products.

I th

Fourier
//////////////////

EQUIVALENT

Fig.

2:

Common-mode

CIRCUIT

radiation

Although Eq. (1) is derived for a

round loop, it can be used for any
shape loop, since for small loops the
maximum radiation is insensitive to the
shape of the loop and depends only on
the area of the loop [8].
The first term in Eq. (1) is a constant that accounts for the properties
of the transmission medium (free space).
The second term defines the characteristics of the radiation source (the
loop).
The third term accounts for the
decay of the field as it propagates
away from the source.
The last term
accounts for the angular orientation of
the measuring antenna with respect to
the plane of the radiating loop.
Eq. (1) is for a loop located in
free space, with no reflecting surfaces
nearby.
Most regulations limiting the
radiation from electronic products
require emission measurements
to be
made over a ground plane, not in free
space.
The extra ground reflection can
increase the measured emission by as
much as 6 dB.
To account for this,
Eq. (1) must be multiplied by a factor
of two.
Correcting for the ground
reflection and assuming a measuring
distance of three meters and an orientation that maximizes the emission,
Eq. (1) can be rewritten as
E = 87.7~10 _16[f2AIl.

(2)

Transform

The above example is for a sine wave.

Since digital circuits use square waves
the Fourier series of the current must
be taken before calculating the emission using Eq. (2). For a symmetrical
square wave (really a trapezoidal wave
since the rise and fall times are
finite, as shown by the wave shape in
Fig. 3) the harmonic current I(n) is
given by [71
I(n) = I [sino(_O;~~~)][sinn(~~~~~T)], t3j
where I is the peak to peak amplitude
of the wave, tr is the rise time, T is
the period, and n is the harmonic number.
Fig. 3 shows the envelope of the
harmonics for a symmetrical wave.
The
harmonics fall off with frequency at a
20 dB per decade rate up to a frequency

hi

Fig. 3:
--_

20dB/DECADE

Envelope

9 II

1315

HORMONIC

of Fourier

NUh4BER

spectrum

of 1/lTtr, beyond that they fall off at

a rate of 40 dB per decade.
This shows
that as the rise time increases, the
energyinthe
higher harmonics decrease.
The frequency squared terminEq.
(2)
represents an increase in emission with
frequency of 40 dB per decade.
The net
effect of combining Eqs. (2) and (3) is
that the radiated emission increases
20 dB per decade with frequency for
frequencies less than l/lrtr, and
remains constant above this frequency.
Fig. 4 is a plot of the envelope of
the differential-mode
radiated emission
versus frequency.
Fig. 4 clearly shows
the important effect that rise time has
on radiated emission.
It is the rise

/;

-2OdBIDECADE

I
I

I
I
I

I
I
I
I
I ,

I
F4

Fig. 4:

FI = FUNDAMENTAL

FREO

t, = RISE TIME

Imt,

LOG FREQUENCY

Differential-mode
radiated
emission versus frequency

time that determines the break point

above which the radiation stops
increasing with frequency.
To decrease
the emission it is desirable to minimize both the frequency and rise time
of the signal.
The obvious trend in
technology is just the opposite, thereby
further complicating the problem of
controlling emission.
PWB Layout

to Minimize

Emission

When laying out a PWB to control

emission it is important to minimize

129

24~4

the loop areas formed by the signal

paths.
Trying to control individually
the area of all the loops formed by
signal and transient power supply
currents is a formidable job.
Luckily,
it is not necessary to handle all loops
individually.
The most critical loops
to control are those carrying the system clock since they are the primary
sources of radiation.
Since the clock is the highest frequency signal in a system and since all
its energy is concentrated in narrow
frequency bands (the fundamental plus
the harmonics), the emission from the
clock, in almost all cases, exceeds
that from all the other parts of the
circuit.
Therefore, all clock leads
must have adjacent return leads, for
the total area of the clock loops to be
less than a few square centimeters.
Fig. 5A shows the radiated emission
spectrum from a typical computing
device.
Fig. 5B shows the emission
from the same device with only the
clock circuit operational.
As can be
seen, the maximum emission is approximately the same in both cases.
Address buses, data buses and other
miscellaneous
signal leads are secondary sources of radiation, not as important as the clock leads, but their loop
areas still should be kepttoaminimum.
This can be done by providing at least
one signal return (ground] lead adjacent to each group of eight data or
address leads.
This ground return is
best placed adjacent to the least significant address lead (since this is
usually the highest frequency], or in
the center of the group of leads.
Most miscellaneous
signal lead loop
areas can be controlled by using a
ground grid or plane.
A ground grid or
plane is also required to minimize the
amount of internal noise generated
[3].
Another source of radiated emission
is the transient power supply current
required by digital logic gates during
switching.
These loop areas can be
controlled by decoupling capacitors
placed next to each IC [3] as shown in
Fig. 6.

RADIATED
EMISSION
SPECTRUM

RADIATED
EMISSION
SPECTRUM

CLOCK

(A)

Fig. 5:

Typical radiated emission spectrum from a digital circuit with, (A)

circuits operational and, (B) with only clock circuits operational

all

130

(B)

(A)
Fiq. 6:

Transient power supply current (AI) for logic gate, (A) without a
decoupling capacitor and, (B) with a decoupling capacitor

Transient power supply currents

should be confined to the PWB and kept
off backplane and interconnecting
cables. This can be done by the proper
use of decoupling filters located where
power enters the board. These filters
may take the form of a large bulk
decoupling capacitor or a ferrite-bead
capacitor combination.
LOOP areas on backplanes and interconnecting cables can be controlled by
using multiple ground returns distributed across the backplane or cable
rather than bunched together.
If the above methods are used,
differential-mode radiation should
rarely be a problem, since it is easily
controlled in the layout of the PWB.
On the other hand, common-mode radiation is harder to control and normally
determines the overall emission performance of the product.
Common-Mode Emission
Common-mode radiation emanates from
the cables in the system. The frequencies radiated are those making up
the common-mode potential (usually the
ground voltage) as can be seen from
Fig. 2. The frequencies radiated are
not those present as differential-mode
signals in the cable.
Common-mode emission can be modeled
as a short monopole antenna (the cable)
driven by a voltage (the ground voltage
drop). For a monopole antenna of
length L over a ground plane, the magnitude of the electric field strength
measured at a distance r, in the far
field is [2]
E = [4~x10-7[fILlsin 81/r,

Assuming an orientation that maximizes the emission and a measuring distance of three meters, Eq. (4) can be
rewritten as
E = 4.2x10-7[fLI].
( 5 ),
Eq. (5) shows that the radiation is
proportional to the frequency, length
of the antenna, and the magnitude of
the common-mode current on the antenna.
The primary method of minimizing this
radiation is to limit the common-mode
current on the cable.
The frequency term in Eq. (5) represents an increase with frequency of
20 dB per decade. The net result of
combining this with Eq. (3) is that the
common-mode emission is flat versus
frequency up to a frequency of l/nt,
and decreases with frequency at 20 dB
per decade above the frequency l/lrt,.
Fig. 7 shows the envelope of the
common-mode emission versus frequency.
Because of this frequency dependence,
common-mode emission is usually only a
problem at frequencies below l/ntr.
Therefore, for rise times in the 4 to
10 nanosecond range, common-mode emission problems normally occur between
30 and 80 MHz.

(4)

where I is the common-mode current on

the cable (antenna).
Eq. (4) is valid for an antenna with
uniform current distribution. This can
be assumed true, provided the length is
less than one-quarter wavelength. At
75 MHz a quarter wavelength is equal to
one meter.

I
FI

Fig. 7:

Inn,

LOG FREQUENCY

Common-mode radiated emission

versus frequency

24~4

131 Controlling Common-Mode Emission

As was the case for diiferentialmode radiation, it is helpful, if possible, to limit both the rise time and
frequency of the signal to decrease
common-mode emission.
The only parameter in Eq. (5) that
the PWB designer has under his control
to minimize the common-mode emission
is the common-mode current. The commonmode current can be thought of as a
"control knob" to the radiatedemission.
To meet FCC Class B requirements, at
50 MHz, the common-mode current in a
one meter long cable must be less than
five microamps (15 microamps for FCC
Class A requirements). Only tens-ofmillivolts of ground potential are
required to produce common-mode currents of this magnitude.
Common-mode current can be controlled by minimizing the source voltage driving the antenna (normally the
ground potential), or by shunting the
current to ground, or by providing a
large common-mode impedance (choke)
[4,5] in series with the cable. The
common-mode suppression components used
must be such that they affect the
common-mode current (usually clock
harmonics) and not the functionally
required differential-mode current.
Another method of controlling the
emission is to shield the cable.
The first step in controllingcommonmode radiation is minimizing thecommonmode voltage driving the radiating
antenna (cable). A ground grid or
plane on the PWB is effective fordoing
this since it minimizes the voltage
drop in the ground system [3]. Even
with a ground grid or plane thecommonmode voltage usually cannot be made
small enough to eliminate the emission.
Therefore, additional control techniques are usually required.
Decoupling (shunting the current to
ground) and shielding require a "quiet"
or "clean" ground (one not contaminated
by the digital logic noise). Unless
consideration is given to this early
in the design, such a ground will not
be available.
A common-mode choke on the other
hand is the only technique that does
not require a ground to function, and
by the nature of its operation doesnot
affect the differential-mode current.
Hence the popularity of chokes for
limiting common-mode emission from
cables. The effectiveness of a commonmode choke is normally limited to less
than 20 dB (typically 10 to 15 dB) [6]
because of the bypassing effect of the
choke's parasitic capacitance [5].
To use cable decoupling or shielding
for common-mode suppression, PWBs must
be laid out with consideration given to
providing a "quiet" input/output (I/O)
ground. This can best be done by
locating all the I/O leads in one area
of the board and providing, in this
area, a separate I/O ground that only

connects to the digital logic ground at

one point. Fig. 8 shows this. The
only allowable connections to this
ground are I/O lead decoupling capacitors and external cable shields. This
ground should have a low impedance
connection to the power line safety
(green wire) ground.

I/O
7
Fig.

DECOUPLING

CAPACITORS

CONNECTION
8:

Digital PWB with separate

"clean" I/O ground

Obtaining large amounts of commonmode suppression by any one technique

is difficult if not imnossible. whereas
by combining two or three different
techniques the needed suppression can
usually be obtained. From a cost point
of view, cable decoupling capacitors
are usually more economical than chokes,
since they are machine insertable, and
common-mode chokes are more economical
than shielded cables.
Common-mode currents on cables can
be measured with a high frequency
current clamp and spectrum analyzer.
Therefore, the effectivenessofvarious
mitigation techniques can be determined
in the laboratory before radiated emissiontesting. Sincecommon-mode emission
is the predominant radiation mechanism
in most products, these common-mode
currentsdeterminethe maximum emission.
The common-mode current is related to
the radiated emission by Eq. (5).
Conclusions
Differential-mode emission should
rarely be a problem since it can be
easily controlled by circuit layout.
Therefore, the overall product emission
is normally determined by the commonmode emission.
Both differential-mode and commonmode emission increase with an increase
in clock frequency and a decrease in
clock rise time. Neither of these however, are under the PWB designer's
control.

The key to reducing differentialmode radiation is minimizing the area

of all loops carrying signal currents
and transient power supply currents.
The most critical of these are those
carrying the clock signal.
The key to controlling common-mode
radiation is minimizing the commonmode current on all the system cables.
A ground grid or plane should always
be used on digital logic PWBs to minimize loop areas and common-mode ground
potential.
All I/O leads should be located in
A "quiet" I/O
one area of the PWB.
ground, connected to the digital logic
ground at only one point, should be
provided in this area of the board.
The following techniques can be used
to control common-mode currents.
To
minimize costs they should be used in
the following order:
(1) decoupling,
(2) common-mode chokes, (3) cable
shielding.
Common-mode currents should be
measured on all cables and compared to
the limits specified, before radiated
emission testing.
This provides a high
degree of confidence that the product
will pass the radiated emission test.
Emission control must be considered
during the initial PWB layout.
As a
product progresses through its various
developmental phases:
initial design,
prototype, testing, final models and
production, the degrees of freedom
available to control emission problems
decrease and consequently the cost of
solutions increase.

132

References
111

Weeks, W. L., lVElectromaqnetic

Theory For Engineering Applications," Equation 91, p. 565,
John Wiley, 1964.

(21

Ibid., Equation

[31

Ott, H. W., "Digital Circuit

Grounding and Interconnection,"
1981 IEEE International Symposium
on Electromagnetic
Compatibility.

141

Ott, H. W., "Noise Reduction

Techniques in Electronic Systems,"
p. 71, John Wiley, 1976.

[51

Nakauchi, E., Brashear, L.,

"Technique for Controlling Radiated
Emission Due to Common-Mode Noise
in Electronic Data Processing
Systems," 1982 IEEE International
Symposium on Electromagnetic
Compatibility.

[61

Ritenour, T. J., "Designing to

Control Common Mode Current Related
Emissions From Computer Systems,"
Session 28 Record, MIDCON/82,
Dallas, Texas.

r71

IT&T, "Reference Data For Radio

Engineers," Fifth Edition,
p. 42-13,
Howard Sams, 1968.

[81

Stutzman, W. L., and Thiele,

"Antenna Theory and Design,"
p. 99, John Wiley, 1981.

39b, p. 310.

G. A.,

USE OF A GROUND
CIRCUIT

133

25

GRID TO REDUCE

E5

PRINTED

BOARD RADIATION

Robert

F. German

IBM Corporation
P.O. Box 1900, 592/025-l
Boulder,

Colorado

80302

U.S.A.

Abstract
EMC problems with a 5.25-inch diskette drive, whose circuit board was
designed with a single-point ground
system, are examined.
Excessive grourdnoise and radiated EM1 are identified
by comparing measurements
from circuit
boards employing a single-point ground
and a ground grid.
The effect of a
ground grid on power-supply decoupling
is also described.

identified late in the development

cycle, the component locations on the
board could not be changed.
The problem was solved by implementing a gridded ground on the
printed circuit board.
A small number
of judiciously placed wires caused a
reduction of radiated EM1 without the
need to move components or increase the
cost of the board.
The success of the
gridded ground motivated the investigation described in this paper.

Introduction
Due to its inherent sensitivity to
ground loops, analog circuitry is
usually equipped with a single-point
ground system.
As a result of this
common design practice, single-point
ground systems are also being used with
digital circuitry.
A recent paper by
Ott [l] discloses that a ground grid is
better suited to digital circuitry,
because these circuits are immune to
ground loops, but are sensitive to
ground inductance.
A ground grid,
commonly called a "qridded ground,"
offers lower inductance than a singlepoint ground.
A 5.25-inch diskette drive, equipped
with a circuit board employing a sinqlepoint ground, was tested early in its
development cycle for radiated Electromagnetic Interference
(EMI). The EM1
radiated by the drive appeared to be
below the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) radiated EM1 limit for
Class B products [2]. Although this
sub assembly is not subject to the FCC
EM1 limit, compliance with this limit
is highly desirable.
Otherwise, the
drive may require shielding when it is
installed in the end product.
When measured late in the development cycle, the EM1 radiated by the
diskette drive was above the FCC Class
The increase in the emisB limit.
sions was caused by modules procured
from different manufacturers
than the
modules used on the earlier circuit
Because the EM1 problem was
board.

Equipped with the noisiest of 10

single-point ground circuit boards, a
5.25-inch diskette drive was tested
for ground noise, V,, noise, and
radiated EMI.
A qridded ground was
created by soldering wires to the circuit board, and the measurements were
repeated.
The results indicate that
the measurements of qround and V,,
noise are useful for identifying potential EM1 problems.
Description

of the Diskette

Drive

The 5.25-inch diskette drive has a

capacity of 320K bytes and measures
approximately
30 x 15 x 9 cm. A stepper
motor is used to position the two heads
while a direct-current
(DC) motor
Mounted on top
rotates the diskette.
of the drive is the 13.9 x15.4 cm,twosided printed circuit board.
Connected
to the board are the motor, DC power,
interface signal, and head cables.
Fig. 1 shows the circuit board with
the single-point ground system, where
the ground traces are depicted by the
crosshatched area.
The separate
ground systems for the digital circuitry (Ml-Ml3 and M16) and the analog
circuitry (Ml4 and M15) are connected
It will
only at the power connector.
be shown that this design results in a
loop that produces excessive ground
Separate single-point systems
noise.
are also used for the DC voltage distribution.
Fig. 2 depicts the modified circuit board with a gridded
The voltage distribution on
ground.

134

FIG.1.PRINTEDCIRCUITBOARD WITH SINGLE-POINTGROUND.

FIG,2.PRINTEDCIRCUITBOAR0 WITH GRIDOEDGROUND.

25

- 135 -

this board is identical with the distribution on the circuit board in

Fig. 1.
The12 capacitors, showninboth
Fig.1
and Fiq. 2, decouple the power supplies.
High-frequency
decoupling-is pro<ided
by five 0.1 ~J-Fcapacitors
(CH5) for
the 5 V supply and by two capacitors
for the 12 V supply (CHl2). Three 4.7
UF capacitors are used for low-frequency decoupling of the 5 V supply (CL5),
and two are used for the 12 V supply
(CL12).
The digital circuitry includes a
Texas Instruments TMS 7020 microprocessor (Ml), seven low-power Schottky
TTL modules (M5-Ml0 and Ml6), three
standard TTL modules (M3, M4, and Mll),
two 75478 drivers (Ml2 and M13), andan
LM 339 comparator
(M2). The microprocessor is clocked by an internal 5 MHz
oscillator, which is connected to the
external crystal shown in both Fig. 1
and Fig. 2.
The analog circuitry consists of a
Motorola 347019 floppy-disk read amplifier (M14) and an Exar semi-custom
write controller
(M15). During a reading operation, the read amplifier converts the analog head-signal to a digiThe write controller pertal signal.
forms the inverse function during a
writing operation.
Ground-Noise

Voltage

Ott states that the effectiveness

of a ground system can be determined
by measuring the peak differential voltage between the various ground points
[ll . This ground-noise voltage is produced when signal-return and transient
power-supply currents flow through the
inductance of the ground traces.
Ground-noise measurements were performed using a Tektronix P6046 active
differential probe, which has a minimum common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR)
of 500:1 at 50 MHz.
The probe was
connected to a Tektronix 7104 oscilloscope equipped with a 7A26 amplifier,
which has a bandwidth of 200 MHz, and
a 7B92A time-base unit.
Equipment
with this wide bandwidth and 1argeCMRR
is required to measure the short noisepulses.
Equal-length wires were used
to connect the probe to the circuit
board.
The coupling of these wires to
the circuit board was minimized by
routing the wires perpendicularly
away
from the board for about 5 cm, then
directly to the probe [3].
Table 1 lists the ground-noise voltages
measured both between the ground pins
of modules and between the corners of
the board.
Measurements were performed
only between modules connected by signal traces.
The diskette drive was
reading and writing the diskette during
the noise measurements.

Table

1.
-

Ground-Noise
Measurement
Locations

ES

Ground-Noise Voltages
-_
Peak Differential
Voltage (mV)
Single-pint
Ground

Gridded
Ground

Ml - M2

150

100

Ml - M3

425

150

Ml - M4

425

150

Ml - M5

450

150

Ml - M6

450

150

Ml - M7

450

150
225

Ml - M8

425

Ml - M9

400

175

Ml - Ml0

400

150

Ml - Ml1

625

200

Ml - Ml2

400

150

Ml - Ml3

425

250

Ml4 - Ml1

900

200

Ml5 - M7

850

125

Ml5 - Ml0

900

125

Ml5 -Ml6

1000

100

M2 - Power

300

100

lower-Interface

300

75

nterface-Head

900

100

Head - M2

625

100

12-Interface

500

125

.ead - Power

800

75

Compare the single-point ground

noise voltages in Table 1 with the
length of the ground traces in Fig. 1.
The ground noise generally increases
with the distance between modules.
There is not an exact correlation
because transient power-supply currents
also produce ground noise, and these
currents are different for each module.
Note the ground noise between
modules Ml5 and M16.
For the singlepoint ground, the noise is 1 V.
Installing a gridded ground reduced
this noise to 100 mv, a decrease of
90%.
This improvement results from
the dramatic reduction in theareaofthe
loop caused by the separation of the
analog and digital grounds.
Because
signal traces are connected directly
between Ml5 and M16, the loop area is
almost the entire board for the singlepoint ground.
With the gridded ground,
the loop is a small fraction of the
circuit-board area.
The worst-case noise voltages for
the single-point ground system are from
850 mV to 1V. Although many digital
devices can withstand these large
noise levels, their operational margins
and reliability may be reduced [l].

In contrast, the maximum ground-noise

voltage for the circuit board with the
This board
gridded ground is 250 mV.
meets the 150-to-300 mV criteria
suggested by Ott for a "well designed"
ground system [II.
V+c-Noise

136

from the decoupling capacitor to flow

through much smaller loops.
V,, noise
reductions of 59% and 75% are the
Experience has shown that,
result.
with optimal decoupling and a gridded
ground, V,, noise less than 100 mV can
be achieved at most modules.

Voltage
Radiated

Transient power-supply currents

flow through the traces between a module and the decoupling capacitors. The
inductance of these traces causes a
noise voltage between the V,, and
ground pins of the module.
This V,,
noise is a measure of how effectively
the module is decoupled from the powerTable 2 lists the Vcc-noise
supply.
voltages, which were measured with the
same equipment used to measure ground
noise.
Table

2.

V -Noise
Meag&ement
Location

v,_p-Noise

275

150

M2

100

100

M3

300

200

M4

200

125

M5

300

200

M6

250

200

M7

725

300

M8

200

175

M9

175

150

Ml0

175

150

Ml1

600

150

Ml.2

175

175

300

250

300

225

175

150

M14:

5V

M14: 12 V
M15:

5V

M15:12
Ml6

RECEIVE
ANTENNA
DISKETTE
DRIVE

STEEI
PIPE

Single-point Gridded
Ground
Ground

Ml

Ml3

Radiated EM1 measurements were performed in a semi-anechoic chamber, as

shown in Fig. 3. The vertical siteattenuation of this chamber appears in
Fig. 17 of [41. Signal and power

Voltages

Peak Differential
Voltage (mV)

EM1

75

75

200

150

200

150

The circuit board with the gridded

ground exhibits lower V,, noise than
was measured on the board with the
single-point ground.
Note the reduction in V,, noise for modules M7 and
Mll.
The V,, pins of these modules
are connected to the high-frequency
decoupling capacitor next to module
M16.
Transient current supplied to M7
and Ml1 must return via the ground path
around MlO.
These large loops produce
725 and 600 mV of Vc, noise at M7 and
Mll, respectively.
The gridded ground
in Fig. 2 allows the transient current

FIG.3.RADIATED EMI MEASUREMENT SETUP.

cables 1.5m
long were routed through
a steel pipe 4.lcm
in diameter, which
was welded to the chamber's raised
metal-floor.
Approximately
11 cm of
these cables was exposed between the
steel pipe and the diskette drive. Each
power and signal wire was twisted with
a ground wire.
A DC power supply,
placed under the floor, was connected
to the power cable.
The interface
cable was connected to circuitry (also
located under the floor) used to drive
an additional 15m
interface cable
connected to an IBM Personal Computer
(PC). The PC was located outside the
chamber and controlled the reading and
writing operations of the diskette
drive.
The receive antenna was an Ailtech
94455-l biconical.
It was placed in a
vertical orientation at a constant
height of lm and connected to an HP
8568 spectrum analyzer equipped with a
quasi-peak adapter, which was located
outside the chamber.
Maximum emissions were measured with the front of
the diskette drive facing the receive
antenna and the circuit board parallel
to the floor.
Fig. 4 shows all quasi-peak measurements greater than 34 dBpV/m.
The
worst-case emanation from the diskette
drive with the single-point ground circuit board was 2.9 dB above the FCC
limit.
EM1 radiated by the drive with
the gridded-ground
board had a maximum

- 137

25

E5

43
42
41
FCC CLASS B LIMIT
._____-------_

40

SINGLE
POINT
T GROUND

39
38
37

GRIODEO
T GROUND

36

35
34

34

35

36

45

46

47

40

49

50

I I I I I I

51

52

53

54

55

56

FREQUENCY [MHz1
FIG,4.RADIATED EMISSIONSFROM DISKETTEDRIVE.
level that was 4.2 dB below the FCC
This 7.1 dB reduction in the
limit.
maximum EM1 radiated by the drive
corresponds to the reduced noise voltages in Tables 1 and 2. The reductions are not identical, because EM1 is
measured at a single frequency using a
quasi-peak detector, whereas noise voltages are measured in the time domain
The diskette
using a peak detector.
drive with gridded-ground
circuit board
met the FCC EM1 limit because there are
no inter-module clock circuits on the
Radiation from these clock cirboard.
cuits can exceed the FCC limit [5].
A simple radiated-EM1 source can
behave as either a loop antenna
(differential mode) or a monopole
antenna (common mode) [61, [73. One
might expect the radiation from the
diskette drive with the single-point
ground circuit board to be primarily
differential mode because some signal
currents flow though large loops, such
as the loop between modules Ml5 and
If the
Ml6 discussed previously.
emissions are differential mode, maximum levels will be measured with the
receive antenna in the same plane as
the circuit board, and no emissions
will be measured when the recieve
antenna is orthogonal to this plane [81.
However, the measured emissions from
the diskette drive with the singlepoint ground circuit board were insensitive to the relative position of the
circuit board and the receive antenna.

Moreover, the maximum EM1 was obtained

with the receive antenna orthogonal to
the circuit board.
The above results indicate that the
emissions are primarily common mode.
This, in fact, is typical of most
products that produce EM1 in the 30-75
MHz frequency range because common-mode
currents can be orders of magnitude
less than differential-mode
currents
and produce the same levels of EMI.
The common-mode radiation from the diskette drive appears to be the result of
the head cables being driven as monopole antennas by the ground noiseAlthough the common-mode
voltage.
radiation is predominate, differentialmode radiation still should not be
A problem can occur if the
neglected.
circuit board includes inter-module
clock circuits and the common-mode
radiation is reduced using the techniques in [61.
Conclusions
The following conclusions
from this investigation:

can be drawn

Ground and V,, noise-measurements

are useful for identifying potential EM1 problems.

2.

The use of a single-point ground

on a two-sided circuit board with

digital circuitry can result

ground noise up to 1 V.

A circuit board with ground noise

of 1 v can cause a product to
exceed the FCC Class-B radiated
EM1 limit.

4.

A gridded ground can be simulated

by soldering wires to a circuit
board with a single-point ground.

5.

Ground noise of 150-to-300 mV can

be achieved on a two-sided circuit
board that employs a gridded
ground without increasing the cost
of the board.

7.

A 5.25-inch diskette drive or

similar product, with a circuit
board employing a gridded ground
and no inter-module clock circuits, can meet the FCC EM1 limit
for Class B products.

The use of a gridded ground

improve the power-supply
decoupling.

References

in

3.

6.

138

t11

H.W. Ott, "Digital Circuit GroundIEEE

ing and Interconnection,"
International Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility,
Boulder,
Colorado, August 18-20, 1981,
PP. 292-297.

[Xl

FCC Docket 20780, "Redefining and

Clarifying the Rules Governing
Restricted Radiation Devices and
Low Power Communications
Devices,"
released October 16, 1979.

[31

H.H. Skilling, Electric Transmission Lines, New York: McGraw

Hill, 1951, pp. 103.

[41

R.F. German, "Comparison of Semianechoic Chamber and Open-field

Site Attenuation Measurements,"
IEEE International Symposium on
Electromagnetic
Compatibility,
Santa Clara, California, September
8-10, 1982, pp. 260-265.

[51

"Radiation from
B. Cooperstein,
Printed Wiring Boards," -IEEE
International Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibiltiy,
Santa
Clara, California, September 8-10,
1982, pp. 103-106.

[61

H.W. Ott, "Controlling EM1 by

Prover Printed Wirilis Board Lavout,
*' 6th Symposium and Technical
Exhibition on Electromagnetic
Compatibility,
Zurich, Switzerland,
March 5-7, 1985.

171

R.R. Goulette and S.K. Xavier,

"Control of Electromagnetic
Emissions in Digital Circuits,"
IEEE InternationalSvmposium
on
-I___
Circuits and Systems, Newport--'
Beach, California, May 2-4, 1983,
PP. 958-961.

[81

C.A. Balanis, Antenna Theory:

Analysis and Design, New York:
Harper and Row, 1982, pp. 174.

can

Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank Dan
Culberson, Charlotte R. Tyson, Otto R.
Buhler and Bobby J. Foster of IBM
Boulder; Henry W. Ott of AT&T Bell
Laboratories,
and Dr. Clayton R. Paul
of the University of Kentucky for their
editorial and technical assistance.
He
would also like to thank Barry C. Oberg
and John T. Fessler of IBM Boulder
for their useful discussions and help
performing the measurements,
and
Marie Kindgren for typing the manuscript.

139

26

~6

ACHIEVING COMPATIBILITY IN INTER-UNIT WIRING

J.W.E. Jones
Portsmouth Polytechnic
Portsmouth, England

Problems in achieving compatibility in

inter-unit wiring in a hostile EM environment
often come down to effective shielding and
achievable cross-talk, The advantage of
topological shielding and the problem of
braided shields are well-known, but there is
little experience reported of the effectiveness
of balanced circuits. In this paper,
measurements are reported on the performance
of a balanced amplifier, on the effects of
pigtails on the transfer-impedance of a
shielded line and on the performance
obtainable from a shielded balanced circuit,
against currents on the shield (i.e. an
effective trans:Fer impedance). Finally, an
attempt is made to draw to the attention of
practising EMC engineers the salient points of
the measurements reported here, and their
relevance to the topological approach to
shielding.
Outline
This paper is concerned with the problems
in achieving EMC for the inter-unit wiring of
a system exposed to a hostile EM environment.
The studies have been primarily aimed at
aircraft systems, where cable lengths are
generally under a few tens of metres.
In a paper cl] at the 1983 Symposium,
EMC5, the author showed how the presence of a
ground-plane complicates the design of interunit wiring and claimed that the conventional
view of the ground plane, as an electrical
reference-plane underlying the whole system,
was not tenable as a scientific view.
An approach to the design of inter-unit
wiring was put forward, which took account of
the ground-plane, but did not depend on it as
a reference-level etc., nor on the passing of
any other reference-level (such as the 0 V
line) between units. The choice of the correct
interface circuits was stressed, linked with
the topological approach to shielding advanced
by Vance 12.1.
Balanced interface circuits were
recommended to overcome the susceptibility of
inter-unit wiring to induced interference; it
was implied that the use of such balanced
circuits, within braided shields terminated at
each end in accordance with topological
principles, would offer adequate performance.

In the present paper, measured results

are reported on various aspects of the
performance of interface circuits relevant to
their use in a topologically-shielded system.
Firstly, some quantitative results on the
effects of pigtailing a braided shield are
presented, and then the performance of a
balanced interface - a balanced source, a twin
shielded cable and a balanced receiver - over
the range 500 Hz to 20 MHz is shown. In the
last section , quantitative results obtained by
applying the above results to practical
circuits are presented, and the implications
for system design emphasized.
Problems with Balanced Interfaces
The Balanced Receiver
It was noted in a previous paper [3] that
there is little information in the literature
on the cormnon-mode rejection (CMR) of
balanced amplifiers at high-frequencies. An
amplifier was developed as described in [3];
the circuit has been further developed since
then, in order to achieve a greater tolerance
of CM voltage before any non-linear effects
set in. This has a similar performance, but
slightly lower CMR (53 dB over lo-50 MHz and
just below 80 dB at LF), as can be seen in
Figure 1.

140

The arLlplifier has an input circuit Of discrete

components in order to improve the maximum
common-mode voltage which can be accented (it
is only about k 1 volt with the original TC,
a uA733 or NE592). The degradation in the
CMRR at low frequencies over the original
model is probably due to unbalance in this
input circuit.
Pigtails on Braids

but over 35 dR from 6 to 50 Wz.

Curve 4
shows the 50 mm pigtail results, some 10 dB
worse than the 15 mm, as would he expected
from the ratio of their lengths. Curve 2
shows the effect of fitting two simulated
pigtails of 15 mm length, diametrically
opposite one another in the same braid
termination. The performance is better, hut
still a lot worse than that of a proper bond
(Curve 1).

It is well known that the connection of a

braided shield, at the terminating inputs,
should be by a circumferential clamp.
Nevertheless, because of expense and
inconvenience, it is still common practice to
use a 'pigtail' - that is, to connect between
the end of the braid and the metal-work of
the unit by a single wire running roughly
parallel to the internal conductors.
Paul [4,5:]has shown the effects of
pigtails, by comparing crosstalk between
unshielded wires and wires with pigtailed
shields. His results demonstrate the serious
effects of pigtails, and he also developed a
theoretical model to explain these effects.
This model also provides an insight into when,
and why, a pigtail will have a serious effect,
which is very valuable in system design.
Measurements at Portsmouth have been
directed at the effect of pigtails on surface
transfer impedance. Results have been
prepared to show a direct comparison between
the transfer imnedance of a 1 m length of a
shielded cable with circumferentially-bonded
shield, and that of the same cable with
pigtails of 15 and 50 mm length. In order to
define it rigorously, the pigtail was
simulated by terminating the shield in the
usual clamp: the flange of this clamp,
instead of being bolted directly to the Unit
case, was connected only through a bolt whose
length could be varied (locknuts ensured
adequate contacts).
The cable used is DRM68, a shielded
twisted pair. It was mounted in a 1 m long
jig between a transmitter and a receiver box.
The jig is not coaxial, but consists of a
flat ground-plane (30 cm x 110 cm) over which
the cable under test is run; the receiver box
is connected to this plane, the transmitter
box is insulated and connected to the
'interference' generator. At one end, the
cable shield is clamped circumferentially
directly on to the box, while at the other
the simulated pigtail was included (apart from
the first measurement, of the properly
terminated shield). The two inner cores are
commoned at each end, to simulate a coaxial
cable.
The 'interfering' current is passed along
the braid (and the pigtail, if present), and
back along the ground-plane, The voltage
induced in the inner circuit is measured,
expressed as the transfer impedance and
plotted in Figure 2.
Here, in Figure 2, Curve 1 shows the
transfer impedance with circumferential bonding
at each end, and Curve 3 shows the effect of
one 15 mm pigtail - negligible up to 200 kHz,

The performance of the pigtails reported

here can he modelled quite accurately as being
due to the flux from the interference current
in the pigtail wire which links with the inner
circuit (i.e. passes between the pigtail wire
and the centre conductor). The interference
current on the braid generates flux which
does not link with the internal circuit (i.e.
the centre conductor and the braid) except
by leakage through the braid apertures, an
effect which is expressed as the Surface
Transfer Impedance. But in the pigtail section,
this current is all concentrated on the Pigtail
rod, which is now lying parallel to but
separated from the centre conductor. Some flux
due to the interference current passes between
the two, and this flux does link with the
internal circuit (which is formed of the
pigtail and the centre conductor here - an
'open' two-wire line). Calculation of the
flux linked is straightforward, based on
R = uoI/2ar for the flux density near a round
brire. In the case measured, the mutual
inductance is about 5 nH for a 15 mm pigtail.
This view illustrates the fact that the
pigtail transfer impedance is proportional to
its length, and not that of the cable, For
7
Instance, in the case above it is noted that
the pigtail is 35 dB worse than the bond;
but the pigtail is only 15 mm long - or 37 dR
below a metre - so it is in fact 72 dB worse
per unit length.
A measurement was also made of the effect
of a pigtail on a balanced interface, as
reported in the next section.
Shielded Twisted-pair Cables
The twisted pair is an obvious choice for
cabling between balanced interfaces in unj.ts.

- 141

Measurements have been made of the CMR of the

individually-shielded twisted pair, DRM68.
The cable was mounted in a 1 m long open jig
between a transmitter and receiver box as for
the pigtail measurements, but with its shield
bonded circumferentially at each end.
Current is passed along the braid, and the
signal between the two conductors measured
for a number of configurations (including
theCMconfiguration, with the two conductors
both connected to a single-ended receiver).
The measured CMR is plotted in Figure 3
for the following configurations:
Curve 1:

Each inner conductor is terminated

in 53 0, to the box at each end.
(The four resistors were carefully
balanced).

Curve 2:

Transmitter as 1; at the receiver,

the conductors joined by 100 R,
but not connected to the box.

Curve 3:

Transmitter as 1; at the receiver,

no resistors at all.

Curve 4:

Transmitter single-ended (one

conductor direct to the box, the
other through 53 a); at the receiver,
the conductors joined by 100 R but
not connected to the box.

Curve 5:

26

~6

The results plotted in Curves 4 and 5

are for a single-ended transmitter, and show
a noticeable deterioration in performance,
increasing at HF to some 10 dB. Compare
Curves 2 with 4, or Curves 3 with 5.
When a pigtail of 50 mm was included at
one end of the braid (as described for the
single-ended circuit, under 'pigtails'), it
appeared that the CMR was improved by the
presence of the pigtail. A closer look at
the results showed that, although this was
true, the reason is subtler, and does not
affect the disapproval of pigtails. The CM
response is very seriously affected by the
pigtail (as shown in Figure 2 above); the DM
response is seriously affected, but to a
slightly lesser extent. Thus the CMR, which
is the difference between these two readings,
is improved above 100 kHz - by about 15 dB
at 1 MHz, 20 dB at 5 MHz and above. The
effective Transfer impedance in the balanced
mode was still better with the circumferential
bond than with a pigtail. In other words,
the pigtail has a less marked effect in the
differential configuration.
Shielded Twisted Quad Cable
It was thought that shielded quad cable
might show a better balance than the pair,
when its diagonally opposite conductors were
parallel to form a shielded pair.

Transmitter as 4; at the receiver,

no resistors at all.

There is not a very wide margin in

performance over these configurations - about
a 10 dB range up to 100 kHz, 1S dB above
1 MHZ. However, it must be pointed out that
the performance of Curve 1 at LF was only
obtained with very careful trimming of the
four 53 R resistors, to give a good d.c.
balance. This order of balance would not be
possible in production, so that Curve 1 would
'limit' at a lower value of CMR, set by the
resistor unbalance, at low frequencies. A
practical value might be only 30 dB, even with
close-tolerance resistors.
This limitation is avoided if the
receiver terminations are connected only
line-to-line - that is, without a connection
to the local 0 V - as in Curve 2.

plotted in Figure 4 show that the cable tested

had indeed much better balance than the pair,
but that the choice of paralleled conductors
makes no difference up to 200 kHz or so.
Above 500 kHz, the diagonal configuration
gives worse results than the side-by-side
configuration. The circuit is as for Curve 2
on the DRM68 results - balanced transmitter,
with the receiver matched line-to-line but
unconnected to the box.
Curve 3 of Figure 4 shows the
measurements on the same circuit as Curve 2,
but with 1 kfi terminations. The fall-off in
CMR starts at a much lower frequency. It
could be assumed that this is because the
capacitances of each conductor to the shield
are unbalanced, and determine the CMR at high
frequencies. With higher terminating

resistors, this effect becomes significant at

lower frequencies. If this is so, it also
suggests that there might be problems in
calculating the CMR performance of long
balanced interface cables from the
measurements in a 1 m jig. This has not been
investigated.
It is not clear whether the improvement
shown by the quad is due to the quadrifilar
configuration, or because it is a newer
design of cable than the DRM68. A theoretical
analysis of quad cables, in both diagonal and
side-by-side configuration, by V. Belevitch
et al [6,7] shows results for the line
parameters both in the phantom (diagonally
opposite cores common) and parallel
(adjacent cores common) modes. These results
do not offer any insight into the different
performance reported here.
It is hoped to pursue both these points
- the effects on CMR and the performance of
Quad cables.
Twin Coaxial Cables
The above results for twisted-pair cables
showed very good low frequency CMR falling off
at higher frequencies. In addition, it is
known that twisted pair cables are dispersive
at higher frequencies, and so could be
unsuitable for broad-band base-band signals.
An alternative balanced circuit is to
run two coaxial cables together, in close
proximity, between the two units, driving
them as a balanced circuit and using a balanced
receiver, as for the twisted-pair cables.

-m-- -.--.-.-

---

-..

-...

______.----.-

142

An RMC Engineer's View of Salanced Circuits

Susceptibility of Braided Sheaths
Braided sheaths are widely used for
cables,
because of their convenience
in use - they are flexible, compact, light and
reasonably
easy to terminate SatisfaCtOrily.
It is also well-known that braided shields are
susceptible to interference, by the mechanism
defined by the surface transfer impedance.
This transfer impedance quantifies the
voltage
induced in an internal circuit of a
braided shield due to current flowing along
the braid.

shielding

Values of transfer impedance for a good

cable are below 10 mD per metre at low
frequencies, rising at 20 dB/decade above a
few Megahertz. Although this may not seem to
result in very high induced voltages, it is
widely regarded as a serious source of
interference.
To evade this effect, braided shields
are sometimes left open-circuited at one end.
(This is often referred to as 'avoiding groundloops', but that merely obfuscates our
understanding). The single-ended bonding of
shields can only be effective when interfering
signals have wavelengths much longer than the
cable length (perhaps 100 times). Although
the critical length is clearly one quarter
wavelength (and therefore a ratio of cableto wavelength nearer 10 or 20 might seem
satisfactory) there is nearly always a
significant capacitive loading of the open end,
which effectively lowers the length, or
frequency, at which significant effects can
occur. In the aircraft systems considered in
this study, it is never possible to exclude
the possibility of interfering frequencies
high enough to cause ill-effects (for instance,
a 5 m cable could only be subjected to
interference below 600 kHz); thus shields left
open at one end cannot be acceptable.

,___,_._,_

It therefore seems essential to harden the

susceptibility of braided shields; the obvious
method, of including more metal, is
unattractive, and so attention turns to the
common-mode rejection obtainable by the
various balanced circuits of Section 2.
Choice of Circuit Configuration

Results for this configuration are shown

in Figure 5, taken on a 5 m cable-run; Curve A
shows results with the receiver termination
connected to the box, and Curve B with the
termination (of 100 0 core to core) floating.
As for the twisted pair, the twin coaxial
cables show a good low-frequency CMR, which
is very dependent on the resistor balance when
the receiver terminations are taken to the box.
At 1 MHz - the limit of straightforward
measurements on the 5 m rig, because of
standing waves - a CMR of over 20 dB was
obtained, while at low frequencies, with the
receiver termination line to line only, the
CMR is up to 50 dB.

A number of configurations of the

receiver and transmitter terminations were
measured; the results, shown in Figure 3,
were discussed briefly in Section 2. It is
clear from these results that there is a
slight advantage in terminating the cable at
the receiver end (compare Curves 2 and 3, or
Curves 4 and 5, in Figure 3). However,
because of the problem of obtaining, and
holding, a balance of better than 30 dB in
the four terminating resistors, it is also
clear that the terminations at the receiver
must be from line to line, independent of the
structure, box or 0 V line; this is so
unless a CMR at low frequencies (below 100 kHz)
of perhaps 30 dB is satisfactory.
The results in Figure 3 also show that
the use of a single-ended transmitter is

26

- 143

disadvantageous, by a few decibels up to

100 kHz, but increasingly so above that,
reaching around 10 dB at 3 MHz, and increasing
further above ~-MHZ. The use of a singleended transmitter has a further disadvantage,
in that with the 'line to line' load,
recommended above for the best LF CMR, the
cables are not matched at the receiver, as is
shown in Figure 6. It can be seen that the
cable driven by the single-ended transmitter,
cable 1, is terminated at the receiver by the
two Z, in series, p lus the input impedance of
the 'dummy' cable 2. At low frequencies, the
latter will be close to a short-circuit, or
Z,, depending on whether the second terminating
resistor is fitted at the transmitter; but the
total cannot be a match. Note that, with a
balanced transmitter, this second Z. would be
fitted, and the two cables would be driven in
anti-phase. Thus, at the receiver, the
centre-point of the two terminating impedances
would be a virtual earth, so terminating the
two cables properly.

---l--r---*

~6

transmitters are the most likely cause of

large currents; their magnitudes are limited
both by the transmitter power installed (in
various bands) and by the standing-wave effect,
which limits the lengths of cable-braid over
which the currents can be maintained.
The following are put forward as typical
cases, for a hostile EM environment:
(a)

At low frequencies, a cable braid might

carry 10 A of power supply current (e.g.
400 Hz); if the braid is 10 m long, and
has a transfer impedance of 10 mSl/m, the
internal voltage, in the common-mode,
will be 1 volt, Other LF interference
currents are unlikely to be so high.

(b)

A pigtail included at one or both ends is

unlikely to alter the induced voltage
very much, since the coupling is
primarily resistive.

(cl

At HF, currents will exhibit standing

waves:
At 2 MHz, a quarter wavelength is about
30 m (allowing for dielectric effects
on wavelength); so 3 A over the full
10 m length is possible, and will
generate 200 mV, since the transfer
impedance is likely to be below
10 d/m.
At 5 MHz, a current of 3 A over 10 m
is still likely, but the impedance may
be 15 msl/m, giving 450 mV induced.
At 15 MHz, a current of 3 A over 3 m is
likely and a transfer impedance of
50 ti2/m, giving 450 mV.

On the other hand, if, with the singleended transmitter, the receiver terminations
are grounded, so that the driven cable is
matched, the CMR is limited to 6 dB (if the
dummy cable is short-circuited at the
transmitter) or to the balance of the four
Z, resistors, as discussed earlier (if the
2, resistor is fitted in the dummy cable).
Thus an interface using a single-ended
transmitter, though it appears from the
results here to offer only a small
degradation in performance, actually
introduces a number of problems, and cannot
be recommended.
Levels of Susceptibility Obtainable
It was noted above that the voltages
induced in the circuits within a braid do not
seem very large, yet this effect is
universally feared. To see whether this fear
is rational, and whether the use of balanced
circuits can offer a solution, it is
instructive to consider some specific cases.
The values of current likely to flow on
the braids are difficult to assess. At low
frequencies, they will depend on the system
design, and, in particular, on whether groundreturn of power supplies is permitted. At
higher frequencies, induced currents from RF

At 50 MHz, a current of 2 A over 1 m is a

more likely condition, but the transfer
impedance may be up to 150 mR/m, giving
300 mV induced.

Cd) At HF, a pigtail is likely to have

disastrous effects, as is shown in
Figure 2.
These results may be summarised as
follows:
TABLE 1

TFREQUENCY

INDUCED VOLTAGE

Circumf.
Bond
mV

y.

50 nml
Pigtail
V
1.0

15 mm
Pigtail

Hz

1000

1.0

2 MHZ

200

0.4

0.7

5MHz

450

0.5

1.7

15 MHZ

450

1.6

5.0

50 MHZ

300

3.5

11.5

400

These are fairly severe current levels

- remembering that they are the currents on
each braid, not the total ground-plane current
- and a generous value has been taken for

144 -

Transfer Impedance; the induced voltages are

undoubtedly significant. The level of CMR
required to make these levels acceptable
varies with the victim circuit, of course.
At low frequencies, most circuits are
likely to tolerate only a few millivolts of
interference, so a CMR of 50 dB is the
minimum required. This is easily achieved
by shielded twisted pair (STWIP) below
10 kHz, and can just be achieved by twin
coaxial cables, provided the receiver
terminations are line to line (Figure 5).
For low level audio circuits, it is clear
that some further improvement may be
required, such as that given by the quad
cable or by transformer coupling; the former
would allow an internal voltage of under
100 uV up to 30 kHz, from the results in
Figure 4. These results suggest that, even
for LF circuits, an acceptable performance can
be achieved against interference from
currents on the braided shields, without
recourse to bonding the braid at one end only.
In suitable circumstances, bonding at only
one end is an economical and effective measure;
in all but the most benign environments,
however, the possibility of interference at HF
makes the use of single-ended bonding a very
hazardous option. Very few circuits - even
very low frequency circuits - are actually
immune to HF interference, once it has
penetrated the shielding, and is into the
shielded parts; and single-ended braiding
ensures that it can do this.
At HF, the better configurations of the
shielded pair offer a CMR of 25 - 30 dB; thus
induced voltages should be only 10 mV, from
Table 1. A pigtail (of 50 mm only), would,
of course, increase this voltage to perhaps
450 mV at 5 MHZ, rising at higher frequencies.

cable-run, by better ground-plane bonding,

by magnetic cores on the cables or by reducing
return currents deliberately introduced into
the ground-plane) should be tried. The weight
of extra shielding, or less susceptible
circuitry, could easily exceed that of a few
return cables.
Pigtails for bonding braided screens must
be avoided whenever interference above about
1 MHz is possible. Open-circuiting a shield
at one end must be worse than the most
extravagant pigtail, and cannot be
countenanced except when HF interference
(including lightning) is unimportant.
References

r1.1 JONES,

J.W.E. - The conceptual problems

of ground planes - 5th Symposium on EMC
at Zurich 1983 - 59KS, pp 303-308.

l-21 VANCE,

E.F. - Electromagnetic Interference

Control - Trans. IEEE, EMC 22, No. 4,
1980, pp 319-328.

[31

/41

Where the results quoted above are

marginal, a direct approach to reducing the
braid current (e.g. by the layout of the

PAUL, C.R. - Effect of Pigtails on Crosstalk to Braided-Shield Cables - Trans

IEEE, EMC 22, No. 3, 1980, pp 161-172.

KS'1 PAUL, C.R. - Applications of multi

conductor transmission-line theory
to the prediction of cable coupling Prediction of crosstalk involving
braided-shield cables - RADC-TR-76-101
Vol. VIII.
C6l

BELEVITCH, V. - Theory of the Proximity

Effect on Multi-Wire Cables - Pts. 1 & 2,
Philips Res. Rpt. 1977, 32, pp 16-43 and
96-117.

r71

GROENENDAHL, G.C. and WILSON, R.R. Complete Analysis of the Electrical

Behaviour of a Screened Quad Cable - Proc.
27th Int. Wire and Cable Symp. 1978,
pp 20-26.

Conclusions
It is suggested that, even with the
severe braid currents postulated above, the
combination of a cable braid with a reasonable
transfer impedance and a balanced transmitter
and receiver in the units should offer
immunity from low frequencies up to 50 MHz,
with the possible exception of very low level
audio circuits (e.g. microphone circuits).

JONES, J.W.E. - Grounding and inter-unit

wiring - some experimental results Conference on EMC at Surrey University
1984 - pp 245-9 - IERE Publication No. 60.

Acknowledgement
This work was supported by a Research
.
Agreement with the U.K. Ministry of Defence
(Procurement Executive).

145

27~7

JP. . WARLG
Centre !$ationald'Ltudes des T6l&urtimunicationS
(CNEI)
Centre Paris B - Division ETR
92131 Issy Les Moulineaux - France

ABSTRACT
High speed logic signals are the source of
broadband radiofrequencyinterferencesfor telecunnunication equi,mnts. Fourier analysis of
square pulses gives tileamplitude distribution
of the harmonic oontent. The haarmoniclevel is
relatively constant wer an extensive frequency
range teEore the amplitude begin to decay. So,
any circuit or wire conducting pulsed signals
can be consider& as d potential. source of
interference.The aim in 1orJiccircuit design is
to reluce both conr3uctetl
interferencesignals on
per
leads atrrl
radiatd emissions (speciallyin
the range 1 MHz - 200 MI&Z).A test circuit which
was conposed of three NAND gates was chosen to
experiment different technics of wiring :
decoupling capacitanceson power leads to rerluce
ard
plane
ShX-t
conducted E,lI, CJTOUnd
connections to minimize radio-interferences.
E+.or
each PC board, a measurement of radiated and
corductel interferences was performed in order
to characterize the weight of different
parameters in the conception of locjiccircuits.
The ppose
of this paper is to fin.l cceteffective solutions to reduce WI in high rate
clock circuits without using shielding or high
order filters.

A three NAND test circuit !&%s chosen to measure

the influence of any c!hwe in the design of PC
boards. This paper presents the results of different tests on radiatd arvlcoryluctedenissions,
anrl draws some simple rules for designiq 1cxlJ
level interferinrj
lorJica1circuits.

II - TEST PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

The test printerlcircuit board is a classical
double sided epoxy board with a 35 pm
copper
thickness (dielectric constant E r = 4,5 for
f 4 500 MHZ). The lgic circslitwas hilt with
three I\TAND
gates. Fach NAND gate was chosen on a
quEldtwo-inputNAND gate integratedcircuit (fig.
1).
This very simple circuit *s printed on a
200 nnn x 200 mm epoxy ?xard (thickness l,'omm).
In order to see the influence of wiring and
filtering, different boards were desicgneland.
measureii.The final purpose was to reluce as much
as possible the JWI created by this circuit &en
it is driven by a one megahertz lTL clock
signal.

III - Electromagnetic interference measurements

on logic test PCB
I - __--INTEuXucI!Iol~
Many designing parameters were analysed with
The intrcduction of electronic switching
different hoards on &ich was printed the circuit
systems in the french telephone network had a
of figure 1.
surprising effect : some cases of electrcmagnt3tic interferences were report& to the E/IC
We knm that every wire or P.C. trace acts
department of CTJFr. 'These interferences were
like a short magnetic or electric dipole &en it
created by the harmonics oE the clock rate of
is driven by a high frequency current ; the
the ESS. Every system uses a clock signal to
length of PC traces is in Fneral ~rnallmlBr&
synchronize all the switchimj functions. The
with the wavelength of the current. It is necesfrequency of this signal is about a few
sary to avoid these undesirable electranagnetic
megahertz &
the master oscillator often makes
radiationsbv different ways :
use of TTL-IS or S locjicalcircuits without
elementary cares in packayim3 arrl wiring. TX
m WY to reduce printed loops in per
distribution ;
find some solutions to this problem, it was
decided to study aniianalyse the different IFarab
filter power accesses on integratej
meters (filtering, wiring, crosstalk...) for
circuits as close as possible bran the
reducing the electranagnetic interferences in
source of interference;
printed circuit boards using high speed lo$c.
to use a ground plane ;

146

OUT

Fig.1 : Schematic diagram of the test circuit

The measurements of H and E fields produced
by these three PC boards (same NAND gates
without capacitors) are quite different with
freguenq, but it is not possible to choose one
- to choose the logic family Which is well
of these solutions for its better EMI level. If
adapted to the need.
we consider the direction of F&l1current in the
trace loops, we cannot find a real radiating
An other way of reducing EM1 in a system is
In fact, px.&r traces act rather like
to avoid that clock signals or other unwanted 1T.
electric small dipoles than magnetic small diip
signals flow to the other lxx&s through the
les. This is Qhy the differences are not 80
power leads. And filtering is the best way to
important between a, b or c. Rut the problem is
stop this pollution of power buses.
canpletely different for the high frequency
immunity of these circuits : pn+x distribution
diagram is, in this case, the principal
High speed digital signals are certainly the parameter.
widest interfering signals in electronic equipments. Tb assess the radiofrquency interferences
a)
of each PC board, three different experiments
Wre carried cut :
-

to use transmission lines for high speed

logic signals ;

cc

- E field measurement bran 20 MHz to 200 MHz

at one mater &-an the bard
under test
(verticalpolarization);
- H field measurement frcxn1 IWz to 30 MHz
with a loq~ antenna at one mater frcrnthe
PCS under test ;
- conducted interferenceon peer leads with a
CISPR V 50 Ohms LISN fran 1 IWz to 30 MHz.
The antennas (or the LISN) were conneded to a
HP 8566A spectrum analyser controled by a HP 9816
microcomputer through the IEEE 488 bus. After
correction (antenna factor), the results are
presented on awes
with a digital plotter. The
peak detection is used tir all the EM1 measurements. The PC board mder test is standing on a
WOOden support and its position is always the
sac for the radiation measurements. All these
tests ware carried cut in a shielded loon loaded
by anechoYc material ; the @se
qanerator,tiich
drwe the circuit was outside. Ihe frequency of
the logic signal was always 1 MHZ.

IV - ANALYSIS OF MEXXJWS

b)

GND

0cc

bGND
d

IV.l. Wiring of power distribution

The first idea is to reduce the surface of
power traces losps ; logic signal remains flaw
through these traces and are the source of important
electromagnetic interferences. Three
diagrams of power distribution were tested
(fig. 2) :

Fig. 2 : Different diagrams of pWer

distribution
IV.2. Filtering of per

distribution

The best way of reducing radiofrequency

interferencescn peer distribution is to filter

- 147 -

as close as possible from the source (i.e. the

logic gates).

xti>/l
For small p/l
the asymptotic result.

27~7
quation

(3) yields

On each PC board, decoupling capacitors were

used to avoid mdesirable EMI on lxy+xxtraces :
the prpose was to control as much as possible
the piths of the logic signals, and to reduce
the pllution of the other bxrds through the
power leads.
The choice of the type of capacitor must be
made according to the wide frequency range of
the harmxk
content. chly ceramic oapacitors
have a sufficient frequency range to be efficient above one megahertz. The problem no is to
choose the right value of this capacitor ; we
have used different values of ceramic capacitors
O,l, 1, 10, 100 nF (fig. 4, 5, 6 and 7). The
radiofreguency levels decay, k&-ken
the value of
the capacitor increase and we find a slop of 20
dB by decade for the first harmonics. Dut above
10 MHz, the increasing of the capacitor frcm 10
to 100 nF has no more effect on the level of
con.ducted.interference. This phenanenon cones
frcxn the resonance of the cqpacitor with its
leads and the inductance of traces. The total
self-inductance Cl], L of a straight conductor
is given by .

(4)

Fig. 4 : Conducted emission on Vcc with

c = 0,l nF (74 LS 00)

1 : length of conductor (in meter)

r : radius of conductor (in mater)

where

NC%?, let us consider a capacitor which has

two leads (fig. 3).

r ----

Fig. 5 : Conducted emission on Vcc with

c = 1 X-G (74 LS 00)

!p!
-I------

Fig.
3 : Schematic diagram of a ceramic capacitor
~-II_
-

Fig. 6 : Conducted emission on Vcc with

c = 10 nF
(74 Ls 00)

The self inductance Lc of the leads is given

by :
IQ = 2(L - II)
here

(2)

L : self inductanceof a cxoductor (length

1)
M : mutual inductance of the two conductors c21

where 1 : length (in mn)

D : distance between the two leads (in mn)
r : r&ius (in nm)

Fig. 7 : Conducted emission on Vcc with

c = lOO.nF
- (74 LS 00)

148

Tee chip has its cm3 self irductance I-p,

manufacturer.
tihich is given by the capacitor
we
can
canpute
the total
Usirq the formula (3),
self inductance T_T of the different capacitors
we have us& and their resonance frequency fr.
The results are presental in table 1 ati 2
dlere :
(5)
% = L, + I+,

@z see tile tiu~~rtance

of the leri~thof lea&i
this is tiiy for
in the resonance frep~lcy atr_l
scmre difficult cases, it is recurmeticd to use
and
ceramic chip capacitors, for tiiicll
L, = U
Lr, is smiler. The biyger a cerakc capacitor
is, tilesb.Xter the leak must ke to have &feetive filtering lXoprt_ies. The position of the
capacitor on tilePC Wrd
is also imlmrtant : it
must k as close as possible frcm the integrated
circuit to miriirkize
the self irtiuctance
of the Z'C
peer traces, iutiiz~avoid k&111xAlution of tile
other traces.

? Ground planes
1V.J.
1,65

390

Iiyround lkne is rlathirqmore tim a sheet Oi:

that
is placed close to interconnectihy
traces ami is tied to the per
supply return.
It is certainly the kst kay to reduce radiateo
interference with fast logic circuits. tiroun~
planes cdyik_e&siyned in a nurker of different
ways. In this article, we will see two rrainmys
in l.xALdinga PC kmard witAld ground plane.

mztxd

1,45

132

1,65

39

2,15
2,6

10,O
3

Lath my
(fig. cj.
iable

1 : Calculationof the total self

inductanceversus the capacitancevalue
(1 = I,6 ma)

c (a?)

LP (nM

LT (nti)

a)

fr (me)

O,l

0,7

9,4

164

0,5

9,2

52

10

0,7

9,4

16

100

181

11,c

4,6

*1 000

1,9

11,4

1,413

--

cxmes frun transnlissionline Uieory

Table

2
: Calculation of the total self
inductanceversus the capacitancevalue
(I = 10 mn)

* not used

in our tests

The dimensions of the capacitors we used are

given in table 3 :

a
b

1
10
100
1 000

Fig. 8 : Ground plane Structures :

symetrical ccplanar waveq.zidestructure
microstrip line structure

The
gecmetric dimensions of these guidirly
structures give us characteristic impedances of
the associated transmissionline [2], L3]. kcrostrip lines radiate less energy than simple
structures without ground planes (see fig. 9 ati
10 with a [a] structure) kecause tileelectrmaynetic field is cc&in&i in the hiyhest prmettivity dielectric.

Table 3 : Dimensions of the ceramic capacitors

To go further in reducing radiated emissions,
we have to caubine a txansmission line structure
with ceramic capacitorson per
traces.

- 149

27~7

I
---

Fig. 11 : Cross-sectionaldimensions :
nomenclature
The maxim..xn
coupling factor is given by :

with :

zo2 = Zoo zoe

(8)

zo
Fig. 10 : E field radiation with a groundplane

characteristicimpedance
Zoo odd mzde characteristicimpedance
Zoe even rrodecharacteristicimpedance

and frun these equations, the impedances rquir&

are :
Discontinuities, SUCh
ZlS
abruptly qencircuit micro&rip (i.e. open ends), stqs and
bends will all radiate to a certain extent.
James and Henderson [4] slow that at frguencies
where the surface wave is highly trapped in the
substrate and with h//i, , wEft/Ao
LL
1, the
radiation conductance
G, is approxinetelby :

where :
WeCC
zo

is the effective microstripwidth [3]

is the characteristicimpedance of the
microstrip line
h
thickness of the board
6,ecf effective permittivityof the dielectric
wavelength ( A, - C/$ )
A0
G, increases with frequency and that is why
any time a transmission line is longer than the
signal wave length, it is necessary to ntltchthe
line. A middle way must be found between 1~
impedance lines with 1~ propagation delay but
high p.cwerdissipation in parallel terminations,
and high impedance lines with high prcpagation
delay but 1~ power dissipation.A ground plane
is also a low inductance return path for hantonits of clock rate and the effect of decoupling
capacitors -willbe reinforced.
Transmission line theory gives us a solution
for problems of crosstalk in digital systems.
Suppose we have a coupled microstrip structure
(fig. 11).

The designer knm

the maximum capling factor
he can tolerate, and he will canpute Zoo and Zoe;
with these two impedances,curves (or soft ware)
will give him the minimum s/w he can choose for
its design [53 arA [3].
R practical rule is s/w ) 4 to avoid all
problems of undesirable crosstalk between parallel microstrip traces.

V - CONCLUSION
The designer of logic circuits must be aware
that if the fondamentalfrequencyof its clock is
lc~, the harmonic content is particularly wide
and is the source of broadband radiofreguency
interferences.The control of RF1 begins at the
design of the PC boards : drawing of traces to
avoid problems of crcestalk, ground plane or
stripline structure, ceramic capacitors on per
leads. It is only the sum of this different elements that will give a lc~ EM1 level PC board. All
these cares in PC boards design are cunplementary
ard lead to a ICW level of md1 (fig. 12 and 13) :
sane PC board witl-outany care, and with a ground

150

plane structure a, and 10 nF ceramic capacitor).

'rJhen
the frequency increases,ground planes structures bxune absolutely necessary in order to
avoid an eledranagnetic pollution. With EXX,
logic family,microstrip structureswith terminations at each end are used to reach high speed
clock rate witbut extreme cnrershootard ringing:
and of course, pcwer leads must bz filtered.

For the ELcctrmalFietic cuxnyutibi1it.y

pint
of view, high speed d.i:jital
circuit are certaitlly the w.xse interferincjcircuits. Even high
order I1arxDni.c
(speciallyin the r<ange20 - 200
MHZ) can
interfere with
ra~~iocornnlilnicatiorI
services in the vicirlityof cfigitalsystems.

VI - REFEXEXES

Cl1

l?All?ALl A.J.
: "Ccmputing inductive noise
of Chip p&ages"
ATT Hell Laboratories Technical Journal
Vol. 63, January 1984

c23

WU
C.P. : "Coplanar Wave guide :
surface strip transmissionline"
IEEE:Trans., vol. W-17, 1969

Fig. 12 : Radiated emission (E field) without

care

Fig. 13 : Radiated emission (E field) with

cerarmc capacitor and ground plane

' c31

EDWRDS T.C. : "Fourdations for microstrip Circuit design'

c41

JWBS J.R. and HENDERSON A. : "High

frequency bzhaviour of microstrip opencircuit terminations"
Microwaves,
Optics
and
Acoustics,
September 1979, vol. 3, @ 5

c51

DENEEE'Jos : "Les lignes ?I micron&an"

Electronique applications,N" 10, page 85

C61

BYERS Ty
EKLLJix&c circuits"
Radio. Electronics,September and
Nwenbx
1983

c71

White DR,J : "EM1 control in Design of

Printed Circuit Ebards and Hack planes",
1981

-- 151

28

Fl

LIGHTNING RADIATION FIELDS

C.D. Weidman and E.P. Krider
Institute of Atmospheric Physics
The University of Arizona
Tucson, AI;:;;;, 85721

The electric field component (E) of the

electromagnetic field radiated by lightning
and its derivative (dE/dt) have been recorded using a system with 40 ns (E) and 10 ns
(dE/dt) response times. Propagation between
the source and the measuring station was
over the ocean (high electrical conductivity)
so high frequency attenuation of the signals
is minimal below 20 MHz.
Examples of rapidly varying fields
produced by return strokes, leader steps,
and cloud discharges are presented and discussed. We have used the transmission line
model to estimate maximum current derivatives and spectral amplitudes have been calculated for the band 1 - 20 MHz by Fourier
analyzing dE/dt waveforms,
1. INTRODUCTION
Although lightning has received serious
study for most of the 20th century, it is
only within about the last ten years that
the structures of the electric and magnetic fields produced by different lightning processes have been determined, and
that realistic models have been proposed
to describe these fields in terms of the lightning currents /l/. Recent measurements of
lightning fields with sub-microsecond time
resolution /2,3/, have shown that several
very basic aspects of the discharge processes
are not well understood. This is particularly true of those processes which occur
just as a lightning leader approaches and
then strikes an object on the ground. These
and other studies /4,5/ have also shown that
large changes in the field occur in a fraction of a microsecond, which is atleast an
order of magnitude faster than was believed
to be the case just ten years ago.
The interaction of lightning with a wide
variety of structures such as aircraft, space
vehicles, electric power transmission and
distribution systems, telecommunications systems will depend critically on field derivative values and on the submicrosecond current
variations which accompany them. For the past
several years, the University of Arizona has
been measuring the electric field, E, and
field derivative, dE/dt, signatures produced

by various lightning processes, with submicrosecond time resolution. A description of the recording instrumentation and
some initial results have been given by /6/.
In this report, we would like to summarize
our most recent results.
2. EXPERIMENT
Lightning E and dE/dt signals were measured using a circular, flat plate antenna
/2,7/ mounted on the roof of a grounded
metal bus, which housed the recording apparatus. The antenna was placed symmetrically
over the center of the bus so that any
vertical fields which might be produced by
currents oscillating along the length of the
bus at resonant frequencies (15 MHz for a 10m
length) would be at a minimum. The lowest
resonant frequencies for currents oscillating
along the other dimensions, 50 and 75 MHz for
the 3m height and 2m width respectively, are
well above the 35 MHz, upper 3dB point of the
system.
To measure dE/dt, the antenna was connected either directly, or through approximately
45m of RG-8 coaxial cable (to introduce about
150 ns of delay) to the input of a 400 MHz
storage oscilloscope and terminated in the
characteristic impedance, Z, (501R), of the
cable. The dE/dt signal is proportional
to the voltage measured at the oscilloscope V,
according to:
dE/dt = V/(eo A Fe Z,)

(I)

where e0 is the permittivity of free space,

A is the antenna area (0.2 m2) and F is a
factor to correct for the enhancemen! of the
field caused by local terrain and the research
vehicle.
To measure E, the antenna cable was terminated with a 100 ka resistor; so that the
combined capacitance, C, of the antenna, cable,
and oscilloscope preamplifier acted as a passive integrater. In this mode
E = (V C)/( eo A Fe)

(2)

The E field measuring system had a 10 to 90%

risetime of about 40 ns, and the dE/dt system
had a risetime of about 10 ns.

152

All measurements were made under conditions where the lightning location was known
and where the field propagation from the
source to the recording site was entirely
over salt water. Therefore, field variations
below about 20 MHz were not distorted by the
propagation, Separate electric and magnetic
field signals were recorded on slower time
scales so that the type of lightning process
could be identified from the field shape and
so that the precise location of a fast field
component within a discharge could be determined.

TheAE/At
data have been range normalized
to 100 km assuming an inverse distance
dependence. These data are plotted for
different
range intervals,
and from these
results we infer that the range normalized
values do not have a significant
dependence
on
distance.
The maximum
fast transition
field
derivative
obtained
using recordings
of return
stroke dE/dt fields averaged
37
+ 10 V/m/Fs
(18 measurements
normalized
to 100 km.)

3. RESULTS
3.1 Return Strokes

In general, the shape of the electric

field radiated by a return stroke depends
on whether it is the first return stroke in
a flash, a subsequent return stroke, or a
subsequent return stroke that is preceded by
a dart-stepped leader /3/. First stroke fields
begin with a relatively slow "front" that
rises for 2 to 8 microseconds to about half of
the peak field amplitude. This front is
followed by a fast transition that is of
primary interest in this report. Subsequent
strokes produce fields that have fast transitions very similar to first strokes, but
fronts that last only 0.5 to 1 microseconds
and that rise to only about 20% of the peak
field amplitude.
The overall E field waveshape produced
by a first return stroke and the rapid,
storage oscilloscope, recording of the fast
transition to peak which occurred during this
discharge are shown in Figure 1 (lower and
upper traces, respectively). Additional
examples of return stroke fast transitions
are also shown in Figures 2, 3, and 4, together with histograms summarizing measurements of 10 to 90% risetime, width at half
maximum, and peakAE/ht,
respectively.
MICROSECONDS
0
I
,+:::::.::-I

N=l25
Mean=SOns
cr=40ns

1.
-3

100

200

300

Nanoseconds
Fig.

A histogram of the 10 to 90% risetime of the fast transition

return stroke E fields.

in

:L.

R=20km

'

:]I

N= 99
Mean=360
,

Fig.

: : : : : : : ; (
8
16 24 32 40
MICROSECONDS

First return stroke E field waveforms. An absolute calibration

of
field amplitude
is shown to the left of
the slow (lower) trace. The gain of the
upper signal is twice that of the lower
curve.
The strike point was 20 km from
the recording
site.

ns

a=l40ns

200

400

600

800

Nanoseconds
Fig.

A histogram
of the full width at half
maximum of the fast peak in return
stroke E fields.

153

28

Fl

cloud waveform
have fast risetimes
and the
dE/dt signatures
radiated during these transitions are very similar to the shapes of signals
produced
by leader steps and return strokes.
Values of the maximum dE/dt produced
by fl cloud
impulses have a mean and standard
devlatlon
of
16 t 8 V/m/Is when they are range normalized
to ioo km.
20

Peak
1

%@

100 km

r-l

50

0:

E
(",mJ2;

!I

D(lOOkm
D(
80km
D < 30km

12 km

(1a

<K

--+Tz+-

2.0

Microseconds

25

50

75
V/m

Fig.

3.2

100

/ps

A histogram
of the maximum rate of
rise of the fast transition
in return
stroke E fields.
Values have been
range normalized
to 100 km.

Stepped

NANOSECONDS
0 100 200 300 400 500

Leaders

Examples of fast time resolved

stepped
leader E and dE/dt signals are shown in FigExample
(a)
ure 5 (a) and (b), respectively.
is the only record we have obtained
of leader
E fields (L) radiated
by leader steps which
occurred
well before the onset of the return
This is because the E recording
system
stroke.
trigger level is ordinarily
set well above
the amplitude
of a leader E field change.
The
maximum
leader dE/dt, which occurs during the
initial rise portion of the waveform,
however,
is sometimes
nearly equal to peak return stroke
dE/dt amplitudes
and, thus, triggered
the dE/dt
recording
system more frequently.
Eighteen
measurements
of peak AE/ht
have been made
using fast time resolved
recordings
of leader
E fields.
The mean and standard deviation
of
these values, which have been normalized
to
100 km, are 27 + 9 V/m/ps.
Peak derivative
values obtained
from dE/dt signals ranged from
30 to 45 V/m/ps.
The uncertainty
is due to
imprecise
distance
estimates
which were used
in the range normalization.
3.3 Cloud

(b)

Fig.

Examples of stepped leader E (upper

trace) and dE/dt (lower trace) signals.
The discharge
which produced
the dE/dt
signal was between 15 and 30 km from
the recording
site.

(v/d
0

A-

-~b----

Pulses

The overall
shapes of the large amplitude
radiation
fields produced
by intracloud
discharge processes
have been discussed
by /8,9/.
In general, the shapes of the larger pulses
tend to be bipolar with several fast, unipolar, impulses
superimposed
on the initial
An example of a bipolar intracloud
half cycle.
E field signal is compared
with a first return
stroke waveform
in Figure 6.
Note that the
amplitude
of the intracloud
record is comparable
to that of the return stroke.
The unipolar
impulses on the initial half cycle of the intra-

II

11
40

11

80

11
120

11
160

1
200

MICROSECONDS
Fig.

Characteristic
E field signals produced by a first return stroke in a
cloud-to-ground
discharge
(upper trace)
and during an intracloud
discharge
(lower trace).

154

Clearly, our estimates of return stroke dI/dt

are as much as an order of magnitude larger
than the tower measurements. Our field derivative data have been obtained using a triggered
oscilloscope recording system, and, this technique may have missed small amplitude signals.
This may explain the large differences between
measurements and estimates at the 90 to 95%
levels. At the 5% level, there is only about
a factor of two difference between the measured subsequent stroke dI/dt. It is possible
that any differences which exist between natural cloud-to-ground lightning and that striking a tower are less important for subsequent
strokes than for first strokes. We have also
assumed that there is only one current pulse
radiating in the channel. If the junction
point between the upward connecting discharge
and the leader occurs at a relatively high altitude, there may be two initial currents; one
propagating upward and the other downward from
the junction point /15/. In this case, the
maximum dI/dt for each pulse would be about
half the value above. This problem clearly
warrants further study.

4. DISCUSSION
4.1

Peak Lightning Current Derivatives

The time rate of change of the lightning

current is of fundamental importance in predicting overvoltages and the effects that a
strike will have on an object. If we assume
that the initial, fast rising fields that are
produced by return strokes, leaders and cloud
pulses can all be described by a transmissionline model /lO,ll/,
then the maximum rate of
change of the channel current is related to the
maximum field derivative through the relation:

_ 27c DVEO c2 cii(t+cJ/c)

g(t)

'-

(3)

where c is the speed of light, D is the distance

to the discharge, and v is the velocity of the
current pulse. This relation assumes that the
measured field is produced by a single current
pulse propagating in a single channel.
A cumulative distribution of the maximum
dI/dt occurring during return stroke fast transitions, computed using Equation (3) and the
range normalized field derivative data summarized in Section 3.1, is shown in Figure 7.
The plotted data were calculated using an
assumed wavefront velocity of 1 x 108 m/s.
The'dotted line in Figure 7 shows where the
straight line fit through the plotted data would
lie if the velocity were 1.4 x 108 m/s /12/.
Figure 7 also shows the maximum current derivatives that have been measured during lightning
strikes to instrumented towers by K. Berger in
Switzerland, as reported by /13/, and by /14/
in Italy.

4.2 Lightning Spectral Amplitudes

Thus far we have considered the properties of lightning fields in the time domain.
Lightning fields are also of considerable
interest in the frequency domain, especially
in the region from 1 to 10 MHz, because these
frequencies correspond to the natural resonances of structures with dimensions of a few
to a few tens of meters. We have Fourier analyzed dE/dt signals and will now present
return stroke electric field amplitude spectra
in the frequency interval from 1 to 20 MHz.

PRESENT

STUOY

60
50
40
z
20
15
10
5

I IIIII

670

IO

20

30

Current
Fig. 7

I111111
40

5060

Deriva.tive

80

100

200

300

II
500

(kA/,us)

The cumulative distribution of return stroke maximum dI/dt estimates.

155

To compute a spectrum,
dEldt waveforms
were
first digitized
manually,
then evenly spaced
points (required
by the FFT algorithm)
were
calculated
by linearly
interpolating
between
The data were then integrathe sample points.
ted, and, if the absolute
value of the amplitude
of E at the end of the record was less than 15%
of peak, the discrete
Fourier transform
was
computed
using a fast Fourier transform
(FFT)
algorithm.
In many cases, the final E amplitude was greater than 15% of the peak.
This
sharp edge at the end of the record introduces
truncation
errors into the frequency
spectrum
which are positive
(increased
spectral amplitude) and which increase with frequency.
To
reduce these errors we multiplied
the final 10%
of the integrated
waveform
by the following
function:

W(t) = 0.5(1 - cos(l0 7c t/To))

28

Fl

First return stroke mean spectral amplitudes are plotted in Figure 8.

Amplitudes
at
1, 2, 4, 10, and 20 MHz were plotted and conAll specnected together
to form these curves.
tral amplitudes
were normalized
to 50 km using
an inverse distance
relation
and the amplitude
in dB was computed
by taking 20 times the logarithm (base 10) of the Fourier amplitude.
The two additional
curves shown in Figure 8,
in the intervals
from 2 to 300 kHz and from
100 kHz to 1 MHz, are the mean first return
stroke spectra given by /16/ and /17/, respectively, for 50 km. Despite the remarkably

(4)

where To is the waveform

period.
This function
forces F: to 0 at t=TO and smoothes
the sharp
edge.

good agreement among these different data, it

should be noted that, because the transforms
of /16,17/ are derived from long duration (200
and 40 ps) E records, they probably include
components that are radiated by different
physical processes. The dE/dt records, in the
other hand, have a total duration of only 500
or 1000 ns, and are, therefore, probably produced by just a single discharge channel of
relatively limited spatial extent.

-75
Preto

G
-c1 -95

et

al.

Cl9831

W
9

-I

15

zi!
z

-135

2
2
tJ -155
2
t/9
-175

10?3

f 0?4

10?5

10?6

10?7

FREQUENCY (Hz)
Fig. 8

Lightning

first

return

stroke

spectral

amplitudes

at 50 km.

10r8

156

1141

Garbagnati, E., F. Marinoni, and G.B.

Lo Pipero, "Parameters of Lightning
Currents, Interpretation of the Results
Obtained in Italy," 16th Lightning Conf.
on Lightning Protection, Szeged, Hungary,
July, 1981.

(rider, E.P., C.D. Weidman, and R.C.

loggle, The Electric Fields Produced by
_ightning Stepped Leaders," J. Geophys.
ies., 82, 951-960, 1977.

1151

Loeb, L.J., "Confirmation and Extension of

a Proposed Mechanism of the Stepped Leader
Lightning Stroke," J. Geophys. Res., 73,
5813-5017, 1968.

deidman, C.D., and E.P. Krider, "The Fine

Structure of Lightning Return Stroke Waveforms," J. Geophys. Res., 83, 6239-6247,
1978.

1161

Preta, J. Jr.,
M.A. Uman, and D.G.
Childers, "The Electric Field Spectrum
of Lightning Return Strokes: Correction
to Serhan et al. (1980)," submitted to
Radio Science, October, 1983.

I171

Weidman, C.D., E.P. Krider, and M.A.

Uman, "Lightning Amplitude Spectra in the
Interval From 100 kHz to 20 MHz," Geophys.
Res. Lett., a, 931-934, 1981

REFERENCES
lman, M.A., and E.P. Krider, "A Review of
latural Lightning: Experimental Data and
lodeling," IEEE Trans. Electromag. COmP.,
tMC-24, 79-112, 1982.

Fieux, R.P., C.H. Gary, B.P. Hutzler, A.R.

Eybert-Berard, P.L. Hubert, A.C. Meesters,
P.H. Perroud, J.H. Hamelin, and J.M.
Person, "Research on Artificially Triggered Lightning in France," IEEE Trans. Power
Apparatus Syst., PAS-97, 725-733, 1978.
151

Baum, C.E., E.L. Breen, J.P. O'Neill, C.B.

Moore, and D.L. Hall, "Measurement of
Electromagnetic Properties of Lightning
with 10 Nanosecond Resolution," in Lightning Technology, NASA Conf. Publ. 2128,
pps. 39-82, NASA Langley Research Center,
Hampton, VA (USA), 1980.

IhI

Weidman, C.D., and E.P. Krider, "Submicrosecond Risetimes in Lightning Return

Stroke Fields," Geophys. Res. Lett., 7,
955-958, 1980.

171

Baum, C.E., E.L. Breen, J.C. Giles, J.

O'Neill, and G.D. Sower, "Sensors for
Electromagnetic Pulse Measurements Both
Inside and Away From Nuclear Source
Regions," IEEE Trans. Ant. Prop., AP-26,
22-35, 1978.

lw

Weidman, C.D., and E.P. Krider, "The

Radiation Field Wave Forms Produced by
Intracloud Lightning Discharge Processes," J. Geophys. Res., 84, 3459- 3164,
1979.

191

Beasley, W.H., M.A. Uman, and P.L. Rustan,

"Electric Fields Preceding Cloud-to-Ground
Lightning Flashes," J. Geophys. Res., 87,
4883-4902, 1982.

1101 Uman, M.A., D.K. McLain, and E.P. Krider,

"The Electromagnetic Radiation from a
Finite Antenna," Am. J. Phys., 43, 33-38,
1975.

1111 Lin, Y.T., M.A. Uman, and R.B. Standler,

"Lightning Return Stroke Models," J.
Geophys. Res., 85, 1571-1583, 1980.

1121 Idone, V.P., and R.E. Orville, "Lightning

Return Stroke Velocities in the Thunderstorm Research International Program,
(TRIP)," J. Geophys. Res., 87, 4903-4915,
1982.

1131 Anderson, R.B., and A.J.

Eriksson, "Lightning Parameters for Engineering Application," Electra, No. 69, 65-105, 1980.

.- 157

29

F2

TRAVELING CURRENT SOURCE MODEL FOR LEMP CALCULATION

F.

Heidler

Hochschule der Bundeswehr Miinchen, D-8014 Neubiberg

In this paper a complete new lightning discharge model is presented basing on gas disit
iS
necharge physics. For LEMP CalcdatiOn
cessary to know the temporal and local current
distribution along the lightning channel.
The Traveling Current source (TCS) model
manages-to calculate the current distribution
during the final jump period as well as during
the return stroke period. The current is caused by the electric field during the final
jump period and by collecting the corona charge carriers during the return stroke period.
Therefore a current source is to be assumed
traveling along lightning channel with a velotit-y smaller than light velocity.
The TCS model is discussed in detail and
compared with the transmission line model of
UMAN today most used lightning discharge modeL
It is to be shown that LEMP measurements can
be described in an improved way by using the
TCS model.
1.

Introduction

The knowledge about lightning currents is

essentially based on measurements in Switzerland [I] and Italy [2]. The most important
current parameters resulting from lightning
current measurings are listed in [3]. At the
TU Munich's lightning measuring station (Peissenberg) di/dt measurings are done with transient recorder (bandwith up to 25 MHz) [4].
LEMPs are measured e.g. in Germany [5], France
[6] and USA [7].
Because striking probability to a lightning
measuring station(high tower) is relatively
small it is tried to calculate lightning currents from LEMP-measurings. Up to now this
calculations are done by using the "Transmission Line Model" [8,9]. Since a couple of
years the electromagnetic field changes fi and
!I are recorded by transient recorders (scanning rate 10 ns) at the High Voltage Institute
at the University of the Bundeswehr in Munich
r51.
Even for distances less than 1 km s and H
signals have a very similar shape. [Jsually the
impulses are bipolar.If these signals are inter
grated the resulting E and H fields show a
characteristical initial peak (Fig. 1)

t-(YS)

a)

H(t) +idt

t ---+(wJ)

-loA t-------(MS)
li (t)

-40o.gc------;iT;-20
t------+(~s)

E(t)

+dt

(t)

Fiq.1: E, H and 6, I? signals from a flash at

ua distance of 1,7 km
At the French lightning measuring station
St-Privat-d'Allier thesame typical field shapes
were recorded by oszilloscope in a distance of
3 km ([6], Fig.13). Using the Transmission
Line Model these typical fields couldn't be
realized, although in these calculations earth
conductivity and return stroke velocity were
varied [6].
The very good conductivity of salt water
gives optimal conditions for field measurings
up to some 10 km as done in USA. Using the recorded LEMPs ( bandwith of about 35 MHz) the
maximum (di/dt) values were calculated by the
Transmission Line Model [7]. In this way calculated (di/dt),,x values are about one order
of magnitude higher than the measured values
[1,2,3] although recent (di/dt) measurings
verify the former results [4].
Hence follows that lightning discharge phenomenas
are discribed insufficiently by the
Transmission Line Model for LEMP calculations
during the first ns. Therefore a new lightning
discharge model was developed by which the
discrepancy between LEMP and current measurings can be explained. Preparatory works and
first formulations can by found in [5].

Physical

2.

158

principles of the TCS model

Most of the observed cloud to earth flashes

are of negative polarity; they have higher
(di/dt)max values than positive flashes and
therefore cause much greater electromagnetic
interferences. For this reason the TCS model
is explained for a negative cloud to earth
discharge. It is to be distinguised between
connecting leader and return stroke period.

plasma

conducting

2.1 Connecting leader period

Starting from the negative center of the
thunderstorm cloud a charged tube (with some
meters up to some ten meters diameter) filled
with negative charge pushes to earth step by
step.

b)

Qyb,*$

(1)

Qi :

space-charge density of charge carrier

bi:

molity of charge carrier

111

In the equivalent circuit the current generation at the top of the connecting leader can
be represented by a current source i(h) at an
altitude h traveling from earth to the cloud
with the velocity v (Fig, 2b).

leader

I-

circuit

The jonisation of the lightning channel is

so high that with respect to its conductivity
it can nearly be considered as a metal conductor on which electric processes spread with
light velocity co.
2.2

Return stroke period

After the collision of the connecting leader and the downward leader the downward leader is discharged along the lightning channel
to earth. The charge carriers in the volume V
are collected into the top of the lightning
channel where a temporal space-charge density
variation dQ"Ydt is caused in the volume element dV (Fig. 3a). Because the process of
'collecting' these charge carriers remains
limited to a relative small region in the
equivalent circuit one can assume a charge
change dQ/dt occuring in one point. So a current appears which is'caused by the current
source
(2)

idealized
charge
of the downward
leader

The velocity results from the ionisation

processes in the region of the top of the connecting leader, especially from the velocity of
charge carrier seperation in consequence of
impact and photo ionisation and from the breakdown time of the increasing lightning channel
by thermal ionisation.
downward

equivalent

Fig. 2: Connecting leader period

When this downward leader approaches to

earth the electric field strength raises so
strongly at objects on earth that dielectric
strength of air is exceeded. Now a connecting
leader starts from earth. The electric field
at the top of the connecting leader is strongly superelevated so that charge carriers can
be produced by impact and photo ionisation.
These are accelerated by the electric field,
producing a current. flow at the top of the
connecting leader (Fig. 2a). Because the geometric dimensions of this region are relatively small one can proceed from a current flow
generated in one point.
i(h) = ,ldx, where T =
A

Electric

I- -

tube

4z

_h(t+dt)
---f

1
Y .dt

NdV,dQ

___A

h(t)

I
t

thermal

ionized

channel
i(z,t

time
electric

top

of

(region

connecting
of

high

field

leader
el. field)

a)
charge
(impact

carrier

(t

t
Physical

seperation

model

G$V

ionisation , photo

Y
i

connecting

leader

lightning

channel

(thermal

ionisation)

b) Electric
a ) Physical

equivalent

Circuit

model

Fig. 3:

Return stroke period

+dt)

+dt)

159

29

vertical velocity v of the current SOUlTCe

results from the collecting velocity of the
charge carriers and from the breakdown time of
the thermal ionized lightning channel.

F2

The

2.3

infinitesimal

vertical

Summary

The discharge processes during the Connecting leader and the return stroke period can
be represented by the same equivalent circuit
of a current source traveling from earth to
cloud. Because there is no difference evident
between these periods in the equivalent circuit the TCS model could also be used if there
wouldn't be a connecting leader period as it
may be in the case of subsequent strokes.
Since the gas discharge processes are similar for positive lightnings the TCS model can
be expanded to all kinds of cloud earth flashes.
3.

Theory of the TCS model

The following suppositions are made:

The vertical lightning channel is supposed

to be an idealized transmission line (defined by r = const. and real, co)

The earth is an ideal plane conductor.

There are no current reflexions at the

point of strike.

Fig. 4: Vertical antenna over perfectly conductinq earth

io(ti)= io(tx+ z/c~);z
< hx
1.
(6)
i(z,tx)= C O
;z>h
According to equation (5) the refere%e
of current is given by:
tm

time

= t - r/co+ z/co.

(7)

For z = h the actual reference time of the

current &urce is

The current at the point of strike is known.

=,@Z+~.
t
C
m/h
0

The electromagnetic field caused by a tran-,

sient current in a vertical ideal conductor over
a perfectly conducting plane can be divided into
an electrostatic field term (EQ)an induction
field term (EirHi) and a distant field term (Edi,
It is produced by the sum of infiniEdi)[Sl*
tesimal vertical dipoles of the length dz with a'
current i(z,t), as shown in Fig. 4:
dE(r,8,t)=dEQ(r,8,t)+dEi(r,8,t)+dE di(r,8,t), (3a)
dB(r,B,t)= dMi(r,8,t)+ dHdi(r,8,t)

(4a)

with

%
dz 2-3sin20
dEQ(r,B,t)=- -2Trreo r3
&

(3b)
(3c)

dz
dEdi(r,@,t)- -2aso

ai(z,tx)
at

(3d)

(4b)

and
dz sine
dBi(r,6,tJ=--i;;
2
i(z,txl
r
ai(z,tx)
dz sin0
dBdi(r,e,t)=- 2a car
at

(4c)

The electromagnetic field retardation is given

by

tx = t - r/co.

3.1

Electromagnetic field components for

Z-Z-h,
The current and the current derivative (in
point X) is

di (z,tx)
dt

(ga)

dio(tm)
(gb)

The current which flowed during the time internal t-m- tm/z at the altitude z yields the dissipated charge
t
t
X
m
i;i(t,-r)d~ =
(SC)
By integration the field components from equations (3,4) yield
EQ(t)= -

hi
S

3sin2e-2

2TE0

r3

(It,,zio(T)dr)dz,

hX

Ei(t)= 271EO
EX

Edi(

With respect to the time delay of the current in the lightning channel, z/c,,a visitor
in point X sees the current flowing at the
altitude z:

=-Z----.

(5)

For a visitor in point X the current source

seems to travel with a velocity vx= dhx/dt at
an altitude h

(8)
0

Since the local current distribution has a

discontinuity for z = hx the electromagnetic
field components are calculated separately for
2 < h, and z = h,. (For z > h, are no field
components!).

i(z,tx) = io(tm)
i!z,T)dt,

dz 2-3sin28
dEi(r,O,t)=- 2aso c r2
i(z,tx)
sin28
c2r

and

%.

3sin20-2
io(tm)dz,
2
cOr

1 sin 6
-co2r

aio(tm)
at

dz

(10)

160

(11)
o
3.2

Electromagnetic field components for

2=h
-

11

For the distant field terms according to equations (3.4) is:

is the altitude hx in front

h
resp. h
ag&+behind t&a-local current.
At the altitude hx the current derivation
ai/at(z=hx, tx )causes a local current derivation ai/az with the velocity az/at along the
infinitesimal way dz:
ai(z,tx)
dz = g

$$lz =

vx

$3.~

x
Total electric and magnetic field

The total electromagnetic field corresponds

to the part caused by the current distribution along the lightning channel (lO,ll), and
the part taking into consideration the
traveling current source (14):
E(t) = Edict)+ Ei(t)+ SQ(t).

Comparison between the Traveling Current

Source and the Transmission Line model

4.1 Analytical expression of current io at the

point of strike
/i,dt, i,, di,/dt and d2io/dt2 must be
known for the.calcuiation of E and H fields
respectively E and H signals. Therefore i,
must be able to be differentiated twice for
t 2 0. An analytical expression of i, therefore is desirable,whereby d2io/dt2 = 0 and
(i,),,,, (dio/dt)max and the decay time can be
chosen independently. The most in high voltage
technics used double exponential current function is not suitable for the present just as
the current functions given in [lO,ll].
Therefore the following formula was chosen:

i k"
io(t)= 5 -e,
kn+l

-t/r

(17)

To enable a fundamental comparison between

the TCS and the Transmission Line model the
LEMP calculations are done with a constant return stroke velocity v and T = 100 1~s.The
point of strike is assumed to be in a distance
of s = 1 km. For both models the radiated LEMP
is calculated for a first and a subsequent
stroke. The calculation show, that in th: case
?f the TCS model the peak values of the E and
H signals are nearly 5 times higher than in
the case of the Transmission Line model. +d{itidnally in the case of the TCS model E and
H signals show a bipolar shape leading to a
initial peak in the shape of E and H field.
4.2.1 LEMP during the front of the first
stroke current
For the current of a first stroke the current parameters of equation (17) were chosen
to n = 10, z = 30 kA, tl = 3 ~.ls(corresponding
to (di/dtjmax = 26 kA/vs). The return stroke
velocity is assumed to be v = co/3 = 100 m/us.
Fig. 5 shows the results of the LEMP calculation.

with

(16)

with k = $-. n is a correction factor for i.

1
4.2 LEMP calculations

vxdi

.vx*io(tm,h).

3.3

1
' Spew
ai (t
- li;;co (,2+h2) x o m/h)'
x
h
Xsine
io(tm)dz.
Hi(t)=-&;T
r
4.

For the electrostatic and the induction

field terms according to equations (3,4) is
E = E.= H. = 0.
Q

xsin2e aio(tm)
dz +
Edict)= -!- / 2a~~ o c2r
at
0

(15)
3sin20-2
io(tm)dz,
Ei(t)=
2
cr
t
h,
O2
3sin 8-2 tJm .
1
r3
tm,zloWdr)da;
EQ(t)= 21~~~ ;

and
H(t) = Hdi(t) + Hi(t)
with

1.
n

Hdi(t)=-&

lXSineO
0

OO+

a)

ai (tm)
cOr

at

dz -

8
'----c(rs)

l+(LIs)di,/dt

d2i 0 /dt2

- 161

29

F2

__c_.__---_(

t-*(us)

b)

H (1)

ci(t)

cl

E (t)

(t)

full line
TCS model:
Transmission Line model:
Fig. 6:

dashed line

LEMP of a subsequent stroke at a

distance of 1 km

4.2.3 LEMP during the decay time of the first

stroke current
In fig. I the current and field shapes are
presented for a longer duration than in fig.
5 and 6. In opposite to the Transmission Line
model in the TCS model the electrostatic field
change caused by the lightning discharge process is taken into consideration.

0
t ----*

c)

(ps)a
i

(1)

TCS model: full line

Transmission Line model:
Fig. 5:

rt!

dashed line

(kAJ3'TI\

LEMP of a first stroke at a distance

of s = 1 km

15

t.
4.2.2 LEMP during the front of the subsequent
stroke current

I\

01

A subsequent stroke current-is simulated by

equation (171, whereby n = 8, io= 12 kA, tl =
0,5 us (corresponding to (di/dt),ax= 61 kA/ps).
The calculations were done for v = 2/3 co=
200 m/ps. Fig. 6 shol ; the LEMP results.-

a)

250

-(PI)

560

50

200
0

b)

TCS model:
full line
Transmission Line model:

0
0

E(t)

6
t-&m)

Fig. 7:

(t)

dashed line

LEMP of a first stroke at a distance

of s = 1 km

4.3 Fundamental physical differences between

the TCS and the Transmission Line model
The fundamental physical differences between the TCS and the Transmission Line model
result from the different kind of transient
current distribution along the lightning channel. In table 1 the TCS model is opposed to
the Transmission Line model.

b)

(t)

4.4 Possibilities of modification of the

TCS model
The TCS model can be varied very easily and
applied to special problems. In its fundamental
idea the TCS model bases on the hypothesis of
a traveling current source which feeds its current into any complex network. Simple equi-

- 162

TCS model

Transmission Line model

Traveling current
source

Traveling current wave

From earth to lightning channel

Lightning current supply

From lightning
channel to earth
Current source
traveling with
velocity v from
earth to the cloud

Speed of propagation along the

lightning channel

co in opposite direction of v

Velocity of increasing lightninq channel

Any velocity is possible

Indentical to the speed of propagation along the lightning channel

Relation between i,(t) and

i(z,t)

i(z,t)= i,(t+z/c,)

i(z,t)= i,(t-z/v); v = constant

Altitude of lightning channel

Resulting from velocity v and current

duration

Indefinite

Physical model of current

distribution

Equivalent

Circuit

Current flow

--

-.-

Stationary current source at the

point of strike

Electrostatic field change

No consideration
Table 1:

Fundamental differences between TCS and Transmission Line model

valent circuits can be dirived.

;5

.Summary

In the TCS model the interference source

propagation is completely seperated from the
interference propagation. Therefore a traveling current wave can move with light velocity
along the lightning channel while the current
source can move with any suitable velocity.
For present LEMP calculations some simplifications were made concerning the return stroke velocity v and the current lo; nevertheless
the calculated LBMPs show a very good agreement
with the measurements.
1~ comp?rsion with the Transmission Line model E and H signals are of higher frequency and
have much higher peak values.
E and H fields show a characteristic initial peak. The changed electrostatic field component caused by the lightning discharge process is taken into consideration.
The TCS model in principle allows a lot of
variations and extensions (e.g. the consideration of the transient earth resistance).

Elektra 69(198O),S.65-102.
[41

Trapp, N.: Erfahrungsbericht iiber die erste MeRperiode in der BlitzmeBstation auf
dem Peiflenberg. ICLP(1983), The Hague,
S.23-30.

I51

Feuerer, R.: Zeitliche Anderung der Magnetischen Induktion bei negativen Erdblitzen.
Ph.D. Thesis HSBw Mtinchen, 1983.
161 Djebari,B.,*Hamelin,J.;Leteinturier,C.;Fontaine,J.: Comparison between experimental
measurements of the electromagnetic field
emitted by lightning and different theoretical models-influence of the upward velocity of the return stroke.EMC(198l)Zurich,
5.511-516.
II71 Weidman, C.D.; Krider, E-P.: The submicrosecond structure of the electromagnetic
fields radiated by lightning. ICLP(1983)
The Hague, S.65-74.

[81 Uman, M.A.;McLain, D.K.;Krider, E.P.: The

electromagnetic radiation from a finite
antenna. AJP(1975),vo1.43,S.33-38.

191 Uman,M.A.;McLain, D.K.: Magnetic field of

lightning return stroke. J.Geophys.Res.
(1969),vo1.74,No.28, 6899-6910.

References

[II Berger, K.: Methoden und Resultate der Blitzforschung auf dem Monte San Salvatore bei
Lugano in den Jahren 1963-1971. Bull.SEV,
63(1972)24,S.l403-1422.

[21 Garbagnati, E.; LoPiparo, G.B.: Parameter

von Blitzstrbmen. etz 102(1982)2, 5.61-65
[31

Anderson, R.B.; Eriksson, A-J.: Lightning

parameters for engineering application.

[lO]Rajici,D.: Beeinflussung einer Darstellungsweise der atmosphdrischen Entladung auf den

maximalen Spannungswerten in den einzelnen
Punkten der einfacheren Blitzschutzinstallationen. ICLP(l973) Portoroz,R-2.12.
[ll]Jones,R.D.: On the use of tailored returnstroke current representations to simplify
the analysis of lightning effects on Systems.
IEEE Transactions on EMC,May 1977,S.97-98.

- 163

RADIATION

CHARACTERISTICS,

EMISSION MEWANISMSAND PHENOMENOLOGY

C. Weidman,
Centre

30

National

J. Hamelin

F3

OF LIGHTNING

and M. Le Boulch

d'Etudes
des Telecommunications
R.P. 40
22301 Lannion Cedex
FRANCE

Measurements
of the radiation
emitted by
naturally
occurring
lightning
discharges
at
four frequencies
in the VHF and UHF bands are
presented
and compared with simultaneous
recordings
of magnetic
(B) fields and photoelecThe RF signals, which are impultric data.
sive and often similar at the different
frequencies
studied,
are complex;
shape parameters
such as amplitude,
pulse width, and interval
time may vary over several orders of magnitude
Large amplitude
B field
during a discharge.
variations
below 1 MHz often accompany
imporand, thus, stepped leaders,
tant RF emissions,
return strokes and certain
intracloud
discharge processes
are shown to radiate strongly at VHF and UHF.
1. INTRODUCTION
Much of what we have learned about lightning is based on measurements
of electric
and
magnetic
fields at frequencies
below a few or
a few tens of megahertz
/l, 2/.
There is renewed interest,
at present,
in lightning
The phyemissions
at VHF and UHF frequencies.
sical processes
responsible
are not well understood, and because these emissions
may occur
during times when there is little or no low
frequency
signal information,
there is much
that we might learn about lightning
discharge
Lightning
RF emissions
are currently
physics.
being used in atmospheric
electricity
research,
for example,
to locate discharge
sources and
follow channel developement
in time within the
cloud and to relate this to thunderstorm
dynamics and structure
/3-11/.
Lightning
RF emissions
are impulsive
and
often have large amplitudes,
and, thus, present
a potential
hazard to any system which is sensitive to transient
fields.
Past measurements,
often made with narrow bandwidth
receivers
which do not resolve the fastest variations,
are often not suitable
for a proper evaluation
of this risk.
With these two objectives
in mind, that is
to better understand
the lightning
discharge
processes
important
at VHF and UHF frequencies
and to better characterize
the lightning
caused
electromagnetic
environment
between a few tens
of megahertz
and a few gigahertz,
the French
National
Telecommunications
Research
Center
(CNET) has developed
instrumentation
and has
been making measurements
at six VHF and UHF

frequencies
for the past several years.
350
kHz bandwidth
receivers
were used and signals
were recorded
in precise time correlation
with
other lower frequency
measurements
so that the
emissions
associated
with different
lightning
processes
could be determined
with microsecond
In this report we would like
time resolution.
to present and discuss examples
of data obtained during the 1983 experiment
at the St. Privat
d'Allier
station in south central
France.
2. EXPERIMENT
Lightning
RF emissions
at 60, 100, 175, 300,
500 and 900 MHz were measured
using six tuned,
vertically
polarized,
dipole antennas mounted
on a 9m metal mast.
Antenna spacing was such
that effects due to mutual coupling
between adjacent antennas
and due to reflections
from the
ground were minimized.
Antennas
were connected
to receivers,
located 10m away in a metal trailer, using semi-rigid
cable.
Receiver characteristics
at each of the six frequencies
are
summarized
in Table 1.
Logarithmic
amplifiers
were used to amplify and detect the intermediate
frequency
signal giving a receiver dynamic
range of about 80 dB.
In addition
to the RF signals,
horizontal
magnetic
fields were measured
using two orthogonally mounted,
wideband
(150 Hz - 20 MHz) antennas /12/, and measurements
of return stroke
luminous emissions
at elevation
angles of l",
5", 10" and 20" were made using four photoelectric detectors
/13/.
Each detector
had an angular resolution
of about l", a risetime
of
less than one microsecond
and a nearly 360"
horizontal
field of view.
Continuous
recordings
of the RF signals,
the
four optical
signals and one component
of the
magnetic
field were made using a 400 kHz bandwidth instrumentation
tape recorder
(FM mode).
Time synchronization
pulses were superimposed
on all channels
at the recorder
input to permit
precise correlation
in time,
Magnetic
fields
were also recorded,
redundantly,
on modified
video tape recorders
/14/ with 3 MHz bandwidth.
The measuring
station was located 3 km away
from and with a direct line of sight view of
the principal
lightning
triggering
station,
A
number of decisions
such as antenna placement
and orientation,
the choice to record only one
component
of the magnetic
field, and amplifier

- 164

gains were made with the assumption

that most
data recording
would be for triggered
dischargUnfortunately,
due to meteorological
conthe trigz:tions and some technical
problems,
gered lightning
data from 1983 is very limited
and not representative
of data from past years.
We are thus only able to present data from
naturally
occurring
activity.
TABLE 1
RF Receiver
Characteristics
Sensitivity
Bandwidth
Frequency
C/N;)
W'o)
("$)
90
30
50
90
600

337
348
360
350
385

100
175
300
500
900

Time

Scale

Thunder was audible,

howges are not known.
that the Storms
ever, and thus we estimate
were between 5 and 20 kms from the recording
station.
Perhaps the only feature common to each of
these records
is the abrupt onset of the emisThis is true of essentially
all events
sions.
and as we shall see, large
we have studied,
occur siamplitude
magnetic
fields
often
The initial few hundred millimultaneously.
seconds of activity
in each discharge
then
on this time scale, to consist of imappears,
pulses closely spaced in time.
The rate of
The offset
occurrence
can be quite variable.
from zero between 85 and 1IDms in Fig. l(a) is
produced
by impulses which occurred
at interval
times less than the 3 rs time constant
and were
thus effectively
integrated
by the receiver.
The initial activity
abruptly,
as between

3. DATA
3.1 Millisecond

Structures

Examples of 175 MHz radiation

produced
during four lightning
discharges
are shown in
Figure 1.
These records reproduce
accurately
Signal variations
as fast as 100 kHz, and were
obtained
by replaying
the analog data tapes at
reduced speed and rerecording
the data on a
second recorder.
These rerecordings
were then
displayed,
again after reducing
the playback
speed, on a strip chart recorder.
The signals
produced
by these discharges
at the other frequencies
had a very similar overall appearance
and are not shown.
Distances
to these dischar-

may also stop and restart

40 and 55 ms in Fig. l(b).

Late in the discharges,

emissions
occur in
Some of
more isolated,
often intense bursts.
these are probably
the "Q noise", the "solitary
pulses" and the "fast bursts" described
by
/I7/, /6/ and /8/, respectively.
The sequence
of closely spaced impulses
followed
by the
isolated
bursts may repeat itself as in Fig.
I(b).
We nOtf?
finally,
that it is not possible,
on the basis of these signatures
at 175 MHz, to
identify the different
types of discharge
processes.
The large amplitude
signals at points
4 and 8 in Figs. l(c) and l(d) were produced
by

Fig.

1. 175 MHz radiation

produced
by 4 different
lightning
discharges.
Increasing
signal
amplitude
is in a downward
direction.
The amplitude
calibration at left applies to all
4 signals.
Event (b) continued
for an additional
120 ms.

100

200

300

400

508

ms

165

s3
CmV/m

800 ps 1000

600

400

200

b
CmV/m

1 .. -1
0

Fig. 2

200

400

600

800 ps 1000

175 MHz radiation and simultaneous

magnetic (B) fields. The signals in
(a) and (b) correspond with points 1
and 3, respectively, in Fig. 1.

first return strokes and thus these are apparently cloud-to-ground discharges.

RF signals at 60, 100, 175 and 300 MHz emitted at the "beginning" of discharge (d) in
Fig.1 (point 7) are shown in Figure 3. Note
that the 175 MHz record is inverted with respect to the others. Emissions at 500 MHz were
not reproduced due to a recorder malfunction,
and no simultaneous activity was observed at
900 MHz. Interval times between the RF bursts
at 60 and 175 MHz in Fig. 3 are somewhat larger than in Fig. 2, but, otherwise, the overall
appearance is quite similar.
A fast time resolved view of the magnetic
field and 175 MHz activity at point 2 in Fig. 1
is shown in Figure 4. Here, the magnetic field
impulses have shorter widths and a higher rate
of occurrence than in Figs. 2 and 3. The magnetic field and 175 MHz peaks in Fig. 4 generally coincide in time.
3
0
,3 t

CLI

0.2

3.2 Microsecond Time Scale Structures

In Figure 2, we show on a faster, 100

rs/div, time scale the magnetic field waveforms

(B) and the 175 MHz emissions produced at points
1 and 3 in Fig. 1. These records were obtained
by digitizing the magnetic tape data using a
multi-channel transient waveform recorder.
Time synchronization between the two records in
Figs. Z(a) and Z(b), and in the figure examples
which follow, is better than 10 ps.
The bipolar magnetic field waveforms in Fig.
2 are typical of the larger radiation field
pulses produced by intracloud lightning and are
discussed in detail by /15/ and /16/. The largest RF signals have widths of a few tens of
microseconds and occur in time coincidence with
the magnetic field pulses. In agreement with

z F----mV/m

,,

0.5
0

100MHz

300 MHz

Yt..
1
0.2
0
0
0.2

F3

/17/ there is a tendency for the RF signals to

peak during the initial half cycle of the B
field waveforms.

30

L-L-1
0

Fig. 3

200

400

600

800 ps 1000

The initial radiation at 100, 300, 60

and I75 MHz (top to bottom) observed
during discharge (d) in Fig. 1 (point 7)

0
Fig. 4

200

400

600

800 ps 1000

175 MHz radiation and simultaneous

magnetic (B) fields corresponding with
point 2 in Fig. 1.

First return stroke signals are illustrated

in Figure 5. A magnetic field waveform showing
the event at point 4 in Fig. 1 and the simultaneous radiation at I75 MHz are shown in Fig.
5 (a). Emissions at four different frequencies
produced by the other first return stroke (point
8 in Fig. 1) are presented in Fig. 5(b). The
strong 10" optical signal, the third, uppermost
trace in Fig. 5(a) was an important factor in
identifying this as a return stroke discharge.
In Fig. 5(b), the B field component recorded
simultaneously on magnetic tape was very weak
(indicating a field perpendicular to the preferred direction of the antenna) and identification of this event is based on the shape of
the second, orthogonal, B field recorded with a
video tape recorder. This latter signal is
shown immediately below the RF waveforms. Because the time correlation between the different
recorders is only f 500 ps, the horizontal positioning is somewhat arbitrary.
Between 0 and 400 s, the 175 MHz signal in
Fig. 5(a) consists o I"narrow impulses which
occur at intervals of tens of microseconds.
These emissions may coincide with individual
steps of the stepped leader. The 400 kHz recorder bandwidth may not have been adequate to
reproduce leader step B field pulses, which typically have widths of only 1 or 2 rs /18/. A
large burst of 175 MHz radiation occurs, between
400 and 500 ps, in coincidence with the first
return stroke magnetic field change. This is
in contradiction with results given by /19, 20
and 21/, who have reported delays ranging from

- 166

3
OPTICAL

SIGNAL
0
0-3

0.2

200

0
3
I

200

0
A

,,

400

600

800 ps 1000

400

600

_1

800 pslOOO

-3

0.2

!
0
Fig.

t!

-_400
600

200

800 ps 1000

175 MHz radiation

and simultaneous
magnetic (0) fields.
Signals
(a) and (b)
correspond
with points 5 and 6, respectively,
in Fig. 1.

mV/m

100MHz
tI.1.1
I

-20

0
Fig.

130

260

390

520 ps 650

RF radiation
and magnetic
(B) fields
produced
by first return strokes.
The
three signals
in (a) show (top to bottom) the light emissions
at a 10" elevation angle, the B field and the 175
MHz emissions
produced
by the event at
point 4 in Fig. 1. The return stroke
RF radiation
and B field in (b) correspond with point 8.

of microseconds
between the
tens to hundreds
first return stroke radiation
field peak and
Because of the
the peak in the RF emissions.
uncertain
time correlation,
we cannot determine
whether a delay exists between peak RF and B
We note that the peaks
fields in Fig. 5(b).
at each of the four frequencies,
though somewhat difficult
to define precisely,
do not
appear to occur simultaneously.
As final examples
of time resolved
data, we
show in Figure 6, the magnetic
fields and 175
MHz signals which occurred
at points 5 and 6 in
A similar event occurred
at point 9
Fig. 1.
and produced the emissions
given in Figure 7.
These examples
are representative
of many of
the isolated
bursts which occur late in a discharge.
The magnetic
field waveforms
in Fig. 6
have amplitudes
comparable
to that of the first
return stroke (point 4) and the impulsions
at
point 3, both of which occurred
earlier
in the
same discharge,
but forms which are distinctly
We are not able to identify the
different.
discharge
processes
in Fig. 6 on the basis of
the magnetic
field signatures.

60 MHz

+
0
0.2
1

1
0

Fig.7

200

400

600

The RF emissions
at 100,
175 MHz which correspond
in Fig. 1.

800 IJs1000
300,
with

60 and
point

4. DISCUSSION
The data in this paper complement
measurements of the RF emissions
produced
by triggered
lightning
discharges,
made in New Mexico during
the summer of 1982 /22/.
Space limitations
do
not permit more than reference
to a detailed
study of those results and of some 1983 data
given in /23/ and /24/.
Here, we have only considered
natural lightning and have also limited our examination
to
discharge
processes
which emit not only at VHF
and UHF, but also produce,
simultaneously,
lower frequency
magnetic
fields.
This latter
choice was made, of course,
because we hoped to
be able to identify
the type of discharge
from
its radiation
field signature,
We have seen
that many kinds of signals are present in a
discharge
and often we have not studied enough
data to notice any general tendencies.
An

167

exception
are the very
first emissions
in
cloud-to-ground
discharges,
which we would now
like to discuss
in more detail.
4.1 The Activitureceding
Discharges

Cloud-to-Ground

A detailed
study of the electric
fields precloud-to-ground
lightning
discharges
has
They divide these
recently
been given bY /*5{i) a ,,pre,iminary
fields Into two sections:
variation"
portion which usually begins 60 to
70 ms before the first return stroke and generally lasts for 0 to 20 ms, and (2) a stepped
leader portion which follows and has a mean
duration
of 27 + I5 ms.
Of particular
interest
is their observation
that a sequence
of regularly spaced, bipolar
impulses often mark the
transition
between the preliminary
variation
They call these
and the stepped leader phase.
large amplitude
fields "characteristic
pulses."
/15/ have observed
similar pulse sequences
preceding first return strokes and give the following mean signal shape parameters:

ceding

mean interval
time
between
impulses
mean
total

full

pulse

sequence

width
duration

mean interval
time
the pulse sequence
and
the first return stroke

130 + 50 rs
41 + 13 /Js
I-

2ms

53 i- 40 ms

The initial polarity of the bipolar field is

generally
the same as the first return stroke
which follows.
The bipolar fields discussed
by /15/ are probably
the characteristic
pulses
defined by /25/, although
we note that the
mean
stepped leader durations,
53 * 40 ms and
27 + I5 ms, respectively,
are appreciably
different.
We have identified
the B fields in Fig. 2(b),
and similar signals in five other cloud-toground discharges
recorded
in 1983, as characteristic
pulse (CP) sequences,
using the mean
parameters
given by /15/,
Somewhat
surprisingly, in Fig, 2(b) and in three of the five remaining
cases, the CP sequence occurred
in coincidence with the initial abrupt commencement
of
the RF radiation
in the discharge.
That is,
there were no RF or B field signals preceding
the characteristic
pulse sequence,
and, thus,
no evidence
of a preliminary
variation
phase in
these four discharges.
In the remaining two
cases, the characteristic
pulse sequence
occurred tens to hundreds of ms after the beginning
of the VHF emissions.
In Fig. l(d), for example, the characteristic
pulses occurred
at
point "CP", 55 ms after the start of the 175
MHz radiation.
Measured
intervals
between the
CP sequence
and the first return stroke which
followed
ranged from 9 to 95 ms.
The mean
value, 52 ? 34 ms, agrees well with the data of
/15/, but both are a factor of two larger than
the mean stepped leader duration
given in /25/.
In five out of six cases, the initial bipolar
field polarity was the same as that of the first
return stroke which followed.
The examples
in which the CP sequence
coincides with the beginning
of the RF radiation
The large bipolar field ampliare interesting.
tudes imply large channel currents
which occur
without any evidence
of "preparatory"
activity.

30

F3

This does not seem reasonable,

and we are
forced to conclude
that, in these cases, the
vertical
component
of the RF E field produced
by the preliminary
activity
is just too weak
to be detected
at our station.
4.2

The

Submicrosecond

Structure

of RF Radiation

In Figs. 8(a) and 8(b) we show, on 10 ps/div

time scales, portions
of the 175 MHz signals in
Fig. 5(a) (between 250 and 350 I_'s)and in Fig.
4 (between 300 and 400 IS), respectively.
The
350 kHz bandwidth
receivers
used in this study
have impulsive
response
times of about 3 ps.
The single pulses at the left of the trace in
Fig. 8(a) are clearly at this limit.
The signals in Fig. 8(b) and in many of the other
signals in Figs. 2 through 7 appear to be
superpositions
of these 3 ps wide waveforms.
Thus, even on this time scale, approximately
2500 times faster than in Fig. 1, the RF emisWith 3 ps
sions still have an impulsive
form.
receiver
response
times, we cannot resolve
these fastest structures,
which, experimental
data indicate,
may have durations
and interval
times less than 1 1s (see /10/,/22/
and paper
Fl of this conference).
It may be possible
to
infer some characteristics
indirectly.
/23/,
for example,
has measured
RF signal amplitudes
at the six frequencies
given in Section 2 and
has found differences
in the relative
amplitude
spectra for different
types of discharges.
We
have also recently
begun measuring
the fast E
field variations
which accompany
RF emissions.
For this we have used a specially
designed,
10 MHz - 1 GHz, conical antenna connected
to a
very fast transient
digitizer,
We hope to be
able to report on this experiment
in the very
near future.

.mV/m
L

175 MHz

250

!-=
.~--------__~________---__-________.

1 -b
mV/m

a
J

350

0.2.-

300
Fig.

175 MHz
ps

400

Fast time resolved

records of portions
of the 175 MHz signals
in Fig. 5(a) and
Fig. 4 (upper and lower traces, respectively).
The single, 3 s wide impulses
at the left of trace (a5 are the impulsive response
of the 175 MHz RF receiver.

- 168
REFERENCES

Ill

Jman, M.A., and E.P. Krider, "A Review of

Natural Lightning: Experimental Data and
Yodeling," IEEE Trans. tlectromag. Camp.,
EMC-24, 79-112, 1982.

121

J. Hamelin, C. Leteinturier,
Pulses Emitted
L. Nicot, "Electromagnetic
by Lightning," presented at the Intl.
Aerospace
Conf. on Lightning and Static
Electricity, Oxford, England, March, 1982.

l3l

141

ISI

Djebari,

B.,

Proctor, D.E., "A Hyperbolic System for

VHF Radio Pictures of Lightning,"
J. Geophys. Res., 76, 1478-1489, 1971.

Obtaining

Taylor, W.L., "A VHF Technique for SpaceTime Mapping of Lightning Discharge Processes," J, Geophys. Res., 83, 3575-3583,
1978.
Warwick, J.W., C.O. Hayenga and J.W.
Brosnahan, "Interferometric Directions of
Lightning Sources at 34 MHz," J. Geophys.
Res., 84, 2457-2468, 1979.

161

Rustan, P.L., M.A. Uman, D.G. Childers and

W.H. Beasley, "Lightning Source Locations
from VHF Radiation Data for a Flash at
Kennedy Space Center," J. Geophys. Res.,
85, 4893-4903, 1980.

/7/

Proctor, D.E., "VHF Radio Pictures of

Cloud Flashes," J. Geophys. Res., 86, 40414071, 1981.

I81

Hayenga, C.O. and J.W. Warwick, "TwoDimensional Interferometric Positions of

VHF Lightning Sources," 3. Geophys. Res.,
86, 7451-7462, 1981.

/9/

Richard, P., A. Delannoy, G. Labaune and

P. Laroche, "UHF Interferometric Imaging
of Lightning," in Addendum 8th Intl. Aerospace and Ground Conf. on Lightning and
Static Electricity, DOT/FAA/CT-83/25(A),
Fort Worth, Texas (USA), June, 1978.

/lOI

Proctor, D.E., "Lightning and Precipitation

in a Small Multicellular Thunderstorm,"
J. Geophys. Res., 88, 5421-5440, 1983.

IllI

Taylor, W.L., E.A. Brandes, W.D. Rust and

D.R. MacGorman, "Lightning Activity and
Severe Storm Structure," Geophys. Res.
Lett., 11, 545-548, 1984.

I121

Hamelin, J,, J. Karczewsky and F. Sene,

"Sonde de Mesure du Champ Magnetique dD a
une Decharge Orageuse," Annales des
Telecomm., 33, 198-205, 1978.

/13/

Weidman, C.D. and E.P. Krider, "Time and

Height Resolved Photoelectric Measurements
of Lightning Return Strokes," Trans. Am.
Geophys. Union, 61, 978, 1980.

1141 Hubert, P. and G. Mouget, "Signaux de

Foudre Enregistres sur Bande Magnetique
Video," Report CEA-R-4818, Commisariat a
1'Energie Atomique, Saclay (France), 1977.

1151 Weidman, C.D. and E.P. Krider, "The Ra-

diation Field Wave Forms Produced by Intracloud Lightning Discharge Processes," J.

Geophys. Res., 84, 3159-3164, 1979.

1161 Leteinturier, C. and 3. Hamelin, "Analyse

Experimentale des Caracteristics Electromagnetiques des D&charges Orageuses dans

la Bande 200 Hz - 20 MHz," Annales des
Telecomm., 39, 175-184, 1984.

1171 Krider, E.P., C.D. Weidman and D.M. Levine,

"The Temporal Structure of the HF and VHF
Radiation Produced by Intracloud Lightning
Discharges," J. Geophys. Res., 84, 57605762, 1979.
1181 Krider, E.P., C.D. Weidman and R.C. Noggle,
"The Electric Fields Produced by Lightning
Stepped Leaders," J. Geophys. Res., 82,
951-960, 1977.
1191 Brook, M. and N. Kitagawa, "Radiation from
Lightning Discharges in the Frequency
Range 400 to 1000 MC/S," J. Geophys. Res.,
69, 2431-2434, 1964.
/20/

Levine, D. and E.P. Krider, "The Temporal

Structure of HF and VHF Radiation During
Florida Lightning Return Strokes," Geophys.
Res. Lett., 4, 13-16, 1977.

I211

Hayenga, C.O., "Characteristics of Lightning VHF Radiation near the time of Return
Strokes," J. Geophys. Res., 89, 1403-1410,
1984.

1221 Laroche, P., A. Eybert-Berard, P. Richard,

P. Hubert, G. Labaune and L. Barret, "A
Contribution to the Analysis of Triggered
Lightning: First Results Obtained during
the TRIP82 Experiment," in Addendum 8th
Intl. Aerospace and Ground Conf. on Lightning and Static Electricity, DOT/FAA/CT-831
25(A), Fort Worth, Texas (USA), June, 1978.
I231

Le Boulch, M., "Caracterisation et Mecanismes du Rayonnement VHF-UHF des Decharges Orageuses," Thesis, Universite de
Clermont II, Clermont-Ferrand, France,
1984,

/24/

Le Boulch, M. and J. Hamelin, "Rayonnement

VHF/UHF des Eclairs," to be published in
Annales des Telecomm., January, 1985.

/25/

Beasley, W., M.A. Uman and P.L. Rustan Jr.,

"Electric Fields Preceding Cloud-toGround Lightning Flashes," J. Geophys.
Res., 87, 4883-4902, 1982.
Copies of references 121, 191, 1141, 1221
may be obtained by writing to the
authors.

and /23/

169

31 F4

EQUBW

EXPONDPIAL
BlL%MlDELs EORCDMPARISGNOF
LIGHTNING, NUCLEAR AND KLRCTRDSTATICDIGCRARGK
SRRCIRA

MANUELWWIK
Defence Materiel Administration
ElectronicsDirectorate
s-115 838stockholm

The stiltaneous protection against all

kinds of transient fields is a very Serious
pr&lan.
Ccanpatiblebroadband interference
control calls for integration of protection
requirements and the nesd for unified
standards. In the ccnning years the EMC
cmity
must strive toqards integrationof
protection against radiated and conducted
lightning,
nuclear
from
interference
electrostatic
~lses,
electranagnetic
discharges and unwanted radio emission.This
paper gives examples of simple double
exponential pulse tiels for ccxnparisonof
electrostatic
nuclear
and
lightning,
discharge radiated spectra.
Background
Until
recently nuclear EMP
(-1
protection has mostly been treated apart
from protection against other EM hazards.
There are special military reguirements,but
the awareness of the high altitude N@P
threat for the whole society leads to the
need for compatible military and civil
especially
specifications
for
telecglmunications and
electric Per
systems. NENP specialists have previously
focused on the threat that the short
risetimes represents. For systems employing
long electrical conductors studies are no,~
also performed wnceming the extremely 10~
frequency magnetohydrodynamic(MEJD)effects
of NEMP. These effects are in scme way
c-able
to aurora1 gmgnetic
storms.
Nuclear EM? trends are towards new families
of enhanced weapons. Napoleon has said that
"when you can use the lightning, it is
better than a cannon". Now it seems that
modem Napoleons are making sofisticated
lightning for military purposes. Recent
progress in
micrmve
technology has
resulted in powerful m3dulated wn nuclear
EMP devices. Micrcwave pulses can penetrate
joints and slits in shields and cause
internal induction of the low frequency
pulse envelope. Directed energy wwer
sources
such
as
pulsed
plasma
magnetchydrodynamic cartridges can wnvert
chemical energy directly into pulsed
electrical energy Cl]. Space technology is a
major support of more effective nuclear
weapon systems. Nuclear weapons are also
beconing part of laser and beam weapon
technology [2].

Lightning experiments done during the last

tl-ree
or four years have shown, that the
certain types of
fields radiated by
lightning strokes can have rise times of
Whereas lightning
several nanosewnds.
studies in the past have focused w the high
energy lm
frequency parts of lightning
strokes, especially for the protection of
buildings, the interest is rriw directed
tmds
the relatively low energy la& high
frequency parts of lightning and its impact
on electronic systems.
The
rapid increase in deployment of
susceptible semiconductor and associated
ccmiponentsin a number of new applications
throughout society results in a situation
where we are all beccming more dependent on
reliable electronics than ever before.
Digital systems involve large bandwidths.
High probability of EM1 of lightning With
digital communication syste3ns has been
observed C31. These observations indicate
that the -cation
systems unfortunately
also mid
be highly susceptible to mclear
JZMP.
Conducted switching transients have been
measured
networks
interconnecting
electric c
and electronic loads [4]. SO
far mostly transients With relatively long
durations have been observed. In addition to
these, shorter spikes are able to appear at
least locally. These spikes can emanatefran
varicus sources such as static electricity
and can create broadband interference.
High
circuit
voltage
G&j
breakers
produce very broadband transient fields (up
to several hundred MJZ). Transients can
result in no visible impairment or in
temporary impairmentof a system's -ration
or in permanent damage. Even tien no
iqairmsnt
is &served
frcm-ia single
transient it can cause an aging prwess
leading to a much shortened lifetime. In the
future this calls for increased attention to
short transients and their lasting effects
on eguipnent performance [5]. This is also
important ti bear in mind &en designing
interferencespecificationsand verification
procedures.
The
development and installation of fiber
optical
and
satellite ocamunications,
ccquter networks and electronic processand wntrol eguipnent in industry and mer

- 170

exponential pulse rmdels. Neither lightning

nor nuclear or electrostatic discharges in
real life will look exactly like the node1
pulses. The xcdels have only been created
for design pm-poses. The double exponential
pulses happen to be very simple to treat.
The effect of variation of @se
amplitude,
rise time and pulse duration can easily be
studied [7]. The real pulses have a large
variation in appearance which makes it
feasible to describe bands within which
spectra can fall with various probability.

systems

increasing.
rapidly
*
specialist?will have failed if they Z
interference issues
unable
to
make
understandable and incorporated into system
initial
the
from
acquisition
conceptualizationphase cmward. Performance
requirements cannot be levied after-thefact for systems intended to function in
stressed environments.
In Sweden an EMC working group was famed
about ten years ago in order to help
incorporating EC and NEMP specifications
into systsan acquisition [6]. After a
proposal frcnn the group the Swedish
Electrotechnical Commission has recently
decided to form a working group for nuclear
?ZMPstandardization.

The double exponential tima function can bs

characterizedas:
f(t) = A * (exp(-at)- exp (-bt))

...(l)

Risetime (10 - 90%) = t, = 2,2/b

Pulse duration (50 - 50%) = td = 0,69/a
Peak amplitude= A*(l+(a/b)*(ln(a/b)-1))

A proposal has also been made to build a

separate NEW-protected higher class of
teleccmmmication
secure
network
for
subscribers needing priority in case of
crises or war-time. The network should be
built with separate qtical fibres in new
cables that the Swedish Telecamnmications
Administration will deploy in the future.
The separate fibres should be connected to
separate cable repeaters, exchanges and
subscriber terminals provided with separate
pawer supplies and EM protection.The system
should also interconnect a NEW protected
mobile telephone network.

the Spe&nm\
In the frequency damin
asymptote is constant and equaltoA/a for
2 Vf. For intermediate
Ocw<atierew=
frequencies a< w< b Ihe spectrum asymptote
decreases as A/w or 20 dB per decade. For
high frequenciesw>b the spectrum asymptote
decreases as A/w2 or 40 dB per decade.
Another waveform which is more like natural
exponential bshaviour of physical processes
is the reciprocal of the sm
of two
exponentialsgiven by:

Double exponentialpulse models

f(t)=A*(exp(at)+exp(-bt))-'
Spectrum function
This paper doss not claim to give
accurate
lightning,
nuclear
and
electrostaticdischarge spectra. The purpose
is rather to draw the attention to ways of
carq?aringthe different EM sources in order
to
work
tumrds
the
integration of
protection requirements. In this particular
paper examples are given of sms double
-

-I-

Nr

[ME

tr

iA)

(ns)

T-l
d

(I-IS)

133
133
67
33
266

486
10
10
5
10

0,173
0,05
0,2
O,O2
0,05

800

20

70

OS04 127

8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

9,8
9,s
4,6
20
20
200
20
20
200

156
156
73
318
318
3183
318
318
3183

L17
60
L16
300
530
530
1200
L600
3200

...(2)

In this case the risetime is equal to 4,4/b

or twice the risetime of the previously
mentioned caouble exponential pulse model.
Pulse duration and peak amplitude are the
same for both types ofmdels. At the second
break frequency, the latter lrodelisplies a
more rapid (exponential) decrease of the
spectrumasymptote.

a
(s-l)

AIN

FREQU
=?qX-dB over
(s-l) (A/m) As/m)
b

(MHZ)

4x106
4,76x1: 139
1,38x10? 2,2x10' 174
3,45x106 2,2x10* 73
3,45x10+ 4,4x10g 46
1,38x10' 2,2x108 348

89
98
93
118
92

630
2200
550
5500
2200

76
35
35
70
35

lo4 1,1x10& 800

22

1,6

18

0,03

2,3x10' 4,4x108 160

103

3700

70

22
22
0,4
45
40
40
40
50
50

3,14x104 188x16 158

3,14x10' 3,67x10 157
1,73x106 1,9x103 106
1,53xlOY 7,3x104 323
1,73xlOY 3,49x10' 328
1,73x10V 3,49x10' 3286
1,73x10' 1,83x10 336
1,38x10' 1,38x10' 337
1,38x10' 6,88x10: 3531

46
46
84
34
34
14
34
32
12

5
5
280
2,4
2,8
2,8
2,8
2,2
2,2

3
5,8
3
1,2
0,56
0,56
0,29
0,22
0,ll

Fig.l: EXAMPLES OF IXUBLE EXQJENTIAZIPULSES GIVEN BY f(t) = A*(exp(-at) - exp(-bt))

- 171

31

F4

Exoatrrospheric
nuclear W
(W)
For design rannoses the generalized free
field nucl&-I?&
fran an exoatmospheric
burst is often characterizedas a free field
(Z = 377 ohm) plane wave C8l with the
magnetic field function according to plse
nr 1 in Fig. 1.
This is close to a maximum threat. -ever
one nust expect that the field waveform and
direction varies considerably with lurst
location, observation point, type of weapon
and other factors. At the location of max
peak field pulse nr 2 is assmed, near
tangent radius south of the burst pulse nr 3
and near surface zero @se
nr 4. The 50
kV/m peak field of pulse nr 2 is doubled in
nr 5 for conparison purposes. The spectra
are shm
in Fig. 2.

dB (over 1 As/m)

FREQUENCY
-40.

-.

Fig.3: SNEMP SPECTRA, 1 Mt, H = 800 A/m

-6O.----

dB

(over 1 As/m)
O---n-qT~, , ,,,1,,,1
.

-20

LEMP

,(,,,

IO4

105

FREQUENCY

IO6

IO7

108

109

f
-100

(HZ.)

FiR.2: HNEMP SPECTRA

-120

Field interaction with objects result in

modified field functions. The amplitude can
be enhanced or decreased. The time function
can bs considerably changed. A special case
is the danped sinusoidal function.
Surface nuclear EMP (SNEMP)
The qeneralized surface altitude NIWP
waveform- for the azimuthal magnetic field
for a dnal
1 Mt explosion is given for a
800 A/m peak field, 20 ns rise tims and 70
p's pulse duration to half value. The model
is extracted fron ref [9], see nr 6 in Fig.
1. The field uncertainty is ass&
to bs
approximately210 dl3,see Fig. 3.
Lightning W
(LEMP)
Suns liqhtninq rulse models are qiven in
Fig. 1 and 4. -me peak magnetic -field fi
(A/m) at a distance r (m) frcm a,lightning
channel with a peak current I (A) is

,,,,

,,

IAMP!

8 w

-*Ot-----I
103

13
I

-40 t

102

(Hz)

I I I
I

l\il
I\\ \\

\,

\\I\

1 I I I l\Y I 1
5 I I I IN-\1 1

-140t

102

I
I

103

104
IO5
mD*nrlch,r

106
,li \

108

109

I\\ \
I \\ \

IO7

Fig.4: LEINPSPECTRA, 10 m CHANNEL DISTANCE

estimated as fi= (f)/(2?Yr).This is nore of

an engineering and less of a scientific
approach. Calculations are based cn a 10 m
distance frcm the lightning channel. At a
distance r (m) the field spectrum A/a (dB)
is altered a factor 36 - 20 log 2tir (dD).
Pulse nr 8 is an approximationof amplitude
spectra given by [lo]. Tne lightning pulse
rise time is 117 ns. In pulse nr 9 it is

- 172 -

reduced to 60 ns which has also been

measured [ll]. For a linear rise, @se
no 8
nds to an approximatevalue of di/dt
:"yOTy
A/s. Pulse nr 10 is based on
average values measured by C123. Pulse nr 11
is extracted frcana specification by Cl31
modified by [ll]. This shows approximately6
earlier
than
values
higher
times
current
50%
maan
measurements
for
derivatives.Pulse nr 12 is based on a node1
by [14] also used as part of a aode
described w [15]. The lightning current is
20 kA. In @se
nr 13 this is increased to
200 kA, see also Fig. 4. Pulse nr 14 is a
simplified version of a pulse given by [13]
for specificationpurposes. Pulses nr 15 and
16 are extracted fran AFHP moderate and
severe threat definitions given by [16].
Electrostaticdischarge EMP (ESD EMP)
Electrostatic discharge currents and
associated fields can also be delled
as
double exponential pulses if interactions
are disregarded. Nany examples of different
ESD pulses are given in literature, e.g.
[17]. In this case the peak magnetic field
is calculated as for lightning currents but
assuming a 5 cmdistance from awirewith a
40 A peak current discharge having a 5 ns
rise time and a 30 ns pulse duration to half
value, see Fig. 1 and 5, pulse nr 7. The
spectrum uncertainty is assumed ti be +lO dB
at ICBJ and +5 dD at high freque&ies.
Ho&ever, in tiz near field region within cne
wavelength of the wire it is not possible to
accurately relate the electric and magnetic
fields to each other using simple far field
relations.
Spectra mnparison
Spectra

of pulses nr 1, 6, 7, 8 and 13

dB (over 1 As/mb

of Fig. 1 are shown together in Fig. 6. For

better clarity the regions of uncertainty
have been left cut. EJcwever,in a thorough
ccmparison they should be included. l'h@
SNENP spectrumnr6 exceeds nest spectra up
to about 50 MHz. However, if a severe
lightning stroke such as represented by
pulse spectrum nr 13 is chosen, it will
exceed SNEMp up to about 5 MHz and other
spectra up to about 10 MHz. The frequency
region frQn 1 to 10 MHz is of particular
interest concerning resonance excitationdue
to the carmon presence of structures with
physical dimensions in the order of a few
meters
tens
of
several
meters
to
half
the
tiich
for
(frequencies
correspondingwavelength equals the physical
dimensions). LZNP spectrum nr 8 exceeds
HNRW nr 1 up ti almost 1 Mlz and is the
same as nrlupto3MHz.HNEMPspectranr3
and4 are lo&r than theLEMP spectrum nr 8
up to about 10 MHz. It should be noted that
the HNENP spectrum nr 1 is a worst case
while LFMP nr 8 is an estimate based on
average measurements.
(equal to
physical
Frun
10-100 Wlz
dimensions 15-1,5 m) the SN!BP spectrum nr 6
strongest, follmed by almost equal
Gtlues of HNEW
(nr 1) and ESD (nr 7)
spectra while LIMP (nr 8 and 13) are lower.
At frequencies above 100 MHz WJM?, HNEMP
and ESD spectra are similar in Fig. 6.
In
a
ttore detailed comparison the
accumulated energy -tents
of the spectra
as a function of frequency should also ba
ccmpared. The HNJM? (nr 1) crmtains about
10% of the total energy Bela 100 kHz, about
60% between 100 kHz and 1 MHz and almost 30%
betwefm
1 and 10 MHz.

dB

(over 1 As/m)
0
,(
I I!(,W I I1,1111, ,rp-TTqnm--l-rr,,,r
. LEMP
I

_20_SNEMP
.-.
I

6\

Y\

-40 t LEWd

-1401

FREQUENCY

(Hz)

Fig.5: ESD SPEK!TRA,5 cm DISTANCE

,-

13

\
8

I+A-f!

I I I I I lyQ$J

102

103

104

IO5

FREQUENCY

106

107

IO8

109

(Hz)

Fin.6: COMPARISON OF HNEMP, SNEIP, LEMP AND

ESD SPECTRA

- 173

_ _ - -:

Flrsl ReturnStrokes

-175
IO

105
Frequency

Id

Id

IO

klz)

Fig.7: COMPARISON OF LIGBTWING MODEL SPECTRUM

No. 8 WITH MEAN AMPLITDDE SPECTRDM OF
24 FIRST RETURN STROKES GIVEN BY Ref.
[IO]. ACCORDING TO cl01 CURVES (2) AND
(3) ARE BEST APPROXIMATION'IOTHE TRUE
SOURCE AT HIGHER FREQUENCIES.SPmRAL
AI"lPLITUDE
VALUES ARE FOR E-FIELD AT
50 km DISTANCE.
In Fig. 7 it is shov~n that lightning
spectrum KU-. 8 agrees well with mean
amplitude spectrum of first return strokes
according to ClOl.
Under certain circumstances and in certain
regions the spectra from the different
sources can agree. This fact encourages
integration of protection against radiated
broadband interferencefrcm various sources.
of one only considers spectra (according to
Fig. 6) and mt coverage area the conclusion
is, that if cne has ti protect against FSD
at high frequencies and lightning at mr
frequenciescne has also roughly covered the
HNEMP spectrum. The ESD spectrum average
area is however small (calculations were
made at 5 cm distance). Therefore only fbr
dimensions
objects
with
small
very
protection against radiatedESD interference
will also be of value against radiated
HNEMP. However, good protection against ESD
of equipment oabinets and associated cables
incorporates careful shielding and bonding,
utilizing topological benefits as well as
other measures to filter out broadband
radiated and conducted interference. Until
recently such disciplines have many times
been overlooked leading to a variety of
unexplained
functional
disturbances,
degradation and
failures. Now
these
protection methods are a mst
fbr most
electronic e&-t.
This also leads to
better resistance against radiated LIMP and
NEMP fields.
LISP

F4

The difference in E8D EMP, m

and NEMP
coverage areas is of vital importance fbr
interferenceand susceptibilitystudies. Ihe
risetime
and duration of the m
field
differ significantlyfrcm tkboseof lightning
and power transients. Thus, protection
against these effects will ~~JIz
necessarily
protect against l%P Clgl.

Daublc

-55 r

Id

31

spectra only compares within 10 m

distance of the lightning channel. The
dcaninating threat frcnn m
(and to a
certain extent also franSN$M?) is the very
large average area. Telephone and per
lines will be exposed to radiated fields
along their whole length and this can result
in large currents [18]. This
secondary
conducted interference poses the largest
threat ti electric and electronic systems.

double exponential time

Although the
functions given lq the difference of two
exponentials are camrw3nlyused. and often
cited they are not truly representing
physical processes C20, 211. The functions
start
with
a discontinuity and a finite
slope at t=O, reach a peak value after a
short time and then decay slowly to zero.
The waveform consistingof the reciprocalof
the sum of two exponentials is rather to be
recmded
from physical point of view.
Nevertheless, the first model gives a rough
upper limit of the spectrum frequency
content at frequenciesnot too far above the
second break frequency.
Double exponential@se
mxlels are actually
just models and comparison of field spectra
should be made with caution. Fields fran
lightning strokes are rmch more oaaplicated
than w
plane wave free fields (without
interaction). Several interesting lightning
observations and studies have been made
recently and should be continued in order to
improve protection of
especially new
generations of electric and electronic
eguipnents and systems. First lightning
strokes can start with a slaw front rising
for several ,us to about half of the peak.
This can be followed by a fast transition to
peak in the order of several nanoseconds
r-111. Because of near field phenomena
present only at short distances from the
lightning channel measurements at short
(meters)and 1ong (kilometers)distances are
not expected to correspond fully. The
lightning current @se
&es not propagate
at a constant speed and the fields are
cylindrical in compilrisonwith the HNElMp
plane wave field. In a sore complete
ccmparison field polarisation and direction
should also be taken into account.
Conclusions
Sinple double exponential pulse rrPdels
for lightning, nuclear and electrostatic
disharge radiated spectra can be used for
discussion
of
broadband
radiated
interference. Recent
measurements of
lightning spectra have shm
that fields
radiated by certain types of lightning
strokes can have rise times of several
nanoseconds correspondingto very broad&nd
interfe;I';;;Ze
Ccmparison of spectra shm
that
w
compares to severe
lightning at short distances up to some M~IZ.
Lightning and high altitudeNE?@ spectra can
be qrable
around 1 MHz depending on
assumptions.At frequenciesabove 10 MHz ESD
can be ccanparableto m.
Hawever the
difference in coverage areas is of vital
importance for radiated interference and
susceptibility studies and accentuates the
m
threat against telemunications
and
electric power systems.

References

Cl1

Gill, Steven P.: Directed Energy Power

Source Could Generate EW Technology
Revolution. Defense Electronics,April
1984, 116-120

c21

Beam Defense. Bibliography1983. Aero

Publ, Inc, 329 West Aviation Road,
Fallbrcok, CA 92028 USA

c31

Scuka, Viktor: EM1 of Lightning with

ication Systems. Int.
Digital Ccrnnun
Wroclaw Syq on EM-Z84. Institute of
High Voltage Research, Uppsala
University, S-755 90 Uppsala, Sweden

[4]

Wemstrijm, H&an et al: Transient

Overvoltages on AC Power Supply
Systems in Swedish Industry. EDA
Report E 30002-E2,April 1984.
National Defence Research Institute,
S-581 11 Linkaping, Sweden

[51

Scuka, Viktor et al: Lasting Effects

of Transients on Eguipnent
Performance.Workshop organized by
URSI Ccmnission E during the 1983 EMC
Svmp in Ziirich.UURIE: 147-83, Uppsala
1983

[63

Practical Methods for Electromagnetic

InterferenceControl. Ericsson Network
Dept., S-126 25 Stockholm, *eden

[7]

Wik, Manuel W: Double Exponential

Pulse Models for Canparison of Spectra
fran Lightning, Nuclear and Electrostatic Discharge Sources. EMC 84,
Tokyo

[8]

EMP Engineering arrdDesign Principles,

Bell Telephone Laboratories,Technical
Publ, Dept., Whippany, New Jersey,
USA, 1975

C9]

Longmire, C.L.: The History and

'Physicsof EMP. Mission Research
Corp., Santa Barbara, Calif 93102,
USA. Paper given at NEM 84, Baltimore
1984

[lOI Rider, E.P., and Weidman, C.D. The

Amplitude Spectra of Lightning
Radiation Fields in the Interval fra
1 tx 20 MHz. 1984 IntemationalAerospace and Ground Conference on
Light&q and Static Electricity,
Florida, USA
[ll] Unxan,Martin A.: Application of
Advances in Lightning Research to
Lightning Protection. 1984

174 -

InternationalAerospace and Ground

Conference on Lightning and Static
Electricity,Florida, USA
[12] Kuhhnan, B.P., and Reazer M.J.:
Characterizaticnof Fast-risetime
ElectromagneticField Pulses Recorded
in Airbxne Measurementsduring
Florida Thunderstorms.1984
InternationalAerospace and Ground
Conference on Lightning and Static
Electricity,Florida, USA
[13] Fisher, F.A., and Plumer, J.A.:
Lightning Protection of Aircraft. NASA
Ref. Publ. 1008, 1977
[14] Cianos, N., and E.T. Pierce: A Ground
Lightning Envirornnentfor Engineering
Usage. Stanford Res. Inst., Project
1834, August 1972. IYTICNo AD 907891
[15] Riley, L.H., and Fdlin, G.R.:
Lightning Tests of Pershing II. 1984
InternationalAerospace and Ground
Conference on Lightning and Static
Electricity, Florida, USA
1161 Lippert, Jack R. et al: Progress of
the Atmosperic ElectricityHazards
Protection Program. 1984 International
Aerospace and Ground Conference on
Lightning and Static Electricity,
Florida, USA
[17] King, W.M., and Reynolds, D.:
Personnel ElectrostaticDischarge:
Impulse Waveforms Resulting Fram ESD
of Humans Directly and through Small
Hand-Held Metallic Objects Intervening
in the Discharge Path. 1981 IEEE Int.
Symp cn EMC, Boulder, alorado, USA

Cl81 Wik, Manuel W.: Hardening of Teleccrsnunication

Networks against
Electrcxnagnetic
Pulses. Ericsson
Review rxo1, 1984
1191 TJRSIFactual Statement on Nuclear
Electxcxtxagnetic
Pulse (EMP) and
Associated Effects. URSI XXIst General
Assembly, Florence 1984
[20] Lee, K.S.H.: I%? Interactia:
Principles,Techniques and Reference
Data. Al%%-TR-80-402,Air Force
Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland AFB, New
Mexico, USA
[21] Gardner, R.L. et al: CXsnparison
of Published HEMP and Natural
Lightning an the Surface of an
Aircraft. Paper given at NEM 84,
Baltimore, USA

- 175

32

F5

COMPARISON OF LIGHTNING WITH PUBLIC DOMAIN HEMP WAVEFORMS ON THE SURFACE OF AN AIRCRAFT*
R. L. Gardner and L. Baker
Mission Research Corporation
Albuquerque, New Mexico (USA)
C. E. Baum and D. J. Andersh
Air Force Weapons Laboratory
Kirtland Air Force Base
New Mexico (USA)

INTRODUCTION
High altitude EMP (HEMP) and its concomitant electromagnetic environment potentially
HEMP, a short (-0.1
threaten an aircraft.
vs.) pulse of large amplitude ("50 kV/m)
arrives at aircraft essentially as a plane
wave. Although this pulse generally contains
no oscillations (zero crossings), it's Fourier
transform shows frequency.content over a wide
band, with significant content up to 100 MHz.
For present purposes we use a well-known public domain HEMP waveform.
Lightning, another potential threat, can
interact with an aircraft in two essentially
First, for a nearby strike,
different ways.
the electromagnetic fields generated in and
near the stroke channel impinge on the airSecond, for a direct strike on the
craft.
aircraft, the stroke current actually flows on
the conducting structure of the aircraft. The
first of these effects may be called field
interaction and the second, current injection.
It is reasonable to expect that the
latter may have larger effects than the former
because the strike current path is along the
aircraft.
Because of the increasing concerns about
these two threats, this study assessed the
differences between the electromagnetic environment associated with HEMP and that associated with natural lightning, including the
manner in which they affect aircraft.
The
investigation was based on the environments
suggested by public domain literature for HEMP
and by published data for natural lightning.
These environments are described in Section 2
of this paper.
The comparison of the two
threats was based on the currents and charges
on a simple geometry representative of the
characteristics of an aircraft that were
caused by the two electromagnetic environments. In Section 3 several simple analytical
models are presented to relate the currents
and charges to the environments. These models
are then used to compare the two threats to
aircraft in Section 4.
In Section 5, operational considerations
for the two threats are presented. Lightning
is improbable but damaging to aircraft. Exposure to HEMP is essentially certain for aircraft in war.
Section 6 presents the conclusions of the
study, that below about 1 MHz lightning

dominates, above 10 MHz HEMP dominates, and

between the two limits the interaction of the
environment with the aircraft is sufficiently
complex that either may dominate, depending on
the details of the aircraft.
II.

ENVIRONMENTS

This section presents the electromagnetic

environments produced by HEMP and lightning.
The environment for HEMP is that presented in
the public domain (Ref. 1).
The lightning
environment is derived from a number of references which present actual measurements of
lightning electrical characteristics. In this
paper the mechanism of HEMP and the various
arguments used for determining a lightning
environment are only summarized.
For more
detail see reference 2.
HEMP Environment
The generation of HEMP by a nuclear device
is described in detail in an article by
Longmire (Ref. 1).
Sophisticated codes are
used to calculate the field levels for HEMP
and these calculations agree well with experimental data.
The incident HEMP waveform depends on a
number of factors including: height of burst,
device type, atmospheric conditions, and distance from the explosion. To avoid this complexity during the system design process a
guideline waveshape is used. A waveform presented in reference 1 is:

E(t) =

-tbf

Eo(e

-e

--)

u(t)

(1)

where
E. = 60 kV/m

(saturation field)

250 ns is the fall time

,rf =
7 = 2 ns is the rise time constant
r
and u(t) is unit step function.
In this comparison of HEMP and lightning,
HEMP will treated as an incident plane wave
with the waveform described by Equation 1.
With this waveform, the peak amplitude is the
predicted saturation value of 60 kV/m.

- 176

Lightning Environment
In this report, the current, that is the
electromagnetic environment for direct and
nearby strikes, is assumed to be produced in a
return stroke because it typically has the
largest currents and rates of rise. Detailed
descriptions of the sequence of events in a
lightning discharge and relevant definitions
are contained in Uman (Ref. 3) and Golde
(Ref. 4).
To characterize the lightning environment,
which is the lightning current, three figures
of merit are sufficient to specify the double
The
exponential waveform of Equation (1).
three figures of merit considered here are:
(1)

(2)

(3)

Peak Current
Peak rate of rise of the current
Integral of the pulse

A reciprocal double exponential has these

three figures of merit as parameters, is easy
to work with, and has an analytic Laplace
transform.
Since the detailed theoretical modeling
effort applied to HEMP has not been applied to
lightning, it was necessary to use empirical
techniques to determine the figures of merit
listed above.
All of the available measurements from which estimates of lightning current parameters are derived may be divided
into three classes:
(1)
(2)
(3)

Tower measurements
Measurements on aircraft in flight
Radiated field inference of current

Data from each of these sources were used

to estimate the current in the lightning channel.
This current within the channel establishes the lightning current waveform that
constitutes the threat.
Tower Measurements.
Tower measurements of lightning currents
are made using current sensors installed on
metal towers located where there is normally a
great deal of lightning activity, generally
mountain peaks.
Since the tower is part of
the lightning discharge circuit, the effect of
the tower itself on the measurements must be
considered.
Useful summaries of lightning currents and
rates of rise of the current are given in Uman
(Ref. 3), Golde (Ref. 4), and Garbagnati
(Ref. 5). Of those summaries, only the data
presented by Garbagnati is fast enough to see
characteristic times of 100 ns or less, so
that data will be shown here.
The longer
version of this paper (Ref. 2) contains a more
complete presentation of the data.
The
maximum rate of rise reported is less than
lOI A/s.
Other sets of tower measurements
confirm this data. When corrected for ground
reflection even the maximum rate of rise
observed by Ericsson (Ref. 6) is very near
1011 A/s, as well.
At this time, tower measurements constitute the only low altitude, cloud to ground
lightning current measurements available.

Aircraft Measurements.
Electromagnetic measurements made on an
aircraft in flight represent another useful
data base for determining the electromagnetic
Two recent
environment caused by lightning.
sources provide data on the effects of lightning direct strikes on aircraft.
The peak rate of rise measured on the boom
in front of the F-106B (Ref. 7) is particularly interesting since it has the largest
rate of rise of the current. In spite-of the
low (13.9 kA maximum) peak currents, the peak
rate of rise found by taking a graphical derivative of the current records was 1.3~10~1
A/s. Significantly, the maximum value closely
approximate the 1011 A/s maximum rate of
rise seen in the tower measurements.
Currents Inferred from Field Measurements.
Another method of determining the current
in a discharge is to derive the current from
distant field measurements.
The difficulty
with this method is that the current derived
from the fields is not unique and unfolding
the very complicated early time current evolution of lightning is not a trivial task since
no quantitative model exists for the early
part of the return stroke.
Since the recently published research
using this method suggests very fast rates of
rise in return strokes the methods used will
be more closely examined.
Uman, et al. (Ref. 8) derive the relationship between the electric field and the current in the lightning channel under a restrictive set of assumptions. The initiation point
must be at the ground and the current waveform
must propagate up the channel at uniform velocity and without distortion of the waveshape
as it propagates. It is also assumed that the
fields are entirely in the radiation zone.
Correcting the above modeling to account
for the return stroke currents that initiate
from a point about 100 m from the ground
rather than at the ground reduces the current
and derivative values by a factor of two.
For subsequent strokes there is no initiation region as described here.
However, for
subsequent strokes there is a memory of the
location of the channel.
The breakdown wave
is limited in propagation velocity by the velocity of light rather than the velocity of
propagation for return strokes.
Near the
ground, i.e., at early times the appropriate
velocity for the Uman model is that of light.
Corrections for the data reported in reference
9, which shows the distribution of the derived
rates of rise from the fields, brings the data
from the fields into much closer agreement
with the data reported from tower measurements.
During the initial stages of a return
stroke, the return stroke channel radius is
small; consequently the channel is simultaneously
resistive and
inductive
(Ref. 2).
Detailed numerical simulation of the evolution
of the channel indicate that the channel diameter is less than about 2 mm. The impedance of
the channel for high frequency of the initial

- 177

channel does not allow current waveforms with

high rates of rise to propagate without distortion along the channel, thus violating the
A
assumptions of the Uman model (Ref. 2).
model consistent with this small channel at
early time is that of a local current source
rather than a propagating wave.
A final item to consider in deriving currents from electromagnetic fields of lightning
is the possible branched configuration near
the ground. A conceptual picture is shown in
Fig. 1 which is supported by photographic eviThe effect of this branched
dence (Ref. 2).
configuration is that currents derived from
the fields of lightning, at early times, are
potentially a factor of two to three too
high.

21, About 20 US
After Closure

32

F5

maximum current of IO kA. It should be noted

that the lower current results in a larger
frequency content above a few MHz.

15v1

12
t
2
E
2

I)-

ar
>
.I4J
ld
>

6-

.r
b
0

3-

0.
-20

20

40

60

80

Time (US)
Fig. 2.

Time derivative of current

described by Equation '2.

Possible branched configuration

showing closure region where the
transition from leader to return
strokes occurs.

Fig. 1.

Summary of the Lightning Threat.

A
review of
the
available
data
lightning suggests a particular waveform fOonr
the lightning return stroke current.
The
waveform is similar to Equation (1) for the
HEMP fields but has different
parameter
values. We conclude the lightning current
should be represented by:

I(t)
where

kIpk

-(t-t&,
e

+e

(t-t@f

(2)

k is 1.025 and I

= 100 kA
pk
Tr is the rise time constant = 2.5
x 10m7, chosen to give a maxmum
rate of rise lOI1 A/s
at t = t0
= 50 ps is the fall time constant
Tf
to is an offset time
Figure 2 is a plot of the current described by
Equation 2.
Fig, 3 shows the corresponding
frequency spectrum for the waveform described
in Equation 2.
Based on an examination of
available data, there is a severe threat
described by Equation 2 with a maximum rate of
rise of 1011 A/s and a maximum current of
100 kA.
Also an expected threat should be
represented by the same rate of rise but a

Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 3.

Frequency spectrum of current from

a Fourier transform of Equation 2.
III.

INTERACTION

In addition to the differences in the

electromagnetic
environments
produced
by
lightning and HEMP, these two threats differ
in the way they interact with an aircraft.
This section describes both qualitatively and
quantitatively,
using
simple
analytical
models, the interaction of lightning and HEMP
with aircraft.

- 178

Physics Of Interaction of Lightning and HEMP

With Aircraft
Direct Strike Lightning.
While understanding of the physics of
interaction of direct strike lightning with
aircraft is still in its early stages, a qualitative description of the interaction may be
When an aircraft enters a thundergiven.
storm, it is under the influence of an eleCtric field which by polarizing the aircraft
induces image changes and causes currents to
If a leader
flow on the aircraft's skin.
streamer approaches the aircraft, those fields
become much larger, particularly around sharp
As the
corners and edges near the streamer.
local fields approach a level of about 3 MV/m
the air begins to break down in the field
enhanced region or forms a corona. This coron a exhibits non-linear characteristics which
complicate the electromagnetic behavior of the
aircraft under the influence of the nearby
streamer.
As the leader attaches to the aircraft,
coronal activity increases and a channel
forms. As current flows through the channel,
the air gets hotter and the number of active
physical processes increases dramatically,
Hydrodynamic expansion, radiative transfer,
thermal conduction, joule heating, and field
emission from the metal surfaces all play a
part in developing the channel that in turn
forms the current carrier of the lightning
direct strike.
The system of clouds, channel, and aircraft should by viewed as an electrical circuit. Initially, because the channel is cool
and narrow, it is both resistive and inductive; consequently it limits both the current
and its rate of rise. As the lightning channel forms and as the return stroke current
flows, the channel becomes hotter and larger
in diameter. These increases, in turn, diminish the resistance and inductance of the channel, allowing more current to flow more rapidly.
Free Field Interaction.
HEMP and nearby lightning both interact
with aircraft as a superposition of plane
waves.
When the electromagnetic wave interacts with the aircraft, it induces currents
and charges on the aircraft as if the aircraft
were an antenna.
While non-linear behavior
near sharp points and edges may occur in free
field interaction, the effects are not as dominant as they are in the direct strike case
since the coupling is not as efficient and
there is not the direct charge transfer that
exists in the direct strike case.
The incident fields penetrate in the aircraft through apertures and along system
cables entering the electrical enclosures of
the fuselage.
Internal system cables may be excited by
several apertures.
For HEMP excitation, the
cable drive from these various apertures will
in general be in-phase, such that the various
drives from the apertures reinforce.
This
inphase drive is in contrast to the aperture

drive from direct strike lighting where the

phase of the aperture excitation depends Of
the velocity of propagation of the direct
strike along the aircraft.
Basis For The Comparison.
Comparison of the effects of HEMP and
lightning on aircraft requires that a point in
the interaction process be chosen such that
That is,
like quantities must be compared.
incident fields compared with incident fields
and surface currents compared with surface
currents. In addition, the comparison should
take place as close to the outside of the aircraft as possible to make the comparison as
simple as possible.
Both the surface magnetic field and electric fields should be compared since they
drive apertures with approximately equal efficiency and the surface charge is a more
effective driver for lightning.
There are a number of simple interaction
models that may be used for the comparison for
simple geometric shapes that may be used to
represent some of the important features of
aircraft.
The ones used here are shown in
Table 1 and described in more detail in Ref.
2.
TABLE 1.

INTERACTION MODELS TO BE PRESENTED.

Medium
Slab
Continuity
Ellipsoid

Sassman
T-Line
T-Line

In this table, low frequency means subresonant or below about 1 MHz.

Medium frequency means in the resonant or l-10 MHz
region.
Finally, high frequencies are those
for which aircraft structural' details become
important, or above 10 MHz.
IV.

COMPARISON

In this section the actual comparisons

will be presented along with the effect of the
corona on the natural frequencies of the aircraft by the surrounding corona and attached
streamer.
Natural Frequencies and Evidence for
Corona.
In investigations of the F-106B data
(Ref. 10) Trost and Turner have extracted the
natural frequencies of the currents on the
F-106 and models of it in configurations representative
of
both
nearby
and
direct
strikes.
Attachment of wires and the direct

179

strike data show natural frequencies with much

higher loss components than those of the bare
aircraft described in more detail in Ref. 2.
The importance of this shift in natural
frequencies may be seen by examining the
curves in Fig. 4. This figure shows a hypothetical transfer function from one exterior
environment to an interior system. Two possible exterior environments are superimposed on
the transfer function. The threat to the SYStern is found by multiplying the transfer funcFor example,
tion by the threat environment.
suppose environment A is HEMP and environment
Because environment A has
B is lightning.
peaks at the same frequencies as the transfer
function, and environment B has peaks at the
minima of the the transfer function, environment A results in far higher currents at the
For the choice of environinterior system.
ments given above, HEMP would be the dominant
The opposite conclusion, however,
threat.
would be drawn if environment A were lightning
and environment B, HEMP.
Since the a priori
knowledge of the identity of the environment
is not available the result is a region of
uncertainty in the l-10
MHz region when the
two threats are compared.
-Transfer
Function from
Exterior to Interior Circuit
........ Exterior Environment A
---Exterior

Environment B

32

Fig. 5, it is clear that lightning dominates

at low frequencies and HEMP dominates at high
At intermediate frequencies
frequencies.
there is a region of uncertainty.

100 kA Lightning

\/-

Lightning

/HEMP

Fig. 5.

Spectrum of H for two waveforms for

direct strike lightning and for
HEMP.
The uncertainty envelopes
show the effect of the resonant
region.

For more complex models, such as transmission line models (see Ref. 2 for details) the
conclusions are the same for both magnetic
field and normal electric fields as shown in
Figs. 6 and 7.

;s;

\.
. .

1..

*.....

. . . .

A.,

. ...
...

-4,.
,

:. .. .

Fig. 4.

<\

,\?.

.
.:..
:..
. .

\\

:.: Y
\

. :

Frequency (MHz)
Transfer function products.

Comparison of Simple Models.

The first comparison of HEMP and lightning
to be presented uses the slab model for HEMP
and the continuity of current model for lightning.
In Fig. 5, the two models are used to
compare the surface magnetic field, on a 1 m
radius cylinder, generated by HEMP and by direct strike lightning. HEMP is calculated from
the incident waveform in Equation (2) with a
peak field of 60 kV/m, as the saturation
field.
The surface magnetic field is then
doubled to account for reflection. Both reasonable worst case and moderate threat lightning waveforms are used in the comparison. In

Frequency (Hz)

..*

--.+

F5

Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 6.

Comparison of magnetic field

intensity H for HEMP and lightning using the more sophisticated models.

V. OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
A comparison of HEMP and lightning is not
complete without considering differences in

the operational environments for aircraft

exposed to these two threats.
Reported statistics indicate that 37 percent of reported lightning strikes result in
some sort of precautionary landing or mission
For lightning mishaps, that occur
abort.
rather infrequently, this level of mission
For
abort causes little operational impact.
HEMP, during wartime, essentially all aircraft
are exposed to HEMP for each high altitude
If each exposure resulted
nuclear explosion.
in a 37 percent mission abort rate, as lightning statistics indicate for lightning (Refs.
11, 12), then almost a third of our bomber
fleet could be wiped out by a single high
altitude nuclear explosion.

-I-

::

.r-

. : .,

1L

R. L. Gardner, et. al., "Comparison of

Published HEMP and Natural Lightning on
the Surface of an Aircraft," Lightning
Phenomenology Note 12, Air Force Weapons
Laboratory, Kirtland Air Force Base, NM,
1984.

3.

Uman, M. A., Lightning, McGraw-Hill, New

York, 1969.

4.

Golde, R. H., "Lightning Currents and

Their Parameters," in Lightning, Vol. I,
Physics of Lightning, R. H. Golde, ed.,
Academic Press, London, 1977.

.,

;;

\\
\1
P :\
,,

:,:

\\

Fig. 7.

5.

Garbagnati, E., et al., "Lightning Parameters--Results of 10 Years of Systematic

Investigation in Italy" in Proceedings of
the International Aerospace Conference on
Lightning and Static Electricity, Oxford,
England, 23-25 March 1982.

6.

Melander, B. G., "Effects of Tower Characteristics on Lightning Arc Measurements," in International Aerospace and
Ground Conference on Lightning and Static
tlectrlclty, June 26-28, 1984 , 0 rlando,
Florida.

7.

Trost, T. F. and F. L. Pitts, "Analysis

of Electromagnetic Fields on an F-106B
Aircraft During Lightning Strikes,"Proceedings of International Aerospace Conference of Lightning and Static Electricity, St. Catherine's College, Oxford,
Eii$%%T, 2325 March 1982.

8.

Uman, M. A., D. K. McLain

and E. P.
Krider, "The Electromagnet/c Radiation
from a Finite Antenna," --Amer. J. Phys.,
2, 33-38, 1975.

9.

Krider, E. P. and E. D, Weidman, "The

Submicrosecond Structure of
Liqhtninq
Radiation Fields," in Proceedings-of the
8th International Aerospace and Ground
Conference on Lightning and Static Electricity, DOT/FAA/CT-83/25, Federal Aviationdministration,
Technical Center,
Atlantic City Airport, NJ.

10.

Turner, C. D. and T. F. Trost, "Laboratory

Modeling
of
Aircraft-Lightning
Interactions, Final Report," NASA Grant,
NAG-l-28.

11.

Rasch, N. O., M. S. Glynn, and J. A.

Plumer, "Lightning Interaction with Commercial Air Carrier Type Aircraft," in
International Aerospace and Ground Conference on Lightning and Static Electricity, June 1984.

12.

Corbin, J. C., "Lightninq Interaction

with Aircraft," in Proceedings of the 8th
International Aerospace Conference
on
Lightning and Static Electricity, DOT/
FAA/CT-83-25,
Conference
Publication.
June 1983.

Frequency (Hz)
Comparison of the surface charge
density for HEMP and lightning.
VI.

CONCLUSIONS

For several methods of comparison of HEMP

and lightning the conclusion is the same.
Lightning dominates at frequencies below about
1 MHz. HEMP dominates above 10 MHz. Finally,
in the region between 1 and 10 MHz the interaction between the two threats and aircraft is
so complex that either threat may dominate.
In addition, the two threats of direct
strike lightning and HEMP interact with aircraft in fundamentally different ways requiring different hardening techniques.
Finally, the operational impact of particular vulnerability levels for lightning and
HEMP have very different effects on aircraft
operations.
In particular, only very low
levels of failure probability may be tolerated
for HEMP since the entire fleet may be exposed
to the threat simultaneously.
REFERENCES
1.

2.

A\\

: : \
: : :

10-l

:
.
.:.
__---_.
.
_--.a!
-<
, *

2
2

180

EMP Interaction Principles: Techniques,

and Reference Data, K. S. H. Lee, editor,
ArFW
Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland Air Force Base, NM, 1980.

181

33~6

NEMP and Lightning Protection Requirements

for Modern Aircraft Equipment
D. Jaeger, R. Rode
Messerschmitt-Bclkow-Blohm
Military Aircraft Division
Ottobrunn, W. Germany

1.

Introduction
The objective of this paper is
not to discuss final requirements
concerning NEMP-hardening and
lightning protection for aircraft
equipment (only first drafts are
available) but to point out the
differences between these requirements. A simple aircraft
coupling model is used to demonstrate the interaction with the
NEMP- and lightning enviroment.
The calculations present an imagination about the interference
signals which might be expected
and allow a comparison of the
different types of threat. Only
cable induced signals are taken
into consideration here. The
result is that important signals
might be induced and that generally ligthning represents the
higher threat. It will almost include NEMP hardening from the
technical point of view if threat
cases with lower probability are
considered, too. The relation between ligthning and NEMP-requirements will become more adverse if
modern a/c materials like Carbon
Fiber Composite are used.

2.

Threat to be considered

2.1 NEMP
The usual NEMP is taken into consideration with an amplitude of
50 KV/m, a rise of about 5 ns
(10% - 90%) and a pulse widts of
about 600 ns (10% - 10%). It can
be expressed by the formula:
E(t)=

52.6.,03&*106t
_,-wwo*t ) ,,,,

The spectrum of the magnetic

field is shown in fig. 1.

2.2 Ligthninq
Two types of lightning strokes
should be considered which differ
in function of time, in amplitude, in area of interaction with
the a/c and in probability of
threat. It is the initial stroke
and the return stroke.
A) Initial stroke:
It enters generally the a/c in
zone I A and leaves in zone
I B. (fig. 2).

The current is running through

the structure. The initial stroke
is characterized by a high amplitude but a low rise. Worst case
values are in the order of 200 KA
with a rise of 2 us. The pulse
width can be about 100 us. This
pulse can be expressed by the
formula:

182

3.

Simple a/c - coupling model

A survey of the NEMP and lightning coupling meachnism down to
equipment level is shown in fig.
4.

The current density spectrum is

presented in fig. 3.

THREAT

AIRCRAFT

While the NEMP interacts with the

a/c via field coupling the lightning stroke eEfects the a/c in
the conductive way. (Near by
lightning is neglected here because it produces generally more
tan 30 dB lower results). The interfaces the a/c presents to the
threat are the antennas and the
structure.
B) Return stroke
It can follow the initial
stroke and may enter the a/c
anywhere in zone II A. It has
a smaller amplitude but a
higher rise than the initial
stroke. The probability is
lower than for the first
stroke. Some worst case levels
are in the order of 100 KA
(amplitude), 0,5 us (rise
time) and about 50 us (width).
The pulse can be expressed by:

The current density spectrum

can be found in fig. 3.
In addition another type of
threat exists. Some years ago
streamers have been detected
by the NASA which have an amplitude of some KA and a rise
of some 10 ns. They might
arise everywhere at the a/c
with or without an initial or
return strike following. Because the spectrum in the
higher frequency range is very
similar to the spectrum of the
return stroke, the streamer is
not considered here.

Because only the cable induced

signals will be considered here
the follwing ways of coupling are
of interest:
- field penetration via structure
material (NEMP only)
- field penetration via apertures
(NEMP and Lightning)
- currents induced outside on the
structure (NEMP and Lightning)
In the last case two types of
currents can be distinguished:
- the pulse itself
- resonant signals which are
exited by the pulse
The currents can be coupled in
via magnetic fields through the
apertures and via current penetration. In the case of a metallic aircraft it can be demonstrated that mainly coupling via
aperatures might be of interest.
The conductive coupling does not
produce a worth mentioning interference signal (fig. 5).

183

33~6

LEMP

4.2

Cable induced signals

The signals depend on the H-field
of the NEMP as well as on the
H-fields produced by the current
densities outside on the
structure (NEMP and lightning).
The following types of signals
might appear at the interfaces of
the equipment (fig. 9):

5.

Discussion of some results

Some results are presented in
fig. 12 and 13 for a cable of 5 m
length for the NEMP and the
initial lightning stroke entering
and leaving the aircraft in zone

the pulse of the threat signal

if the electrical length of the
cable is short compared with
the rise of the pulse (NEMP
only)
the outside structure resonant
signals (NEMP and lightning)
cable resonant signals if the
elctric length of the cable is
long compared with the rise of
the pulse (NEMP and lightning).
The different components can be
calculated by using the
approximation formulas of fig. 10
and 11.

- 184 -

of 0,5 uH/m. An effective area

for the H-fields of 0,3 x O,l m2

is asumed to be typical.
___-________________.-----

4.

Interaction of the aircraft model

with the threat
The signals induced in the cables
depend on the outside H-field
(NEMP) as well as on the H-fields
produced by the current densities
outside on the structure.

-140
102

10

ld

105

106

10'

f/HI

108

F IG.5 : RELATION BETWEEN CURRENT ON STRUCTURE OUTSIOE

AND CABLE INSIDE

Therefore the coupling mechanism

can be simplified to the model of
fig. 6.

IIf
NEM

q
LEMP

It can be realized for a typical

aircraft by fig. 7

4.1 Currents -p
on the structure -_
outside
In the case of a NEMP the pulse
has a very short rise time. Current densities will appear on the
structure outside which correspond to a resonant current of
about 2000A. This can be calculated by using approximation
methods or formulas of the antenna theory. The resonant frequency
will be about 9 MHz in the case
of the cylindre, the signal will
decrease with a Q of about 4,5.
For a real aircraft structure
resonant frequencies up to 5
times higher might be of interest. In the case of the initial
lightning stroke entering and
leaving the aircraft in zone I a
current pulse of 200 KA will flow
along the structure. Although the
pulse is slow compared with the
NEMP it might also cause resonant
effects. A maximum current of
about 300A may appear. It can be
calculated with approximation
methods on the base of fig. 3.
In the case of the return stroke
and the streamer calculations are
more difficult. Similar results
should be expected. The data ob-

-I
I

The aircraft shall be symbolized

by a metallic cylinder with an
aperture. It shall represent a
limited cockpit attennuation, a
lot of slots or an electrically
unsealed access door. There shall
not be a typical resonant frequency of this aperture.
A cable shall run behind this
aperture with a lengths of about
0.1 up to 3 times of the a/c
length. It may have an inductance

tained for the lightning strokes

are first approximations.
There
are indications and some practical results in literature that
resonant frequencies will change
to lower frequencies if an aircraft is hit by a lightning
stroke. A factor of 2 seems to
possible. Although sufficient
data are not available, this effect seems to be predominant for
the large initial stroke, of
smaller interest for the return
stroke and almost neglectible for
streamers which have a similar
spectrum in the upper frequency
range. Some typical functions of
time are presented for the
currents on the structure in fig.
8.

185

33~6

While the ligtning stroke produces very high low frequency

pulses and only small resonant
signals in the case of the NEMP
only the resonant signals exist
but with higher amplitudes. If
other frequency bands (cable
lengths) are considered, too, the
differences will increase (fig.
14).

Modern aircraft get more and more

dependent on electronic equipment. A modern flight control
system for example requires a reliability of maximum 1 fault per
1.000.000 hours. This means effects like lightning are getting
more and more significant and also threat situations have to be
considered with lower probability
than the initial zone I stroke,
that means the return stroke.
This ligthning stroke has a lower
amplitude but a higher rise and
might hit the aircraft anywere in
zone IIA, also close to the open
area which is responsible for the
coupled in signals. If the ligthning stroke hits in 1 m distance
resonant currents like shown in
fig. 15 might appear (additionally the low frequency pulse!).
If the threat case of a hit direct at the open area is considered (lower probability again)
the amplitudes of the resonant
currents might look similar to
fig. 16.

Although the ligthning stroke

produces a very high low frequency pulse the resonant currents can be higher up to some
MHz than the currents caused by
the NEMP if cases with smaller
probability are considered, too.
For frequencies greater than some
MHz the NEMP induced resonant
currents increase but not significantly.

6.

Influence
materials-

of new aircraft

New aircraft are planned to be

built more and more of Carbon
Fiber Composite (CFC) which is an
electrically poor conducting material (about 3000 times less
than aluminium). In this case the
simple coupling model of fig. 6
cannot be used anymore. In addition conducting coupling has to
be considered (fig 5) and in some
cases field penetration from the
outside, too. The effect is that
lightning protection and NEMPhardening problems generally will
grow up but in different scales.
Because the low pass filter characteristic of the structure
ligthning will increase more than
the NEMP-effects.

- 187

34F7

PREDICTION OF LIGHTNING-INDUCED INTERFERENCE VOLTAGES ON THE BASIS OF

MEASUREMENTS TAKEN IN SIMILAR INSTALLATIONS
_
R. Terzer
KWU, Erlangen

P. Kronauer
BBC, Mannheim

F. Pigler
Siemens, Erlangen

Federal Republic of Germany

This paper describes the usual procedure in Germany for predicting the expected lightning-induced interference vOltages,
based
on simulation measurements

be suitable for determining the Voltages

induced by defined design strikes
at specific striking points over given
cable routes.

in existing installations.
2.
1.

Simulation measurements

Definition of the problem

In some installations with high safety

requirements it is often necessary to

Measurement of such induced voltages

with natural lightning strikes is not
economical on account of their rarity;

provide evidence, before construction

begins, that the safety systems are protected from the effects of lightning

even measurements based on triggered

lightning are very involved. With triggered lightning the striking point

strikes. Nuclear power plants, for example, are such installations, The evidence must be presented with such methods that it can be easily reconstructed and accepted by the experts.

could be specified, the problem of conversion to the design strikes would

still exist. In 1974 we therefore attempted for the first time to simulate a lightning strike by capacitor discharge,

With extensive and complex installations, such as nuclear power plants, a

purely mathematical method of determining the electrical stress would be difficult, even with greatly simplified as-

On the basis of the model concept, i.e.

that after a lightning strike the
lightning current propagates progressively, radially and uniformly in the

sumptions, and would be controversial,

environment and discharges the image

To be able to predict with sufficient

charges present there as a result of

the influence, we set up a spiderlike
system of return lines, extending from

reliability the expected electrical

stress in the instrumentation and control system, caused by lightning strikes, the only method which appears possible to us is that of measuring the
induced voltages in similar structures
and applying the results to the structure to be assessed. Such a method must

the striking point, for the first measurements. This system extends for a
sufficient distance over the area to
be examined, so that the current distribution in the structures and earthing system approximates that of a
real lightning strike (Fig. I).

- 188

tes, a Fourier analysis can be used to

some extent for conversion.

Clearly,

such measurements are useful

only if the installation of the external earthing system and of the internal potential equalization system has
been completed, and practically all
the cables have been laid. At this
stage, however, commissioning of the
power plant is already fully in progress and, as a result of operational
currents and of switching operations,,
a considerable level of interference
exists, Simulation of lightning strike

Lightning simulation measure-

at this stage must therefore result in

induced voltages considerably in excess of the operational interference
level, if the results are to be reli-

ment in a nuclear power plant

able. The shielding of the structures,

200m

Fig. 1

148m b

which has been increasingly improved,

Design lightning strikes are defined
for the design of nuclear power plants.
A proposal is given in Table 1. If the
simulation current form corresponds to
that of the design strike, extrapolation becomes simple. If the form devia-

Positive lightning
(in buildings over
IOOm high)

has resulted in attenuation values

which are SO great that the amount of
apparatus required for such a measurement is no longer a practical proposition,

Peak current

kA

Max.rate-of-rise
of current
Rise time

di/dt

kA/ys

15

ps

50

ps

500

i
di/dt

kA

100

kA/ps

100

*I
T2
i
di/dt

ps
ps

5
200

kA

50
200

Decay half-time
Negative first

Peak current

lightning

Max.rate-fo-rise
of current
Rise time
Decay half-time

Negative secondary
lightning

Peak current
Max.rate-of-rise
of current
Rise time
Decay half-time

T1
T2

T1
T2

kA/ps
cls
ps

500

0,25
150

Table 1 Proposed lightning parameters to be used when designing lightning protection for nuclear power stations.

189

34F7

striking point was defined by the ex-

A discussion relating to the safety

concept
for German pressurized-water

pert.

nuclear power plants led to the conclusion that even with all eXter%al
influences, the intact emergency feed
water system maintains the reactor in
a safe condition. Discussions with the

For this reason, we have recently examined only this connecting duct with
the connected structures for the measurements, and arranged the injection

experts then showed that for the light-

point for the surge generator at the

ning protection of a power plant, evidence of reliability must chiefly be

provided for this system.
Measurements taken have shown that most
of the voltages induced in the connections between the reactor building and
the emergency feed water supply buil-

point on the smaller building selected

ding are induced in the connecting duct.

ding and ducts, efforts must be made

On account of the greater current concentration, the induced voltage is

higher when the lightning with the same
lightning characteristics strikes the
smaller building (Fig. 2).

by the expert. The length of this connecting duct is approximately 30 m. To

be able to obtain with sufficient reliability a measurable induced Voltage,
in spite of the usual lightning protection systems installed in the builto achieve a current flow of approximately 1 kA via the duct. With other
types of nuclear power plant, there
are also a number of systems which
are required to maintain the reactor
in a safe condition. Duct lengths
of up to approximately 100 m are
employed in such cases.
already mentioned, the intention
was that the waveform in the simulaAS

tion should approximate that of the

design lightning strike as closely as
possible. The following holds approximately for the wave front with small
supply networks:

Where L is the input inductance of the

circuit,
R is the ohmic input resistance.
In order to obtain an adequate meaFig. 2 Worst-case striking point for
safety system of pressurized water reactors
In German nuclear power plants the sheltering effect to the higher structures
has not been taken into account. Although the likelihood of a strike on
this smaller building is lower, this

surement reaction, spiderlike return

lines were no longer used to return
the current to the surge system in the
latest experiments; instead the current was concentrated on the duct to
be measured by using a ribbon line as
the return line, This ribbon line consisted of 6 wires spaced at about
1

metre and at a height of 5 metres,

which followed the course of the duct,

thus resulting in a uniform field and

current distribution on the Surface of
the earth, over the entire width and
length of the duct. This ribbon return
line exhibits a characteristic impedance which is approximately Constant
Over
the entire length. In order to avoid
oscillations, particularly at the wave
front, the ribbon line has to be terminated with the characteristic impedance. For the last measurement with a
duct length of 100 m, this terminating
resistance was 150 ohms. A voltage of
150 kV is developed across this terminting resistance with a measuring current of 1 kA. For these experiments,
therefore, we used the largest transportable surge generator available to
us? with a charging voltage of 250 kv.
(Fig. 3)

190

During a real lightning strike, the

current is distributed radially in all
directions from the striking point;
only a part of the entire lightning
current flows via the duct in which
the measured connections are

sitUat.ed.

In the simulation measurement with the

ribbon return line, the entire SimUlation current flows via the duct and
some adjacent earthing conductors. TO
be able to extrapolate the results of
the simulation, therefore, that portion of the current must be determined which flows vie the duct in question during a natural lightning strike. Several methods can be used, some
more involved than others, with different physical mode concepts, which
nevertheless provide very similar results for our specific case of a nuclear power plant. Comparative measurements with radial return lines from
the entire perimeter, and a return
line in the form of a ribbon line over
the duct, have confirmed these calculation. The voltages to be expected
the event of a design strike at the
specified striking point are given by:
in

Fig. 3

Lightning simulation with ribbon return cable

Where UK
IK

The following f'iguresshow oscillograms

of the injected surge current, and the

uM

voltage induced in the cable (Fig. 4).

+
143kA

is the portion of design,

lightning current flowing
via the duct,
is the voltage measured dur-

ing simulation,
is
the current flowing via
'Sim
the duct during simulation.
3.

is the expected voltage,

Predicting the induced voltage

for other installations

Mith the simulation measurements, the

---I I+-!,!-+

hh=O.Bps

Injected surge current

Fig. 4

Measured induced voltage

Oszillograms from the lightning

simulation arranged like Fig.3

correctness of the chosen concept can

only be demonstrated on existing installations. A prediction for other
power plants can be made if they are
similar.

implies not
In this context, flsimilarll
only the topographic arrangement of
the structures, but the similarity in
the construction of the buildings in
regard to lightning conductors, similarity of the ducts in regard to the
connection of lightning current-carrying conductors over the length of the
duct and over the isolating gaps, as
well as similarity of the duct connections to the lightning conductors of
the structures. We have established
such a similarity by means of detailed
specifications for erecting the structures (Fig. 5).

191

34F7

relatively small differences in arrangement between power plants built

by ourselves, the error is not great
and is on the safe side, We have SPeCified the lower limit of length LK as
30 m. This corresponds to the length
for some simulation measurements and
is the usual length in the nuclear
power plants currently under construction. In the simulation measurement,
the voltage is measured in a cable
which leads from one structure to the
other via the duct. The voltage is not
only induced in the duct, but also in
both connected buildings. In a conversion proportional to the length, this
influence at the ends is also converted correspondingly and results in too
low values for shorter lengths. In the
case of lengths, which are greater
than the measured lengths, the portion
of the voltage induced in the buildings is also extrapolated proportionally. In practice, therefore, with

Fig. 5

Shielding measures for buildings and connecting ducts

For such a similar power plant, the

portion of current of the design strike flowing via the duct can be determined in the same way as for the extrapolation of the simulation calculation. The expected voltage UK is then
given by:

uK

lK
'MxlSimXrG

LK

Where LK is the length of the duct,

LSim is the length of the duct for
the simulation.

ducts which are both shorter and longer than 30 m the voltage will be
lower than that given by the calculation, which complies with the requirement for evidence of safety in
plants.

power

The upper limit of length LK applies

where a further lengthening does not
result in a voltage increase, For this
we have the following physical model
concept. The change in field strength
during a lightning strike propagates
at the velocity of light C. With a
mainly inductive coupling, the discharge current induces a square-wave
voltage during the linear rise at the
wave front. This induced voltage travels in the cable at the velocity of
propagation V, which is governed by

Here we have assumed that the voltage

is proportionally dependent on the
length of the duct, for a limited area.
This is not quite compatible with the
concept of radial distribution of the
lightning current. However, with the

the dielectric constant of the cable.

Induced current changes and induced

voltage travel at different velocities.
The maximum voltage is reached when
the trailing wave front of the induced
current changes reaches the leading
wave front of the voltage induced at
the striking point. The length Lmax is
given by:

192

carrying capacity for control and instrumentation systems -

SO

limit applies to this case

that this
also.

In our opinion, the method presented

here is the only one capable of providing very reliable predictions relating to the maximum voltages

enCOUn-

tered during the effects of lightning

L
max
Where C
V

= ts

is the velocity of light,

is the velocity of propagation in the cable,
is the virtual duration of

in these important, safety-related circuits. Although the proposed design

strikes contain characteristic values
which, when combined, extend far beyond the strikes observed so far, and
although we are on the safe side with

the wave front.

the specifications presented here for

x:&-!?-$

With E = 4 this results in a length of

75 m for a negative secondary lightning
strike with a virtual duration of the
wave front of 0,25 psec., and a length
of 300 m for a negative initial lightning strike with a virtual duration of
the wave front of 1 psec.
Duct lengths
of 300 m are very rarely employed, so
that the upper limit for duct connections is insignificant. However, this
length can be exceeded by connections
using underground cables - which we
install with a shield with current-

the conversion of the simulation measurement to apply it to a planned installation, a safety factor will be
specified in view of the high safety
requirements for nuclear power plants.
The permissible electrical stress of
the electronic components must be above the voltage stress thus determined
by the amount of this safety factor.
We therefore believe we can state with
certainty that the effects of lightning on the safety systems of nuclear
power plants can be ruled out in the
future, just as in the past,

References
/I/

Pigler, F., Terzer, R.:

Blitzschutz in Kernkraftwerken.
Siemens-Energietechnik
3(1981) No. 10, pp. 336-339

/2/

Neuhaus, H., Pigler, F.:

Blitzkennwerte als Grundlage der
Bemessung von BlitzschutzmaAnahmen etc,
Vol. 103(1982) No. 9, pp. 463-467

IMPULSE

CURRENT

193

AND VOLTAGE

PROPAGATION

TELECOMMUNICATION

H.
Friedrich

List

Schuppler
University
GDR -

1.
Impulse

, D.
of
8010

Introduction

currents
impressed,
for
upon buriod
telecommunicain case
of lightning
tion
cables
discharges
to ground
must be dotermined
with
regard
to the propagation
characteristics
of a linear
buried
metallic
conductor.
up to now impulse
current
propagation
wae determined
by means of the system
response
to a unit
step
[Z].
By application
of the convolution
theorem
or
the Duhamel
integral
the determination
of propagation
conditions
leads
to an
extensive
numerical
integration
on the
basis
of power
series
expansion.
The system
response
to a current,
impact
having
a waveform
of 5/65~s
only
is available
in tabular
form in
the CCITT Manuel
on protection
against
[4 . In order
to
lightning
discharges
1,y lightning
predict
effects
caused
currents
flowing
along
cable
sheaths
the voltage
occuring
between
cable
and the cable
sheath
must be
pairs
calculated.
The usucl
method
of calculation
to do so uses
the sheath
current
as input
parameter.
Therefore,
the difficulties
concerning
the calculation
of the sheath
current
as
mentioned
above
are
encountered
in
calculating,
the pair-to-sheath
voltage,
the dopence
of which
on the distance
from
the lightning
current
intake
location
is of particular
interest.
Gcncrally
two different
caees
are
to
be considered
:
- no breakdown
occured
between
cable
pairs
and cable
sheath
- there
is a breakdown
between
cable
pairs
and cable
sheath
at the
point
of lightning
current
impact.
As rcportod
earlier
[I]
the lightning
current
striking
a cable
sheath
can be
described
approximately
by menns of
exponential
functions.
In moet of the
practical
cases
it
can be given
in a
double
exponential
expression.
In order
to develop
a comprehensive

instanC@,

35~8

IN

UNDERGROUND

CABLES

H.

Ristau,
Transport

Lorke
and

Communications

Dresden

method
of calculation
for
the sheath
current
and the pair-to-sheath
voltage
the impulse
response
of Sunde
[Z] has
been
transformed
into
the Laplace
By application
of the
tabuladomein.
ted complex Batoman function
of the

= w(x+jy)
complex error
function
w(z)
and by observing
the Cauchy/Riemann
differential
equations,
length
and
time dependent
solutions
could be
obtained
as shown as follows.
2.

2.1.

the propagation
Calculatin
of impu !! se current

Current
of time

and
and

voltage
location

as

functions

As shown already
formerly
[ 1 a
impulsive
current
can be descri IYed by
a series
of exponential
functions.
In most of the really
occuring
cases
(on condition
that Th/ T, > 2.65)
it
ie sufficient
to suppose
a double
exponential
expression.
So, as you
know,
we can describe
the lightning
current

i(t)

= I(

ewa- es)

This
function
has got the advantage
of
being easy transformed,
what is
important
for the calculation
of the
pulsed
current
propagation
along a
buried
cable.
For the step response
of a linear
buried
core being known [ 21 , a
solution
should
Duhamel
out
to

of the problem
of propagation
be formed
by means of the
integral.
However,
this
turned
be practically
impossible.

For this
reason
the pulse
propagation
has been calculated
by means of the
Laplaca
transformation.
The method of
;;13;;;ation
function
i_(t)
is as
:
- CaLculation
of the impulse
response
P(s,t)
by the step response
E(s,t)
bY

194

(a)

P(s,tl
-

= Erfc(

ConvoLution
and exitation

of

P(s,t)
- Laplacs
convolution

L(P(s,

(2)

T$E(s,t)

The step response

ding to Sunde

E(s,t)
-

results

(4)
of

(b)

In the case
occuring
at
intake

the

JL {i(t){

(5)

= IR&$

u(s,t)

of no broakdown
the point
of current

-R,C,jl

Determination
of the response
function
by retransformation

= I--- {F(p)}

(6)

By applying
this
method of calculation
to a current
flow according
to
equation
(l),
we get for the current
at any point
of the cable
sheath

i(s,t)
Le

in

=
--

~a[~bhX

,&I

- ~&,&=dj

(7)

which

f3li

series
cable

PII

resistance
circuit

Cl

capacity
circuit

permeability

earth
resistance.
9 - specific
Correspondingly
we can compute the
voltages
between
cable
conductors
and
cable
sheath
[S] :

resistancs
sheath
of
of

of

the

the

tha

sheath-wire

sheath-wire

and

which

(8)

(10)

response

* i (tl

transformation
function

i (s,t)

in

*
(3)

impulse
function

at

accor-

svc)

t 14 it)]
= L(P(s$l)
= F(p)

In the case of a breakdown

the point
of current
intake

2.2.

sm

(32)

Change of waveform
Observing
a lightning
current
of
the waveform
5/65 US , as it is dona
by the authors
of the CCITT handbook
on Protection
against
lightning
discharges
[ 41
results
in current
paths
inside
the cable
sheath
demonatrared
In fig.
I.
Figures
2 and 3 demonstrate
the paths
of the voltagea
between
sheath
and
cable wires.
The change of the waveform
results
in a variation
of the frequency
spectrum,
Figures
4 to 6 illustrate
the translation
to lower
frequencies.

195

35

F8

1.0J

s=Om

0.8

0.Ej-

P++=
1 l?/km

~=I000R m

too
i-3
80

6C

0.4
,-

4c

).
0.;

2(

1
Fig.

t
A&
I

Fig.

: Current

inside
the cable
sheath
at a waveform of the
generating
lightning
current
of 5/65 rs

RH=1 R/km

L--l

s=Om

between sheath
and
: Voltage
wire at a waveform of the
generating
lightning
current
of 5 65 pus, in the case of
breacdown
at the point
of
f
the lightning
stroke

: Frequency
spectra
of a waveform 5/65 rs lightning
current and the cable
sheath
current
generated
by it at
distances
of 100 and 1000 m

:.o

lmax

0.6

0.4

Fig.

between
sheath
and
: Voltage
wire at a waveform of the
generating
lightning
current
of 5/65 E/S, without
any
breakdown
at the point
of
the lightning
stroke

Fiq.

196

2.3.

GE

Waveforms
recommended
by CCITT
For testing
telecommunication
equipment
to be connected
to cables
CCITT
recommends
to epply
impulse
voltages
of a waveform
lo/700
p s [5] .
At figure
2 we can see half-peak
times
of a few 100 ps occuring
along
cables
hundreds
of metres
away from
the point
of the lightning
stroke.
The longer
half-peak
times
at larger
distances
are
connected
to much smaller
amplitudes.
The decrease
of the amplitudes
is demonstrated
at figure
7.

0.11-

300,

I0

k.m
-wave form

0.8

5165pS

VlkL!
2.
0.1

200
i

16

Fig.

: Frequency

spectra
of the
voltages
between
sheath
and
by s wavewires
, generated
form 5/65
ys lightning
curwithout
any breakdown
rent,
at rho point
of the lightning
stroke

100
brcclkdown

without
breakdown

Ic

Fig.

250

560

10b0rll
s_

750

: Amplitude

of the voltage
appearing
in connection
with
the lightning
current
between
wires
and sheath
in relation
to the distance
from
the
lightning
stroke
(waveform
of the lightning
current
5/65
/us)

Figure
3 illustrates
the impulse
voltage
between
wires
end sheath
having
rise
times
of a few 10 ,us in the near
of the point
of the lightning
stroke.
By application
of the method
for
calculating
the propagation
of impulse
voltages
on cables
described
in [l] ,

the analysis
demonstrated
in
paper clearly
shows that
the
for testing
impulse
voltages
supposed b
the recommendation
the CCITT Y 51 has been fixed
it

imitates

divices
Fig.

: Frequency

spectra
of the
voltages
between
sheath
and
generated
by a wavewires,
form 5/65 ys
lightning
cur-

rent,

in

down at
lighrning

the

case

rho point
stroke

of

break-

of

the

realistic

connected

conditions

to

cables.

this
waveform
10/700 t~s
I<17 of
well,

for

for

3.

Critical
of the

197

35

T,

appreciation
results

The illustrated
above
results
are
based
upon the assumption
the lightning
current
having
a waveform
of
the method
of calcu5/65
p s . However,
letion
used
and the computer
programs
applied
for determining
the volues
of
the diagrams
permit
on the other
hand
any other
waveform
to take
as a basis
which
may bo outlined
by a double
exponential
expression
(cf.
equation
(1)
). As a matter
of principle,
the
method
of calculation
is applicable
to
any wavef 0 rm .
There
is some reason
to give
a hint
60 [6]
which
at the IEC - Publication
defines
the waveform
by giving
parameters
on the virtual
front
time
and
the virtual
time
to half
value.
For practical
calculations,
the CCITT
Manual
on protection
against
lightning
discharges
[4]
defines
the waveform
stating
the parameters
true
front
time
and the
true
time
to half
value.
In this
contribution
the point
of view
of the CCITT
Manual
was applied.
That
is the
reason
why the waveform
of
5/65
/JS usod in this
papor
slightly
deviates
from a waveform
of 5/65
ps
of
the lightning
current
according
to
IEC.
Figure
8 illustrates
the
difference
which,
however,
turns
out
consideto be insignificant
to our
ration.

virtual

front

Tz

virtual

time

T,

true

front

T/-,

true

time

4.

Computer

BLITZ
3
Calculation
current

value

available

(Lightning
of the

3)
lightning

References

Beyer,D.;
Lorke,
H.;
Schfppler,
H.:
Calculation
of lightning
effects
on communication
cables.
5th Wroclaw
Symposium
on EMC, 1980
in
Toronto,

Beyer,
D.;
Gotre,
S.;
Schtippler,H.:
Blitzstromausbreitung
und resultierende
StoBspannungen
auf
unterirdisch
gelegten
Fernmeldekabeln.
Fernmeldetechnik
22(1982)5

[41

CCITT
:
Protection
of telecommunication
lines
and equipment
against
lightning
discharges.
Geneva,
1974

151

CCITT
:
Yellow
Book,
Vol.
IX,
against
interference,
dation
of the I< series.
Geneva,
1981

: Defination

programs

E. D.:
Earth
conduction
effects
transmission
systems.
Norstrand
camp.
New York,
London,
1949

half

BLITZ
4
(Lightning
4)
Calculation
of the wires-to-sheath
voltage
at the point
of the
lightning
stroke

t
i

Fig.

to

BLITZ
2
(Lightning
2)
Calculation
of the wires-to-sheath
impulse
voltage
under
the
condition
of a breakdown
at the
point
of the lightning
stroke

0.Y

TM

value

time

[21 Sunde,

half

BLITZ
2
(Lightning
1)
Calculation
of the sheath
impulse
current
and the wire-to-sheath
impulse
voltage
without
breakdown
;;,;k;
point
of the lightning

[il

0.5

time
to

By application
of an algorithm
for
calculating
the complex
error
function
by Gautschi
are
found
out
the
following
computer
programs
by means
of which
we obtained
the values
of
before:
the diagrams

* 5.

F8

[61

1%
Publication
60-2
High
voltage
test
techniques,
2: Test
procedures.
Geneva,
1978

[71

Gautschi,
W, :
Algorithmus
363
functions.
CACM 12( 1969)

of
time
used
for
impulse
current

the parameter
describing
an

Protection
Recommen-

complex

Part

error

199

36

Gl

THE HAZARD OF EIJ!XTROMAGNETIC

RADIATION AND DISCUSSION OF SAFETY THRESHOLDS

Q. Chen
R.C. Husng
B.C. Pan
China Aviation Research Institute for Standardization
Beijing, China

It is also difficult to unify a

quanti-

This paper presents fIInOtd.Ond rdatiOnS

Of
electromagneticradiation pouer density (PD)
wwsus
LD~ of animals and ED50 by means of
analyslng experimental data on the effect8

0.

caused by the change in intensity of electromagnetic radiation within UHF band to

animals. The Hazard of micro electromagnetic

d. The measurement error of the electromagnetic wave is large,when the measurement

radiation on personnel is analysed by means of

safety
large amount of statistics and the
threshold for hazard of micro-wave to human
body is also discussed.
General
It is well known that the electromagnetic
radiation is harmful to living things. Upon
this conclusionmany countrieshave established
their own safety standards.Expertsadmit that
the harmful effect on living things related to

tative thresholdlevel, because differences exist betueen the individualsof living things.

is taken in cell shielded by metal nets

or plates, its reproducibility is poor.
Based on data of PD-LDg,@dpD-Elf;0
eeent
endregression
equaticnderivmd
Mm

thesedata,this

paper specifies the lower limit of PD, and presents acceptable safety threshold,in which a
safety factor of 20 dB is considered.
PD-LDw experimentand test results
Block diagram of the test set-up

the amount of electromagneticpower absorbed,

exposure time, wave length, wave form and polarization mode of radiation,though they hold
different views on how the electromagneticradiation can be harmful to living things.
Up to now the safety values specifiedin
the standards established by many nations are
not uniform, some exceeds the other by one
thousand times. Therefore this question is
worth studying.The technloal reasions for the
large difference are as the following:
a. The limit values of the safety boundary
are generally wide, because they are calculated according to the heating effect
of electromagnetic radiation and the
balance of human body heat exchange.
b. The values are somewhat strict, nhen the
radiation threshold level uhioh may
cause human body with functionaltrouble
serves as the safety bounaary. It is
also difficult to unify the criteria of
the functional trouble of human body and
therefore the thresholdlevel.

fl8

Block Diagram of Tast Sd~up

Data of test
Test frequency2pulse wave (PW) 3 CHz, oontinuous wave (CW) 2480 MHz
Test waveform: pulse wave (TElO)
pulse width
z = 1.6,~s
cycling period T = 2500,~s
peak power output 300 KW
Test sample: For PW, 250 rats of whioh one
half is male, one half famsle.
weight: 20&3Og;
For CW, 96 rata, taking double
standard error (0.3OC) in anal
temperatures of 30

sound and

adult rats as deoision criterion of EDw.

Test results
The test results are shown in table 1.
DRtA sheet

Tab10
1
PoYer

NlTbfJr

nu/cn2
---

Hve

PD-uJw

test

Acoumulated
number

I---

density

of

dea

alive dead total

176

27

2117

20

13.1

39oC to 43'C; The anal temperaturesof the dead

ranged from 39.5OC to 48Oc. The difference between the two was significant.
The dead animals had blood statis, bleed.and
edema in lungs, and bleed at endocardiumand
epicardium,and digestive tract, and blood
statis in meninges.
The testis of the alive animals had apparent
pathological changes,withnicrosis of genital
ephitheliumoccured and seminiferoustubule damaged. Empty bubble can be observed in conical
cells,afterNile body of cerebrum was stained.
PD-ED~

experimentand test results

Experimentation
Test frequency and wave form: same as those
for PD-LD~o test
Test sample: 84 sound rats. The male and
famale one half each. weight: lx)-3oOg
First were the average ana.3.temperatureof
rats under normal condition taken and double
standard error computed:

10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.5
total
7.5
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
tokl

Effective anal temperaturemeasured after test

To- Anal temperaturebefore test
Decision criteria are:
It is effective that anal temperatureis
equal or higher than T after radiated by microwave, and ineffectgvethat temperatureis
lower than To.

where

50

0.00 0.04ca

5.5

16.67 O.OQTI,

6.0

46.67 0.0166

6.5

88.24 0.0062

7.0

IOO.ca o.cab,

total

0.0705

3.0

4.34 O.M118

3.25

27.78 0.0112

3.75

61.11 0.0132

4.0

85.71 0.0058

4.5

c0.w

tutal

6 *o o ',2

3 -5 o *og

o.wOO
0.0319
24.1 0.17
5.9 0.09

The behavior and morbid state of animals under

test

T -

Test results
No appreciablechange in behavior of the
animals was found,noneof them died throughout
the test.Theirweight, blood picture (leucocytes, thrombocytes)did not change.A few ofthem
had light blood statis in lung and intestine.
Test data are shown in table 3.
Tsblc

Data ohect of

PD-ED5ott?nt
s

I:D5()

When the animals exposed to the radiation

0.ftest intensity, at the beginning their actions of face-washing increased, then they
were agitated and were short of breath, sweating at the 'bellies,four limbs became hectic,
finelly they moved restlessly and violently,
struggledand fel3.down in a tic and spasm,and
died.
The weight of all the animals after test
differed from that before test. Heating effect
was apparent.Thedecreasingrate of weight related to the power density. The higher the radiating power, the faster the decreasing rate
of the weight.(SeeTable 2)
Table 2

Vartst,on of velght under oxposur* Of different

povcr density

POWW
density

Exposure
time

Mean value of
weight drop

DeCrelLSillg
rate of weight

aYJe.?

(Inin)

(9)

(R/m)

17.'

22

6.2

0.28

1.8

0.40
0.30--I

173.7
120."

4.5
7

2.1

The temperaturebefore and after testvaried.

For example, the temperatures taken in anus
erase on an average by 4.4oc.The anal temperatures of the existing alive animals ranged &m

(min)
3.9

0.10

8.0

0.11

10.3

0.14

(1.
5

15.2

0.14

0.05

20.1

0.14

PU

0.0?5

CW

(min)

14
1.4

---_

9.2
20.1
_--

O.Oq
0.10

-I

Approximateregressionequation of PD.-LD%
Assumption
a. When PD is small enough and a specified
value, animal and personnel will be safe
under radiation of a long period.
b. Only the effects of electromagneticenergy and exposure time shall be consid
ered without regard to other factors.
c. The safety threshold for the animal and
personnel shall be proximately the same,
comform to the L.O. Hoeft model theory
when they are radiated for a long time.

201

The regressionequation of PbLD50

If the functional relation of the test data
is:
.. . 1
y;ae+
(a>0 1
y - Power density (PD), in mW/cm2
where
x - Exposure time, in min

36

Return formula 2 to 1:
B=blge
A=lga
a=IOA=l2.34418793

*=

Assuming that:

10.416

1.12.34418 eX

.. 6

The formula 6 describes approximately the

functionalcorrelationbetween PD-LD50.

Y=lgy

Estimationof the interval of test data

Therefore:
Y=Lga+bI.g
X
Assuming that:
A=lga
B=blge
Therefore
y=AtBX
Where
B=

10.41633733

ii:

y=ae

x= -+

Gl

$(X;-X)(yi-y)

gxi- X,

a. Residual standard error

=0.20164
... 2
2s=O.403295
... 3

A=f?-_Bx
The formula 2 is linear regressionequation.
The parametersin formula 3,4 are given in
tabI. 4,

b. The regressive straight Line in interval.

with reliabilityof 95.6%
Upper limit line y"=AtBXt2S
=1.4947574+4.5237578x
Lower limit line yl=AtBX-2S
=0.6881674t4.5237578X
The regressive straight line in interval
with reliabilityof 68.3%
Upper limit line y"=AtBXtS
=1.2931024+4.5237578X
Lower limit line y'=AtBX-S
=0.8898224t4.5237578x
The! regression equation of PGED5C and its
linear correlationcheck
Assuming that the fuctional relation between
the test data is

With the equations solved,

B=4.523'757816
A=1.091462425
Therefore formula 2 becomes
Y=1.091462425+4.523757816
x

y=aebX
(a>C)
where
Y_- Power density, in mW/cm2
x-- exposure time, kn min
Assumfng that
x=x
Y=lgy
therefore yd.gatblgeX=AtBX
where
A=lga
B=blge
With the formula 8 solved

... 7

... 8

... 5

Check of the linear correlation

significanceof
the regression equation
Significancecheck shall be done to determine whether it has been correctly equated.

f(Xi-Z,(Yi-7)
;='N
&(X-R)

= -22.3490628

= - 0.140471796
159.1
A= Y-BX = 1.63480769
a= 1OA = 43.1328042
b=B
= -0.323448264
Ige

_-.
__
=- 0153284566
0.027629/50
=0.?22/77673
When the confidencelevel o( = 0.05

y=aebx=43.1328042e~0.323448264X ... 9
The formula 9 describes approximately the
functional correlationof PD-ED50.
Linear correlationcheck:

I-critical=0.878
Y>'Tcritical
Formula 5 is meaningful,Y and X are linear
correlatedwith a reliabilityof 95%

y=

+(xi-R.KY-P)
J$tXi-%$
&(Yi-yY
x -22.3490628 = - 0.979835
22.8090

202 -

level

when confidence

Ycritical

D<= 0.05

= 0.878

IYl B r critical
Therefore formula 8 is lfnear
Estimation of interval:

= +

correlative,

=: 0.12288

ZS= 0.24576
The regressive straight line
in interval
with reI.iabiI.ity of 95.6%
Upper limit
yw=A+BX+2S=1.88056769+0.140471796X
Lower limit
y=A+Bx-2S=1.38904769+0.140471796x
The regressive straight line in interval
with reliability
of 68.3%:
Upper limit
y=A+BX+%=1.757~769+0.140471796x
Lower limit
y=A+BX-S=1.51192769t0.14047179611
DiSCUSSiOn
1. Prom formula 6 and Pig. 6.1 we know that
a, when x-+00 . Coefficent
a characterizes
Y
the minimumthreshold of LD * 8 PD. According
to the safety exposure mode;io developed by L.D.
Hoeft,the safety threshold for animal and that
for personnel are about the 8ame, provided the
exposure time lasts Long enough. Therefore the
value of a i8 the approximate safety thre8hoI.d
for personnel.

Fig. 6.1
2. In consideration of safety, however, internationally
20 dB 8re added a8 safety aLlouance. With the difference
between animal and
human being and measurement error considered
and a safety allowance of 20 dB inaluded, the
standard threshold level
may be specified as:
awnit

I &

10

That is to Say,
shaIl not be

iation
RM/C&

1.23 (mW/cm2>

the maximum amount of rab

aIlowed tc exceed 1.23

3. The characteristic
of PI)-LD
varies
the form of a exponenti& funat 10
on,
When
radiated at level. a and taken 20 dB safety factor into aoount the exposure time must be shorcomputed
tened. the correspending time can be
from formula I (see Mg. 6.1) .
Exposure time including 20 dB safety factor:
in

X &j=s

= 4.52 (min)

i.e. exposure time shall. not exceed 4.52 minutes, when radiated at 1.23 mW/cm2.
4. We can know from PD-LD% test and formula
9 that ED was too long to measure, when PD
i8 less t ? an O.O25mW/cm2. It can be seen that
the safety threshold of radiating power density
shall be 0.025 mW/cm2or less,if
the anal temperature was taken a8 dicision
criteria.
5. The results of PD-LD50 and PD-ED0 test8
indicate that LD5 end ED5 for the p se wave
are one time shor ? er than 8 hose for the
J continuous wave with similar poner density. The Hazard of the pulse wave is much severer than
that of continuous wave.
Patholog%e statistical

ena.I-ysis of the

microwave radiation

hazard

General
The large amount of statistic
analyses on
pathological. state of PsrsonneIs who are exposing to microwave
fox a long period are meet
important for
analysing the exisiting
hazard
of microwave on buman body. Such analyses
are
very difficult
and must be done carefully.
The total. study cases are 423, 179 thereof
sre male worker8 in field of pulse wave,having
a working time of 3 years or more.244 are workers in contact with continuous wave, in which
male wrkers account for 60%, having a working
time of 9 years or more. The working frequency
ranges involved in statistic8
are 2-9 GRz and
140-160 MHz, the power density around the working area is under1QO~W/cm2.
The control. group consists of 189 persomels
who are not exposing to microwave but they are
similar to the uorkers above in respect of wcp
king condition,
age and sex. The control group
for the pu.ISe wave consists of 109 cases,
the
control group for the continious wave consists
of 80 cases.
The items of stati.stc8 incIude the nervous
system,
cardiovascular
system, digestive
system, crystrilline
lens,
end hematological
examination, Details are described below:
The history of exposure to mfcrovave and
chief complaints.
Reart, lung, liver,
spleen.
Rest sitting position blood pressures taken
on the left and right arms.
Etlectro-encephalogram
(BEG): In rest
sitting position and eyes being closed, the time
occupied by the frequencies of each
vertexoccipito
bi-lead wave of left side and integrated value of amplitude of each wave were recorded by both of B-lead electro-cerebrograph
and magnetic recorder. The frequency spectrum
of electro-cerebrogxam
was anslyaed by computer,
CIinicaI electro-cardiogram
(ECG);To record
rest-sitting
position IZ-lead electro-cardiogram*
Electra-cardiogram
of high rate:
Record
12Lead cIinicaI,
electro-cardiogram
at high
rate with a magnetic recorder, then play back
at low rate to observe the number of high frequency spike of QRS complex wave on the alectro-card%ogr%Dl.
R-R interval record:Connecting
cardiotachometer to teletype tc record the intervals between heart beats.It was recorded for 3 minutes
each in squating and erect position.
The heart
rate variability
Was tlnalysed by computer.
CryataIIine lens checkt After rapid mydriasis
by 2.5% neophrine, the opacity of crystalline

36~1

- 203 -

lcms of two eyes was checked up with split-lamp.

me cases of congenital,traumatic and aged
lenticularopaaity was excluded.
Routine complete blood count: bloodplatelet,

white blood cell, red blood cell, end hemoglobin.

The results
statistical

The results of

analyses of

path&&$!d.

examination are shown in table 5

through table 13. In these tables pulse wave
continnouswave as
is referred to as PW;
cw; coefficient of significance as P;
&nifi.caJjce difference as N.S.

No

.._Il.

...i .._..

___J L__

Table 11
Tnbl.

oh.

chid

co.pl.int

of

dlesntivo

Incidence

of

Imtic~rlar

opacity

system

Note:
C-1 -

lsnu of both eyes ure transpnrent and clear.

(+) -

There are D fen point shsged opncitlsa at equator

of posterior capsule of one LMS.

(+I -

There ar. a feu palnt4bap.d

both ay.8.

Table 12

Table 8

Duration and amplitude of Q vaw of

Hean integratedvalue

EM:
P

of Q "a"e

_---Study
plFQUP
control
W'UP

15.44

I'Y -__

::t"dy
CY -group
'antml
Rmilp

co.05

16.67
15.45
15.81

N.!:

The

changea of

Plat*lstaount

opaoitis1 in lens of

hnqru

UBC count

204

shows that the characteristic

value of autocorrelation function and average heart rate incree
sed slightly.It
is evident that the pulse wave,
as aenviromental load, caused the characterisIncidence
opacity

or

of

,
number

spiks

of iIF

Inoidmaa

IIlorum

of

P< 0.05

PCO.M)l

rtrtAg0

NNO

P<O.ool

P< 0.001

tlrart nt*

lf

oount

iato
inonua

hurt

Q.0 value to increase.

P-z O.M)l

PC 0.05

lolls

PC 0.05

N.S
I

P< 0.01

N.9

N.S

PC 0.01

N.9

Analyses

Table 5,6,
Ueurasthevia
cardiovascular

and 7 show that the incidence

of

syndromeland chief complaint of

snd digestive
system in study

group are higher

than those of the
group and the significance
difference

control
exists,
PW group is

In particular
the incidence in
R-15$ higher.
Table 8 indicates that the average integra-

ted value of duration and amplitude of Q wave

trends to decrease, compared with the control
group. But in PW group there is still
the
singifia~ce
difference
(P< 0.05).
Table 9 indicates
that the incidence
uill
be of value to the statistical
snalysis
conducted in accordance
with normal value of
blood pressure,
only vhen diastolic
pressure
is lower than or equal to 60 mmHg. Incidence
in PW group is 10.7% higher
than that of the
control. group and the signifioance
difference
exists

(P~;0.05);

electro-oardiogram
microuave are
control

The
of

spike
the

much greater

numbers of
group

dealing

HF
in

than that of the

group and the significance

difference

exists
(P-c 0.001).
Statistic
enalysis shows
that there is no significance
differenae
in
clinical
eleatrocardiogram.
Table 10 indicates 3 charaatenistics
which
were obtained by recording R-R interval value
autocorrelation
(in ms) of 370 cases and by
function processing with computer. This table

Table 11 indicates
that incidence
of tt
degree opacity in the study group was much
higher than that of the control
group. There
were 9 cases of t+t degree opacity,rtll
of which
were result of working under microwave for a
long period (over 10 years).
Thble 12 indicates
that the average smount
of bloodplatelet
of the study group was less
than that of the control
group and showed
a significant
difference
(PC 0.001) .The amount
of WBCof study group was slightly
greater than
that of control group. There was no significant
difference
in WBC count between the CWgroup
The statistical
analyses
end control group.
showed no significant
difference.
To sum up, we could make the following
observations t
a. All phy&.ologicaI. parameters, except for
had significant
difindividual
cases,
between study group and control
ference
group. Electromagnetic radiation
exerts
an imperceptible
hazard on the human
being (see table 13).
of al1 the
b. According to the statistics
pathological
parameters the harmfulness
oaused by eI.ectromagnetic effect
on PW
group is more serious than that on CW
group, that is to say, the harmfulness
caused by pulse wave to human body is
more serious than by continuous
wave.
When determining safety
threshold,
as
a approximate engineering
treatment the
pulse wave may be used instead of the
continuous wave.
finding
C. The incidence of pathological
(e.g. the fncidenoe of opacity of lens)
relates directly
to the intensity and exposure time of radiation.
The higher the
microwave intensity
and the longer the
uorking period, the higher the incidence
of pathological.
finding
and the more
serious the degree of pathological. &anges. The hazard of microwave with a ILOU
intensity of radiation is a alight, continuous and gradual. harm to the
human
body*
References
Lo.
Roeft:
Microwave
hetingt a study of
1.
the critical
exposure variables for
man
and experiment& animfds. Aerospace Med
36x621,

1965.

2, H.Reering:
uave

Biological
effects of microradiation N7l-23048, 1971. Il.

3. Dumanskij J.D.

et al: Biologic effcts and

health hazards of microwavs radiation,
Wars&r, 1973.

205

37~2

INFLUENCE OF STATIONARY MAGNETIC FIELDS ON IONIC CONDUCTION PROCESSES

IN BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
-

___-__--p
T.S. Tenforde, C.T. Gaffey and M.S. Raybourn
Biology and Medicine Division
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
University of California
Berkeley, California 94720

The Lorentz force exerted on moving

electrolytes leads to interactions between an
applied stationary magnetic field and the
electrical conduction processes that occur as
part of several important biological functions, including blood circulation, nerve
impulse propagation, and visual phototransduction. Sensitive electrical recording techniques have been used in our laboratory to
detect alterations in the properties of these
biological systems during the application of
stationary magnetic fields up to 2 T (1 Tesla
= lo4 Gauss). The principal results of these
studies, and the correlation between experimental observations and theoretical predictions, are described in this paper.
Introduction
Many important biological functions involve
ionic conduction currents that are potentially
sensitive to electrodynamic interactions with
stationary magnetic fields.
A theoretical
analysis of these interactions can, in many
cases, be given in terms of the Lorentz force
exerted on moving electrol tes. A complete
description of the force, < expecienced by a
charge, q, moving with veloiity, v, is given
by the Lorentz equation:

t = q cl?+ (v'x $,I

(1)

In eqn. (1) ? and 5 are, respectively, the

electric field+integsity and magnetic flux
density, and (v x B) is a vector crossproduct. Application of the Lorentz force law
to ionic conduction processes such as the bulk
flow of blood and the propagation of nerve
impulses leads to simple models of magnetic
field interactions that can be tested
experimentally.
In this paper, a description
will be given of laboratory studies on
magnetic field effects on ionic conduction
processes in the circulatory system, the
bioelectric properties of isolated neurons,
and the electrical response of retinal cells
to photic stimulation.
Experimental data
acquired in these studies will be analyzed in
the context of predictive models based on the
Lorentz force interaction of an applied magnetic field with ionic currents.

Cardiovascular System

It is a direct consequence of eqn. (1) that

an electrically conductive fluid undergoing
laminar flow through an electrically insulated
tube of diameter, d, in the presence of a
magnetic field will develop a potential, $,
given by the equation Cl]:

In eqn. (2) I;] and @I are, respectively, the

magnitudes of the mean axial flow velocity and
the magn$tic flux density, and 8 is the angle
between v and B. This equation was originally
shown by Kolin [;I]to describe the interaction
of blood flow with an applied magnetic field,
and it forms the theoretical basis for analyzing
the rate of blood flow using an
electromagnetic flow meter [3]. Subsequently,
Beischer [4,53 and Togawa et al. [61 showed
that
an induced electricalpotential
associated with pulsatile aortic blood flow in
the presence of a large magnetic field could
be detected in the external electrocardiogram
(ECG) at the locus of the T-wave signal. By
recording the ECG from several species of
animals subjected to a broad range of magnetic
field strengths, a number of additional properties of magnetically-induced blood flow
potentials have recently been demonstrated in
our laboratory [7-91.
Fig. 1 shows the ECG of a 5-kg baboon
(Papio) prior to and during exposu: Frea
large stationary magnetic field.
viously described by Beischer for monkeys
[4,5] and by Togawa et al. for rabbits [6],
the largest superimpomlectrical
potential
occurs at the T-wave locus in the ECG, which
corresponds temporally to the opening of the
aortic valve during pulsatile ejection of
blood from the left ventricular chamber of the
heart. The augmentation of the T-wave signal
that is observed during magnetic field exposure is completely reversed upon removal of
the field.
In large animal species such as baboons,
monkeys and dogs, the aortic blood flow
potential can be detected in the ECG at field
levels above approximately 0.1 T, and is a
linear function of field strength up to 1.0 T

206

Pre-exposure

from the ECG recordings shown in Fig. 1 that

other magnetically-induced flow potentials can
be detected during exposure to high magnetic
The temporal sequence of these flow
fields.
potentials relative to cardiac valve displacements indicates that they may be associated
with rapid movements of blood during the filling and emptying phases of the heart cycle.

baboon ECG

From eqn. (2) it is predicted that the

magnitude of a magnetically-induced blood flow
potential varies as a linear function of the
vessel diameter, and should therefore be
greater for large relative to Small animal
species. This expectation has been supported
by ECG measurements on rats, baboons, monkeys
and dogs exposed to graded magnetic field
intensities, and is illustrated in Fig. 2 by
the relative augmentation of the T-wave signal
in rats and baboons. In a 1.0 T field, the
average increase in the T-wave signal amplitude resulting from a superimposed aortic
blood flow potential was found to be 75 + 2
(S.E.) IIV for rats (N = 24), and 176 + 19 $I
for juvenile baboons (N = 3).

Baboon ECG in 6=1.5 Tesla field

40 ms
+I 400

Adult rats
(N=24)

9
g

I?
;

II
P*%l

II
% Tc

IIP,
AI?

&
3
6

II

MO

Fig. 1: Electrocardiograms are shown for a

female Pa io baboon immediately prior

to and ae,
uring exposure to a 1.5 T
stationary magnetic field. The estimated times of opening (subscript "0")
and closing (subscript "c") of the
mitral (M), tricuspid (T), pulmonary
(P), and aortic (A) valves are denoted
by vertical bars.

300

I Juvenile

es 200.

8
8
i?
._
E loo8
$
n

OO

as shown for baboons in Fig. 2.

At higher
field levels, the total electrical potential
at the T-wave locus in the ECG increases more
rapidly as a function of magnetic field
strength, possibly as a result of the superposition of additional, weaker flow potentials
which cannot be detected at field strengths
below 1.0 T.
Based on the timing of valve
displacements during the cardiac cycle (see
Fiq. 1). the maqneticallv-induced flow ootential associated-with puisatile ejection of
blood into the pulmonary artery may also
contribute to the total ECG signal at the
locus of the T-wave during exposure to very
It is also evident
large magnetic fields.

I
0.5

I
1.0

I
1.5

Magnetic field strength (Tesla)

Fig. 2: The percentage increase in signal

amplitude at the T-wave locus of the
ECG is plotted as a function of
magnetic field strength for rats and
baboons. The mean T-wave amplitude
* S.E. observed immediately prior to
the magnetic field exposure was
75 ?r4 uV for the adult rats (N = 24)
and 117 + 30 PV for the juvenile
baboons.

- 207

The electrodynamic interaction between an

applied magnetic field and a flowing electrolyte solution such as blood also creates a net
volume force yithin thefluid., This force is
equal to $ x 6, where J = -o(v x d, is the
ionic conduction current resulting from the
induced electric field within the flowing
solution, and u is the electrical conductivThe hydrodynamic consequence of the
ity.
electrical force produced in a flowing electrolyte solution by a stationary magnetic
field is a reduction in the axial flow
From elementary
velocity of the fluid.
magnetohydrodynamic theory [l,lO],
it can be
predicted that the fractional reduction in
blood flow velocity in fields up to 2 T is
given to a good approximation by the equation:
v(B = 0) - v(B) _ R2B20
v(B = 0)

4s

37~2

Frog sciatic nerve action potentials

during relative refractory period
B=O

B = 2.0 Tesla
5mV

SC_

&.I..

(3)

In eqn. (3) R is the vessel radius and (Iand n

are, respectively, the electrical conductivity
and kinematic viscosity of blood. At field
strength up to 2 T, this equation predicts
that the magnetohydrodynamic interaction with
an applied magnetic field should reduce the
aortic blood flow rate bv less than 1% in
laboratory animals such a's rodents, dogs and'
This has been confirmed
nonhuman primates.
experimentally from our initial measurements
of aortic blood flow rates in 9 rats exposed
to a 1.5 T field. In addition, intraarterial
blood pressure measurements in Macaca monkeys
have shown that no measurable hemodynamic
alteration occurs in a 1.5 T field [9].
Nervous System
Using the Lorentz force law stated in eqn.
(l), Wikswo and Barach Cl11 have estimated
the
magnitude
of an applied magnetic field that
would measurably distort the ionic conduction
currents in an isolated neuron. The results
of these calculations indicate that a stationary magnetic field of at least 24 T strength
would be required to exert a magnetic deflecting force that is equal to 10% of the strong
electrical force imposed by the local electric
field of the nerve membrane. Accordingly, it
would not be anticipated that the maximum
field level of 2 T produced by conventional
iron-core electromagnets should measurably
perturb the ionic current patterns during
neuronal impulse propagation. This theoretical expectation has been confirmed by recent
studies in our laboratory on the bioelectric
properties of frog (Rana pipiens) sciatic
nerves exposed to large stationary magnetic
fields C121. The application of a 2 T field
in either a parallel or perpendicular configuration relative to the nerve axis was found
to have no effect on either the amplitude or
conduction velocity of sciatic nerves during
exposures ranging in duration from 4 to 17 hr.
In addition, no evidence was obtained for a
magnetic field effect on the threshold electrical stimulus strength that is required to
evoke action potentials in the sciatic nerve.
Another aspect of nerve bioelectric activity that has been examined for sensitivity to

Fig. 3: The response of a frog sciatic nerve

to sequential electrical stimuli is
shown during the relative refractory
period.
The left traces show nerve
bioelectric activity during the
control state, and the right traces
during the application of a 2.0 T
stationary magnetic field.
stationary magnetic fields is the duration of
the absolute and relative refractory periods
that follow the passage of a maximal action
potential.
Based on studies with 16 sciatic
nerves placed in parallel and perpendicular
configurations relative to a 2 T field, no
effect was observed on the 1.4 ms duration of
the absolute refractory period [12].
Similarly, as illustrated by Fig. 3, no effect of
either parallel or perpendicular 2 T fields
was observed on the bioelectric activity of
sciatic nerves during the relative refractory
period in which submaximal action potentials
of progressively increasing amplitude can be
evoked by a second electrical stimulus.

- 208

Although direct electrical recordings f ram

the central nervous system of mammals exposed
to stationary magnetic fields have not as yet
been made in our laboratory, extensive studies
have been carried out to assess various behavioral indices in mice exposed to a 1.5 T fi.eld
for a 3-day period. These behavioral measurements, which included studies of memory retention, locomotor activity and sensitivity to a
neuropharmacological agent (pentylenetetrazole), have provided no evidence for an effect
of stationary magnetic fields on the functioning of the central nervous system r-131.
Visual System
One of the most extensively studied
magnetic effects in living systems is the
induction of magnetophosphenes, in which a
flickering illumination within the visual
field occurs in response to stimulation by
pulsed or oscillating magnetic fields with
frequencies less than 100 Hz [14]. Although
the psychophysical phenomenon of phosphenes
has not been reported by human observers
during exposure to stationary magnetic fields,
there are two potential interaction mechanisms
between these fields and elements of the retina that are involved in the visual response
to photic stimulation.
First, the photoreceptor outer segments are subject to orientation in a stationary magnetic field as the
result of their large total diamagnetic anisotropy Cl51. Second, the initial photoisomerization event elicited by photon absorption in
the retinal photopigments is followed by a
series of ionic fluxes that lead to excitation
of the retinal neurons, and ultimately the
visual cortex via a complex neural pathway.
This second component of the phototransduction
process could be influenced by stationary
magnetic fields as the result of the Lorentz
force exerted on ionic conduction currents.

In an effort to elucidate whether station-

ary magnetic fields perturb the photically

elicited electrical activity of the retina,
the external electroretinogram (ERG) of
isolated turtle retinas has been recorded
during photic stimulation in the presence of
stationary magnetic fields [lS]. When the
in vitro retinal preparations from lightadapted or dark-adapted eyes were studied, no
changes in the ERG occurred in fields up to
However, the amplitude of the ERG
1.0 T.
B-wave, which results from electrical activity
of postsynaptic retinal cells, was consistently suppressed in retinas prepared during
the light-to-dark transition phase of the
diurnal 12-hr-light/ 12-hr-dark cycle (light
phase from 06:OO - 18:00 hours). During this
transition phase, which extends for approximately 2 hr after the onset of darkness (from
18:OO - 20:00 hours), the photoreceptor cells
undergo rapid changes in both their physiological and metabolic activities. The magnetic
field effect during the transition phase was
observed with intensities as low as 2-3 mT,
and was rapidly reversible following termination of the field exposure. This effect was
observed in both the cone-dominant retinas of
Pseudemys scripta turtles, and the mixed rodcone retinas of Chelydra serpentina turtles,

thus suggesting that it is independent of the

photoreceptor cell type. The mechanism underlying the magnetic field sensitivity of turtle
retinas during one brief phase of the light/
dark diurnal cycle has not been determined.
The magnetic field strengths that produce a
B-wave response compression are below the
levels that could exert orientational effects
on photoreceptor disk membranes, and would
also not be expected to produce significant
effects on ionic fluxes within the retina.
Although the cellular locus of the magnetic
field interaction with turtle retinas is Still
being investigated, the circadian nature of
this phenomenon has been firmly established by
ERG measurements on retinal preparations from
animals that were entrained on a phase-shifted
light/dark cycle. In the phase-shifted regimen, turtles were entrained for lo-14 days on
a 12-hr-light/l2-hr-dark cycle that was phaseshifted by 6 hours relative to the original
cycle (i.e., the light phase was shifted from
06:OO - 18:00 to 0O:OO - 12:00 hours on a
Following
daily illumination schedule).
entrainment, retinal sensitivity to stationary
magnetic fields was tested by ERG measurements
during the new light-to-dark transition phase
(12:OO - 14:00 hours). As illustrated by data
presented in Fig. 4, retinas from the 5 phaseshifted animals tested to date have exhibited
sensitivity to low-intensity magnetic fields
during the new light-to-dark transition phase.
The extent of B-wave response compression in
these retinas was comparable to that previously observed with retinas from turtles
maintained on the original light/dark cycle.
The retinas from control animals that had not
been phase-shifted did not exhibit sensitivity
to magnetic fields during the same time period
(i.e., from 12:00 - 14:00 hours during the
middle of the light phase extending from
06:OO - 18:00 hours).
In another recent series of ERG measurements using mammalian subjects [17], ERG
recordings have been made from 6 cats (Felis
domestica) and 3 monkeys (Macaca) exposed to
stationary magnetic fields-strengths
up
to 1.5 T. Oscillographic ERG recordings were
made of the negative A-wave (receptor field
potential) and the larger positive B-wave
(postsynaptic potential) following light
flashes with relative intensities of 1, 4, 16,
48 and 80, where the highest intensity flash
was approximately 240 lumen-sec/m2. Acute
exposures to magnetic fields up to 1.5 T had
no effect on either the A-wave or B-wave
amplitude in the ERG recordings from both cats
and monkeys. These in vivo findings with
experimental animal subjects are therefore
consistent with the observation that stationary magnetic fields exert no measurable
influence on the visual processes of humans.
Further experiments will be required, however,
to determine whether mammalian retinas exhibit
a circadian variation in magnetic field sensitivity similar to that observed for -in vitro
turtle retinas.
Summary and Conclusions
The studies described here

on

three

bio-

209

logical systems that involve ionic conduction

processes have revealed two alterations in the
electrical properties of tissues during exposure to stationary magnetic fields: (1) the
induction of electrical potentials within the
central circulatory system, and (2) a suppression of the B-wave amplitude in the ERG of
isolated turtle retinas during one brief phase
Both of
of the diurnal light/dark cycle.
these phenomena have been found to be completely reversible upon cessation of the
magnetic field exposure, and no significant
effects on the normal physiological functioning of the cardiovascular and visual systems
Further studies will be
have been observed.
required to determine the locus of the magnetic field interaction with turtle retinas, and
to explore the possible implication of this
finding for visual processes in mammals
exposed to stationary magnetic fields.

Retinal response
during light cycle
240
s
2

200

3 160
.g
E 120
(d
Q) 80
2
F
40

control/l.0
Tesla

log

I,

Retinal response during

light-to-dark transition period
280
s
&

240

+j

200

160

120

80

5
rb

40
0

37~2

Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Office of
Health and Environmental Research, Office of
Energy Research, U.S. Department of Energy,
under Contract No. DE-AC03-76SF00098 with the
Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory.
We also thank
Dr. E. E. Dean of the Southwest Research
Institute, San Antonio, Texas, for his collaboration in the ECG measurements on baboons
exposed to magnetic fields.
References
Tenforde, T.S.: Mechanisms for Bioloqical
Effects of Magnetic Fields. In: Bioiogical Effects and Dosimetry of Non-Ionizing
Radiation: Static and ELF Electromagnetic
Fields, Grandolfo, M., Michaelson, S.M.,
and Rindi, A. (eds.) Plenum, New York, in
press
II21 Kolin, A.: An Alternating Field Induction
Flow Meter of High Sensitivity.
Rev.
Sci. Inst. 16, 109-116 (1945)
c31 Kolin, A.: Improved Apparatus and Technique for Electromagnetic Determination of
Blood Flow. Rev. Sci. Inst. 23, 235-242
(1952)
c41 Beischer, D.E. and Knepton, J.C.: Influence of Stronq Maonetic Fields on the
ElectrocardiogFam -of Squirrel Monkeys
(Saimiri sciureus). Aerospace Med. 35,
939-944 (19641.
c51 Beischer; D.E.: Vectorcardiogram and
Aortic Blood Flow of Squirrel Monkeys
(Saimiri sciureus) in a Strong Superconductive Electromagnet.
In: Biological
Effects of Magnetic Fields, Vol. 2,
Barnothy, M. (ed.) Plenum, New York
(1969)
C61 Togawa, T., Okai, O., and Oshima, M.:
Observation of Blood Flow E.M.F. in
Externally Applied Strong Magnetic Fields
by Surface Electrodes. Med. Biol. Eng.
5. 169-170 (1967)
c71 Gaffey, C.T.,-Tdnforde, T.S., and Dean,
E.E.: Alterations in the Electrocardiogram of Baboons Exposed to DC Magnetic
Fields.
Bioelectromagnetics 1, 209
(1980)

Cl1

10

-log I,

Fig. 4: Electroretinogram B-wave amplitudes

recorded from Chelydra turtle retinas
are plotted as a function of light
stimulus intensity under control
conditions and during exposure to
stationary magnetic fields. The highest achromatic test flash intensity
C- log I = 01 was 5 x 1015 quanta/
cm2. The! upper panel shows the B-wave
amplitude for an in vitro retinal
preparation during the light phase of
a 12-hr-light/lZ-hr-dark daily illumination schedule.
The lower panel
shows the response of a retina to a
0.01 T magnetic field during the
light-to-dark transition period (12:00
- 14:00 hours) in a 6-hr phase-shifted
light/dark cycle (light from 0O:OO 12:OO hours and dark from 12:OO 24:00 hours on a daily illumination
schedule).
Retinal sensitivity to
low-intensity magnetic fields was
observed only during the light-to-dark
transition phase, both in animals
entrained on a normal light/dark cycle
(light from 06:OO - 18:00 hours) and
in animals entrained on a phaseshifted light/dark cycle (light from
0o:oo - 12:00 hours).

[8]

Gaffey, C.T. and Tenforde, T.S.: Alterations in the Rat Electrocardiogram

Induced by Stationary Magnetic Fields.
Bioelectromagnetics 2, 357-370 (1981)
[91
Tenforde, T.S., Gaffey, C.T., Moyer,
,B.R., and Budinger, T.F.: Cardiovascular
Alterations in Macaca Monkeys Exposed to
Stationary Magnetic Fields: Experimental
Observations and Theoretical Analysis.
Bioelectromagnetics 4, l-9 (1983)
[lo] Vardanyan, V.A.: Effect of a Magnetic
Field on Blood Flow.
Biophys. 18,
515-521 (1973)
Cl11 Wikswo, J.P. and Barach, J.P.: An
Estimate of the Steady Magnetic Field
Strength Required to Influence Nerve
Conduction. IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. 27,
722-723 (1980)
cl21 Gaffey, C.T. and Tenforde, T.S.: Bioelectric Properties of Frog Sciatic
Nerves During Exposure to Stationary
Magnetic Fields.
Radiat. Environ.

210

Biophys. 22, 61-73 (1983)

Cl31 Davis, H.P., Mizumori, S.J.Y., Allen, H.,
Rosenzweig, M.R., Bennett, E.L., and
Tenforde, T.S.: Behavioral Studies with
Mice Exposed to DC and 60-Hz Magnetic
Fields.
Bioelectromagnetics 5, 147-164
Cl41 L!j9,F4;d P ., N'lsson, S.E.G., Reuter, T.,
and \ be;g, P.a .: Magnetophosphenes: A
Quantitative Analysis of Thresholds. Med.
Biol. Eng. Comput. 18, 326-334 (1980)
Cl51 Hong, F.T.: Magnetic Anisotropy of the
Visual Pigment Rhodopsin, Biophys. J. 29,
343-344 (1980)
Cl61 Raybourn, M.S.: The Effects of DirectCurrent Magnetic Fields on Turtle Retinas
In Vitro. Science 220, 715-717 (1983)
cl71 Gaffey, C.T. and Tenforde, T.S.: Electroretinograms of Cats and Monkeys Exposed
to Large Stationary Magnetic Fields.
Sixth Annual Bioelectromagnetics Society
Meeting, Abstract A2-2, p. 7. Atlanta,
Georgia, July 15-19,
1984

- 211

38~3

MAGNETOSTIMULATION - A METHOD FOR REESTABLISHMENT

OP ANTIBIOTIC BACTERICIDAL ACTION

N. Dekleva^, D, VujnoviE^, B. Releslin"^, V. I!aji6^^^

^Clin. Hosp. Centre, Zemun,"*Medical Faculty, Belgrade, "^^l:lectrotechnicalFaculty, Belgrade, Yugoslavia

Antibiotics adminir;trationin every case and at any price, as well as food doping
with the same stuff , produce more and more
bacteria resistant to antibiotic action.
Oxygen hi(;hpressure, especially combined
with magnetotherapy , proves to reestablish
the bactericidal action of antibiotics.
Introduction
Contemporary traffic causes the growing percentage of accidents, enlarges the
number of everyday injured persons with multiple fractures of long bones, joints and
heavy thorax trauma.
As our hospital in Zemun is close to the main east-west highway, we have had long experience in the worst trauma cases followed
by bones polytrauma and gas gangrene which
is a complex infection caused by anaerobic
bacteria.
Beside other clinical treatments of injured
persons, oxygen high pressure /OHI?/ and magnetotherapy are included.
In ancient times magnet was used to cure headaches ,spasms, nerve disorders, ulcers,
bleeding sicknesses and hydrops. Despite
that magnetic fields and magnet have long
been neglected and even forgotten.
Successfulmagnetostimulationof nerve trunk
and an observation that magnetic field can
reactivate the epileptic focus turned the
investigators' attention to magnetobiology
and biomagnetism. Fundamental proof for cell
action dependence on magnetic field is the
cell spontaneous electrical activity alteration after the magnetic stimulus /1,4/. These alterations are shown in J?ig. 1. It is
evident that the amplitude, as well. as the
frequency of spike activities, depend and
alterate at the moment and after the magnetic pulse stimulus.
The broad variety of different magnetobiological effects has recently been reported
/2,3,5,6,7/.

One of our clinically accepted therapeutic

methods is the magnetotherapy of fractured
bones, especially the extremities, delayed
unions and pseudoarthroses.
The injured with serious trauma or polytrauma should be immediately exposed to OHP to
minimize the persistent danger of anaerobic
infection. Infections of soft and musculoskeletal tissue occur in tissue damaged by
trauma surgery or ischemia from vascular disease.

--

set
Fig. 1: The evidence of magnetic field action on spontaneous electrical cells
activity. The discontinuity on lower
trace- the moment of applying the
magnetic pulse, Two upper tracesspontaneous electrical activity in
adjacent pair of Retzius nerve cells
before and after the stimulus.
Certain anaerobic infections have strong inclination to causing thrombophlebitis and
septic emboli. Today, however, with multiple
surgical therapies, by the aid of OHP and
antibiotics, large injuries may be faced on
parenchymatous organs with more confidence.
On the other hand, magnetostimulation expands the healing possibilities.
But in magnetotherapy special precaution
should be undertaken against possible side
effects caused by high field intensity, as
well as in OHP therapy against oxygen toxicity /2,6/.
Methods
The injured with serious traumas are
urgently exposed to oxygen high pressure.
Besides, magnetostimulation is also applied.
After the danger from anaerobic infection is
over, magnetotherapy is the basic therapy
for fast broken bones union.
From the verybeginning of magnetotherapy developing, in addition to the shape of stimuli signals
and their frequency, our interest
was concentrated to finding out the optimal
angle between the fracture surface and the
magnetic flux density vector.
Some controversy among the statements of
different authors, regarding this angle, can
be found in current literature.

- 212 -

As a matter of fact, smooth fracture surface

exists only in theoretical consideration.
However, many optimal angles exist in practice and all of them should be satisfied simultaneously, owing to considerable irregularities between the fracture shapes and
multifragmentary fractures. Providing such
stimuli conditions is not so easy, but partial solutions are tecnically feasible.
Nikola Tesla's Patents NO. 381.968 and No,
382.280, besides other solutions, deal with
rotating magnetic field. This Tesla's discovery is also applicable in magnetotherapy.

well as to doping food with the same stuff,

more and more bacteria are resistant to antibiotics action.
The need for antibiotics penetration into
the site of infection is the most apparent
in central nervous system. Infections on
other body sites are more difficult to asses. On the other hand, the high percentage
of resistant bacteria on any antibiotic action imposes the need for some other forms
of therapy. OHP therapy is the one that acts
bactericidally and promptly on anaerobic
culture. In 70,'6
of observed patients, we found out the reestablishment of antibiotics
bactericidal action after the OHP treatment.
In effort to improve the above mentioned
percentage, regarding the bactericidal action of antibiotics, we combined the OHP and
magnetotherapy. To our experience, this combination of therapies accomplishes serious
problems in the most stubborn cases of bacteria resistance on antibiotic action.
Conclusion

Fig. 2: Rotaking magnetic flux density veotor B/t/ obtained from two pairs
ei o&s
flown through by aLternate
currents phase displaced by 90 eleotriad degrers. After the ohange of
oonneator,polarihy on one of the ooils paire, the vector B,/t/ rotates
clockwise.
Fig. 2 enables the simplest approach to explanation of rotating magnetic field as well
as the rotation of magnetic flux density
vector. The components of-this vector in x
and y axis are B,/t/ and By/t/ generated by
currentsthroughappropriate coil pairs. One
coil pair itself ensures the BX/t/ component
vhich changes the intensity and direction
only in x axis. In y axis, the same changes
occur with By/t/. The time changes of these
two vectors result in their sum vector rotation with constant angle velocity w, where the Br/t/=Br/t/ COB wt and By/t/ equals
Br/t/sin wt.
Instead of alternate currents, direct adjustable eurrents fox each pair of coils enables any desired fix positioning of fi,/t/
vector.
In that way, we obtained flexible stimulators for magnetotherapy. For preparing the
reported results, both monophasic and polyphasic stimulators were used.
During the bone healing by the aid of these magnetostimulators, we observed and confirmed that the magnetic field can reaotivate bactericidal action of antibiotics.
Results
Thanks to frequent use of antibiotics in healing in every case and at any price, aa

Magnetostimulation not only fastens the broken bone union, but also reestablishes the
bactericidal action of antibiotics. One of
the informationways of bacteria being resistant is via DNA. Magnetic action on DNA has
several times been reported.
Nevertheless, many a year will pass by before our being able to offer the exact explanation for the mechanism of this magnetic
field action.
References

/U
/2/

/3/

/4/

/5/

/6/

/7/

Beleslin B. et al.: The effects of Pulsed Magnetic Field on Nerve Cells of Leeches, Period. biologorum E, 33, /X374/
Dekleva N. et al.: Magnetic Field and
Oxygen Interaction in Biological Elaterial, 4th Symposium on Electromagnetic
Compatibility, Zurich, 173-174, /1981/
Dekleva N. et al.: Electrostimulation,
Magnetostimulation or Pressure Stimulation After Long Bones Fractures, DRESDEN SYMI'OSITJM"Bone Healing with Electrical and Electromagnetical Stimulation", Dresden, 4.pages, /1984/
Maji6 V. et al.: Biomagnetism and Artificial Magnetic Stimulation of Living
Structures, XXIX Congress of International Astronautical Federation, IAF '78
Dubrovnik, Pergamon Press, /1978/
Petronijevi6 S. et al.: Magnetotherapy
in Otorhinolaryngology, 13th Int. Conf.
on Fledicaland Biological Engineering,
Hamburg, 12.22, /1982/
Stamenovi8 B. et al.: Magnetic Field
Influence on Biological Material, 3rd
Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility, Rotterdam, 35-36, /l-979/
Skokljev A. et al.: Magnetostimulators
in Periodontal Diseases Treatment,Third
Mediterranean Conference on Medical and
Biological Engineering, Portoroi /Yugoslavia/, 7.4, /1983/

213

39G4

SPECIFIC MECHANISMS OF MICROWAVE

POWER DISSIPATION IN LIVING TISSUES
A.J. BERTEAUD
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique , ER 286
THIAIS FRANCE

SUMMARY
Microwave losses in living tissues are
mainly relevant to dielectric relaxation of
charge
electric
polar molecules and to
conduction. Polar water molecules can be more
or less bound to their substrates which
modifies the intensity of the wave absorption
considered.
when various frequencies are
respective
Recent results concerning the
hydration of proteins and ions when they are
physiologic
solution
near
the
in
concentration are presented.
dissipation
in
Microwave
power
macromolecules with polar elements is also
results
experimental
and
considered
concerning the power absorption by synthetic
macromolecular systems submitted to pulsed
factors
are
waves with various filling
concerning
microwave
Data
presented.
absorption by
biopolymers
(D.N.A.,
for
Other
also
indicated.
instance)
are
possibilities of specific interactions with
cell cytoplasmic medium and membrane systems
are finally exposed.
INTRODUCTION
Considerable research effort has been
devoted
to
different
aspects
of
the
electromagnetic field interaction with living
tissues in various stages of organization.
Though a strong consensus among scientists
appears that most interactions are thermal in
nature, it was recognized
that
electro
magnetic induced heating is significantly
different
from
that
caused
by
other
modalities of heating. Several interaction
mechanisms
are
responsible
for
the
specificity
of
microwave
the
thermal
conversion which displays a characteristic
dependence on frequency. Some of them have
been roughly described as GXand fidispersions
resulting of cell membranes
and
as Y
dispersion
due
to
region
water
and
electrolyte contents of living tissues. Even
if a good approach was attained in describing

these dispersion regions in particular for

the water dispersion in tissues, sufficient
information is not available at the present
moment to set up definitive limits for any rf
or microwave radiations, particularly for
pulsed radiation.
were
results
Several
experimental
recently obtained in our CNRS Laboratory
which enforces the non linear characteristic
of certain interaction mechanisms such as
radiation
ion-protein
hydration,
pulsed
absorption by macromolecules, enhancement of
membrane conductivity.
PROTEIN AND ION HYDRATION
The precise understanding of hydration
effects in the transport
properties
of
biological systems has not yet been achieved
even if the dipolar relaxation of the pure
water molecules must be considered as the
dominant source of the dielectric dispersion
in the microwave frequency spectrum.
In fact, the dielectric properties of
water molecules are strongly dependent on
their
interaction
with
any
substrates
carrying electrical charges. From the Debye
equation for polar fluid relaxation, the
relaxation frequency is strongly decreased
with bonding forces so that when pure water
molecules exhibits a maximum dispersion at 10
to 20 GHz at 25"C, water molecules bound on
proteins relax at
frequencies
of
some
hundreds of MHz whereas ice molecules relax
of
at some hundreds
detailed
KHz.
A
description of water molecule absorption in
relation with bonding forces was given by
HASTED (1) which allows to predict dominant
absorption processes as
a
function
of
frequency.
From
absorption
curves,
a
frequency region exists where bound water can
exhibit an energy absorption greater than
that of free water. If this finding was
experimentally confirmed, it could be of
important
consequence
evaluating
in
electromagnetic radiation hazards.

into
considerations
these
Taking
account, hydration of proteins and ions was
recently studied by DELMOTTE et al. (2) in
our laboratory, when they are together in
until
now,
whereas,
solution
aqueous
hydration studies of proteins or ions were
considered
when
they
are
only
made
separately. The mutual hydration of both
proteins and ions is, of course, a better
approach of the wave absorption by living
tissues with a low water content.
determined
by
the
was
Hydration
measurement at 5 GHz of the decrement 6s' of
permittivity
of
mixed
the
dielectric
solutions.
Two kinds of solutions were compared :
ionic solutions (Na,
K
and
Ca)
with
concentrations comprised between 0 and 200 m
mol/l and mixed ion-protein solutions with
human albumin and lysozyme as proteins.
Having verified the linearity of the
permittivity variation as a function of ion
concentration in both cases of protein free
solutions and mixed
solutions,
precised
experimental measurements of the decrement
SE' as a function of ion concentration were
made for 3 concentration values. Experimental
results are reported in figure 1

Na Cl
K Cl

Ca Cl2
KCl-lyso
Na Cl-lyso

..,.,

.,:

.k

..\

T
0

100

CaClz-Alb
CaClz-lys0

200
lmtlSl/l

Figure 1 : Dielectric constant

variation as a function of ion
concentration for ion free solutions
or mixed ion-protein solutions.

The main result is the non-additivity of

the bound water quantities when ions and
proteins are together. The total quantity of
bound water is always smaller than
for
separate electrolyte solutions or protein
solutions. A detailed discussion was made in
ref 2 and various hypothesis were calculated
to interpret experimental results. In any
case, the basic result is the mutual dehy-

214

dration of ions and proteins when they are

associated in solutions. If this result is
useful to interpret the ionic permeation of
biological membranes, it is also important to
take into account when electromagnetic wave
absorption is considered. Indeed the results
point out that the absorption associated with
the bound water molecules (in the range of
some 100 MHz) is actually lower than that
which could be calculated from the separate
water
bound
absorption contributions of
molecules of ions and proteins, respectively.
This result is consistent with earlier
indicates
experimental results (3) which
that, in the microwave range, there is no
apparent experimental difference between the
relaxation frequency of living tissue water
and that of pure water.
MICROWAVE POWER DISSIPATION
IN MACROMOLECULES

Another possible specific mechanism of

microwave absorption arises from vibrational
modes of biological macromolecules as any
interaction which enhances the amplitude or
the mixing ability of modes can alter the
conformation or shape of the macromolecules.
The most interesting case concerns the double
helical DNA for which mode calculations have
shown that energy absorption can take place
by resonant interaction of the microwave
field with its vibrational modes (4,5). The
lowest mode frequencies were observed in the
range of 10 to 100 GHz.
More recently, it was reported that the
microwave absorption of DNA
in
aqueous
solution can be very large and depends on the
chain length (6,7). Absorption experiments
were made in the 8 to 12 GHz frequency range
on purified E. Coli.DNA. with various chain
lengths. The observed resonant frequencies
seem to be consistent with a model involving
acoustic excitation of the double helix and
surprisingly,
the
damping
generally
associated
to
the
surrounding
aqueous
solution does not occur in these experiments.
The observation of such resonant absorptions,
if confirmed, would provide a new basis for
specific interactions in living tissues.
the
However,
excitation
of
such
vibrational modes of biological molecules in
solution can be only effective when the
living matter is submitted to electromagnetic
fields with frequencies associated to the
corresponding mode frequencies as long as
C.W. energy is considered. In case we would
use pulsed wave energy which corresponds to
telecommunication
most
systems,
the
interaction
between
~macromolocules
and
electromagnetic
fields
becomes
more
complicated to fully describe. Macromolecules
include various polar components or polar
chain lengths; as soon as they are submitted
to electromagnetic fields, the interaction
intensity between the local dipolar moments
and the electric field becomes a function of
the field frequency.

- 215

Considering the frequency spectrum associated

with any given pulsed waves, it should be
interaction
the
describe
possible
to
the
knowledge
of
the
from
intensity
absorption frequency spectrum for a given
macromolecule system. It is still impossible
to measure the frequency spectrum of most
biopolymers. But recent experiments were made
models.
with synthetic macromolecules as
the
have
compared
JULLIEN et a1.(8,9)
absorption capacity of a film forming polymer
to
submitted
when
polyurethane
as
electromagnetic waves either in continuous
waves (CW) or in pulsed waves with various
pulse modulation frequencies and duty cycles.
In both cases, the power density have the
film
same mean value. Consequently, the
temperature should be independent of the
pulse modulation frequency and the duty cycle
whether the film absorption capacity was a
continuous function of the wave frequency.
T_(T)

Mean power

39

G4

MICROWAVE EFFECTS
ON THE CELL CYTOPLASM
In order to evaluate whether the thermal
action of microwaves at the cellular scale of
living tissues is quite different from that
the
changes
in
heating,
of classical
microviscocity of the cell cytoplasm and in
were
permeability
membrane
the
cell
investigated by DARDALHON et al. (10). In
this study, changes in the microviscosity
the
of
were obtained from measurements
fluorescence depolarization of fluorescein
molecules which were produced by enzymatic
substrate
fluorescent
hydrolysis of non
fluorescein diacetate (FDA) in the cytoplasm.
membrane
such
as
cell
Parameters
permeability, cell viability and change in
FDA hydrolysis were also measured with the
same living model, i.e, Chinese hamster V79
cells.

3ow

2ooow

lZ5/
2500W

100 L

50

ml

150

200

Figure 2 : Polyurethane film temperature variation as a function of pulse repetition

period for various peak powers in the pulse in order to maintain the mean
power at 3ow.
Their findings illustrated in figure 2 where
the film temperature is represented as a
function of the pulse modulation frequency
show it iS not the case.
various
The
experimental curves correspond to various
duty cycles or peak powers in order to
maintain the same value of mean powers for
every experiments. It clearly appears that
the same power
density
can
induce
a
temperature increase until 75C in C.W. or
until 150" C in pulsed waves.
Even
if
biopolymer
structure
is
generally more complex than that of synthetic
polymers which tends to reduce the difference
in intensity for the relaxation spectrum of
macromolecules, serious
basis
exist
to
consider that the
interaction
intensity
between electromagnetic fields and living
biopolymers is more efficient for pulsed
waves than for continuous waves due to the
components
of
polar
of
relaxation
macromolecules.

Among various
experimental
results,
these experiments have pointed out
that
modifications of cytoplasm
microviscosity
were absent under conditions of low absorbed
microwave energy
expressed
in
Joule/g.
However under the same conditions a slight
stimulation of the enzymatic hydrolysis of
FDA was observed when cells were submitted to
microwaves. This stimulation appears to have
been proportional to the power density used
and was absent when the cells were treated
with conventional heating.
Moreover, this stimulation does
not
exist in osmotically lysed cells treated by
microwaves which shows that the microwaves
have no stimulating effect ont the hydrolysis
enzyme involved. These findings lead
to
conclude that the stimulating effect is due
to microwave-induced modifications of cell
membranes
resulting
in
different
a
penetration of the fluorescence marker.

- 216

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DISCUSSION
dissipation
in
The microwave power
living tissues cau take place through various
pathways. Most of them have been already
studied but, in this work, we report several
recent experiments which are involved in this
field of interactions.
Hydration process of mixed ion-protein
solutions at the physiological concentration
point out the hydration perturbation
of
proteins by neighbouring ions and the non
additivity of the bound water quantities.
However, if these experiments supply with new
theoretical data in hydration processes, the
resulting dielectric decrement which slightly
decreases
the
interaction
strength
is
probably too small to modify the protein
conformation which could result from the
change in bound water
interaction
with
electromagnetic waves, in particular at r.f.
frequencies.
Concerning the power dissipation
in
macromolecular
systems,
several
recent
experimental data on both helical DNA and
synthetic polymers suggest the interaction is
highly frequency dependent due to dipolar
interactions with the electromagnetic field,
at least when vibrational modes can potentially exist. For the moment, it must be
shown that such resonant absorptions are
actually present in I.ivingmatter as in vitro
experiments to take these
effects
into
account.
Experimental
studies
of
the
cell
cytoplasm of various living cells did not
disclose any specific effects except a slight
stimulation of membrane permeability. This
effect, however, should appear for microwave
power higher than that of the generally used
safety standard near 10 mW/cm2.

(1)

-HASTED J.B.
Aqueous dielectrics
Ed. Chapman and Hall (1973)

(2)

A.MICHEL, F. HENRY, M. DE VILLARDI et M.

DELMOTTE
to be published in Biopolymers

(3)

H.P. SCHWAN and K. FOSTER

Proc. of IEEE, vol 68, n"1, Jan 1980

(4)

PROHOFSKY E.W.
Phys. letter 50A, 329, (1975)

(5)

EYSTER J.M. et PROHOFSKY E.W.

Biopolymers 16, 965 (1977)

(6)

SWICORD M.L., DAVIS C.C.

Biopolymers 21 (12) ; 2453-2460 (1982)

(7)

EDWARDS G.S., SWICORD M.L., DAVIS C.C.

5th Bioelectrom. Sot. Meeting, Boulder,
Co, (1983)

(8)

JULLIEN H. VALOT II.

C.K. Acad. Scic, 297, 409 (1983)

(9)

LJULLIENH., VALOT M., BERTEAUD A.J.

to be published in Polymer

(10)

DARDALHON M., MORE C., AVERBECK D.

BERTEAUD A.J.
Bioelectromagnetics J., 5, 247, (1984)

- 217

40

G5

MEASIJREMENTOF SPFCIFIC ABSORPTION RATE IN A FULL-SIZE MAN

MODFL NEAR A 10.67-m MONOPOLE ANTENNA/GROUNDPLANE SYSTm AT 2.101 MHz
R. G. Olsen
Naval Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory
Pensacola, Florida, USA

A 68-kg standingman model was made from

two pieces of plastic material sewn together
and f-114 with a water-basedmuscle-equivalent
substance. The man model was exposed to One
kilowatt of radio-frequency(RF) irradiation
from a monopole antenna at a distance of 1.22
m. RF-induced heating was measured at Various
locations with a nonperturbingtemperature
probe, and specific absorption rate (SAR) was
calculated from the temperature-risedata.
Preliminary results show SAR ranging from 0.8
to 4.7 W/kg in the full-size man model.
Introduction
The measurement of SAR in occupational
environments has been given increased
importance with the promulgation of ANSI C95.11982. That standard contains an exclusion
which waives exposure intensityguidelines if
localized SAR is below 8 W/kg and if whole-body
average SAR is below 0.4 W/kg. Laboratory
measurement of SAR [l-3]has been performed for
many years in conjunctionwith RF and microwave
bioeffects experiments. Indeed, RF dosimetry
has recently developed into a sizable field of
study in both theoreticaland experimental
areas [4, 51, and the introductionof SAR into
ANSI C95.1-1982attests to this fact. There
are currently several occupationalsituations
such as near RF heat sealers and on certain
broadcast towers in which the provisions of the
exclusion in the exposure guideline might be
important. This study was initiated to
determine the practicalityoE obtaining SAR
data in the field.
Methods
Full-size -man model
A 68-kg model of man was constructedby
sewing together two pieces of extrusion coated
plastic material and filling the resulting bag
with a muscle-equivalentmaterial consisting
(by weight) of 9.69% gelling agent (TX-150),
9.15% aluminum powder, 0.28% sodium chloride,
and 80.88 water. Fiyure 1 shows some of the
details of the sewn-bag model which was
supported by a military parachuteharness which
was suspended from a framework of plastic pipe.
The bag material was a woven mat of extruded
polyolefin ribbons covered on both sides with
polyethylene. As such, the model was nearly

Fig. 1:

Pattern dimensions (in cm, left) of

the full-sizeman model with empty bag
shown suspended (right).

water tight and exibitedgood thermal

stability. Plastic tarpaulinswere used to
cover the model as needed to eliminate the
thermal efEects of direct sunlight and wind.
Irradiation system
The high-frequency(HF) irradiationsystem
consisted of a 10.67m monopole irradiator
(Shakespeare#666) which was ground-mountedat
the approximate center of a 30.5 m x 17.5 m
wire-mesh ground plane. The ground plane
consisted of fifteen rolls of fencing that were
electrically connected to form a nearly flat
conductive surface at the antenna base. Figure
2 shows the full-sizeman model near the base
of the monopole irradiator. RF energy at 2.101
MHz was supplied to a monopole from a nearby
building (GroundElectronicsDivision, Naval
Air Station Pensacola).A coupler was used at
the antenna base for tuning, and reflected
power was typically 2.5% of the forward power.

- 218

Table 1
Average SAR in a full-sizeman model irradiated
at 2.1MHz with1000 W.
Location in Model
(1 cm depth)

Average SAR
(W/kg)

Head
Neck
Shoulder
Chest
Wrist
Hip
Ankle

Fig. 2: The ground plane/monopoleirradiation

system is shown with the man model and
an RF transmitterused for preliminary
antenna checks.

ExperimentalProcedure
Determination of SAR began by the
insertion of an RF-transparenttemperature
probe (Vitekmodel 101) into the model at a
depth of 1 cm for a specified location. The
man model was facing the antenna at a distance
of 1.22 m. Temperature probe output was
monitored for several minutes to determine
whether the temperatureat that location was
stable. If the temperature appeared to be
stable, it was recorded each 60 s for 300 to
600 s to serve as a preirradiationbaseline.
Irradiationcommenced for 300-600 s after the
baseline data had been acquired, and
temperature probe output was recorded every 30
s during irradiation. The slope of the
temperature versus time data was determined by
a linear regression analysis using a hand-held
calculator. SAR was calculatedas the product
of the model material specific heat (3767 J/kg
OC) and the net increase in slope of
temperature during irradiation.
Results
Table 1 gives the average SAR determined
from the first series of experiments using the
outdoor ground plane irradiationsystem. For
locations such as the shoulders,values for the
left side and right side have been pooled.
These data are based on an average of 3
replicationsof each measurment.

4.7
3.9
3.3
2.8
0.97
0.82
3.0

These initial results show the potential

utility of obtaining SAR outside of the typical
laboratoryenvironment, The sewn-bag man model
was used over a 10-day period in obtaining
these data and showed only small signs of
degradation at the end of the experiments. The
internal te,nperature
of the model was observed
to be very stable so long as direct sunlight
and strong wind was avoided. It is suspected
that the relativelygood thermal stability
might permit calculationof average SAR in the
model using speciallyadapted calorimetric
techniques. Such procedures would be rather
arduous, but currently available apparatus
should be able to resolve a whole-body SAR of
0.4 W/kg (nominally16800 J for a 600 s
irradiation)provided that the many variables
of outdoor work are either controlled OK
properly taken into account.
References

WI

Johnson, C.C.: Recommendations for

specifyingEM wave irradiationconditions
in bioeffects research. J. Microwave
Power 10,No 3,249-250 (1975).

r21 Justesen, D.R.: Toward a prescriptive

grammar for the Kadiobiologyof nonionizing radiation: Quantities,
definitionsand units of absorbed
electromaqneticenergy - an essay. J.
Microwave Power 10, No 4, 343-356 (1975).
[31 Guy, A.W.: Correspondence on D.R.
Justesen's"prescriptivegrammar for the
radiobiology of non-ionizing radiation."
J. Microwave Power 10, No. 4, 358-359
(1975).
t41 Durney, C.H., Johnson, C.C.,Barber, P.W.,
Massoudi, H., Iskander, M.F., Lords, J.L.,
Ryser, D.K.,Allen, S.J.,and Mitchell,
J.C.: RadiofrequencyRadiation Dosimetry
Handbook (Secondedition) SAM-TR-78-22,
U.S. Air Force School of Aerospace
Medicine Aerospace Medical Division (AFSC)
Brooks Air Force Base Texas (1978).

Discussion/Conclusion
151

Table 1 shows that SAR is higher in the

head and ankles than it is in the middle region
of the model such as the hip. The electric
field intensityhas approximately2 kV/m at the
head location and half of that near the knees
of the model.

Olsen, R.G.: Far-field dosimetric

measurements in a full-sizedman model at
2.0 GHZ. Bioelectromagnetics3, No 4,
433-441 (1982).

219

41 G6

Ku-BAND RADIATION EFFECTS ON THE EYE

G. d'Ambrosio, A. Scaglione
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Elettronica, Universith di Napoli
Italy
F. De Martino, R. Pennarola
Istituto di Medicina de1 Lavoro, II Facolta di Medicina
Universith di Napoli, Italy

The effects on the eye of Ku microwave

radiation were experimentally investigated
on rabbits. The cataractogenic action, well
known at lower frequencies was confirmed at
15 GHz. Biomicroscopy techniques and electroretinographic tests proved their usefulness in detecting sub cataractogenic micro
wave induced eye stresses.
Introduction
Harmful effects of radio frequency and microwave radiation on the eye, were evidenced
many years ago. Lens opacification was experimentally induced in dogs [1] and rabbits [2]
since 1948. Many observations on such effect we
re carried out since then, and some recurrent
findings were the following:
cataracts begin to occur in the posterior
i)
region of the lens;
ii) they are mainly related to the heat produced by the irradiation;
iii) the onset of the effects, following a siq
gle exposure depends on the absorbed ener
BY [3,41.
Many data were collected until now, but they
refer mainly to the 2.45 GHz frequency, and above 10 GHz very little is known about the (bar
mful) effects on the eye of the microwave radiation. From the other hand such frequencies
(and in particular the Ku band, 12 - 15 GHz) 2
re becoming widely in use for telecommunicative purposes, and in order to obtain a quantita
tive estimate of the related risks in terms of
eye damage, an experimental study on rabbits
has been carried out at 15 GHz.
Materials and Methods
The subjects wereNew Zealandwhite rabbits
weighing 2.7 Kg (average). The exposed animal
was placed in a box, made of plastic, with the
head outside. It has to be stressed that in or
der to have the animals in nearly normal condi
tions neither general (or local) anesthetictre
atment nor surgical fastening of the eye was

provided; only adhesive tape was used in order

to reduce head and eyelid motion. The animals
were exposed in a microwave anechoic chamber
(3m x 3m x7m long, lined with Plessey AFP6, AF
P12, and AFPlS absorbing material). In the feeding section of the microwave circuit a Marco
ni Instruments 6059A signal generator, a variz
ble attenuator Hewlett Packard P375A, and a
TWT amplifier Varian VZM6991G3 were used. Frequency (15 GHz) and power were monitored by me
ans of two 20 dB directional couplers (Systron
Donner DBE-675-ZO), a frequency meter (HP P532&
and a HP 4368 power meter. A Narda 639 standard
horn was used to irradiate with vertical polarization the right eye of each rabbit, while
the left one served as a control. The distance
between the aperture plane of the horn and car
neal surface of the eye was 20 cm, correspond:
ng to D2/X, D being the diagonal width of theradiating aperture and h the free space wavelengh. Feeding power levels were chosen giving incident field amplitudes (exactly calculated) corresponding to plane wave power den
sities up to 200 mW/cm2. In fact from previo
us experiments at 2.45 GHz, the 100 mW/cm' ye
vel was found unable to producecataract after
single exposure, regardless the duration; so
we started with 200 mW/cm2,120 min exposures
(1440 Joule/cm2). Lower dosages were obtained
by reducing (one half) either the power densi
ty or the exposure duration. Repeated exposures of the same subject were performed twice
a week. Orbital temperatures were measured at
two positions for both eyes, before, during
(microwave source off), and after the irradia
tion with a Bailey BAT4 Thermometer and a ITiE
probe. Slit lamp (Tecno- Optical) examination
of the lens and ophthalmoscopy of the fundus
were performed before and after irradiation,
and periodically thereafter. Detailed photogra
phic recording of phenomena was provided. Care
ful biomicroscopy (with special regard to capillary vessels) of conjunctiva and fundus was
performed. As a functional
test,
electroretinc
graphic plots (concerning the excitation of
the optical nerve following calibrated ligth

stimuli) were recorded before and after the

treatments.
Results

The results of 26 experiments are reported

here. As an example the orbital temperature be
haviour during and after a 100 mW/cm2, 60 minexposure, is reported in fig. 1.

38
36
%

--.
0

20

40

60

>

80

min

Fig. 1: Orbital temperature. Eye directly exposed to 15 GHz 100 mW/cm2 microwave
radiation.

Mean values and standard deviations of the orbital temperatures before and immediately after irradiation, in three groups of experimen
ts, are reported in table 1.

Pi (mW/cm2)
At (min)

100

200

200

60

60

120

(C>

35.6 (.5)

35.2 (.6)

35.3 (.3)

Tfl('C)

38.1 (.3)

38.6 (.8)

38.7 (.4)

Tf2('C)

36.3 (.4)

37.0 (.8)

36.9 (.6)

Ti

Table 1: Mean values and standard deviations

of orbital temperatures measured du
ring three groups of experiments.
Pi: incident power density; At: exps
sure duration; Ti: initial orbital
temperature; Tfl: final temperature
of the eye directly exposed; Tf2: fi
nal temperature of the other eye.

For each treatment the average of four measurements (two points on each eye) has been assu
med as the initial temperature; the average of
two measurements (on the same eye) gave the fi
nal temperature. In the first group (6 experi-

220

ments at 100 mW/cm', 60min) the mean temperatu

re increase was 2.5 'C in the eye directly ex&
sed and about 0.7 'C in the other one. With a
doubled incident power density (7 experiments
at 200 mW/cm2, 60 min) the mean temperature in
creases were about 3.4 'C, and 1.8 'C respectx
vely. When also the duration was doubled (3 ex
periments at 200 mW/cm2, 120 min) no further y~
crease in the final temperatures was observed.
In all the exposed animals lachrymation and pho
tophobia were always observed, as temporary effects within the first 24 hours after irradiation. More persistent were a pupillary constric
tion and altered reflexes to ligth. In the animals exposed 120 min to 200 mW/cmZ (each time)
a milky band on the posterior region of the
lens was apparent at 24-48 hours after the fix
st irradiation. With further identical treatments a well defined opacity took place. In
the animals exposed 60 min to 200 mW/cm2 (each
time) a small opacity became apparent, in the
irradiated eye, during the second week (after
two or three treatments), but the following ex
tension was less pronounced than in the previ2
us cases. In the animals exposed 120 min to
100 mW/cm' only very weak opacification phenomena occurred. With exposures 60 min long,to
100 mW/cm',no lens modifications were observed.
The exam of the fundus did not reveal any alte
ration. On the contrary the observation of microscopic capillary vessels of the conjunctiva
revealed always clear alterations.
About the electroretinographic (E.R.G.) observations, in table 2 some cumulative data (wl_
thout distinction between the three groups of
treatments) are collected. Mean values and stan
dard errors of tipical parameters of E.R.G.
plots (photopic waves amplitudes "a" and "b",
"culmination time" of b wave, and the number
of Oscillatory Potentials O.P. [5])are reported.

Before
M.V.
S.E.

After
M.V.
S.E.

aamp.

13.17

~I.17

12.5

ztl. 26

b c.t.(ms)

36.67

Lto. 49

39.0

*to.86

b amp.hV> 102.67

h5.41

137.67

29.57

O.P.

AO.17

3.17

1.83

20.31

Table 2: Electroretinographic results. Observations before and after exposures.

aamp' "au wave amplitude; best.: CUE
mination time" of wave "b"; b amp: "b"

wave amplitude; O.P.: number of "Oscil

latory Potentials".

- 221

From data of table 2 it can be observed that:

"arrwave amplitude appear substantially u
i)
naffected by the microwave exposure;
ii) 'b" wave amplitude and latency ("culmination time") both are increased after irra
diation;
iii) the number of Oscillatory Potentials appe
ar reduced.
Such funtional alterations are resonably related to the emodynamic changes following the mi
crowave induced heating.

41

G6

References

[l]Daily,L., Wavin,K.G., Herrick,J.F., Parkhil1,E.M.: Effects of microwave diathermy on

the eye. American Journal Phisiology, vol.
155, 432 (1948).
[2]Richardson,A.W., Duane,T.D., Hines,H.M.: Ex
perimental lenticular opacities produced by
microwave irradiations. Arch. Phys. Med.
vol. 29, 765-769 (1948).

Conclusions
The reported observations, although to be
confirmed by further experiments, suggest two
major findings:
i) Cataractogenic effectiveness of 15 GHz radiation appear quite similar to that well
known at lower frequencies (2.45 GHz) from
the point of view of both the threshold le
vels and the ophthalmoscopic characters.
ii) At exposure levels under-cataractogenic, a
rather precise estimate of the stress conditions of the eye may be acheived by bio
microscopic techniques applied to the microvessels of the conjunctiva, and by func
tional test
such as electroretinography. -

[3]Carpenter,R.L., Van LJmmersen,C.A.: The action of microwave power on the eye. Jour.
Microw. Power vol. 3, 3-19 (1968).
[4]Cleary,S.F.: Microwave cataractogenesis.
Proc. IEEE vol. 68, 49-55 (1980).
[S]Brown,K.T.: The electroretinograms, its corn
ponents and their origins. Vision Research
vol. 8, 633 (1968).
Work done with financial support of the Mi
nistero della Pubblica Istruzione and of the
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche through
the Istituto di Ricerche per 1'Elettromagne
tismo e i Componenti Elettronici.

WIDEBAND
NEAR

EVALUATION

THE EYES
PRESENT

WITH

SUCH

223

42~7

OF MICROWAVE
SCATTERING

AS SAFETY

INTENSITY

STRUCTURES

SPECTACLES

D. W.Griffin and N.Davias

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
The University of Adelaide

Abstract
A novel monopole antenna method has
been applied to a full-size, image-plane type
model of a human to determine the microwave
field near the eyes and to evaluate the effect
of scattering structures, such as metal-framed
safety spectacles, on those fields. Investigations conducted in an anechoic chamber yield
angles of incidence, test frequencies and wave
polarisation values that give details of shielding, enhancement and depolarisation effects
due to the scattering structure that appear
not to have been previously studied.

Microwave cataractogenesis is one of the

most extensively investigated exposure effects
and yet the influence of such variables as
radiation frequency, field polarisation and
directions of incidence on the distribution of
microwave energy near and in the human
eye appears not to have been determined [l].
In the absence of any established method
of making the required measurements [3], a
novel image plane method has been developed
[4] for exploratory evaluation of the effect of
the spectacles. Preliminary results [4] for
the 2 to 4 GHz frequency range have been
extended so that results of investigations over
the range 2 to 12 GHt can now be given.

I. Introduction
The measurement of microwave fields in
and around the eyes in models of humans is
of prime interest to those concerned with the
health implications of exposure to microwave
radiation. The principal hazard to the eyes
due to microwave exposure is that of cataract
formation, and the true measure of the hazard that exists is the energy absorbed by the
eye [11. In this study our aim is to measure
the effect of scattering structures, specifically
metal-framed safety spectacles, placed near
the eyes and to determine whether safety margins incorporated in standards for permissible
levels of human exposure [z] are compromised
by such structures.
Significant scattering of incident microwave energy can be expected because the
metal frames include closed loop sections to
support the lenses and also straight sections
extending to the ears. Dimensions suggest
fundamental resonances around 1 GHa although these may be heavily damped by the
close proximity of the head which exhibits
large losses at microwave frequencies.

II. Measurement Assembly

And Procedure
The novel image plane method developed
for this investigation and described in detail
in a recent paper [4] is illustrated in the measurement assembly of Figure 1 and the standard orientations of the image plane model in
Figure 3.
A model of the head and chest of a human
has a plane of symmetry passing through the
centre of the forehead and along the nose and
an image plane can be placed in this plane
of symmetry creating the entire model so far
as electromagnetic behaviour is concerned.
The fields near the eyes can be measured by
introducing a monopole antenna normal to
the ground plane across the top of the nose
and past the pupil of the eye. This forms
the item under test in the chamber of Figure
1. The response pattern for the monopole by
itself can be obtained and used as an overall
calibration. Next the model can be placed on
the ground plane and a new response pattern
obtained. If all other experimental variables

are kept constant then the difference between

the two sets of results gives a measure of the
effect of the model on the resultant fields ,to
which the monopole responds. If then the
spectacles are mounted on the ground plane
and a new response pattern is obtained then
subtraction between the three sets of results
gives a measure of the effect of introducing
each new item onto the ground plane.

r-----

_---_-__---

,crcwave

anecbolc chamber

micr~,~a

HP 9045

System

control
HP-IO

HP-tB

cmp"ter

The experimental variables used for this

study are as follows. Assuming plane uniform
TEM waves incident on the subject, the direction of incidence (0 and C#values in spherical
coordinate terms), the polarisation of the incident waves (u@ and u4 components of electric
field EJ)and its frequency are the variables associated with the source, as shown in Figure 2.
Knowledge of the source power is not necessary because if all experimental variables are
kept constant between the three sets of measurements, then a direct comparison of the
three sets of results will yield the information
required.
Patterns for the model with and without
spectacles which is treated as a receiving
antenna are obtained from measurements of
the scattering parameter Szl as the model is
successively stepped through a sequence of B
and 4 orientations under computer control.

HPO409A
ktmntlc

224

HP 9072A

Olgltal
plotter

AY_.
L

model on plane

Fig.1. A simplified block diagram of the

main functional parts of the automated
antenna radiation pattern measurement
system based on a computer-controlled
network analyser.

270

the origin for

the Cartesian
and spherical coordinate
system used is at the CentFe
of the circular ground plane
that supports
the made1 and
the field measuring probe.

4H
IF.c----Qp

incident TEM wave

!A

(a) (Hi,) nade -horizontal

horizontal

poldrlzalion
wing

(b) (IN) mode -horizontal polarlrrt~on

vertical wing

T-h

incident wave in the

x-a plane so that $=O
and 845
(black dots
represent 15' steps
in 0).

Fig.2. Spherical coordinate system used to

describe the incident transverse electromagnetic waves and orientation of the
model for any set of experimental measurements.

(c) (VW mde

- vertical polarization
horizontal wing

(d) (VV) mode

- vertical polarlratlon
vertical wing

Fig.3. Measurements with each of two polarisations ( horizontal, H, or vertical, V)

in each of two polar planes ( wings horil;ontal, H, or vertical, V ) gives the measurement modes HH, HV, VH and W as
shown above.
Measurements have been restricted to two
polarisations of the incident TEM wave, two
polar planes through the complete three-dimensional response pattern and the frequency

225

range from 2000 MHz to 12000 MHz in

100 MHz steps. It is possible to identify four
distinct measurement modes corresponding
to the choice between either horizontal, H,
polarisation or vertical, V, polarisation, and
the choice between a response pattern in a
polar plane parallel to the wing structure of
the spectacles, referred to as H, or normal to
the wing structure, referred to as V. Figure 3
illustrates the orientations of the polarisation
of the incident TEM wave and the phantom
relative to the floor of the anechoic chamber.
The monopole extends along the a-axis from
the origin of the coordinate system, and it
remains parallel to the floor of the chamber,
the horizontal, H, as does the propagation
vector & of the incident TEM wave.
III. Results

A. HH Mode
The response of the field measuring monopole at 5 degree steps in 0 can be plotted
from computer files as shown in Figure 4 for
a frequency of 6000 MHz. Results obtained
with 4 = 0 are presented as negative 8 values, and those for 4 = 180 are presented
as positive 6 values. The total length of the
monopole protruding from the ground plane
is 35.35mm, corresponding to quarter-wave
resonance occuring at a frequency of approximately 2.1 GHz.
The ratio .of monopole
length, L, to monopole diameter, D, is approximately 30.

42 ~7

The pattern for the monopole by itself on

the circular ground plane exhibits features
consistent with diffraction due to the shape
and finite size of that plane. These features
are part of the reference response against
which the effects of introducing the phantom
and the spectacles are measured.
When the phantom is introduced on to the
ground plane, then for negative values of 8,
the phantom is placed behind the monopole
antenna, when looking from the transmitter,
and so should have little effect on the overall
shape of the response pattern, but for positive
values of 6 the phantom is directly in the path
between the transmitter and the monopole
antenna, and so would be expected to introduce a significant amount of attenuation to
the signals received by the monopole.
The finer details of the pattern shown in
Figure 4 are typical of the results obtained
for the frequency range considered and are
due to a number of effects. The phantom is
composed of a thin shell filled with a material
suitable for simulating the microwave prop
erties of the human body. A standing wave
pattern will be formed around the phantom
and any dips in response could be due to the
monopole being placed in the position of a null
in the standing-wave pattern. Diffraction effects may also account for some of the details
in response pattern as could depolarisation,
coupling and scattering effects.
When the spectacles are placed on the
phantom then, assuming that source power
is kept constant and that all other factors
concerned with the study are unchanged, a
simple comparison of this set of results with
the previous one should yield the information
we require. Henceforth, the results obtained
with the phantom in place will be referred to
as case 1 and those for the spectacles in place
will be referred to as case 2.

Fig.4. Response patterns for the monopole

probe at 6000 MHz for the HH mode
showing the monopole by itself then with
the phantom in place and finally with
metal-framed spectacles on the phantom.

Consider first the case of negative 8 values. For a frequency of 2000 MHz the maximum in response for case 2, occuring at an
angle of about 6 = -65O, is approximately
5 dB down from that occuring for case 1. We
find that this remains so for frequencies up
to approximately 4000 MHz, where the two
maxima then begin to approach each other
in level, until at 4800 MHz they have in fact

converged. Above this frequency, the two patterns remain very similar in shape, although
there
is __~
however a fairly consistent increase of
__-_ _ __
a few dB in response for case 2 for the range of
negative 0 values. In particular, for frequencies between 4000 MHz and 6000 MHz there
is a consistent increase in radiation levels of
approximately 5 dB for case 2 in the approximate range of orientations -60 5 8 5 -10.
We find that there are dips and peaks occuring for case 2 patterns which are dependent on
the frequency and the orientation, however it
is of more value to look for consistent changes
between the two results rather than isolated
cases of dips and peaks which are much more
difficult to explain.
In the region close to 8 = 0 it is found
that there is a consistent increase in radiation levels with both case 1 and 2 results as
compared to those for the monopole by itself. This is to be expected if one remembers
that we would expect zero response from the
monopole by itself, and any scattering structure introduced near the monopole will increase the component of electric field parallel
to the monopole axis. There is also a consistent increase in the level for case 2 results as
compared to case 1.
Consider now the results for positive 6 values. It is found that there is a fairly consistent
increase of approximately 5 dB in the radiation levels for case 2 as compared to case 1,
except for orientations close to 8 = O. This is
to be expected since for positive 0 values the
phantom causes an obstruction in the path
between the transmitter and the monopole
and so one would expect very little radiation
to reach the monopole. However, introduction of the spectacles, and the subsequent reradiation from them, would increase the fields
around the eyes. Cases exist where there is an
increase of more than 20 dB and this occurs
for orientations where there is a dramatic dip
in level for case 1, and subsequent addition of
the spectacles completely overcomes this dip.
The important result in this study is the
comparison of the radiation patterns obtained
for the phantom with and without spectacles.
Subtraction of the two results will yield the
information required, and this is given in
Figure 5, where the difference between the
two results is plotted against orientation for
frequencies of 2000 MHz to 12000 MHz in
2000 MHz steps. Figure 5 illustrates the

22 16 -

fact that there is a consistent increase of up

to 5 dB over the frequency range 4000 to
10000 MHz for angles of incidence in the
range -80 < 8 2 60.

Fig.5. Patterns at 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 GHz

showing the effect of adding metal-framed
spectacles to the phantom for the HH
mode.
This result is consistent with what we expect, since the incident TEM wave has a component of electric field parallel to the wing of
the spectacles for all orientations except those
close to 8 = f90, and a component parallel
to the rim of the spectacles for all orientations except those close to 0 = 0. However,
the monopole probe is at right angles to the
wing structure and also to the equivalent of
the loop antenna, the magnetic linear wire antenna. Therefore only a very small amount
of re-radiated electric field will be parallel to
the monopole probe. But the presence of
the phantom and the fact that the monopole
probe is in the near-field of the spectacles will
increase the parallel component of re-radiated
electric field somewhat.
B. HV Mode
The response of the monopole is given in
Figure 6, with results obtained for 4 = 270
plotted as negative B values, and those for
4 = 90 plotted as positive 0 values. Results
for the monopole mounted by itself on the
ground plane for this mode are identical to
those obtained for the mode discussed in the
previous section, and illustrate the precision
and repeatability of measurements.

227

42

~7

relative to the phantom of up to 20 dB for

frequencies below 6000 MHz, and for most
values of 0.

Fig.6. Response patterns for the monopole

probe at 6000 MHz for the HV mode.
The phantom forms an obstruction between the monopole and the transmitter for
all values of 0, except those close to zero,
and so would be expected to introduce significant attenuation to the levels reaching the
monopole. This is confirmed by the results
where we find that the overall shape of the
response pattern when the phantom is introduced is similar to that for the monopole by
itself, but with a corresponding decrease in
levels. This is particularly true for frequencies above approximately 6000 MHz.
When the spectacles are introduced onto
the ground plane, it is found that the basic
shape of the results remains fairly constant for
frequencies above approximately 6000 MHz,
but accompanied by a shift in level. The
basic shape of the radiation pattern obtained
is fairly symmetrical around B = O, and this
is consistent with the fact that the orientation
of the incident electric field with respect to
the spectacles is more or less symmetrical
about B = OO. That is, the electric field is
in the plane of the rims for all orientations
but normal to the wing. Any departure from
this symmetry is due to the presence of the
phantom.
The difference between results obtained
for the phantom with and without spectacles
are plotted as a function of orientation for frequencies of 2006 to 12006 MHz in 2000 MHz
steps and presented in Figure 7. This shows
that there is an increase in radiation levels

Fig.7. Patterns at 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 GHz

showing the effect of adding metal-framed
spectacles to the phantom for the HV
mode.
The electric field of the incident TEM
wave has a component parallel to the rim of
the spectacles for all orientations, and this
may cause a significant amount of re-radiation
to occur, with a component of electric field
parallel to the monopole probe. Excitation
of the wing structure may also occur due to
scattering and depolarisation occuring from
the phantom.
C. VH and VV Modee
Polarisation of the incident electric field is
normal to the monopole and so one would expect zero response for all orientations. The
absolute level of radiation experienced by the
monopole for vertical polarisation of the electric field as compared to horizontal polarisation is reduced by as much as 30 dB which
puts all measurements very close to the limits
of the dynamic range of the network analyser.
When an item is introduced onto the ground
plane along with the monopole one would expect there to be an increase in the level of
radiation at the monopole due to scattering
and subsequent depolarisation occuring from
the new item, and this is confirmed by the
results.
A detailed discussion of results is not
possible here, but suffice to say that there is a

228

consistent increase of up to 40 dB in radiation

levels at the monopole site for the VH mode,
but a consistent decrease for the W mode.
IV. Conclusion
For measurements with a monopole antenna that extends past the pupil of the
eye, introduction of metal-framed spectacles
causes an increase in the signal received by up
to 5 dB for the HH mode and by up to 20 dB
for the HV mode for a wide range of frequencies and for most orientations. Measurements
made with vertical polarisation exhibit similar results.
Measurements with a shorter monopole
that extends only to the corner of the eye
and is therefore closer to the bridge over the
nose do not exhibit this enhancement effect,
indicating that a method of measuring the
field distribution in front of the eye is required
in place of the monopole that gives, at best,
a weighted average of the required quantities.
A probe that scans the region in front of
the eyes would increase the amount of data to
be gathered by a factor equal to the number
of measurement positions in front of the eye.
A revolutionary method could be adapted to
reduce the amount of data to be gathered in
the following way. Instead of a large number
of tests involving specific field conditions in an
anechoic chamber, a paddle-tuned microwave

reverberation chamber might be used for creating a sufficiently comprehensive variety of

field conditions for the worst case to be covered.
V. References

S.F.Cleary Microwave Cataractogenesis

Proc. IEEE, vol. 68, pp.4955, Jan. 1980
Standards Association of Australia Draft
Australian Standard for Permissible Levels of Human Exposure to Non-ionizing
Electromagnetic Energy in the Frequency
Range 30 kHa to 300 GHz. DR 82191,
Oct. 1982
The Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers IEEE Standard Test Procedures for Antennas IEEE Std. 149-1979
D.W.Griffin and N.Davias The Effect
of Metal-framed Spectacles on Microwave
Radiation Hazard Near the Eyes presented at IEEE 1984 National Symposium
on Electromagnetic Compatability.
VI. Acknowledgements
The need for research on this task was
drawn to the authors attention by Mr. Sasty
Sastradipradja of Telecom Research Laboratories, Australia.

229

43Hl

STATISTICAL ASPECTS OF NOISE AND LIMITS

A. de Jong
Dr. Neher Laboratories PTT
Leidschendam, Netherlands

The effect of noise and interference on

electromagnetic systems depends on many
statistically variable factors. These factors
are related to the interference sources, the
coupling between source and interfered
equipment and to the capability of that
equipment to resist interference. Most
experience in this field is available in the
area of radio interference (RFI) because an
open radio transmission system is quite
vulnerable to interference. Some
considerations are therefore given to the
control of interference in radio communication
systems by the application of RF1 limits.
Introduction
Electric and electronic equipment may be
disturbed in their proper functions by
unwanted electromagnetic signals, often called
disturbance, interference or noise. Some of
these disturbing signals are useful for other
purposes (wanted signals), but disturbing to
the victim equipment, a wanted signal for one
application may act as an unwanted o.r
interfering signal for a different
application. Other disturbing signals are not
useful anyhow, but are generated
unintentionally as unwanted products of
electrical or electromagnetic processes.
Each electric or electronic equipment is
surrounded by a large number of unwanted
signal sources, such an overall situation is
characterized as: electromagnetic environment.
Because of the many variable characteristics
of such an electromagnetic environment and
because of the variable aspects of the
equipment itself a statistical approach is
necessary to define the quality or reliability
in proper functioning of the equipment in an
electromagnetic environment.
The proper operation in an e.m. environment
is essential for all types of electrical,
electronic and electromagnetic (radio) systems
and devices. Radio systems, however, are
extremely vulnerable to ambient e.m.
interference fields because of the open medium
used for the transport of information. For
this reason the behaviour of radio
communication in an e.m. environment has been
investigated for many years and a lot of
information is available in this area of
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC). Moreover,
most countries apply regulations to control
radio interference (RFI). More recently,

growing attention has been paid to non-radio

EMC problems.
The following paragraphs survey the various
aspects which determine the statistical
parameters of interference cases whereas more
detailed information on theoretical and
practical aspects is given in the papers
presented in this session.
Types of interference signals
Output signals (radiated or conducted) of
various interference sources can differ
considerably from type to type. The following
distinction is often made:
- narrowband (relative to centre or carrier
frequency),
- broadband.
Such a distinction in the frequency domain is
very useful in the case of RF interference
(RFI), which considers the interference effect
on (narrowband) radio channels. In this case
the term narrowband is related to the
bandwidth of the operational receiver or the
corresponding measuring receiver.
In the case of communication in broadband
systems, audio and video systems and in the
functioning of digital equipment or other
electronic applications the signal waveforms
in the time domain may be more useful. It must
be noted, however, that in complex cases (e.m.
environment caused by various sources) the
overall interfering signal waveform is not
quite relevant for analytical purposes and
considerations on the frequency spectrum are
more informative.
For basic waveforms the transfer from time
domain to frequency domain and vice versa by
using Fourier rules are well-known. Although
simple waveforms seldom occur in practical
situations the following basic waveforms are
used to simulate actual interference signals.
Narrowband signals:
- sinewaves as generated by oscillators,
transmitters and industrial, scientific and
medical (ISM) equipment,
- modulated sinewaves (transmitters).
Narrowband signals may be generated anywhere
in the frequency spectrum without any
principal restriction.
Broadband signals:
- rectangular pulses (digital equipment,
radar),
- triangular pulses (sweep circuits,
electronic circuits),

- 230

partial sinewaves (phase controlled

thyristor regulators),
trapezoidal pulses (a modified approximation
of rectangular pulses),
exponential rise and decay pulses
(transients),
white gaussian noise (passive and active
components, gas discharges),
coloured noise (some active components,
program signals).
From the broadband signals white gaussian
noise is basically flat and the spectrum
infinite. In practice parasitic reactances
inside the source reduce its level in the
higher frequency region. The pulse waveforms
generate spectra which are flat up to a
certain frequency limit, beyond this limit the
level falls off with a 20 dB or 40 dB per
decade slope. For this reason in practice
broadband man made noise is normally
restricted to the frequency range up to 1 GHz.
In actual circuits basic pulse waveforms
are always distorted by non-linear frequency
and phase characteristics and often by
non-linear amplitude characteristics of the
signal path, so the output waveform is
distorted and the resulting frequency spectrum
deviates accordingly from the basic spectrum.
This is a dominant factor in narrowband
transmission channels.
The interference potential of a narrowband
source differs from that of a broadband source
because the frequency of the narrowband source
should coincide with the frequency channel of
a narrowband (e.g. radio) system whereas the
broadband source influences a broad frequency
band simultaneously. On the other hand the
level of a broadband source is, measured in a
narrowband channel, much lower than the level
of a narrowband source of comparable
interference power. So the statistical
interference behaviour of both types of
sources is quite different.
Some actual interference waveforms have a
stochastic appearance (noisy), often in the
form of noise bursts, 'quasi impulsive noise',
(e.g. sparking contacts, commutator motors,
motor car ignition systems).
Noise sources in which the noise output is
generated directly by the a.c. mains voltage
show an amplitude modulation in accordance
with the mains waveform envelope (e.g. mains
fed commutator motors, thyristor regulators,
contacts, gas discharge lighting). This may
cause the well-known hum in sound signals and
two horizontal bars filled up with noise
spikes in TV pictures.
Statistical behaviour of an interference
source
As explained earlier the waveform and the
concerning interference level vary from type
to type because of the different basic
characteristics of the noise source.
For a given type of equipment the noise
output level of a source varies from sample to
sample within a series of the same type of
went.
This is due to electrical and
mechanical tolerances in components and
circuit lay-out during the manufacturing
process. For this reason in mass produced
appliances only statistical testing is
economically feasible. This results in a
limited confidence in the entire production of
a certain type (80%-80% rule of CISPR).

The output level of a single source is

often variable in time. Mechanical contacts
(switches, commutator motors, ignition
systems) and gas discharges (gas discharge
lightink, sparks) show short term variations
due to mechanical instabilities, temperature,
air pressure, etc. This requires observation
of the output level for a period of several
seconds per spot frequency so that the sweep
rate for automatic frequency measurements is
reduced to very low values.
Long term variations are caused by
mechanical wearing, aging, gas diffraction,
etc. For this reason measurements on
commutator motors and contact devices are
carried out after an adequate running-in
period. In particular contact burning
increases the noise output during lifetime
considerably.
The output level of a single broadband
source is always more or less variable in
frequency. In some cases the level variz
strongly over the frequency range e.g. in
equipment with coils (commutator motors) in
which parasitic resonances occur in the RF
range. This necessitates measurements in a
broad frequency range with adequate frequency
resolution.
In the case of radiated fields the
radiation varies with the direction,
particularly at higher frequencies. This
requires measurements in several azimuth
directions, mostly performed by means of a
turn table. Normally, measurements are not
carried out in various elevations, but in
specific cases (aeronautical interference) it
may be also necessary.
The final test result is also determined by
the testing accuracy. Inaccuracies are
introduced by electrical and mechanical
tolerances in the measuring equipment, the
operating conditions of the unit under test
and the test set-up. The lay-out of connecting
cables to input and output terminals in the
test set-up is very important, so the test
set-up should be standardized accurately. This
is in particular critical in the case of
fieldstrength measurements. Such measurements
are also strongly influenced by environmental
conditions such as reflections caused by the
ground (dependent on weather and season),
nearby objects and by the operator.
Fieldstrength tests carried out at several
test stations on the same signal source have
shown differences up to 2 5 dB. For this
reason and for other practical drawbacks (open
test site, climate) fieldstrength measurements
are not very popular.
The statistical approach for mass produced
equipment is generally acceptable for the
interference protection of non-vital services
(performance or quality degradation in
broadcast and non-vital conuaunication). In
this respect the 80%-80% rule (80% of the
equipment should fulfill the requirements with
80% confidence) recommended by CISPR has
proven to be useful. In the case of vital
services (e.g. radio channels for emergency
and distress calls, instrument landing
systems, vital industrial processing,
telecontrolled transportation systems, etc.)
more absolute limits are required to control
worst case situations. This is, however, only
possible by testing all individual sources and
conflicting with statistical testing of mass

231 -

produced equipment. In this case statistical

testing with much tighter limits than the
80X-80% CEPR limits is the only alternative.
Coupling between interference source and
interfered equipment
The noise output signal generated by the
source can either be radiated or conducted
from the equipment. Radiation depends on the
coupling or leakage from the internal source
to the outer case or cabinet (external
currents) and on the radiation characteristics
of the cabinet. Radiation is only possible if
the dimensions of the equipment are not very
small compared with wavelength, so normal size
equipment does only radiate in the MHz range
and higher. Noise signals can be conveyed by
conduction along cables, in particular the
mains cable is an important noise conductor.
Part of the noise injected into the mains is
conducted by the mains network to other users,
part of the noise energy is radiated by the
mains itself depending on frequency and mains
configuration.
At the victim equipment a complementary
situation exists. Ambient fields may induce
unwanted signals directly in sensitive parts
of the victim equipment if this equipment is
not properly screened. This is frequently the
case in electronic circuits housed in
non-metallic cabinets, unscreened and poorly
designed electronic circuitry. The induced
voltages depend on the dimensions of the
sensible circuit loops and increase with
frequency, so the effects are mainly important
in the MHz range and higher, In addition,
ambient fields induce currents (and voltages)
in cables connected to the equipment. In this
case the noise conducted by the cables is
often dominant with respect to the direct pick
up of the equipment because of the relatively
long length of the cables exposed to the
ambient field compared with the dimensions of
the equipment. Finally, mains cables may
conduct unwanted signals injected from other
sources into the mains network.
An important factor for the coupling effect
is the distance between source and victim
equipment. The propagated interference power
is inversely proportional with distance
according to a 2nd power law for free field
radiation, with a 4th to 6th power law for
nearby induction fields and between a 2nd and
5th power for RF fields under actual
propagation conditions. Attenuation of
conducted signals takes place according to an
exponential law. Special conditions such as
screening, reflection, atmospheric absorption,
fading, lay-out of cables, etc. may influence
the distance effect considerably.
The propagation characteristics of the
coupling path are always frequency dependent
and occasionally amplitude dependent. For
radiated fields the radiation characteristics
of the source are the dominant frequency
dependent factor, for conducted signals the
frequency dependent cable attenuation is the
important factor.
At the lower end of the frequency spectrum
(< 10 MHz) the radiation effect of actual
interference sources is relatively small as
far as the dimensions of the source (and its
cabling) are small compared with wavelength.
In this frequency range the attenuation of
cables to conducted interference is rather low

43Hl

so in practice conduction coupling dominates.

In the higher frequency range (> 100 MHZ)
radiation is more effective and cable
attenuation rather high so in this frequency
range radiation coupling dominates. In the
transition region (10-100 MHz) the dominant
coupling type varies from case to case.
From the considerations given earlier it
will be clear that wide variations in coupling
paths are found from case to case. Some
measurements have been carried out to
determine the coupling between noise sources
connected to the mains and receiving antennas
at a specified distance. However, limited data
of coupling path statistics are available in
literature.
Statistical behaviour of interfered equipment
Unwanted signals
may disturb victim
.
equipment in various ways.
One important aspect is the interfering
signal itself as characterized by its time
domain (waveform) or frequency domain
(spectrum).
Another factor is the way through which the
unwanted signal penetrates into the victim
equipment. Apart from the distinction in
radiated and conducted interference it is
different whether an unwanted signal enters
the equipment through the standard input
terminals or via any other path. Unwanted
signals entering via the input terminal pass
the same circuits as the wanted signals and
therefore cannot be easily separated without
degradation of the wanted signal (except for
more complex signal processing procedures). In
telecommunication the protection ratio is
defined as the ratio between the wanted input
signal level and the unwanted input level
which causes a specified degradation of
quality or loss of performance.
Unwanted signals entering via other paths
can be isolated from the wanted signal more
simply (screening, filtering, proper circuit
lay-out and earthing). In this case the
(external) immunity-factor is defined as the
ratio between the unwanted interference sianal
level and the wanted input level (note thereciprocal quantity compared with the
protection ratio) which causes a specified
degradation of quality or loss of performance.
In both cases the annoyance caused by the
interfering signal is of a subjective nature
and should be evaluated statistically from
subjective observations in order to be
translated into objective quantities.
The immunity characteristics of an
equipment vary from sample to sample due to
electrical and mechanical tolerances in
circuit lay-out and components just as in the
case of interference sources.
To determine interference cases the
following statistical parameters are to be
taken into account:
the level of the wanted signal, a
statistical quantity which varies strongly
in the case of radio signals and generally
to a much less extent in the case of cable
conducted signals,
the overall level of ambient interference
signals, which is generally very complex in
practice as pointed out earlier,
the protection and immunity characteristics
of the interfered equipment.

- 232

Interference and immunity limits

Noise suppression measures are taken in
several areas of the EMC field.
Standardization of EMC measures is growing in
international industrial organizations. The
oldest and most widespread area of application
is radio communication because of its use of
radiated waves in an open transmission medium.
To protect radio services limits have been
standardized for many years and laid down in
legal regulations to restrict the unwanted
output of equipment (interference limits). The
purpose of these limits is that under average
or worst case conditions such a noise source
or a combination of noise sources does not
cause any unacceptable interference.
More recently standards have been
established for the required immunity of
(radio) equipment against interference.
As explained earlier it is evident that the
dictation of limits is only a partial answer
to the overall problem of RFI, although it
covers an important part of actual
interference cases.
It is not easy to evaluate the effect of
new or amended limits in practice. For this
reason radio regulating authorities collect
statistical information on RF1 complaints.
Imperfections of these statistics
are:
many cases of interference are not reported
by the public, so information is limited,
normally, no distinction is made in
complaints caused by equipment which does or
does not comply with the limits,
the subdivision in interference sources or
interfered victims is not always explicit,
amendments in limits are only effective in
the long run, because older equipment often
has to die out.

Nevertheless, these statistics show

tendencies in interference situations over
years and these statistics are the only
practical means for feed back to the
authorities responsible for the establishment
of limits.
Conclusions
Abatement of electromagnetic interference
and in particular radio interference requires
a statistical approach because of the many
variable quantities involved with respect to
the noise sources, the interfered equipment
and the coupling between noise source and
victim.
Such an approach should also take into
account the harmfulness of the interference
and consequently the reliability of the
measures to be taken.
The existing regulatory measures, which
prescribe limits for a number of noise
sources in the field of RF1 solve the
interference problems only partially. More
sophisticated models and procedures are
necessary to attain optimal suppression
measures. The field of application should be
broadened to equipment not only used for radio
communication.
It should be kept in mind, however, that
abatement of interference is not only a matter
of technical requirements, but of economic and
policy considerations as well.

233

44~2

PROBLEM
RADIO INTERFERENCE- THE PROBABILI'I?!
A C D Whitehouse
Department of Trade & Industry
London,England

1.

INTRODUCTION

In the management of the radio frequency

spectrum the various radio services are
planned on the basis that they will
suffer
some interference. One of the most difficult
asoects oE planning is the estimation of the
degree of interEerencethat a oarticular service is likely to sufEer. Within the
InternationalConsultative
Committee on Radio
(CCIR), mucn work has been done on estimating
the extent of interferencebetween radio
services, but comparativelylittle has been
done for the interferencewhich is caused by
other sources of spurious signals. The
TnternationalSpecial Committee on Radio
Lnterference(CTSPR) is tasked with developing
radio interferencelimits. CIXPR and CCIR
are currently reassessingthe limits of spurious signals caused by industrial,scientific
and medical.(lSM) equipment. This work
includes examining methods of!estimating the
probabilityof the occurrence of interference
to various radio services.
3
4.

THE POSTTLON WITHTN CISPR

'Thequestion of derivinq acceptable limits

for ISM equipment is beset on the one hand
with the problem of large equipments which
are particularlycostly to suppress and on
the other with that of safety of life
services such as aeronauticalinstrument
landing systems (ILS) which require a hiqh
degree of protection. CISPR has recommended
limits Cl1 but there is substantialevidence
that in many parts of the world these limits
are exceeded by the majority of ISIMequipments, and yet there are few cases ofinterference [21. 'ChereEore
CXSPR in conjunctionwith
CCIR is revising its limits to produce values
which can be observed in practice but yet
afford the required degree of protection to
the various radio services.
For ISM equipment the CISPR test method is to
measure on a test site the field strength of
spurious signals at a distance of 30 metres
from the equipment. To produce a limit it is
necessary to relate the field strength
measured at 30 metres on a test site to the
maximum permissiblespurious field-strength
at the receiving antenna of the radio system
to be protected C31.

The maximum permissiblespurious signal (Eil

when the signal at the receiving antenna is
the minimum signal to be protected (Ew) is:
Ei = Ew - R

dB(uV/m) -

(11

Where R is the required signal-to-spurious

ratio . It is necessary to determine the
average minimum distance (d) of the antenna
from the ISM equipment. By using a distance
attenuation law (l/d") a maximum permissible
spurious signal at the distance of 30 metres
from the ISM equipment is calculated. Using
this value (E ) as the CISPR limit would
ensure a very3Righ degree of Qrotection but
the penalty would be to impose high suppression costs on the manufacturersof the ISM
equipment - this cost being ultimately borne
by the consumers, the general public. In
practice buildings provide some attenuation
(0) of the spurious signal, while the
planned reliabilityof each radio service
can have a component (P) to allow for the
probabilityof interference. Allowing for
these factors the limit (EL) is:
EL = E30 + B + P

dB(uV/Ml -

(21

Although conceptuallya simple model there

are significantproblems associatedwith
determining the distance attenuation law
associatedwith very short range propagation,
the attenuationresulting from the building
structures and the factor to allow for the
probabilityof interferenceoccurring.
3.

THEPROBABICITY^OF
INTERFERENCE

Within CCIR the probability that any part of

a transmissionis lost as a result of interference is estimated C4] from equation 3.
P(I) = CP(B/A) - P(D/A and C)]X
Cl-(l-N'TilexQ
(-T~N/(~-NT~~)I
where P(x)

is the probabilityof an
event x;

P(X/Y)

is the probability of x,
given y;

is the desired transmitter

transmitting;

(31

234

is the wanted signal being

satisfactorilyreceived in
the absence of unwanted
spurii:

is another eguipment producing

unwanted signals;

is the wanted signal satisfactorily received in the

presence of unwanted
interference.

is the average number of interference transmissionsQer

unit of time;

TW

!ci

is the length of a wanted

transmission;
is the length of an interference transmission.

Equation 3 is based on the definition in the

Radio Regulations C51 of interferenceas "the
effect of unwanted energy ..... on reception
in the radio communicationssystem, manifested
by any performancedegradation,misrepresentation, or loss of informationwhich could be
extracted in the absence of such unwanted
energy." It follows that there can be no
interferenceif the wanted transmitter is not
transmitting.
Some comments on equation 3 are in order.
The factor P(B/A) is just the probability
that the wanted signal will be correctly
received when there is no spurious signal,
in some services this is called the
reliability. It is worth noting that if
P(B/A) is small - such as may be the case
in long distance ionosphericpoint-to-point
services or mobile services near the edge
of the coverage area - then the probability
of interferencewill be small regardless of
other factors. P(D/A and C) is the Qrobabil- ;
ity that the wanted signal will be correctly
received even when spurii are present. For
receivers separated from the ISM equipment by
distances > d,P(D/A and C) is essentially
equal to P(B/A) and hence the probabilityof
interferenceextremely small.
The following sections consider the Qrobability of interferenceoccurring in various
radio services.
4.

INI'ERFERENCE
IN THE FREQUENCY
RANGE150 - 1605 KHz.

This section con&iders spurious radiation

generated by induction heating equipment and
the interferencecaused to aeronauticalnondirectional beacons (NDB) and to LF/MF radio
broadcasting C61
For NDBs the aim was to evaluate the probability that an airborne receiver operating on
a frequency within the band allocated in the
Radio Regulationswill suffer interferenceas
a result of spurious signals generated by an
induction heatf&r~eguipmentwhich just meets
radiation limits specified for a 30 m test
site.

To evaluate the probabilityit has been

necessary to undertake an in-depth survey of
conditions existing within the United Kingdom
in terms not only of the levels of qurious
signals generated by induction heating equipments but also of the operationalcharacteristics of the NDBs.
Although many parameters are significant in
determining whether interferenceoccurs, only
three have been considered. These are the
characteristicsof the spurious signal, the
frequency of the spurious signal and the
separation between the source of the spurious
signal and the airborne NDR receiver.
4.1 'Thewanted signal.
The minimum field strenath to be wrotected at
the edge of service area is 37 dB(uV/m) [71.
Within the service area oE an NDR the wanted
field strength exceeds this value, but for
simplicity it is assumed that the wanted field
strength throuqhoutthe service area is
37 dB(uV/m). This assumption errs on the side
of safety.
The protection ratio for co-channel operation
of a service similar to the NDR is 15 dB [81.
Interferencemay occur if the level of the
spurious signal, ERl, is such that
ERl> 37 - 15 dB(uV/m) = 22 dB(uV/m)

(4)

4.2 The InterferenceSignal

The spurious radiation generated by induction
heating eguipment is generally intermittent
in nature and the protection ratio required
has not been established. 'Theinvestigation
indicates that the majority of induction
heaters produce bursts of spurious radiation
lasting several seconds inter-spacedwith
approximatelyequal intervals during which no
spurious is generated - a mark-to-spaceratio
of approximately1 : 1.
4.3 Frequency
The frequency band allocated on a primary
basis is 160 - 435 kHz and on a permitted
basis is 435 - 526 kHz.
The selectivityof a NDB receiver is specified
[9l to allow the Qroteqion ratio required to
be reduced by 11 dB at - 2 kHz and by 85 dB
at f 7 kHz. Thus the 0 dB bandwidth of the
NDB receiver is approximately1 kHz.
Therefore if an induction heating equipment
is generating a spurious signal with a
frequency within the 160 - 526 kHz band, the
probability that the frequency falls within
the bandwidth of the NDB receiver is:
Q(f) =

= 2.7 x 1O-3
1
526 - 160

(5)

4.4 Separation
Assume a proposed limit for ISM equipment of
90 dB(uV/m) measured at a distance of 30 m on
a radiation test site. It is necessary to
calculate for an ISM equipment which just
meets this limit the distance at which the
spurious radiation equals the threshold for
interferencelevel of 22 dB(uV/m) (see
equation4 1.

44~2

- 235 -

'Thereare two factors taken into account:

i)

The service volume is

Attenuationof the spurious signal as it

passed through the structure of the
factory; and

ii) the propagation factor.

lO.?r(RNDBj2km3

Therefore the probability that an aircraft is

within the critical volume surrounding the
ISM equipment is:
,
p(v) =

(9)

&,2

NDB
Over the years many measurementshave been
taken which, for this frequency range, show
that the attenuationcaused by factory walls
can vary between 6 dB and 25 dB. A value of
LO dB is assumed in the calculations.
The propagation factor for free space is
defined as the difference between the field
strength El measured at a distance Rl from
a source and the field strength E2 measured
at a greater distance R2.

and

p(v) <

1.8 x 10 -4

4.5 Probabilityof Interferenceto NDBs.

Assuming a high reliability for NDBs, in
equation 3 P(B/A) = 1.

It is assumed that
Eor R < &+

NDBs have service radii varying between 10

and 100 nautical miles. For the 163 NDBs in
use in the United Kingdom the mean radius,
the median radius and the modal radius are
all equal to 25 nautical miles. Using this
value and d = 1.8 km, then,since the assumptions made have erred on the side of safety

A
E 4 $ for R > Tr

Hence P = P(B/A) - P(D/A and C)

where E is the field strength,
R is the distance Erom the source, and
h

is the wavelength.

'Thereforethe propagation factor (PF) is

qi.venby:

=2010glo

P = p(f). p(v) < 4.9 x lo-7

x
R, CT+

PF= 60 log
R
+
R\

m 60 lo~$~(&)

dB&

<

dB, R2 <

RI

&

'Thereforethe probabilityof an induction

heating equipment interferingwith the
operation of an NDB is

= 90 - 10 - PF dB(uV/m)

(7)

Using equations 4, 6 and 7,the distance (d)

at which the level of the spurious radiation
equals the threshold level is found to be:
d = 9.4 F2 c.03 <

/2 <dl km.

To evaluate P(I) in equation 3 it is assumed

that NT = 1 (continuoustransmissionof
wanted xignal) and that NTi = 0.5 (see
section 4.2).

R,

The level of the spurious signal (ER1) is:

ERl

is the probability that an airborne NDB

receiver is within the hemisphere of influence
surrounding an ISM equipment and that the
frequency of the spurious radmon
is within
the bandwidth of the NDB receiver.

(8)

where F is the frequency in MHz.

Around each ISM equipment there is a hemisphere of radius d within which the level
of the spurious radiation exceeds the
threshold value of 22 dB(uV/m). The radius
d is a Eunction of frequency. At a
freguency at the top of the band allocated on
a primary basis to the NDB this radius is
approximately1.8 km. At lower frequencies
the radius is significantlysmaller. However,
to simplify the calculationsit is assumed
that d = 1.8 km over the whole frequency band.
This assumption also errs on the side of
safety.
The volume of the hemisphere is 2 rd3km3
5
Assuming that the NDB has a service area of
and that it serves aircraft at
::$sRB?Bup
to 10 000 m then the NDB service
volume is taken to be a cilinder of radius
RNDn and height 10 km.

-7
P(I) < 4.5 x 10
Other factors affecting the probabilityhave
not been taken into account because they are
extremely difEicult to evaluate. Such factors
include the fact that the interferencesignal
combines with the NDB identificationto
produce an audio output thus givjcnga warning
that interferenceis present! the directivity
of the induction heating eguqxnent when
considered as a transmittingantenna, and
shielding afforded by the fuselage of the
aeroplane from the interferingsignal
radiating upwards.
It is stated that[lO] for radionavigationaids
providing the sole guidance to an aircraft
during automatmanding
the statistical
probability 05 harmful interferenceshould be
less than lo- . The ILS is a more critical
system and requires a greater degree of
protection than the NDB. Yet the considerations detailed in this section indicate that
the probability of interferenceby induction
heating equipment-50NDBs will be of the
order of 4.5 x 10
if the assumed limit of
90 dB(uV/m) is applied.
4.6 Interferenceto LF/MF Broadcasts
For LF/MF broadcasting a more pragmatic
approach was taken.
An investigationwas carried out to determine

- 236

the levels of spurious radiation generated by

induction heating equipment and an assessment
made of the effect on LF/MF broadcast
reception.

by induction heating equipment to protect

LF/MF radio broadcasting is 90 dB(uV/m) at .I
measurementdistance of 30 m.
5.

Measurementsof the spurious radiation levels

have been taken at 4 positions around each of
36 machines at a distance of 30 m. The
results are presented in the form of a histogram in Figure 1. Since a range of equipments have been examined, these results can
be taken as representativeof induction
heating eguipments with a fundamental
fre,guencyin the range 150 - 1600 kHz.
Complaints within the United Kingdom of interference occurring during the years 1976 1982 have been examined"withkespect to the
number of complaints to LF and MF radio
broadcastingcaused by induction heating
eguipment [Ill. During this period there
has not been one complaint of interference
where a source has been traced.to an induction heating eguipment. Over this period
the total number of complaints of interference was 325,321. By any standards this
indicates that the level of interference
caused by induction heatjrngequipment to
LF/MF radio broadcasts is at an acceptable
level. 'Thereforeit is concluded that were
the probability factor correctly evaluated
and inserted into the equation relating the
levels of spurious generated to the interference effect at the broadcast receiver, then
the interferencelimit calculated would
certainly not be lower than the majority
of the inteference levels presented in
Figure 1, since otherwise there would be
occurrences of actualinterference.

&3

[NrERFERENCEIN tHE FREWENCY

RANGE 1.08- 112 MHz

'rhefceguency band 10R - 112 MHz contains

the Ins%rument Landing Systems (ILS) and
VHF OmnidirectionalRadar (VOR) of aeronautical radionavigationalaids.
5.1
zhe
--v ILS Signal
During the crm
time when *anaircraft is
just about to land the specified minimum field
strength is 46 dB(uV/m). Depending upon the
characteristicsof the interferingsign*1
three levels of protection ratio have been
established 1112
1.

'Themost onerous protection ratio is 46 dB.

>Thisprotection is required against an
interferenzesignal whose freguency is stable
to within - 1 Hz of the tone spectral line
in the ILS tone filters.
The second level of protection ratio is 23 dB,
which is required when the interferencefreguency is stable to within - 50 Hz. In this
case the interferencemechanism results from
the action of the interferencesignal in the
,tonefilter rectifyingcircuitry.
The third level of protection ratio is 6 d0,
which is required when the int rference
freguency is stable to within 7
- 12 kHz. In
this case the interferenceeffect results
from the action of the interferingsignal on
the IF detectors.
,rherange of 40 dB between the protection
ratios quoted indicates that the protection
required by the ILS system is very dependent
upon the characteristicsof the interfering
signal.

!Xi/59
60/69Xl/79W/8990/99
Lf3.d at 30 m dB(uv/m)

Fig. 1 :

Histogram of measured spurii

levels from induction heating
equipment.

5.2 Characteristicsof ISM Interference.

The fourth harmonic of 27 MHz dielectric
heating equipment falls within the ILS band.
The characteristicsof the spurious signals
radiated by equipment were determined by
visitingfourindustrial sites and making
measurementson 42 separate dielectric
heating equipments. 'Theequipments split
into two main categories; those which operate
continuously (used in processes such as
baking and glue drying), and those which
operate intermittently(used in plastic
welding). The detailed results have been
reported C131.

From Figure 1 a level of 90 dB(uV/m) at a

measurementdistance of 30 m from the source
is exceeded in 20% of the readings.

5.2.1 Equipment which operates continuously.

Almost 50% of the equipments upon which
measurementswere made were of the type which
operate continuously. The actual fundamental
frequency used is adjusted to maximise the
transfer oE power into the load. The fundamental frequenciesfell within the range
26.06 - 29.88 MHz. 'Thestability+ofthe
fundamentalfrequency yas within - 10 kHz,
short-term and within - 20 kHz over a
five day period.

It is concluded that a satisfactorylimit

for the levels of spurious radiation generated

An assessment 'was made of the fourth harmonic

of the radiation polar diagrams of the dielec-

Many Regulatory Authoritieshave already

accepted CISPR Recommendationsconcerning
interferencefor equipment other than ISM
in which the limits are implementedon the
basis that up to 20% of the equipments in
use may exceed the stated limit.

44~2

237 -

tric heating equipments, four measurementsat

a given distance being made in orthogonal
directions. At a 30 m measurementdistance
the Iminimumvariation in a polar diagram was
10 df3and the maximum variation 35 dB. The
typical variation was 25 dB. At loo metre
Imeasurement
distance the minimum variation
in the polar diagram was 6 dB and the maximum
variation 35 dB. The typical variation was
15/20 dB. 'Theconsiderablevariation between
the measured polar diagrams of similar elguipments indicates the strong influence of
surroundingstructures on the radiation
influenceis not present in
pattern. ,I'his
test-sitemeasurements.
'Thelevels oE the measured interference Eield
strength at 30 m varied between 53 and 100
dB(uV/m). At 100 m the measured levels igere
between 27 and 69 dB(uV/m).
5.2.2 i___.____~-.
Bquioment &i-h operates
--i.ntcr,ni.tte!ntl.y
The plazic welding equipment radiated
spurious signals intermittentlywith
typically a 5 second "on" time and a 20/30
second "oEE'*time (while new material was
being inserted). The nower of the eguipment
was in the range 3 - 10 kW. The fundamental
frequenciesspanned the range 25.9 - 30.0 MHZ,
plus one machine operating on 20 MHz. The
EundamentaL frequencywas not stable, the
drift rate varying 'between11 kHz/sec to
200 kHz/sec. rypically the drift rates fell
within the range 50 - 75 kUz/sec.,
The radiation polar diagrams at the 4th
harmonic were estimated by making four
measurementsat a distance oE 30 metres in
orthogonal directions. The minimum
variation in a polar diagram was 10 dB and
the maximum variation 48 dB, typically
being within the range 20 - 35 dR. At the
30 metre distance the measured field
strength varied between 23 dB(uV/m),and
76 dB(uV/m).
5.3 Interactionof ISM Interferencewith
ILS receiver.
Some initial experiments in which typical
ISM interferencewas simulated suggested
that the ILS receiver could operate satisfactorily in interference Eields up to
20 d0 higher than the wanted field.
Therefore the interferenceeffects of the
spurious signals generated by actual
dielectric heating equipment on the operation
o.Ean ILS/VOR system was evaluated at two
typical industrial locations. One location
had 12 continuouslyoperating dielectric
heating equipments while at the other
location there were 13 bridge-typeplastic
welding equipments. 'Theexperimental
arrangement is shown in Figure 2.
The monitoring equipment was used to identify
the harmonic signals generated by the dielectric heating equipment within the ILS/VOR
frequency band. The amplitude and frequency
of the signals was measured with the
calibrated antenna connected to the spectrum
analyser. The calibrated antenna was then
reconnected to the ILS/VOR equipment and the
appropriatechannel selected.

Phe results obtained cl41 showed that the

protection ratio required for interference
oroduced by continuouslyoperating dielectric
heating equinment is of the order OF 2 - 4 dB.
'EhereEore,Eor such eqipment the protection
ratio of 6 dB mentioned in Section 5.1.should
afford complete protection. The results for
intermittentlyoperating equipment indicated
that t'neinterferenceeffects are present
Eor a very short time, sign.iEicantly
less than
0.5 sets. %'hereEoreit is diEEicult to assign
dn adeguate protection ratio but certainly
the nrotection ratio is significantlysmaller
than that Eor continuouslyoperating
equipment.
5.4 InterferenceLimit
During the crl'ticaltime when an aircraft is
just about to land the specified minimum
field strength for the ILS is 46 dBiB(uV/m).
Using the protection ratio oE 6 dR, and
making an allowance of attenuation through
the Eactory wall or roof of 10 dB, the limit
for TSM interference,measured at 30 m, is
50 dB(uV/m). In the derivation OE this
limit account has been taken of:the characteristics of the ISM interferenceand of the
response of the ILS system, but no account
has been taken of other factors such as the
probabilityof ISM eguinment being close to
the airport, the frequencygenerated being
within the passband of the ILS receiver or of
the equipment being operated during the
critical time. 'CheILS is a critical service
and therefore it is wiser to rquire that
I?(I)= 0. 'PIUSthe limit OE 50 dB(uV/m) at
30 m will.give complete protection to any
aircraft flying to within 30 m of a dielectric
heating equipment.

A2

cl
S/A

Al calibrated
PU
dipole
S/A
A2 monitor whip
SG
A
O-60 dB atten- ILS
uator
S
6 dB splitter ILS RX

DC power unit
spectrum analyser
signal generator
ILS/VOR tone
generator.
ILS/VOR receiver

Fig 2: Test setup to evaluate interference

to ILS/VOR receivers.

- 238 -

6.

CONCLUSIONS

The work of this paper illustrates two of the

important areas in determining radio interference limits. It is necessary to find a
value of the protection ratio required by
the radio service for the type of interference
considered. The other is estimating the
probability of interferenceoccurring iE a
particular limit is implemented. In addition
the importance of knowing the history of
interferencecomplaints in determining
suitable limits is shown.
Similar work is continuingwithin CSSPR,
most notably with respect to Data Processing
Eguiplnent.
It is hoped that by combining this type of
theoretical approach with practical experience,
the reassessmentof the ISM limits being undertaken by CISPR, in conjunctionwith CCIR,
will gain recognition!and result in the
limits being applied in practice.

I.

8.

REFERENCES

Cl1

CISPR Publication 11, 1975 and

amendment No 1, 1976.

c23

CCIR IWP l/4 - Doe. l/186 (Rev.11 - E

of 23 October 1981, Progress Report by
Chairman with technical annexes
5 - 18.

c31

CISPR/B

r-41

CCIR RQt. 829, 1982.

c51

Radio Regulation No. 1.60.

[61

CISPR/B/WGl (Whitehouse/UK)8,
February 1983.

c71

Radio Regulation 2857.

C81

Radio Regulation 2854.

r.91

CAP 208 Vol.1 pt.5.

Cl01

CCIR Rpt. 928.

II111

Dept. Trade & Industry DRr ,Yechnical

Memoranda Nos. 122 to I28.

L121

Royal Aircraft Establishment.

cl.31

ERA Technology Ltd Rpt.3572/5,

June 1982.

[14]

CISPR/B/WGl (Whitehouse/UK)9,May 1983.

(Secretariat)35, May 1984.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to thank the Director of Radio

'Technology
for permission to present this
paper.

239

45

H3

STATISTICAL EVALUATION OF THE EMC SAFETY MARGIN AT SYSTEM LEVEL

BY
B. AUDONE, R. CAZZOLA and G. BARALE
AERITALIA - Avionic Systems and Equipments Group
Caselle T.se - TORINO - ITALY

ABSTRACT: EMC equipment tests are well es@

blished and defined, while EMC system tests
are still rather vague: in MIL-E-6051D dea
ling with EMC system testing only general
guidelines are given with the definition
of the safety margin. In a complex system
such as an aircraft, the problem of the
electromagnetic compatibility and safety
margin have become more important especially
with the introduction of electronic equip
ments into areas of the aircraft which
directly relate to flight safety. Interfe
rence effects are not always repetitive and
in many cases the malfunctions change ran
domly around an average level. Therefore
a statistical evaluation of a safety margin
was developed for the EMC investigation tests
so that a number of parameters, from various
avionic equipments could be monitored, when
the aircraft onboard emissive equipments
are activated. By use of this technique each
equipment parameter may be monitored over
a set period of time. Comparison can the
refore be made, from this point of view,
between each parameter with and without
the emissive equipments activated in order
to evaluate any drifting of any parameter
due to EM1 and obtain an EMC safety margin.
1. INTRODUCTION
In many works the need of a statistical
model for EMC testing has been emphasized
111, 121, 131, because the interference
effects are not always repetitive, but in
many cases the malfunctions change randomly,
around an average level. In a complex system
as an aircraft, the problem of the definition
of an EMC safety margin related to a stati
stical model is very important.
At the present EMC system tests are still
rather vague and only general guidelines
are given about the definition of a safety
margin. The purpose of this work is to
develope a mathematical model to perform
an analysis of random interference effects
from the statistical point of view and to

define a safety margin related to the chara:

teristics of the equipment under test.
Some considerations about the degree of
uncertainty related to the safety margin
evaluation are also given in order to reduce
the error probability during the execution
of the test at system level.
2. SAW'LE VALUE AND PARAMETER ESTIMATION
The two basic parameters of a random
variable x which specify its central tendency
and dispersion are the mean value and the
variance u and dL:
X
/X

(1)

-co

where p(x) is the probability density

function of the variable x.
An exact knowledge of the p (x) function
will not generally be available. Hence
one must be content with estimates of the
mean value and variance based upon a finite
number N of observed values:

(3)

The hats (-) indicate that

3 and axL
are
/.
used as estimators for the mean value and
variance of the random variable x. In order
to have a good estimator, it must be:

a)

unbiased

EC63
=9

(5)

240

where #

is an estimator of @.

b)

efficient

Qlx

2
1 is the Chi-square distribution function
n

with n=N-1 degrees of freedom.Moreover the

sampling distribution of the sample mean value
x is given by 141 :

where fl is the estimator of interest and

is &y other possible estimator of @.
@I

where :

- r
c)

consistent

where N is the number of observed values

and 3 is the estimator of $4.
It is desirable that the expected value of
the estimator be equal to the parameter
being established (estimator unbiased) and
also that the mean square error of the
estimator be smaller than for other possible
estimator (estimator efficient). Moreover
it is desirable that the estimator approach
the parameter being estimated with a proba
bility approaching unity as the-sample size
becomes large. The estimators u and 2 2
/x
X
are estimators unbiased, efficient and consi
stent for the mean value and variance of a
random variable x 14).
3. SAMPLING DISTRIBUTIONS
Consider a random variable x with a probabi
lity distribution function p (x).
Let x 1, x2, ......... ...... ..... .... XN be a
sample of N observed values of x. Any quan
tity computed from these sample values will
also be a random variable.For example,c3nsi
der the mean value x and the variance S of
the sample.If a series of different samples
of size N were selected from th? same random
variable x,the value of x and S computed
from each sample would generally be different.
Hence x and S are also the random variables
with a proba
P(x) and Q(S ).These functions are alled
2
"Sampling distributions" of x and S .
If the variable x is normally distributsd
with a mean of u and a variance of us' ,
the sampli?g diitsibution of the sampleX
variance S is given by 141 :

where :

-T

is the Gamma function

is the

Gamma

function

t = F(X-,uxJ/S
nn= N-l
Pit ( is the Student distribution function
wi& n=N-1 degrees of freedom.
4.

CONFIDENCE INTERVALS
The use of sample values as estimators for
parameters of a random variable has been
discussed previously.However those procedures
result only in point estimates for a parame
ter of interest.8 more meaninful procedure
for estimating parameters of random variables
involves the estimation of an interval,as 02
posed to a single point value,which will i"
elude the parameter being estimated with a
known degree of uncertainty.Such an interval
can be established if the sampling distribu
tion of the estimator in questi n is known
9
Y
based upon
For the case of the2variance d
a sample variance S computed fcom a sample
of size N,a confidence interval can be esta
blished as follows :

where:

r I

%;d\t
The degree of trust associated with the
confidence statement is 4-d
and it is
called "confidence coefficient". Furthermore,
if d 2 is unknown, a confidence interval
can s&l
be established for the mean value
ux based upon the sample values x and S as
/
follows:

241

45

H3

interference generators (emissive equipment

switched ON).When no interference occurs at
< 0) one may consider
system level (IM
the effect of thsYgmissive equipment (step c).
This measurement will still be referred to
the confidence interval ILo,Uol and ILo',Uo')
defined in step a) (see Fig. 1).
Therefore an effective interference margin
can be defined as follows :

where:
n=N-1

Cm:dl2
The degrke of trust associated with the
and it is
confidence statement is l- d
called "confidence coefficient".

= 2010glo(Lo/L2) , for%iN,f;ji6(13a)
IM
EFF

5. TEST PROCEDURE AND SAFETY MARGIN EVALUATION

The procedure for estimating the interference
margin related to a parameter of interest has
been subdivided into three steps:
a) evaluation of sample mean value, sample
variance and confidence intervals for the
parameter of interest by means of the
specification characteristics of the equip
ment under test
b) evaluation of sample mean value, sample
variance and confidence intervals for the
parameter of interest with minimum number
of equipments switched on and interference
generators switched off (minimum noise co"
dition)
cl repetition of step b) with the same
number of equipments switched on and
interference generators switched on, one
at a time on the aircraft.
The step a) allow to determine the cop
fidence intervals /Lo, Uol from the
specification characteristics of the equip
ment under test. By means of the test
procedure recorded in the step b) one may
verify that the sample mean value and the
variance, with minimum noise condition,
falls into the confidence interval est.2
blished in step a). Fig. lA, B shows a
comparison between the confidence interval
ILo, Uol and ILo', Uo'I related to the
specification limits of the equipment
under test and the confidence interval
ILl, U11 and ILl,UlI
obtained, for the
same parameter, with minimum noise con
dition. An interference margin at system
level may be defined as follows:
IM
= 2010glo(LO/L1), for XNC ZO
SYS

(12a)

= 2olog10(LO'/L11), for6:6;
IM
SYS

(12b)

IM
= 2010glo(u1/uo),
SYS

for Qx,

(12c)

IM
= 2010glo(U1'/UO'), forCi,$
SYS

(12d)

= 2ologlo(Lo'/L2'),forc+,<6+13b)
IM
EFF
h11.3O
= 2010glo(U2/Uo) , for%,;<(l3c)
IM
EFF
IM
= 2010g10(U2'/Uo'),for~$&.3d)
EFF
0
An interferent situstion occurs when IME& 0.
In this case [~2,U21 and (~2',U2'1 are
the confidence intervals computed with emis
sive equipment switched on.Moreover L. and
U. are the lower and upper limits of the
c&fidence interval for the sample mean
distribution function,while L! and U! are
the lower and upper limits of'the coifidence
interval for the
sample variance.

I
I
I

Fig. 1 A

I
I

Example of curves sampling distribution

function : (1) not interferent case(L *L
1,2 0
and U ._GU
) , (2) interferent case
1,z

CL1 *<
t

Lo)

Fig. 1 B

%'P4*,u;ri+,
I
I'

Example of curves sampling distribution

function : (1) not interferent case(L' B L'
1,2
0
and U' 4 U' ) , (2) interferent case
1,2
0
(L; 2L L' )
0

An interference situation (IMSys>

0) in the

minimum noise condition is usually a clear

symptom of an integration malfunction to be
solved at system level. It is necessary
to remove the cause of interference at system
level before considering the effect of the

6.
PRACTICAL IMPLEMJXNTATIONOF THE THEORY
The evaluation of this confidence interval
in easily performed for a fixed level signal
whose level and accuracy are shown. This si
gnal may be represented as follows:

where :
K = nominal signal level
AK = maximum deviation

IM

All the signal values are included in the ra;

ge IK - AK ; K + AKI.
This range will be assumed as the confidence
interval of the sample mean distribution ,
with a confidence coefficient 1-d equal to
unity and a sample mean value equal to K.
ILo,Uol

IK-AK;K+AKI

= 201og ";
IM
loSTAT
L'
2

(14)

a(t) = K + AK

242

(15)

The maximum variance related to the signal

of interest may be evaluated considering
the following choice of signal samples:
S1 = K

S2 = K+AK
S3 = K-hK

Therefore:

STAT

= 201og

10

= 201og 1o
IM
STAT

,6;++$

u2
Ul

, x

U2'
Ul'

t 62,+,2CN2(18d)

ILo,

UO(

10;

4~~1

(17)

and the confidence coefficient 1-d is equal

to unity.
When the equipment specification does not
allow to obtain the mean value, variance
and confidence interval performed in the
previous paragraph, the measurement procedure
can be carried out referring to the confi
dence interval calculated with minimum noise
condition.
This is a worst case situation because the
confidence intervals [Ll, U11 and ILlI, Ul' I
should be usually narrower (IMSYsI fl) than
the confidence ontervals [Lo', Uo' 1 and
ILO, Uo'I determined by means of the
equipment specification. In this case one may
define a statistical interference margin,as
follows :
L
= 201og
1
IM
STAT
10-,?N+*"
.L
2

2Irl
(18a)

(18~)

(19)

High probability of an interference exists

when IM
STAT' *'
The test procedure summarized previously requi
res the execution of a large number of measu
rements. In case it is necessary to reduce
the measurements number,only one mean value
(or variance) measurement can be made during
the test. The effective interference margin
can be defined as follows :

,;

,z

The minimum variance value is related to the

case in which all the samples are equal to K.
Therefore the minimum variance value will be
equal to zers and the mean variance will be
equal to AK /2. Therefore the confidence
interval of the sample variance related to
the specification limits is as follows:

= IM
- IM
IM
EFF
STAT
SYS

E
IM
= 201og
N+I
EFF
10U

N=3

ax

N+I

The statistical interference margin is rela

ted to the effective interference margin by
means of the following relationship:

L
IM
= 201og
EFF
lo+-x
N+I
where:

(18b)

IM
= 201og
10 &?EFF

N+I

4;;

ax
N+I

(20a)

(2Ob)

2
(2Oc)

&+&,

O?N+l
IM
= 201og lo ___,
Cr2N+I
EFF
Uo'

~~N+I';~(20d)

In this case the statistical distribution

of the values x
02N+I will be neglec
2r'I and
ted (see Fig.

Fig. 2
Example of execution time reduction
(1) not interferent case:* ore
I?+I 3
1
L
and x arc
I U 0rU'
N+I
0
0
2
(2) interferent case: x or flN+I ,( L

L 0rL
0
:,

or L'
0

243

The mean value

of a sample of N independent
/ux
observations of a random variable is assumed
as an estimator of the true mean value u .
Now the sample value u will not come bug
exactly equal to u 6"
ecause of the sampling
/O
variability associated with u .In order to
/
establish the probability of &is error,it is
necessary to specify some deviation of the true
from the assumed parameter u .
parameter
?O
/x
If the true mean value were in fact
=
+d
(21)
PO

Px

an error would occur with probability (3 ,if

the sample value u falls below the upper li
mit or above the ix
ower limit of the confidence
interval (see Fig. 3). By means of analytical
analysis 141,the probability (3 is related to
the samples number N,as follows :
S(tm;dlL
d,

where :

Ctfi;e)

'

(22)

S = standard deviation
n = N-l
1-d = confidence coefficient
d = maximum deviation
The previous considera ions are also valid when
the sample variance Q'
an esti
.x
mator of the true varifn:: assumed
:f120=df a + d; .It follows that :
n
o

the samples number N. Another error can occur

because the area related to the confidence in
terval is not equal to unity. The parameter
under test can assume values out of confidence
interval with probability d . Therefore dis
the probability of this second type of error.
The interference margin is computed with a un
certainty related to an error probability equal
to :
Prob IERRORI=Probl(TYPE 1 ERROR) U
(TYPE 2 ERROR)1 =
=0(+(-J-d?

45

in this section to emphasize the advantages of

the statistical analysis technique summarized
in the previous pages.In some aircraft there
is the possibility of using the onboard compu
ter to carry out the analysis previously de?
cribed. Each parameter is sampled with and wi
thout emissive equipment activated with the following input data :
- samples number : 500
- confidence coefficient : 95%
- time repetition or sampling :30 s
- data requested : x and S.
A performance safety margin typical of the pa
rameter under test is calculated according to
the expressions (20).Some examples of the test
results are reported in Fig.6 4,5,6.In this
case the system under test is the air data co2
puter (ADC);the emissive equipment is the UHF
transmitter. The ADC parameters controlled by
Test Integration Program (TIP) are :
- True air speed (TAS)
- Calibrated air speed (CALAS)
An interferent situation occurs (P.S.M.) 0)
when the UHF transmitter is activated. Thetest
has been performed as described previously in
order to reduce the test execution time. In
absence of specification data the P.S.M. has
been computed with reference to the confidence
interval evaluated with minimum noise condition
G,.

Fig . 4

(24)

Fig. 3

Diagram of the error probability area.

EXAMPLE OF THE STATISTICAL APPROACH
7.
Some experimental results shall be described

H3

Fig . 5

244

In some cases the analysis may be performed

by using a dedicated instrumentation. The di
gital signals on the data bus are analyzed
with a serial bus analyzer in the monitor con
figuration. All the data words transmitted
on the bus are checked and selectively cap$
red for the statistical analysis.
The serial bus analyzer can be programmed by
the user in order to perform a capture actor
ding to the flow-chart reported in Fig. 7.
Two factors have been used in order to select
a proper data word in the message :
- terminal address
- data word position in the message

Fig. 7
Data acquisition program flow-chart
For instance Fig. 8 shows a 32 data words
message transmitted by a remote terminal on
the basis of a predefined command word.
When the program runs on the bus analyzer
during the data bus activity,only the messa
ge corresponding to a set command word and
only a data word into this message,defined by
its message location,are captured. All the
captured data words are placed in the inter
nal bus analyzer RAM memory. At the end of
the capture phase all the samples in the RAM
memory are transferred to a host computer via
RS-232 or IEEE-488 for a statistical analysis,
according to the previous theory.

Fig. 9 shows a memory page in which it is pas

sible to see the captured data corresponding
to the sixth word in the messages of Fig. 8.
These data words are not equals for each sam
pling,but the values change sometimes.

Fig. 9
Example of memory page:the data words are
stored in the memory by inverting the most
and the less significant bytes.
This test procedure allows to discover all the
interferent situations produced by spurious
pick-up in the area before the encoding section
(external sensors,black boxes or remote termi
nals,interconnecting cables and so on) where
the signals are coded according to the 1553B
protocol and transmitted on the line. When the
interfere:iceeffect is directly related to the
on line signal(for example in case of impulsive
noise due to relays enclosure),this causes a
change on the 1553B signal waveform which results
in a transmission error. Also in this case a sta
tistical analysis of error generation can be per
formed by the bus analyzer by activating several
times the interference source. Fig. 10 emphasizes
a typical data transmission affected by errors
generation.

Fig. 10
Updating of terminals activity with tran
mission errors presence on the data bus.

Fig. 8
Example o~~~~~~~~~~F~s~~P~~:D~

a.
CONCLUSIONS
The test procedure described in the previous
sections may be performed monitoring some pa
rameters of interest one at a time. In many
cases the value v under examination is rela
ted to the other parameters
means of a functional relationship.For example:
is the

(25)

245

when 8 is interferred (IM

> 0), the
following situations are pE%ble:
- the interference is due to the transfer
function

dfl?f2

-.

) of the

equipment.
- the interference is due to one or more
parameters
In this
f$N.
case the equipment deos not.
produce further interference effects.
- the interference is due to the parameters
and to the equipment transfer function at
the same time.
Therefore in order to detect the cause of
an interferent situation it is necessary
to show the transfer function of the equip
ment under test and to test, with the emis
sive equipment activated, some or all the
parameters $ . . In many cases these are not
always accesstble for the test or the transfe _
function g ( di) is unknown. Therefore it
is necessary in this case to determine an
analysis technique which allows to discover
the actual interference source . This problem
has not been solved at the present and the
purpose on this section is to emphasize the
need to go back to the effective cause of a
malfunction, so that this will be avoided
easily.

45

-------------

H3

--

REFERENCES

Ill

C.W. Stuckey and J.C. Toler, "Stati

stical Determination of Electromagne
tic Compatibility", IEEE Trans. on EMC,
Vol. 9, pp. 27-34, September 1967.

121

D. Middleton, "Statistical-Physical
Models of Electromagnetic Interference",
IEEE Trans. on EMC, vol. 19, pp. 106-127,
August 1977.

131

H.P. Hsu, R.M. Storwick, D.C. Schlick

and G.L. Maxam, "Measured Amplitude
Distribution of Automotive Ignition
Noise", IEEE Trans. on EMC, vol. 16,
PP. 57-63, May 1974.

I41

J.S. Bendat, A.G. Piersol, "Random

Data: Analysis and Measurement Procedures",
Wiley-Interscience, 1971.

I51

MIL-STD-1553B, "Aircraft Internal Time

Division Command/Response Multiplex
Data BUS".

_. - - - - --

- - - - - ---

247

46

H4

THE STATE OF ART OF TV RECEIVER IMMUNITY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

FOR APPROPRIATE CONSTRUCTION, DEDUCED FROM TEST STATISTICS

R. Bersier
Swiss PTf, General Directorate
R 8 D Division
CH-3030 Berne, Switzerland

SUMMARY
The inanunities of 16 TV receivers of recent
design were tested by the "current injection"
method against disturbing AM and FM sources
in the HF and VHF range. From the results
good state of the art immunity levels are
established. The constructional features of
the tested receivers that could influence the
immunity are tabulated for the antenna input,
RF-tuner, IF and mains circuits. From these
findings reconunendations are made to improve
the construction.
1. INTRODUCTION
Recalling the problems concerning the RF immunity of TV receiver installations.
During the last years there has been a monotonously increasing number of complaints concerning the interfered TV reception, due to
the lack of immunity of the TV receivers or
of the installations. These interferences may
be divided into the following two principal
classes a) and b):
a) Interference due to the insufficient
TV receiver immunity in the short waves (SW)
range. The deterioration of the situation is
surely due to the increasing number of transmitters (amateurs and citizen band), that are
operating in residential areas. To this
interference class belongs the problem of the
increased licenced transmitter power and the
substitution of the amplitude modulation (AM)
by the frequency modulation (FM). In order to
clarify the situation, comparative tests were
modulation.
made
with
both
types
of
b) Interference due to the insufficient
immunity of the TV receivers or of the cable
TV distribution systems (CATV) in the reception channels.
It is well known that it is not possible
to reuse in medium or large CATV systems the
same channels that are occupied by local or
powerful regional TV transmitters: Due to the
bad immunity of the TV receivers and the CATV
itself, qhost pictures are created by direct
irradiation of the TV or the house distribution part of the CATV. A similar problem arises for the special TV channels (out of the
TV bands), if the transmitters of various
fixed or mobile services, operating in these
frequency bands, are placed in residential
areas.

up to now the problem was solved by the

appropriate choice of frequencies in the CATV,
i.e. free channels in the TV bands I and III
and non interfered special TV channels. But
the problem is becoming acute and difficult
to circumvent because of the constantly increasing number of TV programs to be transmitted and of radiocommunication services,
located in the interband frequencies of the
CATV (104-174 MHz and 230-293 MHz). Therefore
it is urgent to improve the innnunity of TV
receivers and CATV installations.
2. TEST METHOD
The immunity tests of the TV receivers were
made by the "synthetic" or "current injection" method, that is already described in
[I], [21, 131 and \41*
Recalling the principle of the current
injection method.
This method simulates the dominant effect of
the disturbing electromagnetic field on a
realistic installation, by injecting an asymmetrical current from a real source (Ri =
150 Q) through the connected cables to the
TV'S chassis. The immunity is specified by
the electromotive force of this source (E.m.f.
in dBpV) that creates a just perceptible
interference in the picture or in the sound.
Fig. 1 depicts the test set-up used. On
each cable (antenna and mains) of the TV receiver under test a coupling unit is inserted. The disturbing common mode current is
successively injected on each cable through a
source having 150 Q resistance, the other
cable being connected to the ground plane
through 150 8.
The relation between the E.m.f. value
that creates an interference by the current
injection method and the electromagnetic field
that creates the same interference in a real
installation was established experimentally,
~;~;o'l~;e'h~sso&l.inq
relations may be
:
1 to 40 MHz:
disturbing field(dBnV/m) 3 E.m.f.(dBpV) - 7dB
50 to 230 MHz:
disturbing field(dBpV/m) I E.m.f.(dBnV)
3.SCOPE OF THE TESTS
The immunity tests were made on 16 TV receivers with coaxial antenna input, system PAL
B/G. The receivers were of recent design

24e

receiver is 22 dB outside the TV bands, 34 dB

at the IF and 34 to 52 dB in the reception
channels.
b) The interference effects are more
pronounced with AM than with FM (difference
of 4 to 7 dB in the median values of the disturbance source E.m.f. that create a just
perceptible interference; the values refer to
the carriers according to sec. 3).
c) 50 % of the tested TV receivers may be
interfered by approximately the following
field strengths, when using AM:
115 dBnV/m (0.56 V/m) in the range 15-30 MHZ
109 dBnV/m (0.28 V/m) in the range 68-174 MHz
at the IF
81 dBnV/m (11 mV/m)
N 52 dBnV/m (0.4 mV/m) in the reception channels

(1981-82) and originated from different manufacturers, they are denoted in this paper by
the letters A to P.
The immunity was measured in the following frequency ranges:
a) 15- 30 MHz:range of interference from SW,
b) 68-174 MHz:range betweenTV-bands I and III,
c) 32- 40 MHZ: TV'S intermediate frequency(IF)
d) reception channels: 3 (54-61 ms),
S7 (146-153 MHz), 7 (188-195 MHz) and
12 (222-230 MHz).
In the first three frequency ranges, the
interferences produced by AM were compared to
those produced by FM. For this, the disturbing signal was modulated with approximately
1000 HZ in the following ways:
-by AM, at a depth of 80 % and then
- by FM, at a deviation of 5 kHz.

5. INSPECTION OF THE TV RECEIVERS' CONSTRUC-

Note: When applying FM, the interference pattern appears clearly more annoying with a
small frequency deviation than with a large
one.
The E.m.f. of the disturbing source was
measured using an average detector; therefore
its indication corresponds to the rms value
of the carrier and is not affected by the modulation.
For the tests in the frequency ranges a),
b) and c) the unwanted interferences that
could be created at the IF or in the reception
channels by the harmonics of the disturbing
source were prevented by the use of appropriate low pass filters or by the suitable
choice of the reception channels (see notes
in the diagrams).
4.

INSPECTION OF THE

IMMUNITY TEST

TION
OF

T3

Fig.

RESULTS

w : wanted

signal
signal

T2
Gl
Am
F
T2

Measurement sotup for

-1

Interference
RF signal
generator,
1.5-230
MHz.
Broadband power amplifier
(Sh: Shielded
box.)
Low-pass
filter.
Power attenuator,
6-10
dB, 50 fl.

thp

immunity

THE

IMPROVEMENT

r--z-;

Tl

----f-3cq~Gl

Metallic
ground plane
Mains coupling
unit
Rntenna coupling
unit
TV test
pattern
generator

FOR

IMMUNITY

5.1 Influence of the screening of the antenna

input circuit and of the tuner.
Pursueing the disturbing current,injected on
the screen of the coaxial antenna cable, we
encounter successively the antenna connector,
the optional insulating capacitors, the cable
to the tuner and finally the input of the tuner. Then the disturbing current is distributed on the screen of the tuner before arriving on the chassis ground circuit of the TV
receiver.
The value of the interference voltage
produced at the input of the tuner will be
directly proportional to the sum of the
transfer impedances of the components of the
input circuit; that is why these impedances
should be reduced to a minimum. The care taken
to the screening of the tuner (elimination of
slots, well contacting covers) and the performance of the various feed throughs (filtering) will be decisive in preventing the penetration of disturbing signals.
The above considerations are reflected in
the diagram 4, representing the immunity in
the reception channels:

i = interference

pJ-@-P

1:

RECOMMENDATIONS

Fc I

Pl
M
A
P

AND
THEIR

The constructional details that may influence

the immunity are indicated in table I. Comparing these to the diagrams 1 to 4, we make
following observations:

The E.m.f. values of the disturbing source

that created a just perceptible interference
are indicated in the diagrams 1 to 4 in a
statistical representation. The corresponding
values of the field strengths that would
create the same interference in a real installation are given on a parallel scale. These
values were obtained from the relation given
in sec. 2.
The inspection of the diagrams 1 to 4
shows:
a) There is a large spread in the results:
The difference between the best and worst TV

test

of

L-

- I

-_I

Sh

TV receivers by the current inj<!ct-ion

method.

249

Ne clearly distinguish two groups of TV

receivers, with 18 to 30 dB difference between their median values. The 8 receivers
having a well screened input circuit (LIKIFI
E,P,J,N,o) constitute the superior group. All
receivers of the inferior group have open
screens at the input; either due to the presence of insulating capacitors or due to an
unscreened connection of the cable to the
tuner.
For the other frequency bands (outside
the reception channels and the IF) it seems
that the quality of the antenna input circuit
is not decisive for the immunity of the TV
receiver. This means, that for these frequencies the tuner is no longer the most sensitive
point: its input is indeed well protected by
filters that efficiently attenuate the frequencies outside the reception channels.
5.2 Influence of the screening of the IF-part.
Concerning the immunity at the IF (diagram 3),
we note that the particular immunity value is
above the median value for those 5 TV receivers (L,K,F,E,G) which have their VHF/UHF tuner and their IF section in the same screening
box. This construction has the basic advantage
of extracting the connection "tuner output""IF input" from the disturbing environment.
This constructional feature is favourable
also for the immunity outside the TV-bands
(15-30 MHz and 68-174 MHz, see diagrams 1 and
2).
5.3 Influence of mains isolation.
It is not possible to decide from the performed tests whether the isolation of the mains
has an influence on the immunity. It is necessary, however, to isolate the chassis from
the mains, in order to allow the direct
grounding of the connector ground points of
the antenna and other cables.
5.4 Improvement of the immunity outside the
TV bands and the IF (1.5-3OMHz and 68-174MHz).
The observed interferences in these frequency
domains are usually caused by "nonlinear effects"
(e.g.
detection,
intermodulation,
displacement of the operating points of
transistors), whereby all parts of a TV receiver may be affected; (according to sec.5.2,
the IF part seems to be especially sensitive).
We suppose that the main cause of the interferences are the voltage drops that are created between different points of the ground
circuit. These voltages originate from the
circulation of the RF currents brought by the
cables.
The basic remedy follows from the considerations above:
The disturbing current circulating in the
various circuits of the apparatus must be reduced as far as possible by deflecting it into
a very low impedance general ground circuit.
The following is recommended: briny together
the connection points of the various cables
of the TV receiver (antenna, video, mains,
loudspeaker, etc), connect them to the common
ground most directly, ground each circuit at
only one point and protect the most sensitive
circuits by filters or by screens with appropriate feed through elements (see sec. 5.2).

46

H4

6. CONCLUSIONS
Table 2 gives typical immunity values for the
best TV receivers existing today. considering
that it is urgent to improve the inununity Of
the actual TV receivers and that it is posSible in the most cases to achieve the values
of table 2 with nearly no additional hardware,
we hope that the manufacturers would follow
our recommendations and these or even higher
immunity values would be achieved.
The immunity values of table 2 are to be
considered, however, as an upper limit, that
would be difficult to exceed significantly
without increasing the price of the TV receivers. Moreover, the improvement of the inununity of the TV receivers in the reception
channels would be illusory, without accompanying it by an improvement of the screening
effectiveness of the CATV systems in the
buildings. In fact, it was demonstrated by
measurements (not reported here) that CATV
installations, using the actually best available components, achieve a RF screening that
is just sufficient for TV receivers complying
with table 2.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author appreciates the encouragement and
support that was given by Mr. Ssentkuti in
writing this paper.

REFERENCES

bl

121

[3J

Bersier,R.: Measurement of the immunity

of TV-receivers to AM, RF fields in the
3 to 30 MHz range, including the influence of connected cables;
4th Symp.onEMC, Zurich, 1981, pp.289-294.
Bersier,R. , Szentkuti,B.: Rationale and
new experimental evidence on the adequacy
of conducted instead of radiated susceptibility tests;
5thSymp.onEMC, Zurich, 1983,pp.257-262.
Document CISPR/E (Secretariat) 22, March
1982: Draft - Method of measurement of
the immunity of TV-receiver in the frequency range 3 to 30 MHz - Synthetic
method.

L41 Document CISPR/E (Secretariat) 27,

August 1983: Draft - Methods of measurement of the immunity of broadcast receivers and associated equipment in the
frequency range 0.5 - 1000 MHz.

- 250

Diagrams 1 to 3:
Immunity of 15 TV receivers (PAL, B/G, coax. input) in the frequency ranges 15-30 MHz,
68-174 MHz and 32-40 MHz (IF).
0:
0:

0: Modulation AU
Modulation PM
TV receivers with IF section and tuner in the same box

251

Diagram 4:
Immunity of 16 TV receivers (PAL;B/G,
S7, 7 and 12.
\:

coax. input) in the reception channels 3,

TV receivers with a well screened antenna input section

Particularities of the test setup fig. 1 for the tests in the reception channels:
F: omitted
Am: omitted
Wanted signal: 1 mV of antenna input 75 tl
Gl: f interference g f picture carrier + 0.75 MHz

1: Constructional fSaturSS

Table

,wer

SUPPlY

252

of the TV receivers that could

Coaxial

antenna

influence

Tuner

input

VHF

ion of

th

crreniny
box

immunity

IF

+ UHF

Bonding

3nStXLlC-

their

section

Corrstruction of

to the
prmt

th

connection

t1a*
I

i!

LL

;c
:i

u)

::

..L -_.

__.

-!L-

.__

..-.

__~__

--

__-

___..~~_

--.

---

_.._ _L._ ..._-..-x

_-.._

2.--_
_.L.

N
0

._.x._.

._-.

-5

._G..

._x.-.-_
-.. -5

---K_I_

__c.

D
H

a,

1 = one
2 = two

b)

Test

sinyle

box for VHF and

separateboxes for VHF

Table 2: Typical

UHF
and UHF

iranunity values

c) covers
fixed on the prmt
d) pinsthrough circular
holes in the screen
e) printed
circuit
through
a slot in the screen

for a good TV receiver

the current injection method, with AM (80 %). The E.m.f.

with

.-_

_ A__ __ .._.~~.

are

measured

by

a"

average

detector.

Wanted Signal: 1 mV/75 6) (measured with a peak detector and 300 kHz bandwidth).

Frequency range

Tested function of the TV receiver

Inmwnity value
E.m.f.1)

1.5 - 30 MB2
68 - 174 MHZ

Out of bend inmwnity

130 dBuV
120 dBlN

123 dBuV/m
120 dBuV/m

(1.4 V/m)
(I v/m)

InUNnity at the IF

107 dBpV

100 dBuV/m

(0.1

Immunity in the reception channels 2-4

80 dBuV

80 dBuV/m

(IO mV/m)

Immunity in the reception channels 5-12

76 dBuV

76 dBuV/m

(6 mV/m)

Innrunity in the reception channels Sl-SIO

76 dBuV

76 dBpV/m

(6 mV/m)

32 -

Bend I

40 MB2

: 47-68 MHz

Band III: 174-230 MHZ

Special bandr 104-174 MHz

These E.m.f. should produce not more than a just perceptible interference.
ApproxieUte field Strength (evaluated according to Sec. 2) that would disturb
a complete installation, including cables.

Corresponding
field 2,

V/m)

253

47

H5

PROHADILITY DIS"CRIRUTIONS OF EFFECTIVE VOLTAGES OF MAN-MADE

RADIO INTJ3RFERFNCE AND THEIR USE FOR THE CALCULATION OF LIMITS
A..
P.Kalmc!~
'ov
The JJSSR Ministry of '~elecomriiunicatiOns
Moscow, JJSSR

Approximate analytical solutions

are obtained for probability distributions of effective voltages Of total radio-interference-processes
which were formed as a result of a
simultaneous effect of total proceases of radio-interference, penetrating frorbi
the electricity supply
Iletworks and radiated by electrical equipment, upon a randomly taken radio
receiver of a radio communication sye
tern in question. An error of approximate solutions is estimated.
For practically important particular cases, engineering formulas
are obtained for calculation of permissible values of man-made radio
interference produced by individual
sources.
1. Introduction
In the conditions existing at present, a radio receiving deviceis
affected by an electrical-equipment
complex which contains interference
sources whose number and types are
random. Determination of a simultaneous effect of such interference is
a topical problem whose solution is
linked with a mathematical description of electromagnetic environment
which is defined by man-made radio
interference. Much prominence is given to the solution of this problem
in the IEC, CCIR and URSI. A new
Study Question N 07/A is introduced
in the CISPR.
In work [I.] approximate solutions
are obtained for probability distributions of effective voltages of total radio-interference-processes
when interference penetrate into the
radio receiver via the supply mains
or when the total interference process is formed due to interference
radiated by electrical equipment.
But under real conditions, these
total interference processes act simultaneously at the input of a radio
receiving device.
Further sections of the present
Report consider a solution of this
problem.

2. Probability distributions
in ,er
nroof
-- rndi
--...-_ 0 --..
-- erence
.- -._
duced by individual sourCfZf3

Values of interference produced by

individual sources are specified by
CISPR Recommendations.
A lognormal law is accepted for description of values of interference
from individual devices of the same

Wpee

In real service conditions of a

radio receiver. a total interference
process at its'input is formed due
to interferencq from various electrical equipment with contains different
types of dovices.
The parameters of probability distributions of interference values are
different for different types of devices and are also random in a general case.
As shown in work [I]
a lognorma1 law can be also accep-/ed for a
probability distribution of interference values within such an aggregate of devices where different types
of equipment are presented, which
have the same radio interference limits. This is confirmed sufficiently
well by experimental data at least
for that case when in an aggregate in
question, to which the same interference limits apply, different types
of equipment are presented with an
equal probability.
Man-made interference penetrate into a radio receiver with some attenuation mainly:
- via the supply mains which can
serve simultaneously both as carriers
of interference and radiators of them;
- via an electromagnetic field due
to radiation of interference because
of inadegate shielding of electrical
equipment.
A degree of attenuation of interference on the paths of their propagation are conventionally characterized by mains decoupling factors [2] .
It is usually accepted that the
probability distributions of values

254

of mains decoupling factors conform

to a lognormal law.
The interference values at the
terminals of the sources and the values of mains decoupling factors are
independent random variables. Due-to
it a probability distribution of interference values at the input of a
randomly taken radio receiving device which belongs to a radio communication system in question (U.,dB),
constitutes a composition of nBrma1
laws of probability distributions of
interference random variables at
dB) and of mains dethe sources (A
coupling facto&& (K., dB). This composition is suffici&ntly well described in literature.
As shown in [2] , in this case a
probability distribution of random
variables (Ui,dB) conforms to a normal law with parameters:
mi=mo- mk;
$= Go2+ 6; + 5; ,
where mk and 6;(are parameters Of a
probability distribution of mains decoupling factors expressed in decibels;
Ill o and Gm are parameters of a
probability distribution of an ex ectation of interBerence
for electrical equipment of different types;
is an average value
GO of a standard deviation of interference
values for electrical
equipment of different types.
3.

Total interference processes at

the input of a randomly taken radio
receiving device, belonging to a'radio communication system in question,
are formed out of interference produced by different electrical appliances, Each of these appliances is taken from a certain aggregate (batch)
of interference producing electrical
appliances of the same type on the
basis of a random sample, i.e. without a special sampling according to
the interference levels. As it is
known, in this case the probabilities
of appearance of interference sources
with such a sample in which the interference values are higher than a specified level, conform to a binomial
law. On the basis of this law, a permissible number of such electrical
appliances in samples? having different volumes, is specified in the
CISPR.

As it is known, a composition of
binomial laws of probability distributions of random variables also results in a binomial law. Therefore
this law can be used for probability
distributions of the number of interference sources which present different types of equipment.
For practical purposes, a Pois son's law is more convenient. Under
certain conditions a binomial law is
converted into a Poisson's law SO
that both laws practically coincide
in this case. Conditions needed for
such conversion are investigated in
a number of works. In particular, in
work [33 it is shown that for this
conversion to take place it is sufficient that conditions Q-<-0.1sand
fG 0.1 should be met where q is the
number of appliances in the batch;
Q is a volume of the sample; f is a
share of defective articles in a bat-ch of appliances (i.e. of articles
whose interference exceed the specified level). The first condition is
met in an overwhelming majority of
cases.
As to the second condition it
should be noted that a value fa0.2
is accepted in the CISPR. In real
conditions, however, an article is
considered to be "defective" if interference exceed the limit even at
only one of the frequences of the
frequency band for which the interference limits are specified, This
exceeding of the limit occurs, as a
rule, at different frequences for
different types of devices. Therefore
the value of f is much less than 0.2
at certain operating frequencies of
radio receiving devices. Therefore
the second condition is practically
met too, and a Poisson*s law can be
accepted for a probability distribution of the number of sources whose
interference act simultaneously at
the input of a radio receiving deviCt?.

As it was already noted before, in

a general case total interference
processes, formed out of interferences of two types, act at the input
of a randomly taken radio receiving
device belonging to a radio communecation system in question, In order
to simplify our further analysis interference penetrating out of electPiCity
supply networks will be assigned from now on to interference of
group one, while interference penetrating into the radio receiver due
to radiations from electrical equipment will be assigned to group two.
Then in a general case, the total
number N of spurious signals which
act at the Input of the radio receiver, consists of K spurious signals
which refer to interference of group
one, and of (N-K) spurious signals
which refer to interference of group

47

255 -

two. Here, when N is fixed, K

is a
random
variable
in a general
C&Se.
Suppression
of interference of
both groups
is achieved in eleCtTtdCal equipment
by different means.

For instance, interference radiated

by the body of electrical equipment
are abated by additional shielding
of individual units or of the whole
appliance. Interference which are
formed at the mains terminals of the
electrical equipment axe abated by
connection of additional suppression
filters in the mains lead-in.
Each of these suppressors leads
to abatement of interference only of
one type, and practically has no
effect upon the value of interference of another type.
These considerations do not allow
to regard the appearance of interference of group one and group two as
statistically independent events.
However, we shall accept this condition in order to simplify the solution of our problem. Then the probability of the fact that out of N
spurious signals which act at the
input of a radio receiving device,
exactly K interferences refer to
group one and (N-K) interferences
refer to group two, also conforms
to a binomial law.
4. Probability distribution of
%effective voltages of total
interference processes at
the input of a randomly faken radzo receiving device
belonging to a radio commucation system in question
ln CCIR Recommendations, the quaOf radio reception is characterized by a protection ratio, i.e. by
such a minimum ratio of a wanted signal value to an interference value,
which is sufficient for guaranteeing
a specified quality of radio reception. The values of a signal, noise
and interference at the input of a
radio receiving device are usually
expressed in effective values.
In so doing the value of a total
voltage at the input of a radio receiving device should be as follows:
lity

nal:
is a permissible signal-toP noise ratio;
h is a coefficient which specifies such an increment of
noise at the input of a radio
receiving device, which is
due to radio interference.
For instance, if it is permitted
for radio interference to increase
the noise at the input of a radio
receiving device by 20%, hz0.66.
K-1 when as Rp a permissible signalR

H5

to-interference ratio is accepted.

The effective voltages of total
interference processes depend on the
values of interference produced by
individual sources and on the number
of interference source8 which act
simultaneously in the reception zone,
These effective voltages are random
for an arbitrarily taken radio receiving device belonging to a radio
communication system in question.
The required reliability (A) of
guaranteeing the quality of reception is determined by the probability of satisfying the condition (1):

(2)
values of effective voltages
of total interference processes are
determined by summation of squares
of efgective voltages of interference (U .) produced by individual sources.effL
ln order to estimate the values
of II&,it is necessary to determine
the distributions of probabilities
Pi;+}.
is easy to show that in the
case of lognormal probability distribution of values (II,&;
) the propability distributions of values (II&,
also conform to a lognormal law wi2h
parameters
The

mdB = 2M {Uerr, dB} z 2 mi

(3)

The values of in6erference from

individual sources are independent
random variables; the number of interference sources (N) acting in the
reception zone is also random and is
not dependant on random variables
II&
dis~~i~~tE~~sf~~~~;o~
probability

where O(N)

&-the probability of
the fact that interference of exactly N sources
act in the reception zone of a randomly taken
radio receiving device;
is a conventional function of a probability
distribution of values
exaciclyN interference

sources
act in the reception zone of the radio
receiving
device.

ferences,'K interferences
refer to group one and (N-K)
interferences refer to
group two:

256

mi
a conventional function
FN,K is
a probability distributio$

of
of
random variables (UtffK
+ UQffd_,)
when the values of N and K am
fixed;

terference at the input

of a radio receiving device, produced by the lth interference source of
group one and by j-th
interference source of
group two.

is deterThe value @=2b 10m

nlined fror.1a condition of equality of
arsunientsI which correspond to probability distribution functi.ons equal
to 0.5 for a lo~;normal law and for a
ti;ammaprobability distribution which
was used in approximation.
The values of p depend not only
on a value of the expectation mi, dD
'but also (through a coefficient b=
=2f(%dB) on a value of a standard
deviation (EL dB) of the initial lognorrllalprobability distribution.
The values of @i dR determine also
a paranleter (J'+l) and coefficient a.
In Fig 1, curve ('1)shows the values of b, curve (2) - the values of
(T+l) and curve (3) - the values of

Then K:;.then IHfft"O;when K=B

then U4[fj
'faking into account that the values of total interference processes
of each group as well as the interference values within the groups are
independent random variables, a problem of deterrilicationof a probability distribution function FtiKresolves
itself to a finding of a composition

ty distributions of random variables

(U2 ) and a probpbility distribuisdetemiti%?f:nction FJ U,B~INX~
ned by a compositio of (IV-K) probability disgributions of randon variables (Ueuj).
As it was already indicated, a lognorrnal law can be accepted for d$stributkons of random variables (Uefft>
and (Utij ).
Thus, in order to determine a conventional function of probability distributions Fd+ it is first necessary to find a composition of lognorma1 laws.
As shown in [I] , a determination
of a composition of these laws is
unfeasible in an analytical form because a characteristic function of
these laws is expressed by an infinite series. It is proposed in [I] to
use an approxinlatiorlof lognormal
laws by means of gamma functions
with the aim of finding of an approximate solution of this prob?.im.
In so doinn.

wheref([&

and (r+l)

are tl;anmla
functions;

are parar!letersof+a
probability distribution.

is aasily found in a
similar way.
In order to estimate the error of
an accepted approximation the values
of IJ,, were calculated, which cosrespond to comparatively high levels of
probabilities, F ~u,&o.o
- 0.95,
that are used fox es! imation of quality of radio communication. To this
effect, by a method of numerical integration on a computer, values were found of
g ability distribution
functio%R6 #Y mormal laws with
equal values of-standard deviations
and with K=2;4;8;16 and of corresponding probability distribution functions which were obtained as a result
of approximation,
The results of calculations showed
that within a wide rank;e of values of
standard deviations of effective interference voltagfes, produced by individual source~,W{U~i~~
6 - 15 dB
and that the maxirrml differences between the values of UQ+ccdo not exceed
1.0-1.5 dB.
In order to determine a probability distribution function F,,it is
,

47H5

- 257 -

necessary to find a compositior$ of

distributions F_C U&and
account the accepted
approximation the characteristic function or a probability distribution
Pti,K
is

whcrt: [p,,(1(;+4),aJ and Ifl&z*i),a21

are, respectively, the generalized
parameters of probability distributions of values of interference from
individual sources of group one and
group two at the input of a radio
receiving device. The values of the
parameters aredetermined depending
on values miandWL from graphs of
Pig.A.
Taking into account, firstly,Formula (r), secondly, the probability
distributions for the number of sources whose interferences act at the
input of a radio receiving device,
and thirdly, those probability distributions of the nurtlberof interfcrences belonging to group one and
group two, which were accepted in
Section 3, we shall obtain an expression for a probability distribution
function of effective voltages of
total processes of interference which
penetrate out of electricity supply
networks and through the field:

cpeq3
when
K=d)
;
p and g are, respectively, the probability of appearance of
interferences of group one
and group two among the total
number of B interferences
which act at the input of a
radio receiving device.
In a particular case, when at the
input of a radio reoeiving device the
interferences of only one group act,
for instance, the interferences radiated by electrical equipment, the
formula is simplified:

5.

Permissible values of total interference processes at the input of a

radio receiving device can be determined from Formula (6) and condition

where F-'(d)

is suci a value of the

argument of a function

which is determined by
parameters which are
included in expression
(6);
In order to estimate a possibility
of determination of permissible values
of man-made radio interference from
individual sources let us use a simplified Formula (7) taking into account
condition (1) and a formula for b
which was given above.

when 0 < U2
ej& ka,pd+(N-K)aepg
In Formula (6):
cf
i

is the number of combinations of

N things K at a time;
is anjaverage number of interferences which act at the input of a
radio receiving device;
z = 7-+& - kca4&- Wic)a&g
,

In the CISPR, the limit$ o?interference are expressed in quasi-peak

values. 'Therelationships between
effective and quasi-peak values (acco.
rding to the CISPR Publication 16)
are in sufficient detail treated-in
work [4]
It is ihown there that the following conversion factor can be introduced:
Kr * 20 1%

.A& - 20 1%
Qyp

"i eff

Kr * 3 i 2 dB

for a frequency band

1 O-150 kHz;
Kr m 15 f 2 d% for a frequency band
0.15-30 MHz;
Kx - 1'7 2 2 dB for a frequency band
30-1000 MHZ.
When determining the permissible
values it is also necessary to take
account
- of the difference between the
bandwidths of the radio receiver
and of the xadio interference measuring set (A fz, and A f+,e,res-

258

6. Discussion of the
results obtained
The results obtained enable to
c alculatc the permissible values
of total man-made radio interference processes and to establish requirements for interference from individual appliances.

References

pectively),
- of the probability level at which
the limits of man-made radio interference are specified.
Taking this into account we shall
obtain fox quasi-peak values of interference:

CISPR/AWG2(Pevnitsky-USSR)2,
April 1978. On the draft CISPR
Report on Study Questions Nos.
54/l, 55 and 77. International
Electxotechnical commission,
International Special Committee
on Radio Interference (CISPR),
20 p.

Pig.2 sho& the results of calculations of Fq(d) which are included

in Formula (8).

AJl .KamaKoB

F;:)

?5

'~acnpexeneHm
Bf3pofiTHocTei2 Hanpmemi;
pamonoMex
Ha axoAe npuemmrca nprn owospeMeHHOM J303fie~cT~MM CJfyYaBHorC YMwa
~~~~MTHuX
CMrHeaOB". Tpy~qa

HlilVP
181
4) 19B3r.
:i.E.iiiop
C~wmcwdecwe

MeTow am
JIMSa M KOHTPOJI" ICaWCTBa M HQeEHOCTM.

~OH,PiZ~~O, ~:OCtiB+%?.

B.lI.rlemI4r~Kr4il"I{ sonpocy 0 COOTHOWf?HMJ3[X MelEJQ~ KBa3WlUlCOBHMM M

e$$eKT'GIBHHMM BHaYeHMRMM
KB%3MUMl-@bCHhrX I'IffOIJeCCOB
pazqvlonmex 0 Tpym

259

48

THE APPLICATION AND DEVELOPMf8NTOF Em

Q.

~6

IN CHINA

Chen

Y.C. Zhu
China AtiationResearchIn&.tute for Standardiaation

Beijing,China

This paper introduces comprehensively the application and development

70's to the early 80's, China possesed

of EMC, including the new efforts in

engineering development, measurement
teohnique,standards and SpeCifiCatiOnS,
EMC training in industrial, Scientific,

which had

medical, aeronautical and ship building

area in China, and EMC international cooperation.

ried out for 4 years to study and analyse the condition of electromagnetic
pollution and interference in China.

~&XXXHF plastic hot-jointing

caused a great

interference

for lack of perfect shielding, ground..

ing and strict spectrum OOntrOl.InVeStigation and measurement had been

In 1970'9,

electromagnetic

ference caused

General

machines

by

various

car-

inter-

radio-fre-

quency equipment used in industry,science and medicine interfered in

quirements for anti-conducted interfew

2596 of
coverage area of TV broadcasting of main

nce was placed on aeronautical industry,

large and middle cities, so that the TV

electronic industry, and ship building

etc. in China. But for radiated inter-

sets could not get clear picture.During

ference, the requirements for electromagnetic susceptibility didn't come to

of aeronautics, ship building,broadcasting and TV,labour and environment pro-

In 50's_60's of this centry, the re-

a decision to prepare standard then.

Since 1970's, the application and df+
velopment of EMC in aeronautical,

ship

this period the

departments concerned

tection, and railway transportation had

made a number of live measurements

and

statistical analysis of electromagnetic

building, television, communication,and

interferenoe, prepared or revised stan-

electric railway

dards, in which allowable

transportation

areas

have progressed rapidly. In this period,

limits

and

ference, the performance of some equip-

test methods were established. In the

same time, EMC engineering design and
measurement technique had further deve-

ment

loped. The quantity of researchers

because of intra- or inter-system inte*

degraded to such

they could not

an extent

that

work normally. Electro-

magnetic transmission with

large power

subjected the inflammable and explosive

materials to a very hazardous situation.
In order to eliminate oocured electro-

engineers who engage in EMC had increased greatly. A lot of progress had been
made in respect of test and measurement,
standard and specifioation,analysis and
prediction, research and development.

magnetic interference,great expenditure

and time must Sometimes be spended. For
example, according to statistics, from

and

Research and Development

260

In 1980's China had already applied

the EMC analysis and prediction techniques to aeronautics, telecommunication
and 90 on. When the multiplex system
was used in aircraft, it was found that
EMI caused by electronic and electric
equipment is the main cause for operation failure of this system. The way
in with multi-dimensional random process can be resolved with computer was

mated only by describing with quasi Peak,

when estimating interference characteriatics of analog and digital
system.

The MD

COtmmiCatiOn

measurement has been

adopted in China. The

develooed

measurement instrument in

APD

conjunction

with microprocessor have many functions

such as control. computation, sampling,
data processing, display, typing and
adjusting measurement time. The results

found, thus the code error rate caused

by conducted, radiated interference and

of measurement may be displayed by

spike can be predicted, providing thereby a scientific basis for reliability

design of the system.

in decimal number. It also can be plot-

Amplitude

or be typed out by microlattice hrpewiter

ted out by x-y plotter or recorded
tape or magnetic disc.

probability destribution

(At?D)measurement
interference is

of

electromagnetic

the most advanced mea-

surement method at

present. It is also

an effective way for

The structure

and

establish

has been

proved that effects of inter-

ference could not

It

be effectively esti-

Compar&tar
I

1 bAefOJnce
Amp

Vo/tayO

AI

IF

Fip i.

blocK d'lagram

APD instru-

input signal: intermediate frequency

output (-" 2.5MHz) or
peak detected output
measured item:It can measure Am and
NAD simultaneously to
10-4s for APD and to
IHz-40KHz for NAD
measuring level: inl2steps, sensitivity of the corn...
parator: 1.5mv

interference

mathematical statistics.

digram of AFED

The main performance of

ment are as the following:

the effects of interference on communication system. This method can be used

to find out the nature of interference
source

block

on

instrument is shown in Fig 1.

people to study

model by

LDE

of APD

measuring

instrument

- 261

measurement

times At IF of I.67 ~~IZP

the time for APD

measurement can
reach 1285 seconds;
at IF bandwidth of
12oKRz, up to140
seconds for NAD

48

f erence equipment, susceptibility test

signal source, and RMI/RFI dattiacquisition system, manufactured by companies

in West Germany, U.S.A. UK are

S,Scifications
and Standards
_-_)___~,_,I-,_____-_-~__"_-

BYD

circuit, including 137

digital
chips used as comparator.
With interference produced in Cities
and on electrified railway,ApD measurement have been successfully conducted.
The hazards of electromagnetic energy
such as electrostatic hazard, hazard to
inflammable and explosive materials and
effects on animals are subjects under
studies in labour and environment protection and medicine areas. The EMC techniques are adoped in hardware design

In the early 60's the standards

electric equipment, and standards on

their test method were released. SPecifications and standards have developed
rapidly, composing a complete series
of ErilCstandards and specifications.
Among them, the primary specifications
are

China has completly adopted the measuring instrument specifications prepared by CISPii,All publications No.l-16
of CISPR were translated into Chinese
RF anechonic

chamber of various typies and sizes with

conical or rectangular shapes were built.
Their working frequency ranges are laid
on P through X bands.These cell.3can be
used to perform simulating measurement
of air space, to study RMC of system,to
test the radome and to measure antenna

In the meantime many related

national

general

advanced

standards

ment,

the measurement is

conducted in

standards

inter-

and

world

have been studied in

detail.
For radio-frequency equipment

system and radar cross section etc.

With respect to El% of marine environ-

following:

tl3

Requirements for electromagnetic interference and electromagnetic

susceptibitity,
Measurement methods,
Definitions and System-of-unit,
Lightning protection,
Static charge protection,
Electromagnetic compatibility of
system ( EMCS ),
Specification3 for electromagnetic
interference measuring instruments,
EhlC requirements for electronic instruments,
Safety standards of microwave radiation.

Measurement Technique

A number of

on

the conducted radio interference characteristics of marine r?ndairborne instrument3 and radio apparatus, household

by machine building industry.

and issued,

also im-

ported.

The midium size chips are used thmughout this

~6

dustry,

science and medicine,

electrical

equipment,

radio

in in-

household
and

T.V.

the test field simulating the seas. The

receiver, mobile vehicle

Coupling measurement and the characteristics of radiation patterns are pre-

and high-voltage

dicted through simulating by scale down

model.

publication No.16 of CISPR are applied.

The TEI'II
cell is already used to measure E!{Cto study radiated interference

system,

power

the documents

and

igniter,

transmission

of II%:,CISPH end

For zhips,"The Proposal of Ship EMC"

is used.

This proposal delineates cri-

teria to be applied to verification of

EM1 and anti-interference. Test freq-

and charactristics of radiating source.

Nowever,this cell is mainly used to calibrate measuring equipments.
As f Or measuring equipments,in addi-

uency ranges from 0.01 to 1000 MHz.

For aeronautical equipment, the documents "Terminology of EMI and EMC"

tion to domestic products,

and

some equip-

ment, including electromagnetic

inter-

"EMC Requirements

for Aircraft

and Test

Equipment"

are

Method
applied.

- 262 -

These standards specify in detail the

emission limit and susceptibility of
conducted and radiated electromagnetic
interference and their test method. The
item to be tested are 13, including
conducted interference of power, signal
and control wires,and anttena end: conducted sensitivity of power wire and
control wire: mutual modulation, cross
modulation, and sharp peak signal: and
radiated interference and its sensitivity. The equipment are classified intO
categories as specified in these specifications, so that different items can
be selected to test according to category of the equipment. The requirements
for compatibility of system delimitate
a 6 dB safety factor of electromagnetic
interference, but for inflammable and
explosive materials this factor must be
20 dB.
China takes great interest in adopting international general standards
and world advanced standards. Some EMC
standards of IEC, CISYK, MIZ, ISO, HTCA
and BS etc. have been widely issued and
selected for use in purchase contracts.

the standard correctly.

The short terms lectures are jUSt
like lectures given in college. The
main contents .forthe lecture contain
introduction of EMC, hardware engineering design,standards and specification%
methods of measurement, analysis and
prediction ( software ). The Person8
attending each lecture counted 100 to
ZOO.
The coverage of academic discussion
ard wide, the form are different. Since
discussion has
1980, national academic
been held twice. Usually the meetings
of different industries are held more
frequently. People who attend this kind
of meetings are in hundreds. Local EMC
symposium are also held more freqently.
In these symposium, protection of EM1
caused by HF plastic hot-jointing machine, the interference of electric locomotive on receiver, mutual interference
of inboard equipment, susceptibility
EM1
measurement, and measurement of
safety factor were disscussed.

International Cooqaration
Since the late 70's, China has
EMC Training
already begun to exchage EMC technique
Over the years, a EMC tranining has
with many countries and international
been given to the people who are engaorganizations taking part many times in
ging in design, test,production control
activities
held by CISPE, ISO and IEC.
in various ways. The scope of training
The
chairman
and experts of CISPH and
includes basic theory, guideline8 for
SAE visited China and delivered lecture
engineering design, test method, stanand heldacad ozic discussionwith &he Chinese
dards, specifications and project plan
and control.EI% training has made those
experts. The Chinese experts and engiengineers understand and use EMC technineers are well informed of transactions
ques correctly at each phase of design,
of EMC symposium and exhibition and EMC
production, test and maintenance.
proceedings of IEEE, They are very
Methods of training are
interested in these information.
Et$g;Elish booklists and magazines
As described above, China has imported
several complete sets of EMI/EMC
to givi short terms lectures,
to test, demonstrate and exchange
equipment made by some campanies of the
views on the-spot,
U.S. UK and Westen Gemany etc. OF all
to give instructions in interpretaothers they are H/S carp, HP carp,
tion and application of certain stanE.T.N. COHP, SINGER Corp. The equipment
dard or specification,
to Solve problems of EM1 with EMC
imported include interference field
technique,
strength meter, spectrum analyzer,
to introduce application and popilari.verioua signal sources, detector, data
eation of new EMC technology abroad,
acquisitionand analysis
to hold EMC symposium.
system and
Before and after a new standard is
software pertinent to them. Their operissued,we usually hold meetings to diaation frequency is up to IH GHz. They
cuss some technical problems. At the
have been used in many departments in
meeting, the people who prepared the
China such as aeronautical and shipdra.fts of the standard shall explain
building industries, broadcasting and
and verify some
important problems by
T.V., traffic and tele-communication
necessary demonstration and calculation
etc.
to make persons concerned understand

263

49

I1

NEW WAYS FOR INTERFERENCE COMPUTATION AND MONTE-CARLO-OPTIMIZATION

TO GUARANTEE THE COMPATIBILITY

OF INDUCTIVELY

COUPLED

LINE

SYSTEMS

H.-J. Haubrich
Vereinigte Elektrizitdtswerke Westfalen AG
Dortmund, Fed. Rep. of Germany

Summary
The electromagnetic compatibility of the
components of power supply systems is a criterion participating more and more in the decisions of network planning and operation. In the
following problem cases of electromagnetic and
electrostatic induction by alternating fields
at power frequency are treated, caused by power lines of the electricity supply system to
lines of the own and of external energy or information transmission systems.

The basic idea is to transform the,inducing

voltage Up and current Ip of the field producing conductor P (e.g. the high voltage line)
into an injected current IpV with help'of the
mutual inductances and capacitances LPV and CpV
between the conductors P and V. Line V can be
an element of an extensive meshed network V consisting of pipe-lines, telecommunication lines or high voltage lines. Tnis network is modeled by its admittance matricYV, thus enabling
an easy representation of any optional topology.

With respect to a possible impairment of technical installations not belonging to the electrical power system, special attention has to
be payed to three-phase overhead lines as a source of electric and magnetic stray fields. They leave the closed electric substations and
meet with practically all other line systems
when crossing wide regions.
The principle of trace bundling followed by
the licensing authorities in Germany forces the
power lines to have long parallel runnings with
a corresponding strong coupling to other lines.
High voltage overhead lines are technically and
economically predestinated for high transport
capacity. Due to their high operating voltages
and currents and extraordinary high short circuit currents they can produce interferences in
quite a wide range.

@mpensator

Fig.1: Electrically coupled lines with given

inducing directions

The calculation scheme is independent of the

feeding conditions and of the number of disturbing lines P: the resulting source current is
obtained by geometric addition of the single
components.

The view of the acceptance or inadmissibility of these interferences requires the quantification of the physical effects. The analytic
simulation leads to reliable forecasts with respect to system stresses and suitable countermeasures. A universally valid algorithm for the
calculation of interference voltages and currents in networks of optional topology or with
several exposures to power lines is presented
and applied to practical problem cases. In combination with the Monte-Carlo method, one can
optimize the protective earthing of pipe-lines
against dangerous induction voltages.
I

A universal algorithm for

interference calculation
The capacitive and inductive interaction of
coupled lines according to fig. 1 can be calculated with the uniform algorithm shown in
fig. 2.

i_______+ Coupling

I
Matrix v-c

Fig.2: Computing scheme with injected currents

264

When several lines of the network V are simultaneously involved in an exposure, current
sources have to be added at the boundary nodes
of all interference sections. The resulting
network equation

Both above mentioned constraints can't be simultaneously be fulfilled within the permitted
mistuning range. There is a demand for additional provisions to guarantee the compatibility
of both voltage levels on the same tower, e.g.
by transposition of the 400-kV-circuits [3].

is well suited for the computer calculation of

the required nodal voltages WV to earth and the
induced branche currents IV.
A necessary presupposition however ist the
existence of homogeneous line sections with uniform exposure to the inducing power lines
which have to be approximated by sudivision in
case of need.
Additional extraneous earthed conductors C,
e.g. earth wires, metal cable sheaths or special compensation conductors, are often involved.
Their induced currents IC, determined in the
same way as IV, additionally act upon V by the
coupling C-V, diminishing the interference in
case of zero-sequence components IR, but partially also increasing in case of symmetrical operation of the disturbing three phase system P.
The reaction from V to C cannot be generally
neglected; in case of a close proximity V-C,
the dashed feedback in fig. 2 has to be regarded.

Point

Fig.3: Neutral point displacement voltage

Uo(Ir) of a llO-kV-network with capacitive coupling to 400 kV lines

Electrostatic induction in high voltage

networks with resonance earthing

Resonant earthed power systems must fulfill

two main restrictions with contrary demands for
the tuning of the arc suppression coils:
1.

in case of a single phase-to-earth fault,

the residual earth current Ir should still
ensure the self extinction of the arc (e.g.
I, < 130 A for the llO-kV-voltage-level cl]),

Electromagnetic induction in
pipe-line networks
Modeling
The mathematical model of a line with uniform exposure to the magnetic field of a power
line is derived from the line element ds in
fig. 4a.

2. under normal operating conditions, the neutral point displacement voltage U, should be
kept as small as possible (e.g. U, < 10 kV
in llO-kV-networks).
_,Fig.3 shows the calculated geometric locus
[2] of the voltage vector U, in an IlO-kV-network when mistuning the arc suppression coils
during normal system operation. U, results from
the capacitive induction by two 400-kV-circuits
installed on the same towers with two circuits
of the IlO-kV-network for a length of lpv=53 km
Resulting from the geometrical unsymmetry of
the phase configuration the 400-kV-circuits transfer a high zero sequence voltage into the
llO-kV-network even if the three-phase inducing system is balanced. The equivalent injected
currents are easily found, when the 6x6-matrix
Cpv of the mutual capacities CPV per unit length is known:

i,,

jw

lpv*

C,;

u,

(2)

Fig.4: Equivalent circuits of homogeneous lines

with inductive interference
a) line element ds with the induced
e.m.f. EpV
b) uniformly exposed long line with the
induced current source IpV
YV:propagation coefficient of line V
WV:surge impedance of line V

265

The induced electromotive force EPV per unit

length

PV

iEn

= c IPi'ZPVi

(3)

49

The exact line equations of a

posed section lv

coshyv 1v

LI
U

Vl

includes the contribution of the np inducing lines P. When calculating the mutual impedances ZPV between the lines P and V by
the Carsson [S] formulae even oblique exposures
may mostly be handled as equivalent parallel
lines in the distance Jal'a2 (fig. 5).

PV

uniformly ex-

WVasinhYVIV

uv2

Wv'IvPyv

I1

sinhyv 1v

WV'coshYVIV
I

v'

I+%
v2

y,

yield immediately the required injected currents

IPV

(5)

= EpV/(~V.WV)

representing the inductive interference in

fig. 4b. After dividing in line sections of
quasi uniform exposure any network can be composed by such basic quadripoles which define
the nodes and branches of the passive network
model. y,.

iwm

lil
middle

gmn.tric

dtrtmc.

lioo
w

Fig.5: Failure F of the e.m.f. induced in a conductor V with earth return if modelling
its oblique exposure to the disturbing
conductor P as paralleliSm(frequency:
50 Hz;conductivity of the earth: 50 R m)

Real example
The efficiency of the described algorithm
shall be demonstrated by the example of an underground pipe-line network whose three branches are exposed to the magnetic induction of a
400-kV-double-circuit line (fig.6).

L*>,\
\

1;=1,2kA=I,b

vv=(O,O22+j 0,047)/km
W,=h3,0

+j 2,4 ) R

Fig.6: Real example of a buried pipe-line exposed to the steady-state magnetic

field of a 400 kV overhead line. Construction of the sections with quasi
uniform induction.
0

: node number;

- 20 --:distance in meter

The length of exposure reaches more than 10 km.

Following the discontinuous line configuration
and coupling impedances along this length, the
pipe-line has to be divided into numerous uniform sections corresponding to the vertical propagation of the power frequency magnetic field. The dotted reference axes show the way how
to determine the nodes of the pipe-line model.
The induction by a single-phase-to-earth fault was proved to be less critical than by the
balanced loading of the 400-kV-circuits. That
induces pipe-line voltages to earth exceeding
by far the permitted value of 65 V (fig.7, curve a). Without suitable protection devices maintenance staff working on the pipe-line would
be exposed to danger.

266 -

of this so called Monte-Carlo method includes

the costs CF for the protective earthing at m
feasible ground connection points (fig. 8a) and
the constraints uVk< 65 V, the violation of
which is punished at all regarded nodes nV by a
penalty function PF according to fig. 8b.

CF

CF

L
---_-_---__-_
w

a)

conrtrrlnt

i.

65V

t11

Fig.8: Examples of the cost function CF and of

the penalty function PF for the MonteCarlo optimization

UV 0 65 V

Start
Define

Fig.7: Calculated induction voltages line-toearth of the pipe-line act. to fig.6

Calculate OF Ir,) - two)

a) without any countermeasures

+ PF(u,)

-t

b) with an optimal earthing resistor of

35 51at node number 10

Chance variation of rg -

Calculate

Optimization of the protection devices

vector r.

starting

OF(r)

1
I

no
Protective earthing is usual and well suited
to damp the dangerous potential rise induced by
the steady state magnetic field. The search for
the most effective earthing points and earthing
resistances may be very complicated since the
low-resistance earthing of the normally well
isolated pipes jeopardizes the efficacy of the
cathodic corrosion protection.
no

Nowadays computer-aided methods allow an automatic optimization of the protective earthing

by lumped resistors. For the case in question,
the method of statistical trials has proved to
be useful [4]. The objective function

OF

= C CFi

+ C PFk

is m; k.s nV

(6)

Solution

CL3
r

Fig.9: The Monte-Carlo search process for the

optimal resistive earthing of induced
pipe-lines

267

CF and PF are functions of the earthing resistors Ri, being the control variables of the
optimization process. Fig. 9 marks the main
steps of the iterative Monte-Carlo solution. An
arbitrary chosen starting vector I,=(RI,...Ri,..
.Rm) delivers the reference value OF(r,), that
shall be improved by a following chance variation of all random variables Ri within a given
margin. A sufficiently optimal solution is reached when subsequent iteration steps don't
bring any more remarkable improvement. In numerous applications the convergence was reached
after about 20-n" experiments, bad trials inclosed.
The application on the above shown problem
case yields a 35-R-resistor connected to node
10 as the optimal protecting measure.

49

I1

References

[l] VDE 0228, Tail 2/7.75: VDE-Bestimmung ffir

MaRnahmen bei Beeinflussung von Fernmeldeanlagen durch Starkstromanlagen, Beeinflussung durch Drehstromanlagen
[2] Poll, J.: Sternpunktverlagerung in gelbschten llO-kV-Netzen. Elektrizitatswirtschaft
80 (1981) H. 22, S. 810-813
[3] Brandes, W.; Baubrich, H.-J.: Sternpunktverlagerung durch Mehrfachleitungen in erdschlui3kompensierten llO-kV-Netzen. Betrieblithe Erfahrungen und AbhilfemaRnahmen.
Elektrizitatswirtschaft 82 (1983), H.ll,
s. 400-405

This mathematical solution is at least a

helpful approximation, even if the implementation may be modified or adjusted by further practical considerations.

[4] Schwefel, H.P.: Numerische Optimierung von

Computer-Modellen mittels der Evolutionsstrategie (Basel,Stuttgart:Birkhauser 1977)

The high efficiency of the described optimization method becomes just obvious in such cases where the induced voltages UV can only be
limited sufficiently by earthing the pipe-lines
at more than one point.

[5] CCITT: Directives concerning the protection

of telecommunication lines against harmful
effects from electricity lines.
The International Telecommunication Union
1963

POTENTIALS
BURIED

269

AND CURRENTS

CABLE EXPOSED

50

12

ALONG AN EARTHED

TO ELECTROMAGNETIC

EFFECTS

OF A POWER LINE UNDER FAULT CONDITION

W.Machczydski
Technical

University

of Poznafi

Poznad,Poland

Disregarding the influence of the

current flowing to soil through the
earth electrodes on the cable subjected
to electromagnetic
effects of a nearby
a - c transmission line may lead, in
certain conditions, to improper results
in calculating the potential distribution.
The paper presents the method of
calculating the potential distribution
along the earthed underground cable,
taking into account the additional
conductive influence of currents flowina
from the earth electrodes of the cable a
on the potential and current distribution.
The method is illustrated with
examples of calculations.
INTRODUCTION
The classical EMC problem in wire
telecommunication
is that dealing with
disturbances caused by electricity
lines. The resulting effects of electromagnetic interference of overhead
high voltage a - c power lines can
range from noise on communication lines
to equipment damage or even personnel
hazards.
The growing use of a - c transmission power lines located in joint use
right-of-way or located in close proximity with buried cables and the increasing levels of voltage and current
capacity make the determination of potentials excited along the cables an
important task.
Where calculations indicate that the
possible hazard could exist, the precautionary measures should be taken to
minimalize the potentials on underground
cables subjected to electromagnetic
effects of a nearby a - c transmission
lines.
As is known, the use of properlydesigned earthing systems permits the
maximum mitigation of cable potentials.
However, in calculations of currents
and potentials along the earthed
underground conductors usually the
additional conductive influence of
currents flowing through the earth
electrodes on the protected earth
return circuit is not taken into ac_

count. Disregarding this fact can lead,

under certain conditions, to improper
results of evaluation of the zone of
dangerous potential on the earthed
conductor.
The purpose of this paper, which iS
continuation of considerations
given
in [31, is to present calculations and
formulas applicable to the analysis of
shield potentials and currents excited
along an underground earthed cable, by
50-Hz a - c power transmission line
sharing a joint right-of-way. The calculations take into account the additional conductive efect of currents flowing
through the earth electrodes on the
potential distribution along the cable.
It is assumed in the paper that the
earth is a homogeneous, isotropic
medium of finite conductivity, that the
underground cable is infinitely long
and that the system considered is
linear.
It is also supposed that the currents and potentials vary with the time
as exp (jut). Therefore the alternating
component of the short-circuit current
is taken into account.
GENERAL

EQUATIONS

In the analysed system, shown in

Fig.1, part of the current flowing
along the buried cable enters the earth
through the connected earth electrodes.
Since the cable is in the current
field of the earth electrode, a part
of the current flowing from the earth
electrode to the earth flows back to
the cable.
Currents and potentials along the
cable are to determined as the superposition of two additional states
[2,3,4], that is:
- current energisation of the cable
by the current leaving the cable
in point x = xk (k = 1,2,...,n),
- conductive energisation of the cable
by the current flowing from the earth
electrode located in point x = xk
(k = 1,2,...,n).

- 270 -

The current 1,k flowing to the

earth through the earth electrode is
determined on the basis of Thevenin's
theorem, hence

VT(x,_ )
lek(xk)

Fig.

1: Infinitely long underground

earthed cable

Hence
I(x) = IO(x)+k;l

v(x)= vO(x)

Ii(x) + k$

+ '; v;(x)
k=l

1; (x) (1)

n
z vi
k=l

(x) (2)

where index "0" means the primary

current and potential, that is the
current and potential excited along the
cable when the earth electrodes have
been disconnected,
indices "1" and "2"
- current and potential along the cable
for current and conductive energisation,
respectively.
The shield currents and potentials
excited on the buried cable by an
incident electromagnetic
field can be
calculated using the distributed
source transmission-line
anal sis
technique discussed in [1,2,5 r .
For the current energisation we have
I

I;(x)= - sign(x-xk)+

V:(x)=

ZOIek
2

-YlX-Xkl

and for the conductive

-ylx-Xkl

Z + Z K
ek
ck + 'ink

(7)

where Zck is the impedance of the cable

joining the earth electrode with the
cable under consideration,
Zink - the
input impedance of the earthed cable
when the earth electrode k has been
disconnected - Thevenin source impedance
and VT(xk) - Thevenin source voltage.
The voltage between cable sheath and
the cable conductor is obtained from
the relation [21

u(x)=

dI(v)

zS

2v

_m

_y
e

Ix-v I

dv,

(8)

where Z, - internal-surface
impedance
of the cable sheath, yc - propagation
coefficient of circuit involving cable
insulation and cable conductor, and the
current I is given by eqn.(l).
EFFECT OF SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT
POWER LINE ON THE EARTHED CABLE

IN A

One of the methods used to protect

earth return circuits against the
electromagnetic
effects of a power
line is the earthing of the circuit
under protection in these places where
the highest values of potentials take
place, e.g., in points opposite to the
ends of approach section of a power
line, as seen in Fig.2.

(3)
(4)
\

energisation
(5)

where

v
Z

el

e2

- characteristic
zO
cable,

impedance

of the

- shunt admittance

of the cable,

- propagation coefficient of circuit involving the earth and

cable sheath,

- earth conductivity,

distance from the earth

to the cable,

Y!rQ - Sunde's

functions

[5].

electrode

Fig.2:

Underground cable earthed at

points of maximum inductive
influence of a power line

A more general case of the influence of a short-circuit current of a

power line on a nearby underground
cable is shown in Fig.3.
In the system presented in Fig.3 the
fault current IO of a power line influences both inductively and conductively
on a nearby cable.

- 271

5012

It should be pointed out that in

case of the system presented in Fig.2,
that is, the case of inductive influence of a power line, the primary currents and potentials along the cable
under the influence are drawn from rewith the ommission
lations (9) - (ll),
of the terms containing functionsyand
R (representing the conductive influence of a power line).
EXAMPLES

Fig.3: Underground earthed cable in

the vicinity of a - c power
line with earth fault
To simplify considerations,
it has
been assumed that the power line consists of only one overhead conductor
with the resultant earth fault current,
while the fault current flows into and
out of the soil through point earth
electrodes placed on the surface of
the earth.
If the line is energised at the
point x = L, and the earth fault occurs
at the point x = 0, the primary current,
potential and voltage between the cable
conductor and the sheath of the cable
take the forms [1,2,51

IO(x)= +

-YlXi

[sign(x)(l

? .
11

(1 - e

- sign(x-L)
+ 2

wyx,w

-ylx-LI
)I

-Y[v(x-L),

z12z010

vO(x) =

)+

- e

usI>

(e -ylx-LI

(9)

-Ylxl
I+

-e

2z11
+ g-

{n(vx,us)

z12Zs10

uO(x)=

2Zll(Y2
_ e-Yclx-Ll)._e
+

YZslo
2nr

-R
-

[ g

-Yi)

(e -yc

rYSl-

{Q(YX,YS)

-+(v,X,Y,S)

n[u,(x-I;), Y,SlH,

(10)
Ix'+

-ulxl+

(Y2-Yc2)

[y(x-L

YSI)

R[Y(x-L),

e -ylx-LI]+
-t

-t

(11)

- self impedance of cable

212 - mutual impedance
betwee; overhead conductor and sheath
of the cable.
Finally, the resultant current, potential and voltage distributions along
the buried cable being earthed through
earth electrodes, due to electromagnetic effects of a nearby power line,
may be obtained according to eqns (l),
(2) and (8).
;;;=FhZ1l

A 6 cm diameter cable, 0.5 mm thick

tubular copper shield is subjected to
a unit current in a power line. The
cable is earthed at points x = 0 and
x = L through the earth electrodes
located at distances 2 m from the cable'.
The horizontal distance between the
cable and the power line is 10 m.
Height of the overhead conductor of the
power line above the earth's surface
is 10 m.
The remaining data concerning the
parameters of the cable are as follows:
zi = 0.184 + jO.003 R/km, Zs = 0.184
R/km, unit-length capacitance between
sheath and conductor of the cable
- C = 0.1 pF/km, unit-length leakage
conductance of cable insulation between
sheath and conductor of the cable G = 0 S/km.
Results of calculations of potentials and voltages due, in the buried
earthed cable, to electromagnetic
effects of a power line are shown in
Figures and Table (moduli per unit
current).
Calculations have been carried out
for the case of earth fault occuring
in the close proximity of the cable
(conductive and inductive influence of
power line) - Fig.4, and for the case
of inductive interference only (the
earth fault is remote from the approach
section of the power line) - Fig.5.
In Fig.4 the potentials are plotted
as function of x, whereas in Fig.5, the
influe,nce of cable shunt conductance
on the maximum value of potential of
the cable is shown.
In Figs 4 and 5 the curves IV'1
represent potential for the case where
the additional conductive effect of the
earthing currents was not taken into
account.
The influence of earth conductivity
and shunt conductance of the cable insulation on the values of maximum voltages (at the point x = 0) between sheath
and cable conductor is shown in Table.
In the Table entry with prime corresponds to the case where the additional conductive effect was disregarded.
CONCLUSIONS
The results of calculations show
that the earthing of buried cable reduces significantly the value of potential excited by electromagnetic
effects
of an a - c power line. The values of
Potentials obtained on the assumption

- 272 -

IVI
hV1
13(-j

-0,s

Fis.4:

0,5

Potential

I,0

I,5

distribution

2,O

along earthed

2,s
underground

3,0 h-d
cable

that no additional conductive influence

exists may be smaller by 20% (for
maximum values).
The influence of the additional conductive effect on the potential distribution along the protected cable becomes obvious in case when the cable
having an insulation of great conductance is buried in the earth of low
conductivity.
The earthing of the cable may result
in increasing of voltage between sheath
and cable conductor, which is noticeable for well insulated cables.
The influence of the additional conductive effect on the voltage between
the cable conductor and the sheath
practicaly does not exist.

IVI
hV1
300

0.1

1.0

REFERENCES

Gi [ S/km1

10
[ll.

Fig.5: Maximum potential vs cable

shunt conductance for various
values of earth conductivity
Table. Maximum voltage between
and cable conductor

cr=5.10-3S/m

sheath

cr= 10B2S/m

( IUl / mV

90

86

83 1 90

85

79

1 IU'II mV

95

91

841 93

87

79

Krakowski,M.: Currents and potentials along extensive underground

conductor.Proc.IEE,Vol.llS,No
9,
1299 - 1304 (1968).
lI21.Krakowski,M.: Obwody ziemnopowrotne. WNT,Warszawa,
1979.
Electromagnetic
[31. Machczydski,W.:
effects of a - c transmission lines on extensive conductor earthed through impedances. Seventh International Wrockaw Symposium on
EMC,WrocZaw, June 18-20, 1984
485-494.
J.W.: Tieorija i ras[41. Striiewskij,
czet wlijanija elektrificirowannoj ieleznoj dorogi na podziemnyje
metalliczeskije
sooruienija.
Izdat.Lit.po Stroitielstwu,
Moskwa, 1968.
[51. Sunde,D.E.: Earth conduction
effect in transmission systems.
Dover Publication, N.York,1968.

273

5113

COUPLING AND PROPAGATION

OF TRANSIHNT CURRHNTS ON MULTICONDUmR
TRANSMISSIONLINE?3
J.L. ter Haseborg*, H. 'Winks*, and R. Sturm**
*TechnischeUniversitatHamburg-Harhurg
Hamburg Germany
**NRC Defense Research and Development Institute
Munster Germany

In

order

to

estimate

the

protection

efficiency or to realize an opt.imumprotection

for sensitive electronic devi~cesrespectively
by special protection circuits aqainst guided
transient currents - e.g. caused by liqhtning
(~23) or NEMP - the variation of the time dependent or frequency-dependentshape of the
interfering currents by the transmission line
has to be known. Particularlythe edge steepness of the surqeinfluencesthe response of
ft;?yl protection devices, e-q. gas arresters

tronsmissio n -

protec4 on
circuit

.----

!
,

L----

I -----J--f*--

electronic deviceNine tefmination) to be protected A

i-._._._

A shielded multiconductortransmission
line is considered.The coupling process
between cable sheath currents and conductor
currents as well as the propagation of sheath
and conductor currents are described analytically. Starting from this description a
computer code is developed.
Introduction
There are two applicationsfor the cornputations concerning coupling and propagation
of transient currents on multiconductortransmission lines. The first application is explained by Fig. 1.
The coupling and propagationof incoming
pulses,runningto the input terminals of protection circuits as well as the propagation of
residual pulses at the output terminals of responding circuits, running to the input terminals of the electronic device to be protected, are of special interest. Referring to
Fig. 1 the shape, particularlythe edge steepness, of the pulse@determines the response
(dynamic threshold voltage) of the protection
circuit. Often the electronic device to be
protected and the protection circuit are not
directly interconnectedbut separated by a
line of the length 1 as shown in Fig. 1.
Starting from a definite residual pulseOat
the output terminals of the responding protection circuit the transmissionline constants in connectionwith the line termination
dertermines the total pulse@at the input terminals of the device to be protected.Assuming
the worst case the amplitude of the total pulse
@nay be two times larger than the amplitude of
the pulse@ .
The second application,which is also
typical for many cases in pracitce, is shown
in Fig. 2.

Fig.

1:

I
*

._._or LRMP-induced
and residual pulses@on
transmission lines

Propagation
pulses@

of

NEW-

EMP
termination

input terminals 1

termination
.-.-.

input terminals 2

Fiq. 2: Transmission line terminated at both

ends with arbitrary impedances
A multiconductortransmissionline (length 1)
is terminated at both ends with arbitrary impedances. When the line is excited by an
electromagneticfield (NEMP or LFMP) the total
currents I
Cl1 *.* ICln Or *c21 *.* ICZn
respectivelyat the input terminals of the
termination 1 or 2 respectivelyare of interest. However,quiteoften these terminals are
not accessible and therefore it is impossible
to measure the voltages or currents respectively at the pins of the terminations.Starting from an induced current as lumped source
on the cable sheath the computer code developed allows the calculationof the total
currents at the input terminals 1 and 2 assuming arbitrary terminations.
In this paper results concerning the
second application of this computationprocedure will be presented and discussed. The
first application,thatis coupling and propagation of induced pulses on transmission lines
as well as propagationof residual pulses,
caused by responding protection circuits (s.

274

d1
-_=-y
'* u
dz
-

Fig. l), will be the subject of another publication.

Theory
basis for the calculationsis the
transmission line theory, particularlythe
transmission line equations in the frequencydomain. This theory is applied on the complete
transmission line, that means on the inner
conductors as well as on the cable sheath
(shielding).Generally it is not possible to
describe the sheath currents e.g. the currents
on a braided shield by means of the transmission line equations. Starting from the
transfer impedance which describes the coupling between sheath currents and inner conductor currents an equivalent cable sheath has
to be found showing the same frequency-depndent transfer impedance as valid for the real
sheath and which allows the application of the
transmission line equations.
A

(4)

the transition to ntl conductors provides the

equations for multiconductortransmission
lines in matrix notation:

(5)

d [II
- dz = -[y[

Q]

(6)

The insertion of (6) in the derivative of (5)

yields the wave equation for multiconductor
transmission lines:

d2[El
= [z 1 [y 1 [El
l

Fig. 3 contains e.g. for a braided shield

typical curves concernin the tran f r imp?3_)have
dance [2]. Computations7 s. Kaden BeI
shown that it is possible to realize a cage as
in Fig. 4, showing a freguencyrepresented
depndent transfer impedance,which is largely
identicalwith the transfer impedance of the
real sheath.

(7)

dz2

Concerning a definite braided shield, Fig. 5

shows a good agreement between the transfer
impedance of the real sheath (solid curve
number 1) and the transfer impedance of the
equivalent cage (dashed curve).
The values are dependent on
- diameter of the cage
- number of cage conductors
- diameter of the cage conductors.
This transformation:
real cable sheath + equivalent cage
enables the applicationof the transmission
line equations not only on the inner conductors but also on the cable sheath. Referring
to the equivalent circuit, shown in Fig. 6,it
is no problem by means of the transmission
line theory for multiconductortransmission
lines, besides the considerationof inductive
and capacitive couplings, additionallyto take
into account the line losses, that means ohmic
losses in the conductors and in the sheath as
well as frequency-dependentlosses in the insulation.
Generally the transmission line constants
R', L', M', G'and C' - referring to Fig. 6 which are the elements of the matrix [z'] or
[Y'] respectively,are measured. In thys case
&ese constants are computed according to [4],
[5].
Starting frcnnthe transmission line equations
for a two-wire line in the time-domain:

au
xi= -

(R'+ L' -&

ai.
,,a
YiZ= - (GtC

(2)

or in the frequency-dcanain
respectively:
dV
z=-z

'. I

(3)

2
IO0
10 2

lo0 2
5
10' 2
MHz
10'
fFig. 3: Typical curves showing the transfer
wance
of braided shields [2].
co: optical coveraqe
5

By means of this multiconductortransmission

line theory an arbitrary nuker n of lines
can be considered. In (7) the voltage of one
line is coupled with the voltages of all other
lines. In order to solve this coupled differential equation system a linear transformation
provides decoupled wave equations for multiconductor transmission lines:

[El = [VI- [WI ,

(8)

5113

275 -

The matrix [v] has to be chosen in such a

manner that the insertion of (8) in (7) results in decoupled differentialequations.
Insertion of (8) in (7) and multiplication
with [VI-'
provides:
-

[g ] [y I [VI

= [VI Cr21

This equation represents an eigenvalue problem [6]. The decoupled differentialequation

system is shown in (12):
d2[W]
__
= [r'l [WI .
dz2

In order to obtain for [W] decoupled differential equations it is required:

[g-l [gJ[yI[vl

= [r21

(lo)

whereby [r'] represents a diagonal matrix.

'(11)

(12)

The components of [w] are designated as natural

waves of the multiconductortransmission line.
'The square roots of the elements of matrix
[r'] are the propagation constants of the
natural waves:
(13)

Yu = au + jfiu

whereby a or (3 respectivelyrepresents the

attenuatign con&ant or phase constant res_u. The general
pectively of the natural wave W
solution of the wave equation contains an incident and a reflected guided wave:

able

al 1

inner

shield)

consist

conductors

Fiq. 4: Cage conductors as equivalent cable

sheath concerning the transfer impedance

The uantity z marks the location on the line,

and i!
W.(O)] or [W (O)]respectivelyare the incidenEior reflec& waves respectivelyat z=O.
By means of equation (14) and various
matrix operations the equations for multiconductor transmission lines can be obtained:
for the line currents the following expression
is valid:

This formula shows clearly the two parts belonging to the incidentorreflected wave respectively. Generally it is not easy to cqute
the matched termination for a multiconductor
transmission line, because terminating impedances between all conductors are necessary.
In case of the computationprocedure presented
by means of various matrix operations the
matched termination can be found. Matched
terminationmeans, no reflected waves are
existent, therefore the following equation is
valid:
[v]-*[u(O)]-[r]-*[rs]-*[~

]*[&(O) ]= 0 .

(16)

After various mathematicaloperations the Ymatrix for the matched terminationof a multiconductor transmissionline is obtained:
I&J=

fCnzl
Fig. 5: Transfer impedance (normalized),
- solid curve: braided shield
- dashed curve: equivalent cage
Equation (lo), multiplied with [v], provides
(11):

C3 l-l~[~l~[rl~[~l-l

(17)

Computation results
In this paragraph results - referring to
Fig. 2 - are presented.As already mentioned
above problems and results - referring to Fig.
1 - will be the subject of another publication.
Concerning Fig. 2 a multiconductortransmission line is excited by a spatially short,
pulsed electramagneticfield. In the present
case the computationsdo not start from this
field but from a sheath current Is, which can
arbitrarilybe assumed, as lumped source lo-

- 276 -

a)
termination

termination

600R
p@]g

600R

b)
piq. 6: FQuivalent circuit of multiconductor
transmissionline of infinitesimal
length dz
cated at the line center. The parameters of
the dissipative transmission line investigated
show the following values:
- lengthl=lcom
- 4 inner conductors
- transfer impedance of the sheath,servingas
shielding, according to Fig. 5 curve no. 1
- the puls-shaped sheath current I assumed
has a rise time t =50 ns and a h&f-amplitude pulse duratign tf=5,5 us.
These values are valid for figures 7 and 8.
Referring to Fig. 2 the curves of Fig. 7
show the currents I_
(termination1) and

termination

ICI

ll!flI
l/L_
1.1

85

-.OS
0

tcps1

termination

t bsl

.05

L------

2.1

-.05

6
tIpsI

6
tIpI

t&4

a)
terminations

1 and 2
600R
600R

b)

termination
4

termination

0
Fig. 8

1
4

Fig. 7/%:

10

20

30

t lps1

-.L
D

10

20

30

tIpsI

Coupling and propaqationof a pulse

(t,=50 ns, tp=5,5 ps) on a line ter-

minated at both ends according to

Fig. 2, a) line terminations
b) 1.1 incident guided wave,
1.2 and 1.3 reflected by
termination 2 at termination 1
2.1 incident guided wave,
2.2 and 2.3 reflected by
termination 1 at termination 2
c) total currents at terminations 1 and 2
(termination2) on one of the four inner

IC2
conductors.Both ends are terminated with 6coR
symmetricalas shown in Fig. 7a. In Fig. 7b
the incident and in each case two reflected
guided.waves are representedthat means at
both ends two reflectionsare considered.Fig.
7 c shows the total currents at both terminations. Fig. 8 shows the corresponding
currents for the case that the end"l"is terminated with 6cxQ symmetricaland the end/'2"
is short-circuitedaccording to Fig. 8a. In
figures 7 and 8 the currents are normalized on
the amplitude of the primary sheath current
Fiq. 7:

IS

Apart from the transmission line COnstants the pulse shapes are dependent essentially on:
- line length
- line terminations.

The pulses are largely characterizedby line

resonances which are dependent on the line
length. In [7] a similar example has been ccmputed, that is a lossless transmission line
consisting of two conductors excited by a half
sine wave of width 20 ns.
Conclusions
Here only a small number of results can be
presented. We have carried out a lot of canputations and besides line length and line
terminationswe also have varied the primary
sheath current pulse I particularly its rise
time. The smaller the &se time the larger the
pulse coupled into the inner conductors.Responsible for this effect is the frequencydependent transfer impedance.Referring to the
transfer impedance shown in Fig. 5, taken as a
basis for the computations,particularlyrise
times less than approx.severalhundred nanoseconds cause comparativelyhigh pulses on
the inner conductors.
The research work concerning coupling and
propagation of transients on multiconductor
transmission lines is going on.

References
[l] ter Haseborg,J.L.;Trinks, H.: Protection
circuitsforsuppressing surge voltages
with edge steepness up to lo KV/ns.

277

5113

5th Symposium on electromagn.Cornpat. e,

Zurich, March 8-10, 1983

[21 Homan, E.:

Geschirmte Kabel mit optimalen

Geflechtschinnen. NTZ, Heft 3, 1968

und Schirmung in
[31 Kaden, H.: WirbelstriSmE!
der Nachrichtentechnik.Springer-Verlag,
Berlin, Gijttingen,
Ileidelberg,
1959
[41 Clements,J.C.;Pau1,C.R.; Adams,A.T.:
Computationsof tlX?capacitancematrix for
systems of dielectric-coatedcylindrical
conductors. IEEE Trans. Electromagn.
ccXnpat.,vol. FMC-17, no. 4, Nov., 1975
of
[51 Pau1,C.R.; Feather,A.E.: Ccanputations
the transmission line inductance and capacitance matrices from the generalized
capacitancematrix. IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Ccanpat.,vol. W-18, no. 4, Nov.
1976

[61ter Haseborg,J.L.;Trinks,H.:

Transient
response and protection of multiconductor
transmission lines. InternationalAerospace and Ground Conference on Lightning
and Static Electricity,Orlando, USA,
June 26-28, 1984

[71 Agrawa1,A.K.;Price,H.J.;Gurvaxani,S.H.:
Transient response of multiconductor
transmission lines excited by a nonuniform
electromagneticfield. IEEE Trans.
Electromagn.Ccmpat., vol. EMC-22, no. 2,
May 1980

279

52

14

Response of a S it-w
le-ConductorOverhead
Wire Illuminated by an InhomogeneousPlane Wave
-

F. PALADIAN, J.P. PLU?4EY, D. ROUBERTOU, .I.FONTAINE

University of Glermont-Ferrand
France
1. Introduction
In this paper, we obtain the time domain
response of single conductor overhead wire illuminated by an inhomogeneous plane-wave. For
this purpose, we develop an E- integral equation formulation for the current in the frequency domain and discuss a numerical procedure used to solve this integral equation,
based on the application of the method of moments and the finite difference technique.
This method presents several advantages
over he transmission line theory : first,
coupling between horizontal and vertical wires
is not taken into acount with this theory, and
then, results from transmission line theory
fail to exhibit the resonances for the structure.
At last, a Fast Fourier transform (FFT)
algorithm is used to convert the frequency
domain results into the time domain response
Numerical results are presented for the current induced on the structure placed over
perfect g.round.
2. General formulation
Figure 1 shows an overhead single conductor, horizontal with two vertical terminations penetrating the ground. The angle between the vector 2 for the plane-wave and the
horizontal line is $.
Regions 1 and 2, respectively the soil
and the air, are characterized by (cl = eIcO,
1-11
= 1-I,,
oI) and (e2 = Ed, u:! = u,, u2 = 0)
where E and po are free-space parameters.
0

we consider "thin wire hypothesis" that is to

say antenna radius is much smaller than vertical and horizontal parts lengths.
We consider an observation point P, with
c2ordinates (X, Y, Z), which is labelled by
OP = r.
If we design the Hertz vector potential
by t, the scattered field at P is given by :
1.
- if P region 1 :

it,(;)

= (k:+VV.) I

$1)

6,

+.(
r )d;'

(1)

structure
- if P

g,(G)

region 2 :

= (k$+VV.) I

$2)

+ +.I
(r, r )dg'

(2)

structure
where k represents the wave number :
k? = w2p
- jwpiui
1
i Ei

i = I,2

Designating &he unit normal as fi and the

incident field as El, we obtain the integral
equation :

fi.

(@c:,

+ it(Z))

(3)

From each equation (1) and (2), we

obtain as many equations as there are vertical and horizontal dipoles respectively in
regions 1 and 2. (for the studies case, there
are two equations if P belongs to region 1
and three equations if P belongs to region 2,
so we obtain five equations).
In equation (l), we consider z component
of $1
in region 1 and the kernel depends on
we consider the source as :

- either a VED (vertical electric dipold

or a HED (horizontal electric dipole) in
region 2.
- or a VED in region 1.
In equation (2), the kernel depends on
we Sonsider either x-component or z-component
in region 2 and it is different when
of E2
the source is
Figure 1 ,: Geometry of the structure
The time variation for all the expressions given in this paper is represented by
the time factor exp (jut).
We take into account following hypothesis : first, vertical and horizontal lines
conductivity is supposed infinite, and second

- either a VED or a HED in region 2.

- or a VED in region 1.
The kernels of equations (1) and (2) are
composed of Green's functions and Sommerfeld
integrals (cf. annexe).
The numerical solution of equations (1)
and (2) is obtained via the application of

280

the method of moments (2); we used Point

Matching method that means currents are considered as constants along every patch of length
A on horizontal or vertical wires.
Application of the method of moments
allows one to write integral equation in terns
of the following matrix equation :

k: f

Zj+A/2

zj-A/2

+(z
hg>ij + (zhg).I.

hg
or:Z..=(Z
1J

4
source
term

or

(Zmn)(In) = - (Eim)

(I)

represents unknown current

matrices.

&

In each sub-matrix, every component is

broken up in three terms : a source term
(when we consider region 2 as infinite), an
image term (when region 1 is considered as
a perfect ground) and a corrective term
composed of Sommerfeld integrals (when region
1 is considered as a lossy ground).
For example, the expression of the incident
field is given when the observation point
is along the horizontal part of the structure
in region 2. Ba;\;osEormalism(2) is used with
the time factor exn
_ (iwt).
_

E;(X,h)+$?o
+ $Q

!; I,Wk&

~hI,(0,z9

+ $$$

x=x

V12dZ' X1=0
Z=h

(G22-G21+k&)dZ'

&

II'Ix(X',h)

($

x=x
X'=O
Z=h

+ k;)(G,,-G,,)

0
x=x
+

a2

k2
2 (w

+ +f$$

+ *22 I

V22

I,

L&Z)~

dX

a2

Z'=h
z=h

/-hrz(L,z,)

&

x=x
,r;

(G2,-G21+k;v,,)dz

V12 dZ'

where expressions of Green's functions (G22

and G21) and Sonunerfeld integrals (Vl2, V22
and V22) are given in Annexe.
In this expression, every integral gives
us expression of a sub-matrix of the third
line of (4) ; we obtain respectively Zhg ,
Zhg, zhh, Zhd and zhd .
For example, we obtain :

ij

ho
W

Zj+A/2

zj-A/2

a2

hg)C
..

! lJ
corrective
term

&

f(X,Z)

f(X+A,Z) + f(X-A,Z) - Zf(X,z)

A2

f(X,Z): =

f(X+A/2,z+A/2)-f(X+A/2,2-n/2)
A2

_ f(X-A/2,Z+A/2>+f(X-A/2,2-n/2)
A2
The first purpose of this paper is to
obtain the current value at the point M in
the frequency domain.
Then, these results are used to investigate the transient behaviour of the antenna
current mainted over perfect ground.
As a first step, the transfer function
(impulse response) of the structure current
is computed using the previous results. This
transfer function is then multiplied by the
spectrum of the EMP (electromagnetic pulse),
and finally the Fourier inversion is performed numerically via a Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT) routine to obtain the transient response

E(t)

= El(e-et- eeBt)

and by a Fourier transform, we obtain :

E(f) = E,(&

- &)

- j E1(;&-&'&

;I;"

zhg =

Xi

EMP form is given by :

x=x
+ *

) lJ
image
term

;': ;

By means, it is possible to reduce

calculation times by taking into account all
symmetries of each term.
To avoid difficulties that come from
differential operators inside the integrals,
we have chosen the finite-difference scheme
for performing the differentiation outside
the integrals. The two following formulas
are used :

(zmn) represents the impedances

matrices.

where

a2

V22 dZ'
axaz

x=x;

axaz Gz2dZ' X'= 0

Z=h

At a point M on the structure (cf.

figure 1) the current transfer function may
be defined by H(f), which is the deltaresponse of the structure at point M. The
transfer function can be constructed discretely from previous results. Using the superposition theorem, the transform of the current
at point M due to the EMP E(t) can be written
as :
I(f) = E(f).H(f)
and the transient response of the structure
current at point M can be expressed as :
4-m

i(t) = 1

I(f) ej2xft df

281

3. Results
a) In the frequency domain :
Results are given for a case closely
related to Taylor and Castillo's (4) with a
different height of horizontal part to take
the same patches length on horizontal and
vertical part of the structure.
We used 40 patches on horizontal part
and 1 patch on each vertical part : this choice
ensure that moment method solution converges.
Response in the frequency domain of the
structure is given for a perfectly conducting
ground, when vertical parts are each loaded
first by 100 R, second by the caracteristic
impedance Zc.

52

14

lines theory is equal to zero that is verified between resonance frequencies (5) *
III
(Al

4.p
2f.QMh.z

3.19
2.18

ld?

zc = 120 Log ($) = 635 n

First, currents are computed along the
structure for a frequency corresponding to a
wave length equal to the total structure length
(figure 2). The plane-wave incidence is 90'.
So the excitation of the structure is symmetric
about X = $ ; theLcurrents are of course symmetric about X = 2.

Figure 3 : Response in the frequency domain at.

point M
Figure 4 : next page
b) Time domain results.
Previous results are used to obtain the
time domain response of the structure at
point M.
The structure transfer function H(f) is
computed at the total of 1024 frequencies
in the range of :
0

Figure 2 : Response in the frequency domain

along the structure.
Limits of moment method are given by
L > X/6

These conditions are directly linked to

the basis functions choice and they ensure
results convergence ; they have been specified
by many testings.
For this case, we may obtain results
for :
3 MhZ < f i 40 MhZ
Currents are computed at point M for
this frequency range.
Resonance frequencies are given by :

where

<

f < 40 MhZ

With this choice, all the sharps peaks

are taken into account.
f = 3 MhZ represents the lower limit
of moment method so transmission lines theory
is used for 0~ f < 3 MhZ and moment method
for 3 MhZ < f < 40 MhZ.
The transform of the EMP is then multiplied by the structure transfer function to
obtain I(f). Note that at f = 40 MhZ, the
resultant frequency domain currents have
decayed sufficiently so that zeros can be
added for f > 40 MhZ.
Now that the entire frequency domain
is constructed numerically, a Fast Fourier
Transform routine is employed to obtain the
time domain response i(t).
The ringing effect linked to the sharps
peaks of the frequency spectum makes plotting
i versus time response difficult. So, figures
5 and 6 respectively shows the time domain
response only up to 1,25 us and the envelope
along the all range of times.

Ii1 (A)
800f
700..
800.
500'

fr = mcl2L

400.

c is the velocity of light

m=l ) 2, 3, . ..

300.
200,.

In this case, for I$ = 90", the resonant

current modes corresponding to odd values of m
are not excited : the excitation of the structure is symmetric about X = L/2 and these resonant current modes are not excited (figures 3
and 4).
Current value given by the transmission

100

0.75

Figure 5 : Time domain response at point M

for 25 ns ,< t,< 1,25 us

282

-y2(z+z')(Y2-y~)

=2fme
22

W 21

k:Y, + k;Y,

(A,->

Ad),

'

(Y2-yl)Jo(Xr) AdA

-Y2(z+z')
U
200
'-I

Jo(Xr) Xdh

22 =

Yl+Y2

100

BW22

Figure 6 : Envelope of time-domain response

at point M
4. Conclusion
Our purpose is to obtain time domain
response of the structure by using Fast
Fourier Transform.Frequency domain results
show that it is necessary to resort to an
integral formulation of the problem. Transmission lines theory actually fails to exhibit
the resonances for the structure that would
affect time-domain results computed by FFT.
Results obtained for a perfectly conducting ground : this case is unrealistic but
represent a step in the solution to the problem when the ground is imperfectly conducting.

a) Green's functions
.-jkzR2
.-jk2Rl
G22 = ~
G21 =R2
e-j

w21 =
we have

G12 =-

e-j

x-2 = x2 f

y2

order
References

11) A.J.
tion

Poggio, E.K. Miller, 'Integral equasolutions of three-dimensional scattering problems', in Mittra, R.(Ed.) :
'Computer techniques for electromagnetics' (Pergamon, 1973), pp. 159-263.

(21 R.F.

and h = 1~')

(4)

Jo(Ar) XdX
0

k;Yl + k:Y,
co

"21

eY1z-Y2z'

321

Jo(hr) XdX
0

kZY, + k;Y2
e-Y2z+Ylz'

"12 = 2 jm
0

11

L 2

Jrn
0

i = I,2

Jo represents Bessel function of zero

(3)

b) Sommerfeld integrals
"22 =2j

ki)l:!

Harrington, 'Fiel Computation by

moment methods', Ed. Mac Millan,
New York, 1968.

RI = (r2+ (z + h)2)1'2
where :

(X2-

with : R2 = (r2+(z - h)2)1'2

and

r represents horizontal distance from

the observation point to the origin 0.

kl RI

RI

"21

Gll =R2

Yi

(& - &'i

with real (yi) > 0

Rl

kl R2

= k; V22 - U,,

k2,W2, = -$ (2G21-(k;+k;) "22)

Annex
Expressions of Green's functions and
Sommerfeld integrals used in Ba?los's formulation.

az

(5)

A. Bazos, 'Dipole radiation in the presence of conducting half-space', NewYork : Pergamon Press, 1966.
C.D. Taylor, J.P. Castillo, 'On e'lectromagnetic-field excitation of unshielder
multiconductor cables', PEEE Transactfons
on electromagnetic compatibility, vol.
EMC-20, NO. 4, November 1978.
A. Albert, Jr. Smith, 'Coupling of external electro-magnetic fields to transmission lines', John Wiley and Sons,
New-York (Eondon) Sydney (Toronto,1977).

Jo(Xr) Adh
k:Y, + k;Y1
eYl(z+z')
Jo(hr) XdX
k; Y2+ k;Y,

Figure 4 : Response in the frequent domain

af point M.

TIME DOMAIN

SCATTERING

283

5315

BY THIN WIRE STRUCTURES

A HOMOGENEOUS

F. MAUMY, B. GECKO et 0. DAFIF

Universite
de Limoges - U.E.R. des Sciences
de Communications
Optiques
et Microondes
(LA 356 du C.N.R.S.)
123, rue Albert Thomas - 87060 LIMOGES CEDEX

Laboratoire

ABSTRACT
This

paper

electromagnetic

shows

pulses

of any

form,

terized

by a conductivity

the

above

capital

current

stage

induced

equations,

the

by

thin

o.The

is

the

on the wire,

taking

scattering
wire

a homogeneous

into

of

problem

from

is resolved

by integral

in

-Figure

which
of

the

charac-

determination

account

The

space-time
presence

space
of

Some

I-

applications

domain

of

and electric

are

chosen

in

telecommunications

or railway

systems.

theoretical

to

responses

through

on these

installations.

perfectly

was

treated

wire

illumination

of induced

currents

scattering

problem

structures

[ll,

of a perfectly

[2],

with

takes

a finite

into

account

conductivity.

Fresnels

approximation,

in

integral

equations

verified

induced

on

wire

[41

and

structure.

the

the

simulator

as antennas
earth,
with

The

of

method

of

interpolation

is also applied
radiation

or essay
transmission

of

waves.

moments
used

in pulse

emission

11.1. Principle

the

the

any

in the

(I?,

Gal,

the

superposition

at a point

(gd,

of

a wire

perfec-

half-space,

t which

is respon-

Ad). The field

is

the

M of the

it

(?$I)

expressed

on

by
(2)
(3)

determined

electric

half-space

conditions

called

as

the

half-space

Knowing

@,

field

a current

operator

wire

arrives

wave

half-space,

in

= L[I(M,t)l

ting

I%

(1)

Ed(P,t)

boundary

in

its written

integral

the

obstacle,

+ Ed(P,t)

equations.

point

(I?,

half-

this

to

field

Maxwells

larly

total

structure

= Ea(P,t)

an

wire

@, fia) illuminates

of

with

the

a reflected
point

due

on its surface

field

by

8 radiated

and therefore,
wire

surface,

on the

the

at

particuone applies

perfectly

conduc-

in presence
pulses

s;?(M,t) = 0
where

PROBLEM

of the method

any

in

+ Er(P,t)

wave

(4)

is the

at the point
II - THEORETICAL

wave

At

of diffracted

is

incident

is

= Z(PJ)

point

Without

creates

treated

earth.

it

conducting

sible

is

Therefore,

current

are

to some

electromagnetic
line.

establishing

solution.

This work
problems

by the

Lagrange

to the numerical

field,

It consists,

the

the

obstacle,

QP,t)

paper

1).

applied

induces

conducting

plane

without

tly

[3J,

the

(figure

half-space

problem

ground,

When the

ground.

ground

fir)

Ea(P,t)

structures

pulses

Transient

in presence

This

in

of

the knowledge

conducting

or dielectric

real

work

electromagnetic

proceeds

by

the

the

both

INTRODUCTION
The

of

the

equip-

above

when
on

protection

( &?I

Iair
P,,rr
,r,,,r,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
earth

the

the earth.

ments

:;:y_e&+

structures

ground

established

directly

domain,

ABOVE

GROUND

Using
lows

to

unit

tangent

vector

to

the

path

M.

obtain

(2) and (3), this

an

integral

condition

verified

(4) alby

I(M,t):

z.{L[I! M,t)] + ca(M,t))

11.2. Applied

field,

First,
in

we

the

the

order

time

the

reflected

our course

of action

is the

following.

consider

the

reflection

domain.

domain

by aninverse
the

air/soil

we

use

Laplace
the

R(t)

takes

and

the

function

the

earth

we present
the

= $$

(e-d)

is

at

e-T,

(ii)

- 02

_(6-d)

the

horizontal

-t

+ (8-d) IO $1
with

where

tion

-- Bt
e
*

0;

B=

CI
E E r

sin

obtained

Thus,
consists

of

two

the dielectric,

of order

RTM(t)

reflection

parts,

the other

2 shows

dence

angle

of

the

half

one

of

which

R(t)

is

due

to

(8)

the dependence

is

= E(o,t)

11.3. Integral

The field

poles

on the

the

computed

at

any
from

point
the

plane

waves

gd = L(I) being
boundary

conducting
the

wire

integral

condistructure

equation

verified

1:

to *(t) et T*(t) are vectors

on

the

earth,

[T*(t)]

= [R(t)l.[6*1

where

(To, d o*) are respectively

the source

dipole

R(t)

is the

by

the

which

express

connected

with

[R(t)] [5], [6] by :

matrix

= [R(t)l.[:o*l

the unit

and to the image

reflection
dipole,

matrix

of the

connected

vectors

to

dipole.
field,

with

radiated

the

functions

sin 4

II61by :

et RTM(t)

[R(t)].

- RTM(t)

cos

- RTM(t)

sin 4

i
the

(M~,A,P)

by adding

of all the electric

. Frequency

have
by

domain

using

the
\iq*( image)

- RTM(t

angle

of

incident

of the Fresnels

been

validity

obtained

comparison

ground,

condition

zones

Fresnels

plane

coefficients

[7]

with

of

reflection
in

the

approached
coefficients

frequency

exact

domain

method

using

integrals.
For an

domain

Sommerfelds

cos $

3).

The

earth

RTE(t)
0

(figure

wire.

3 -

RTE(t)

method

up
di-

polarization

11.4. Validity
is obtained

is

method
- Figure

to obtain

reflection

field

6 (t - +G

ed(P,t)

A is suppo-

of R&t) on the inci-

field

dEd(P,Mo,t)

the

3).

of the

[@I

equation

the contributions

perflectly

reflections

4
(3

one

RTE(t)

at the interface
j$(p,t)

on

from

of the

field

application

by the current

conductivity.

reflected
space

be

to the conductor.

and the earth

The

can

function

R(t) = Rc 6(t) + R&t)

Figure

allows

the

and where

polarization.

the

[_5], the
on

the

a tb
Bessel functions

expression

for a vertical

reflected

spring

at the point

coefficient

0)

bf3

e =-

similar

one

at M; (figure

the

at
formed

dT

and 1.
A

by

seems

The diffracted

reflec-

(11 (9)

0(

IO and Ii are the

and

emited
MO, is

. s(t)

a = cos 8;bnJcr-sin*

with

is

domain,

e-av2
e-d(t-d

_- Bt
2 ] + sb

b*B
d=jyr-g

done

known

polarization.

situated

time

at

half-

frequency

(RTE ou RTM).

(@.)

02

dipole

which

which

the

used

in

situated

wave

wave

expressed

only

emdt - a?_$-

wave

in

very

consists,

dipole

straight

oneself

the

The reflection

It is written
RTE(t)

image

characteristics

R(t)

ground

product

incidence.

for

one

the

(6)

[61. Here,

analytically
tion

of

by

the

P by

seats

earth,
[2]

supposing

sed

into account
angle

in

reflected

= R(t) (;) @(o,t)

g(o,t)

it

transform.

interface,

by the convolution

is given

in

one

the

method

point

coefficient

Then,

above

domain

determine

Near
field

When
space

to

frequency

(5)

field computation

In
electric

= 0

284

the

electric

height

dipole,

h must

situated

verify

the

above
following

01.

,.*..*. 150
100

1,
50

,,

208

285

5315

Er.,l..l.
0
50

250

100

150

200

240

t(ns)

t,(ns)

_d--.5

-5 -

-4
Conduct

i vi ty:

lG3

mho/m

t
t
-I

t
t
(, . . . .

,.

-1.5

_-3
Conductivity:

-2.5 t

5
(*la

mho/m

-25 i

18

(Xl0

(-

50

100

150

(
250

2h0

t(ns)

-rib

-108

-100E

Conductivity:
Conductivity:

18

-2

mho/m

-150

-1500

-200

-250

IL

- Figure
ANGLE
Permittivity

OF

2 -

INCIDENCE

E, = 10.

. . . . 60"
--_
---

450
300
00

REFLEXION

ANGLE

AND
OF

FUNCTION

CONDUCTIVITY

INCIDENCE

RTE

(t)
oINFLUENCE

(degrees)

18

-1

mho/m

h>--X

07

Ee = Er +-z-JWEo

JF7;1
from thlis height

condition,

[S] a frequency
0,7)cZ
h2
f >

(12)

it is possible

condition

using

Fresnels

available

so

magnetic

pulse

are

reflection

that

all

the

wire

behaves

like

is

The

seems

However

first

penalizing

high

For

Moreover,

(sod

our

attention

border

effects,

equation

TM
by the

sampled
numerically

method

resolved

sequence

[ 21.

proceeds

in the sample
t-R*/c

The

original

Ru

by

of

stage
the

(so,+-

of

ximed
I(so

NS

where

of this

time

$$so,T)

of time
1,

uq

seen

to

=-2

can

term:
dT (15)

be

intervals

s;+

segments

and where

AR(*)

to

(221

< 0,5

avoid

interpolation

(j+m)-th
term

appro-

(16)

all

.
I

time
at

into

interval.

time

step

sampled

tj

current

,i,

Ri$s+l by,

:At/2

may

be

values

up

(sl;,t?] dt = J!l

For reasoning

(23)

Pis

easily

the reflection

to be a constant
interval.

t) .

TM

within

function

is con-

space

segment

each

This approximation

is satisfacto-

ry when u < Id mho/m (fig. 2). On the contrary,

R;j-$($!t)
will be interpolated
in time by a
Lagrangian

polynomial
,At/2

v+2
mZv R$j-s+l
TM

and NT
The

spacetime

then

be written

otherwise

t,$?m)dt!l

Ii+1 s+m

At/2

dependent

convolution

(24)
term

can

as

j+m +1

0,

) > 0,5

At/,

ti = to - tj)
of space

AR(*) = c(tR$

for

include

Pijbi,tj)=Pijz

sidered

variation

(21)

[2].

problem

convolution

NT
jgl Iij (sY,tj) u (s?) v(tjl)

NS is the number

the number

future

and time

s zz s - s.
i
0
I

with

for

want

[4]

repeated

bv :
= igl

we

to ti

of moments
spacetime

(20)

p.
1+1, jtm

I.
are the current
and convolui+l,j+m and Pi+l,j+m
rion term values at the center
of the (i+&tk space

TM
current

(191

1 I-1

the

(14)

moments

of a

in two dimensions

and

is .:

ds 0

function

Q,m!
B..
J

* -$-y(so,to*)}

(18)

(I,m) I,
i+l, j+m

(9 =-I

because

Its integral

vc;j,

Bij

v+2
JzV,

(1

the

i and

where
+I v(l)+2 (so-si+ )(t(*)- t.+ )
(1 m)
p 0
B!$j
= II1
p=-1 pT$)(Si+l-si+p)(tj+m-tj+qJ

very

the low frequencies

we restrict

segment

response
isnt

TM

Its

. Method

V+2
rn%

and the
Gigg-0 (so,to)- K&o)$$g+o,to*)segment
the
convolution

and

the

Us;)

interpolation

pulse.

wire.

pij (sY,tT)

+1
=,5-l

pij(,+

domain.

the

21

+1
= c
1=-l

MHz

dimensions

it

of space

interpolation

Lagrangian
Iij(s;,t;l

Fresnels

[9].
by

in neglecting

P(So,to*)

filter

lengths

II z) in the form
we can put Iij(sy,tif and pij(si,tj

in taking

finite

otherwire

t; = t* - t.
I
0
1

. Lagrange

be

SOLUTION

so like an infinite

cO

with

< _nz

At the

= i;;

to

in time

Therefore,

simplicity,

wire

than

uncorrectly

III - NUMERICAL

intervals.

with

electroma-

using

generally,

to treat

:.Rs,t,=g

Ai and

time

mho/m,the

higher

pass

moments.

a long

with

method

electro-

But

method

obstacle

of the electromagnetic

to

of

(13).

inapplicable

interested,

the

verify

correctly.

approximation

in

frequencies

frequencies

wave
treated

one

the

coefficients

the

spectre

for

h = 10 m, E = 10, d = lo-
r
condition
shows
that
only

frequency
gnetic

necessary

0,

p(so,to*)
be

It;1

Similarlv.

(13)

E
r

1,

to deduce

- 3,24 102 (5

would

for example

vet!;,

. Time domain
It

286

V+2

sZ1 r=C-1 t&l

.(r,t)
i+,

R$Mj+m-s+l

I~+,+~ s+t

(25)

287

where

v has been

taining
and

terms

used

later

in place

than

of

to avoid

5315

radiation

ob-

time t.
v-t2

in pulse

[l] JECKO
(26)

B. Diffraction

sionnelles

developments

and

(18), (23) into

(14) allows

currents

current

matrix

at

convolution

the

integral

expression

time-step

to

for
be

equation
the

unknow

obtained.

It

is

(27)

Ziu is

the

between

v = 1, NT

u = I, NS

SELDEN

in

the

matrix
the

of

the

structure

mutual

interactions

segments.

It

is

space

0.

It

Ii v are

specified

c&entvalues

repeated

to

sequence

bJ

obtain
of

$1,

Ii2,

matrix

etc...

with
in

method

long

frequency

domain

frequency
[lo].

The

by lines

approximation

the

are

using

solution

the

4)

problem
inverse
validated

finite

which

differs

work

an

results

method

rencies

The
the

time

wire

is

is

obtained

evolution

h, the conductivity

tivity

greater

the

current

ted
its

is (Figure

wave

which

intensity,

6 and

the

the

the

current

different

height

later

is,

the

stronger

the

reflec-

the

diminution

and

later.

conductivity

and

of

Figures

permittivity

V - CONCLUSION

proach,
of the
by wire
of

treated

work
directly

electromagnetic
structures

particular

study
[8].

in
waves

of any

homogeneous

developed

constitutes

about
This

an

in the
It

first

time

scattering

form,

ground.

method

the

space

ted

(1972).

de

Field

the

JECKO

3eme

(France)

computation

Mac Millan

B. Diffraction
filaires

Colloque

Company

en

june

1983.

F.

These

de

d1.E.M.
presence

National

Electromagnetique.

University

T.K.

sur

la

Tregastel

Doctorat

of

domain,
problem
presence

continues

infinite

wire,

is

applied

ap-

the

already
to

the

Analysis

thin-wire

ground

antenna

planes

M.

New Brunswick

3eme

june

values

influence.

This

half-

vol.50

Limoges

of

structures

[71 SARKER

3eme

o and the permit-

instigates

antennas

conductivity

Doctorat

R.F.

Z&me

Limoges

de

3eme

(France)

cycle

arrays
SC.

G.

over

E.,

These

de
of

These

University

J.P.,

imperfect

Universite

of

Doctorat

de

Limoges

(France)

1984.
de
of

Internal

Doctorat

Limoges

1983.

[IO] BERENGER

orien-

(1971).

University

january,

cycle

of arbitrarily

Canada

M.P.

[91 LEBORGNE

5). Effectively,

arrives

7 show

of

for

of the height
E. The

des
sol

no 2-84,

a little.

observed

G.3.

(1983).

et

[81 GOURDY

diffe-

IV.2. Influence of principal parameters

on

du

BURKE

(1968).

0.

II61MAUMY

(Figure

treat
execute

The

Transform.

forthe

compared

which
and

Ann.

to be published.

applied

. its

wire
methods

the

is

mdtalliques

of Physics
de

Method

New-York

cycle

several

Fourier
by

february

(France)

operations.

IV-I. Validation of the method

The

impul-

of wire

University

par

I.

IV - APPLICATIONS

about

J.

Compatibilite

is possible

E.M.

Analysis

These

by Moment

time

) . ..) v - 1.

j=l

by

currents

of Ezv and the known

in terms

earth.

A.J.,

of

Canadian

151 DAFIF
the

E.S.

141 HARRINGTON

independent.
Finally,

the

(1983).

POGGIO

presence

cycle

x=I,...,v-I

n5-6

E.K.,

and

n8-83
i = 1, NS

t.38,

[2] MILLER

term

[3] DAFIF

with

of

dondes

par des obstacles

Tdlecomm.
of

presence

BIBLIOGRAPHY

C\l,m)

Substitution

in the

report.

de

(France)

288

3500

3000

2500

1500

1500

-3

506

mhoim

t,(ns)
01

I..

50

Figure

XXX
coo

4-

Current
wire

158

evolution

on

the

(ct.)
I

I.
180

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

00
(In)

Figure
5 - Height
influence
can
be
used
to verify
the
condition
02) in
time
domain.
Here,
our method
using
the Fresnel's
approximation
(-)
is compared
with
a rigorous
solution
(---)
fourlded on
the
Huyghens's
principle
(81

Fresnel's
approximation
Lines
approximation
Finite
differencies

I(t)
I(t)

500E

2508 -

400E

///,,///

N/Y AH

2000 .

3000
1500 -

2006

100a -

500 *

100e

t(m)

a~.."'..."*.'."
0
-

Figure

56

100

Conductivity

150

influence

Figure

10

20

30

40

Permittivity

.,

50

I.

60

70

influence

.,

00
et(m)

NOISE SOURCES

289

5416

AND INTERFERENCE

VALUES

IN HIGH VOLTAGE SUBSTATIONS

H. RGhsIer

A. Strnad
Energie-Versorgung
Stuttgart,

Abstract - Noise sources in high voltage substations

may cause severe interference
problems in the secondary circuits.
The knowledge of the different
noise
effects
sources and an analysis of the interference
allows to estimate
the overvoltages
to be expected
and their frequency of occurence.
By a proper design
of both HV equipment and secondary wiring and by the
application
of voltage limiting devices the noise voltages can be limited to an acceptable level.
1. Introduction
The phenomena of electromagnetic
transients
affecting electric and electronic
devices has been known
since the beginning
of electrical
engineering.
The
installation
of sensitive electronic
equipment
in high
voltage (HV) plants and the problems associated have
led to an intensive work in the field of interference
on
an international
basis.
Concerning HV substations a lot
been made mostly examinating
occured. However, up to now
description
of the noise sources
values.

of investigations
have
interference
problems
there ist no detailed
and the interference

It is the aim of this study to describe the noise sources

and to analyse the interference
values with special
regard to their shape, the maximum of amplitude and
steepness and the impedance of the noise source.
2. Electromagnetic
The noise
substations

noise sources in HV substations

sources which have to be regarded

are described below:

in HV

- switching in primary circuits (i.e. on the HV level)

Switching of disconnectors
or circuit breakers is a
frequent source of noise in HV substations.
The guided
waves are transmitted
by the current transformer
(CT)
and the voltage transformer
(VT) to the measuring und
protection
circuits.
Current
flow on cable-screens,
produced by guided waves and magnetic
fields, and
currents fed into the earthing system through CT and
VT generate
common mode voltages which also influence the secondary circuits.
- atmospheric events
A lightning stroke generates
travelling
waves on the
HV line. These waves can be produced by a stroke to
the conductor, to the earth shield wire or the tower.
The shape of the travelling
waves depends on the
amplitude
and the shape of the lightning current. A
flash-over
of the insulation can be caused by a lightning stroke to the line or to conductors in the substation, or by insulator contamination.
Whatever is the

Schwaben

AG

West Germany

cause of the flash-over,

it will produce electromagnetic waves which affect the secondary circuits. The.
lightning current fed directly or via an arc into the
earthing system may result in high potential differences within the earthing system.

- earth faults
Earth faults caused by the described events, by switching overvoltages,
conductor galloping or faulty switching are to be regarded mainly with respect to the
electromagnetic
waves radiated.
- switching in secondary circuits
De-energizing
of inductive
loads generate
transient
high frequency overvoltages in secondary circuits.
- electrostatic
discharge
Electrostatic
charged persons cause a very steep current with a rise time of some nanoseconds
when
touching earthed equipment.
- radiotransmitters
(walkie talkies)
The high frequency
field generated
by radiotransmitters,
including
those which are used by maintenance
staff,
can influence
sensitive
electronic
equipment.
The described noise sources affect the secondary circuits. It has to be distinguished
between the interference by conductive
(direct), inductive
and capacitive coupling on the one hand (guided waves) and
interference
by radiated waves (interference
fields) on
the other hand. The influence of radiated waves on the
secondary circuits working as antenna gets important
for high frequency events in the MHz-range.
3. Interference

values in open air substations

and GIS

Table I shows the maximum interference

values measured at the secondary equipment of open air substations and GIS (gas-insulated
substation).
The figures
are valid for careful installation
regarding the described
measures,
however
without
application
of
voltage limiting devices.
The interference
values and their origin are dealt with
following.
3.1 Guided waves
3.1.1

Switching

in primary

circuits

The most frequent

event
producing interference
is,
the operation of disconnectors
in HV substations.
During one operation
interval
there are up to 100 discharges of which the most critical follow each other in
not more than 10 ms.

affected
circuit

290

protectioncircuit

controlcircuit

auxiliary
supply circuit

type of
interference

guided
wave

radiated
wave

guided
wave

radiated
wave

guided
wave

radiated
wave

dimensions

kV

mT

kV

mT

kV

mT

0.3

0.3

0.3

atmospheric event

2.5

1.5

2.5

1.5

2.5

1.5

switching
atmospheric
earth fault in primary
event
circuits

0.3
2
1

0.1
1.5
1 .o

Noise sources
E

earth fault

z
21
2
$
?i

frequency range
open
air
substation
0.05-10
kHz
0.024
MHz

MHz

__I
:: (11

0.3
1.5
1

0.1
1.5
1

0.3
1.5
1

0.1
1.5
1

CJ

GIS

0.24

MHz
0.2-100
0.05-10
0.024
MHz

kHz
Note: The electric field is not considered; due to the screening always existing there is no serious interference.
The

figures are valid for the common mode voltages. In measuring transformer circuits common mode voltages and transverse voltages are identical

Maximum interference
values to be expected in I-IV open air substations
and GIS
with a rated voltage of 123.....420 kV

Table I:

The situation
is shown in Fig. 1. If, e.g., an opened
circuit breaker is isolated by a disconnector
from the
plant alive reignition occures as soon as the restriking
voltage across the disconnector
contacts is exceeded.
The shape of the wave transmitted
into the secondary
circuits is characterized
by a steep front with a rise
time of 100 . . . 200 ns in open air substations
and
5 . . . 20 ns in GIS. The high frequencies
in the MHzrange are able to influence secondary equipment seriously or even to destroy it. The maximum interference depends on the first ignitions when closing and
the last ignitions when opening the disconnector,
i.e.
the interference
rises with the restrike voltage and
hence also with the rated voltage of the substation.
The measured frequency range of the described events
is 200 kHz . . . 100 MHz for open air substations
and
GIS.
primary circuit

secondary

circuit

voltage of the arrester and thereby on the steepness of

the incoming wave. In open air substations
often only
power transformers
are equipped with lightning arresters; that is, why the measuring transformers
(VT and
CT) in the line section of a substation can be stressed
by high overvoltages
compared to the rated voltage.
Moreover these high voltages may cause a flash-over
of the insulation.
When steep overvoltages
or the breakdown of the
insulation
is transmitted
by the measuring transformers high transients
may occur in the secondary
circuits.
The frequency and the amplitude of these events depend on
- the transient
reponse of the measuring
transformers
- the statistical
distribution
of the lightning parameters
- the lightning
protection
facilities
of the HV line
and the substation
- the exposure area of the HV line
- the isoceraunic level
The amplitude of transients in secondary circuits caused by lightning phenomena and their frequency can be
estimated (see Appendix).
3.1.2.2

U, striking voltage

u secondary
Fig. 1:

3.1.2

voltage

Voltages in primary and secondary circuits

when opening a disconnector
(schematic)

Atmospheric

events

Amplitude and steepness of lightning currents show a

statistical
distribution
[ 1,2] ; consequently
the overvoltages expected can only be determined
by statistical investigations.
Establishing
an acceptable
risk
will fix the measures to be applied to the secondary
circuits.
3.1.2.1

Lightning

stroke to the HV line

,Lightning overvoltages
are limited on the HV level by
lightning arresters. The maximum overvoltage influencing the secondary circuits depends on the threshold

Lightning
strokes
HV substations

to earthed

components

of

Lightning strokes to the structures or earth conductors

of the substation or to the earth conductor of the line
close the substation
produce high transient
potential
difference
in the earthing
system.
These potential
differences
cause currents over the screens of secondary cables and the cabinets and earth connections
of
secondary equipment. Concerning the secondary cables
these currents produce voltages whose amplitude depends on the construction
of the screen, the length of
the cable and the amplitude
of the current
in the
screen.
It is possible to estimate the transient voltages caused
by lightning phenomena for a certain substation by a
combination
of measuring technique and mathematical
methods [3]: When discharging
a charged overhead
line into the earthing system of a substation the discharge current and the voltages at selected points of
the secondary circuits can be measured. The knowledge of these signals allows to compute the transient
response of the systetns. The frequency of lightning
strokes to earthed components
can be determined
by

291

5416

considering
the actual exposure
area of the substation
and the isokeraunic
level.
The maximum
transient
voltages
to be expected
at the selected
measuring
points
can then be calculated
by bringing
in the
statistical
distribution
of the lightning
parameters.
Fig. 2 shows the result of such an investigation;
for
the measuring
point M 3 the voltage
of 2700 V is
exceeded
once in ten years,
the corresponding
value
for M 4 is 560 V.

TK

Fig. 4:

Interference

by guided

waves.

The impedance

3.1.4

of the noise

source

10-l
The energy
content
of a noise voltage
is of great
importance
and has to be considered
especially
when
electronic
components
are stressed.
Consequently
for
a certain
shape of the noise voltage
the knowledge
of
the source
impedance
is necessary.
For a generator
constructed
to test the interference
withstand
capability of secondary
equipment
the proper simulation
of
the source impedance
is also an inevitable
demand.

_j_
a

10-a

IO2

Fig. 2:

103

V
T----)
2

IO4
A model of an interference
in Fig. 4. Here are

Noise voltages
ii2 in a 420/123 kV open air
substation
caused
by lighting
strokes
to
earthed
components
H frequency
of strokes
producing
a noise
voltage which exceeds b,
M3, M4 measuring
points

the impedance

%Q

the voltage

u1

z,
Switching

in secondary

circuits

Overvoltages
produced
by de-energizing
inductive
loads occur because
of reignitions
during opening the
relay contact.
These overvoltages
are typically
sawtooth
shaped
followed
by a damped
low frequency
oscillation.
The amplitudes
of the overvoltages
can
exceed
5 kV, the risetime
of the spikes being in the
order
of some nanoseconds.
The frequency
of the
damped
oscillations
is normally
below
I MHz, but
sometimes
comes
up to 20 MHz. Figure 3 shows an
oscillogram
of the transient
voltage
generated
by
de-energizing
a relay coil. The application
of voltage
limiting
devices
allows to reduce
the transient
voltages to less than 1000 V.

impedance
time

the frequency
the secondary

dependent
equipment

of the secondary

of the secondary
input

cable

impedance

at the end of the secondary

the resulting

-za

is shown

of the noise source

the travelling

the voltage

u2

waves

of the noise source

the characteristic
cable

ZK
K

3.1.3

by guided

impedance

of the noise

of

cable
source.

The characteristic
impedances
of secondary
cables
(conductor-conductor;
conductor-screen)
come up to
30 ..* 100 ohms nearly independent
of frequency;
however, these figures are not valid for the circuit screenearth return. In most applications
we have zK L Z+.
During
Z+

TK

= zSQ;

we

then

After

3 T,

approximation

for

ist charged

T~L

t L

4 TK

to

+ ZSQI.

by the

an alternating

Z+ = z,,

the cable

u2 = 2 UIZK/GK
Caused

find

reflections
behaviour,

with

at the cable
the final value

T = z,,

to zsQ

CK

and

ends Z_ shows
being

CK =

2
-.SQ

T~/Z~,

the

is sufficient.

U2

J
--Y-

200 V

3.2

+I I-

3.2.1

2 ms
Fig. 3:

Transient
voltage
zing a relay coil.

During t L 2 T the characteristic

impedance
of the
secondary
cab lK
e represents
the impedance
of the noise
source.
In HV substations
the length
of secondary
cables is about 30 m to 100 m; assuming
a travelling
wave
velocity
of
0.16 m/ns
we
find
for
t = 0.375 US . . . 7.5 ,.us Z. = ZK. In most
cases
the
I
maximum
of the noise voP tage- will appear within this
period.

generated

by de-energi-

Radiated

waves

Switching

in primary

circuits

The magnetic
flux density
produced
by switching
in
420 kV substations
comes up to 0.1 mT nearby secondary
cables
a
range
of
in
frequency

200 kHz . . . 100 MHz. For the

10 kV/m have been measured.

electric

field

up

292

to

In open air substations

e.g. the disconnector
switches
the current transformer
and the line section between
disconnector
and circuit breaker. When neglecting the
resistances one finds fo: thf current from CT to earth
with C as the
caused by discharges
I = uLE /m
conductor-earth
capacitance
of the CT and L as the
inductance
of the circuit. For 420 kV substations
it
can be estimated
C = 1 nF, L = 50 uH . . . 100 ,uH resulting in ; = 1085 A . . . 1534 A. Thi.$ current produces
in a distance of 5 m a maximum magnetic flux density
B = i.p,/2n r 1 61 ,uT.
When operating a discon;ecFr
in GIS the correspon, = uLE/ZLd = 1372 A
with
is
current
ding
2 = 250 ohms as the source lmpe ante of a 420 kV
okerhead
line. This current
will flow at the GIS
bushing along the enclosure and via the earth wires to
earth.
3.2.2

Lightning strokes
substations

to earthed

components

By a proper choice of the material (wool, antistatical

treatment)
and/or regulation of the humidity the above mentioned value can be met.
3.4 The shape of the noise voltage
Transient
voltages
in HV substations
are normally
strongly damped. To simulate
a noise voltage by a
damped oszillation according to[ 71 will cover a lot of
the interference
occuring. However, the rise time of
of
75 ns fixed in [7] d oes not meet the requirements
GIS; here rise times of 5.....10 ns have to be considered.
The amplitude of switching overvoltages
varies during
the operation interval. Secondary equipment may show
maloperation
when voltage limiting
devices are applied and the transient
voltage amplitude
is right
below the limiting voltage.
4. Measures to reduce interference
HV substations

values in

in HV
4.1 Primary

circuits

Lightning strokes to earth shield wires and structures

will normally lead to a distribution
of the lightning
current which is fed via a number of injection points
into the earthing system. However, if lightning rods
are installed in form of steel masts erected on the
ground the current is injected at one point into the
earthing system.
The maximum magnetic
flux densities
can be estimated as follows:

There are only a few steps possible to reduce the noise

sources in primary circuits. This stems from the fact
that there are few technical
solutions which can be
implemented
at reasonable
cost. Therefore
most of
the measures listed below are necessary to protect HV
equipment,
but they have also a beneficial
effect on
interference
in secondary circuits.

From the statistical

distribution
a lightning current
amplitude
of 200 kA can be withdrawn
as a 95 %
value, i.e. in 5 % of all events this value is exceeded 3 . Concerning 4 injection points into the earthing
system the magnetic flux density in a distance of 10 m
is B = 1 mT. For only one injection point the distance
between the lightning rod and the relay kiosk may be
about 15 m; in this case the maximum flux density is
B = 2.65 mT. The lightning
current
resp. the transmitted field has a frequency range up to some MHz.

Nearby HV substations,
especially
nearby GIS, overhead lines are equipped with two or even three earth
shield wires. This measure reduces the frequency and
the amplitude of strokes to the conductor. By this the
influence of lightning strokes on secondary circuits is
reduced, too.

3.2.3

Earth faults

The highest 50 Hz flux densities are to be expected for

earth fault currents. In a 420 kV substation for a fault
current
of 35 kA the magnetic
flux density
is
B = 0.1 mT considering a distance of 7 m.
3.2.4

Radiotransmitters

(walkie talkies)

The intensity of interference

fields produced by radiotransmitters
depends on the distance between antenna
and secondary equipment and on the transmitted
power. An acceptable
maximum
value seems to be
10 V/m [4,5].

4.1.1

4.1.2

3.3 Electrostatic

discharges

The electrostatic
charge can be limited to a value of
5 kV also for substations.
The voltage people can be
charged up to depends on the material of the carpets
in control rooms and on the relative
humidity; for
lower humidity the maximum voltages rise strongly 161.

against

Configuration

lightning

of earthing

strokes.

system

An earthing system properly designed for 50 Hz stresses needs only slight modifications
to reduce transient
voltages. Firstly single tee off connections
have to be
avoided in general,
and secondly
bare conductors
should be layed parallel to long cables and be connected to the earthing grid.
4.1.3

Measures at CT and VT

The transient
voltages transmitted
via the measuring
transformers
to the secondary circuits can be reduced
by careful earth connections
within the transformer
and additional screening of the secondary windings 191.
4.2 Secondary
4.2.1

The permissible distance d depends on the transmitted

power P and is d = 1.6*/-P/E [6]; for E = 10 V/m and
P = 2 W the permissible distance between antenna and
cabinet is d = 23 cm.

Protection

circuits

Screening

of secondary

cables

The best system to reduce interference

in the circuits
is the adoption of screened cables. In the ideal case of
continuous and perfectly homogeneous screens with no
resistance,
the protection
against the external
high
frequency
electric and magnetic field would be perfect. Because of the practical
performance
of the
cable screen however, one has to consider some points:
-

The screen should be almost continuous and with

low resistance (a few ohm/km).
The screen should have a low coupling impedance
within the interference
frequency range.

Earthing of the screen should have a very low

impedance, that is, the earthing conductors should
have adequate
section,
minimum
length an optimum contact arrangements.
In some cases it may be necessary to earth the
screens at the inlets to the relay rooms or in the
equipment cabinets so that the currents circulating
in the screens do not affect the unscreened
circuits; whenever interferences
are due to induction,
earthing at both ends is suitable.

4.2.2

Configuration

of secondary

circuits

The cable route should run as far as possible

not parallel to bus-bars or power cables.
-

293

from and

The forward and return conductors

of the same
circuit should be run in the same cable; twisted
pairs or quadruple cables should be adopted whenever possible (for instance
for very low current
circuits and data lines).

5416

4.3 Introduction

of new technologies

An essential reduction of interference

can be achieved in the future by
-

by guided waves

application of optic fibre cables

development
of electronical
measuring
tratX.fOrmerS
transmitting
the digitized
signal by fibre
optic cable from the HV level to the protection
equipment

It is the advantage
neither conductive,
nor radiated waves
sion. Consequently
mary events will be

of the fibre optic cables that

inductive and capactive
coupling
are able to disturb the transmisthe noise voltages caused by prineglectable.

Today, CTs or VTs with digital output are still in the

experimental
stage and their introduction
on a wide-spread basis is not expected in the near future.
5. Conclusions

All the screened

cables should run ,as close together as possible in order to benefit from their
mutual screening effect.

Laying of bare conductors

parallel ,to the cables;
the conductors are to be connected to the earthing
network at the two ends and, if possible, at a few
points along their route.

for D.C. auxiliary

supply cables
guration is better than a ring.

4.2.3

Use of voltage limiting

a radial

confi-

devices

Voltage limiting devices should be installed inside the

protection
and control equipment;
their installation
outside the equipment in new plants should be avoided.
However, their adoption might be useful in plants
already in operation, to allow installation
of standard
devices with low EMC limits.
The most common
-

voltage limiting

A proper and careful installation

leads to interference
values in secondary circuits of HV substations
which
are below 1000 V; an exception are the noise voltages
caused by lightning strokes and by switching in secondary circuits. As the lightning current amplitude and
steepness
is statistically
distributed
the acceptable
risk determines
the measures
to be taken. Ry installation of voltage limiting devices the amplitude of
the noise voltage can be held within the acceptable
limits. The same concerns the noise voltages produced
by secondary switching.
The future use of optic fibre cables will result in an
essential reduction of interference.
Future measuring
transformers,
equipped with digital electronics
and
fibre optics will transmit only small noise voltage into
secondary circuits.

devices are:

Condensers
or RC circuits that reduce HF overvoltages and are adequate both for circuits coming
from the switchyard
and for supply circuits.
An
interesting
application
consists
of filtering
the
auxiliary D.C. power of circuits and equipments at
the lowest EMC level, supplied by a battery which
is feeding also circuits
and equipment
(e.g., HV
breakers and disconnectors)
at the highest EMC
level.
LV arresters discharge overvoltages
at high energy
content
in A.C. and D.C. circuits
having voltages -5 48 V and have such a time delay that they
are not adequate for steep and HF overvoltages.
They require
a low-impedance
earthing
to the
equipment
they protect;
generally
they are installed on telecommunication
lines.
Zener diodes are advisable for overvoltages
at low
energy content only and therefore
should be used
with great care. Transzorb diodes are electronic
components similiar to zener diodes with very good
characteristics
such as very small delay time and
leakage current and constant voltage limitation
up
to some hundreds of volts. With a series-parallel
combination
they can be used for high voltage
limitations and for high energy transients.
Varistors show a restistance
that is inversely proportional to the applied voltage; utilization
of the
zinc-oxide type is spreading (there is a tendency to
replace zenerdiodes
and RC circuits
with these
varistors) because of their short delay time (5 25 ns)
and high impulse current (up to 25 kA).

Appendix
Estimation
of transient
secondary
lightning strokes to the conductor.

voltages

caused

by

a) 420 kV open air substation

For a shielding angle of 45 (I earth shield wire) the
maximum lightning
current
amplitude
reaching
the
conductor
is I
- 36 kA [I]; the measured transient
secondary
vol aie caused by switching
in primary
circuits (U = i -I-l /p) comes up to U = 500 V.To
estimate
h&w oftenmU = 2500 V is excee ?led at first
the corresponding prim&y voltage Ul is determined:

resulting
2.1710
Bl=

kV

13.7

in

kA

ZW

of the
with 2 = 250 ohms as the surge impedance
overh&x line. Lightning currents between 13.7 kA and
36 kA can produce secondary transients
of 2500 V and
more.
It is known from measures that the steepness S of the
primary voltage ist proportional
to the amplitude of
the secondary transient
for S 2 10 kA/,us. Since 97 %
of all strokes have a steepness 2 10 kA/ us anyhow this
value is fixed as a bottom limit fo t/ the steepness
considered.

234

125
T;:
i
::

100

Fig.Bl

50

25

25

50

100

150

200

250

3;0

L=

0.8

kA/ks-z
w/km

= 3.81

km

For this value of L the maximum steepness stressing

the substation
is 10 kA/ us. Along the collection
length L the steepness of t h e lightning
.
strokes causing
10 kA/ us at the substation
will differ; the relations
are sh d wn in table A for different length 1. P describes
the probability
that the corresponding
steepness
ist
exceeded
for stroke currents
from 13.7 .. . . . 36 kA.
These figures can be derived from the presentation
in
fig. 6 showing a typical distribution
of amplitude and
steepness of stroke currents
when considering
their
correlation 131.
The integral of the probability P along the collection
length L comes up to P, = 24 %, i.e. along L 24 % of
all strokes
fulfil
13.7 kAL IB 36 kA and cause
S b 10 kA/,us at the substation.
The frequency H of
secondary transients
1 2 500 V is then
H = B-L. P;k.NB
with
collect.ion width
LB isokeraunic level

N, z 1!9;a

km21

[l]

k regards which part of the strokes within the determined collection

area really hit the conductor.
Following GOLDE [lo3 it can be estimated k = 0.25.
H = 0.04 3.81*0.24.0.25
= 0.017/(a.circuit)

- 1.9/(a=circuit)

This results in a transient secondary voltage h 2 500 V

every 58 years for each circuit; a substation with five
circuits will be stressed every 12 years with such a
transient.
Table A
S (kA/,us) 65

60

50

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

l(km)

3.81 3.75 3.60 3.38 3.21 3.00 2.70 2.25 1.50 0.00

PI%)

0.0

0.2

0.8

2.4

4.6

8.0

12.6 23.6 32.6 39.2

40

35

30

25

20

15

Table B
S(kA/,us)

43

I(kd

1.53 1.50 1.43 1.33 1.20 1.00 0.67 0.0

PC%)

0.2

1.0

1.6

4.2

10

10.2 14.4

50

100

150

200

250
I

[LA]

From Fig. A the 95 % value of the steepness corresponding to IB2 = 36 kA can be derived 5 = 65 kA/ US
[3]. Regarding an attenuation
of 0.8 ps/km along t!he
line the collection length L becomes
IB2 * 10

300
bA1

b) 420 kV GIS
Considering
two earth shield wires the maximum
- 16 kA, the
stroke current to the conductor
is I
95 % value of the steepness is 43 kAv2ui. The measured transient secondary voltage cause 6 by switching
in primary circuits is U2 = 1000 V. To estimate
how
often a secondary voltage of 2000 V is exceeded the
corresponding
primary voltage U - 684 kV and the
stroke current j-,1 = 5.5 kA have take considered.
The collectlon
ength 1s L = 1.53 km, from table B one
gets pZ= 7 % and the frequency of transient
voltages
exceeding 2000 V is
H = B*L* p,- k*NB
= 0.025 * 1.53. 0.07 * 0.25. 1.9/(a.circuit)
ZZ0.0013/(a.circuit)
i.e. a substation
with five circuits will be stressed
every 157 years with a secondary transient A 2000 V.

References

PI Anderson,
meters for

R.B.; Eriksson, A.J.: Lightning

paraengineering application.
Electra Nr. 96,
1980, 65-102
von
PI RGhsler, H.; Strnad, A.: uberspannungsschutz
metallgekapselten
gasisolierten
Schaltanlagen
im
420-kV-Netz.
Etz Archiv 6 (1984), 233-238
PI Fischer, M.; Strnad, A.: Bestimmungen der bei
Blitzeinschlsgen
zu erwartenden
transienten
Uberspannung in Sekundgrkreisen
von Hochspannungsschaltanlagen.
ElektrititZtswirtschaft
82
(1983)
87-91
P+JAnders, R.; Campling, A.C.: Interference problems
on electronic
control equipment
in power plants
and
substations - installation
and interference
tests. CIGRE-Report
36-05 (1980)
G.: Disturbances
produced by transr51 Champiot,
ceivers and walkie-talkies.
Electra No. 83 (1982),
pp. 103-110
conditions - Part 5: Electro[61 IEC 654-5: Operating
magnetic compatibility.
Draft-Publication
1983
Impulse voltage withstand
tests and
PI IEC 255-4:
high-frequency
disturbance tests. Appendix E.
PI Riihsler, H.; Strnad, A.: Die HBufigkeit riickw;irtiger Uberschkige
und ihre Reduzierung.
Elektrizit8tswirtschaft
82 (1983), 386-390
von Sekundsrkreisen
in
PI Strnad, A.: Beeinflussung
Hochspannungsschaltanlagen
bei rasch ver;inderlichen VorgZngen im Hochspannungskreis;
Thesis
(1982) Technical
University
of Darmstadt,
West
. Germany
[IOj Golde, R.H.: Lightning,
Vol I. Academic
Press,
London 1977

BALLOON

AND SATELLITE

295

55

OBSERVATION

OVER NORTHERN

Takeo Yoshino
University
l-5-1 Chofugaoka,

17

OF POWER LINE RADIATION

EUROPE

and Ichiro Tomizawa

of Electra-Communications
Chofu-shi,

Observation of the electromagnetic

field variation phenomena of Power Line
Radiation (PLR) related with polar substorm activity had been done by two
observation balloons and one satellite
in the arctic circle of northern europe.
The balloons named as B15-1N and B15-2N
were launched on March 20, 1982 from
Stamsund, Norway and on November 23,
1982 from ESRANGE, Sweden respectively.
Both balloons could be obtained several
electromagnetic
field variation data
with various frequencies caused by substorm effect during their flight.
By the balloon observation, the
field intensity of higher harmonic
frequency of Power Line Radiation(PLHR)
in the frequency range between 200Hz to
1 kHz which were enhanced by the EM
field disturbance in the poler substorm,
were obtained the clearly spike-like
level increase as harmonics of 50 Hz
step in the frequency spectrum data, at
300 Hz, 450 Hz and 600 Hz appeared in
the data of B15-1N and at 300 Hz and
450 Hz in B15-2N. However, the intensity increase of fundamental, and 2nd
and 3rd harmonics of 50 Hz were not
exceed over than 3 dB during the polar
substorm.
The Japanese scientific satellite
EXOS-C "OHZORA" was launched on 14th
February 1984. The data in the northern
europe is received from satellite at
ESRANGE station based on the JapanSweden co-operation program for EXOS-C,
and the data with analized form will be
able to appear by end of this year.

INTRODUCTION
As shown in a recent paper [l], the
observation results of fundamental ELF
wave propagation characteristics
of
Power Line Radiation to horizontal and
to vertical direction were observed by
using of balloons and rockets over
-Japanese island. One of the purpose of
this experiments was the determination
of the standard propagation characteristics of ELF waves during the condi-

Tokyo

182, Japan

tions in quiet solar activity at middle

latitude area used as the caribration
standard. By this observation resultsI
the attenuation constant to horizontal
direction propagation which are consisted of a guided mode between the
bottom side of ionosphere and the
ground (sea) surface observed by balloon experiments, is approximately
1.2 dB/lOO km at 50 Hz and 1.3 dB/lOOkm
To vertical
at 60 Hz respectively.
direction propaqation which penetrate
into the lower ionosphere is-approximatelv 1.1 dB to 1.2 dB/lOO km on
eithe; frequency, which'observed
by
four rocket
experiments as described
in the recent paper [l].
This work continue after publish of
paper [l] to obtain more precisechracteristics on the several items of
basical propagation characteristics
at
more wider areas. For example, a transPacific balloon experiment have been
launched on September 23, 1984 from
Sanriku test range, Japan, to observe
the long distance propagation over the
Pacific ocean of Power Line Radiation
from Japan. And this balloon flew eastwards and operated 50 hours after
launch, and the flight distance was
approximately
2000 km on the pacific
ocean from Sanriku, Japan.
The 9th Japanese scientficsatellite
named EXOS-C "OHZORA" was launched on
3.4th February 1984, from Kagoshima
Space Center as anouncement in the
paper 111 for global monitoring of PLR.
The observation results of this satellite will be mentioned later.
In the last decade, lot of high
power hydro-electric
power generator
stations have been built in sub-polar
regions or in polar regions as Manitoba
and Quebec in Canada and in northern
area of Norway and Sweden. And these
huge electric power have been carried
by extreme long distance transmission
line with 3 wire system over 2000 km
from sub-polar area to main industrial
area in the middle latitude,across
perpendicular the aurora1 oval. The
line voltage of these power lines are

296

This paper presents the results of

balloon observations on the electromagnetic field induced by Power Line Radiation observed around aurora1 oval
under geomagnetic 'active conditions.
Observations have been done by using
balloons, that is why, strong electromagnetic radiation of Power Line field
will be suppress the true values of
integrated electromagnetic
field
induced by power line systems.

500 kV or more.
At major geomagnetic disturbavce on
September 21, 1977, the huge unbalance
anomaly current of over 25A to 50A was
induced, and observed this induced
current at the grounding point of the
transformers on the Manitoba line of
Canada. And there are many troubles
appear on this line such as the breakdown of main circuit breakers and the
burnout of transformers wires. The
many similar troubles in this time
appeared not only on the power lines
of the Manitoba lines but also on the
other long power line system at subpolar and polar area as Alaska, north
Canada and northern europian areas.
At same time, the troubles were expanded other field as long distance
communications
wire and the pipe lines
in the sub-polar and polar regions. [2],
[3] and [4].
Above mentioned induced anomaly
current on power lines induce magnetically saturation of transformers core,
and the waveform of current and voltage
will be distorted by the non-linearity
effect of the saturated transformers.
This distorted current will be produced
lot of higher harmonic frequencies
radiation from power line system to
magnetosphere. [5,6].

BL5-2N

OBSERVATION

BY BALLOON

The balloon B15-1N was launched at

1909 UT on March 20, 1982 from Stamsund
in Norway, and the balloon B15-2N was
launched at 2059 UT on November 23,1982
from ESRANGE in Sweden. The flight trajectries and altitudes of balloons are
illustrated in Fig. 1. The trace of
B15-1N drifted eastwards from Stamsund
and flight to across over northern
Norway and Sweden, and dropped the payload in the territories of Finland as
shown in Fig. 1. And B15-2N drifted
toward north-east from ESRANGE, and
flying across over northern Finland,the
west of Kolskiy area of U.S.S.R.and the
payload dropped into Arctic ocean at
off the coast of Murmansk as shown in
Fig. 1.

(1982/11/23-24)

70

(1982/ 3/20

U.S.S.R

1lJ

1982/

3/20

.I

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

DE

LONGITUDE
Fig. 1.

The flight trajectries and altitudes of balloons Bl5-1N and B15-2N. The
balloon B15-1N was launched at 1907 UT on March 20 and the balloon B15-2N
was launched at 2059 UT on November 23, 1982 respectively.

297

5517

ELECTRIC
FIELD
,
PRE
AMP

AMP

E
PRE
AMP

AMP

HPF

U-MAGNETIC
FIELD

I
1

L
Fig.

2.

A schematic
block diagram
line radiation measurement
board the balloon.

of the power
system on

The geomagnetic activity on flight time

of both balloons, Kp index was 2+ from
19 UT to 21 UT on March 20, 1982 for
B15-lN, and the value of Kp index
fluctuate from 6+ to 3-l-from 21 UT on
November 23 till 03 UT on 24, 1982 for
B15-2N.
The on boarded equipments of balloons B15-lN.and 2N have mostly same
properties except the receiving gain.
Fig. 2 shows a block diagram of PLR
detector, and the frequency range of
this detector covers from 40 Hz to
1 kHz. The detector consists of a horizontal magnetic field sensor, a vertical electric field sensor, and a multiplexer for switching the magnetic and
the electric field signals as shown in
Fig. 2. The detected signals are
connected to the telemetry transmitter
through IRIG-#18 FM channel, which has
the maximum frequency responce of 1kHz.
The horizontal magnetic field
sensor is equipped with a loop antenna
which uses a permalloy core (50cm x 6
mm x 6mm) wound 6000 turns with the
copper wire of 0.2 mm pl, a flat frequency responce pre-amplifier,
and 40 Hz
HPF which is required to reject the
strong Schumann resonance frequency
portion on the spectrum.
The vertical
electric field sensor is equipped with
a short electric dipole antenna which
has a copper wire of 10 meter tip-totip, connected with high input impedance terminal of pre-amplifier,
and
1 kHz LPF.
The multiplexed signal is
separated into two amplifiers in which
the gain difference is 40 dB to get
wider dynamic range.
OF OBSERVATION

RESULTS OF Bl5-1N
Fig. 3 (a) shows the H component
variation of geomagnetic disturbance
at Andoya during flight the B15-1N
balloon.
The Figures 2 (b) and (c)

l-i

;;
2
:::
i 6)v-i
g
5
E
5
i

ml9

s
;
;
';
6
i
z
L
!:
g
d :

i !2UT

21

20
1982/

3/20

5OHz

,60HZ

\lBOHz
ml9

20

21

.-I

Fiq.
RESULTS

are display of the observation

record of on board detecter on
the variation of magnetic and
electric field intensities respThe contours of 60 Hz
ectively.
and 180 Hz as indicated by dotted
line are shown as refer to the
But
back ground noise level.
the real electric field intensity
does not exceed over the system
noise level in this figure for
the gain set too low against the
intensity of back ground noise
level in this district.
In the Fiq. 3 (b), the magne-,

z2UT

7JME
1982/ 3/20
3.
(a) The horizontal
component of
the masnetograph at Andoya, Norwayl
(1;) and (c)the maanetic and
electric field intensity which
observed by balloon B15-1N on
March 20 1982. Solid line indicated 50 and its harmonics, and
dotted 1 i ne indicated 60 and 180
HZ.
I

298

tic field intensity at 50 Hz has a pea %

at 1936 UT with the value of 1.6 x lo-,
greater than the
(A/m) which is much
,
_
value of 60 Hz (rerer to back ground
The intenoise level close to 50 Hz).
nsity at 50 Hz gradually decreases with
time until the end of data without any
enhancement, even at the time of substorm onset at 2040 UT. The intensities
of harmonic radiation at 100 and 150Hz
are less than the intensity of background noise through out this observation.
The magnetic data between 1909UT
to 1920UT should be omitted, because
the large swing of contours are affected by the joggle of gondola during the
ascending of balloon.
Dynamic spectra of the magnetic field in the frequency ranqe between 40Hz
to 1kHz is shown in Fig; 4.
Spectral peak of 50Hz is
clearly identified until 20
13UT, however, after 2017UT
the 50Hz sunk into background noise level. Spectral
peak at harmonics of 50Hz
cannot be identified in the
dynamic spectra until 2036UT.
At 2040UT, a spectral peak
appears at 350Hz, but it
does appear after 2044 UT.
The remarkable spectral
peak appears in the successive spectra between 2044UT
until 2121 UT. Also the
spectral peak at 600 Hz,
peaks at 300 'Hz and 450 Hz
appear in the spectra from
2051 UT to 2121 UT, but the
peaks of 300 and 450 Hz are
not clearly identified. It
is noticeable that the peak
frequencies are appeared
not exactly at the harmonic
frequency of 50Hz, occasionally shifted lowerside.
These lowerside shift of
frequencies of the three
spectral peaks is correlated
each other, and the amount
of shift frequency is proportioal to the frequencies
of 300, 450 and 600 Hz. This
lowerside frequency shift
bill be attributed to the
shift of fundamental frequency of 50 Hz. The appearance of these spectral peaks
is coincidence with the geomagnetic substorm which
started at 2040 UT. Therefore, it is concluded that
the geomagnetic substorm
not only enhances the power
line radiation especially at
300,450 and 600 Hz, but also
disturbs the frequency of
the generator revolution as
0
heavy unbalance load.
Fig.4 Dynamic spectrum of
the magnetic field in the frequency
B15-1N balloon.

REXULTS OF B15-2N
Fig. 5(a) is shown the magnetgram
record of H-component magnetic field
intensity and ULF magnetic pulsation
on November 23, 1982 which observed at
ESBANGE, Sweden, during the flight of
Bl5-2N balloon. A polar substorm are
occured at 2251 UT and decayed after 30
minutes. A negative bay of H-component
of magnetic field and a sudden comencement of H-component of magnetic pulsation at this substorm were recorded in
Fig. 5(b) and 5(c) illustthis figure.
rate the magnetic and electric field
intensity variations during the balloon
and
flight at 50Hz, 60Hz,100Hz,150Hz
180Hz respectively. The contours of 60
Hz and 180 Hz indicate of background
noise level close to the fundamental

0.5

Freqency
range between

LkHzl
40Hz to 1 kHz observed

by

299

and 3rd harmonics of power line radiation. The magnetic field data between
2115 to 2220 UT should be omitted,
because the large swing of ccpztaurs
are
affected by the joggle of gondola
during the ascending of balloon. It
gives a clear evidence that the intensities at 50Hz,lOOHz and 150Hz were
not enhanced during substorm.
The electric field intensities of
50Hz, 1OOHz and 150Hz had increased
from 0115 UT to 0230 UT in spite of
low geomagnetic activity, when the
balloon flew over the large industrial
and mining area near Mulmansk in USSR.
The level of enhancement of the magnetic component are much less than the
electric component at this time. This
record is suggested that the enhancement of power line radiations could be
induced by a localized power line
system. The Lapland area have not much
high voltage power lines. Fig. 6 shows
the dynamic frequencyspectra of electric field intensities at this time.
r
I

FREQUENCY (kHz)
Fig. 6

21

22

23

00

01

02

03

-4

6X21

22

23

00

01

02

I03

Dynamic frequency spectrum of

electric field intensities at
0115UT to 0230UT by balloon
Bl5-2N.

Fig. 7(a) and 7(b) shows the amplitude spectra of magnetic and electric
fields around 2250 UT of the frequency
range between 4OHz to 1kHz of PLR
harmonics radiation during the geomagnetic substorm which started at 2251UT
as shown in Fig. 5(a).
From the observation results in
this figure, it is clear evidence that
the spectral peaks at the harmonic frequencies of the power line radiation in
the frequency range higher than 200 Hz
are enhanced at the time of the substorm onset at 2251 UT in the electric
and magnetic fields. The intensity in
enhancement at 300 Hz and 450 Hz corresponds to the duration of the enhancement of ULF pulsation included high
frequency component as shown in the
Fig. 5(a).

OBSERVATION OF SATELLITE EXOS-C"OHZORA"

The Japanese scientific satellite
EXOS-C "OHZORA" was launched at 0800UT
on 14 February 1984 from Kagoshima
Space Center in Japan. Satellite on
boarded the observation equipments for
correpondence to MAP program and a 3
channel narrow band receiver for magnetic field detection and a wide band
2:
receiver for electric field detector to
cs21
22
23
00
01
02
03UT
PLR observations. The initial orbital
data was; apogee-865 km, perigee-354km,
1982/11/23-24
incrination-74.5'and orbital period-96.9
Fig. 5 Intensity of power line radiation
minutes. The data in the northern europe
observed on the balloon Bl5-.2N,
is received at ESRANGE station, Sweden.
(a) H-component of magnetgram and
The
data of PLR in northern europe is
ULF magnetic pulsation.(b) and (c) handling
for analysis, and the presenmagnetic and electric field inten- tation of this results will be able to
sities record at 50 to 180 Hz.
start by end of 1984. As an example, a
data observed over east China shows as
Figure. 8.
.-I

- 300 -

CONCLUSION
ill

References
Yoshino T,, and I.Tomizawa: Rocket &
balloon observations of power lines
over Japanese islands, EMC 81,Zurich,
pp525-530,(1981).
Boerner, W-M., Res. Grant Proposal
(1979 and 1980)
Akasofu, S-I., and Merritt, Nature,
279, 308-310,(1979)
Lanzerotti, L.J., Space Sci. Rev.,
34, 347-356, (1983).
Helliwell, R.A., et al, J. Geophys.
Res., 80, 4249-4258, (1975).
Luette, J.P.,,C:G. Park and R.A.
Helliwell, Geophys. Res. Let.,4,275278, (1977).
Hayashi, K., et al, Nature, 275,

By the balloon and satellite observations of power line radiation characteristics, the relationship between the
power line radiation and the magnetic
[21
substorm must be separate to estimate
at the effect of the frequency range
[31
below third harmonics, and at higher
than 4th harmonics of fundamental fre[41
quency of power line for three phased
AC transmmision system. The intensity
[51
of fundamental frequency and lower
harmonics of PLR observed on the ball[61
oon is not controlled by the geomagnetic substorm. And it is suggested that
the enhancement of power line radiation
[71
at lower frequencies will be influenced
627-629,
(1978).
mainly by the localized condition of
[81 Park, C.G.and R.A. Helliwell, Science
power line networks and power consumpScience, 200, 727-730, (1977).
tion in that area.
t91 Tomozawa, I. and T. Yoshino, Memoir
However, the intensities of the
of NIPR, Special Issue 31, 115-123,
higher harmonics more than 4th orders
(1984).
are enhanced by the magnetic field
variation of substorm as shown in the
Figures 4 and 8. This phenomena was
also observed clearly
on the ground at the
time of geomagnetic
b)
subsrorm, which increase
of 3rd, 6th, 9th, 12th
and more higher harmonics of power line. This
data appeared in Central
Canada in 1979 [7].
Ry the radiation
mechanisum described the
recent paper 111, the
intensities of radiated
magnetic field are emitted from a current loop
r!
which consists of neutQ,
ral wire of three phase
iT
system and the ground,
.umust be intensified by
these harmonics current. E
The intensity of PLHR at
g
2
more than higher frequencies can be even induced under the condition of the more weak
1.
a.*0 1
0.5
0.5
0.0
1.
FRE:QUENCY
substorm. [8,91.
tra
of
thdkE
&tric
_I
and
magnetic
Fig.
7
Dynamic
spec
The data of this
field betwee n 40Hz-1kHz observed by B15-2N.
balloon and satellite
I
experiments will be able
Rev
to offer the lot of
qls:
valuable saggessions on
the research field to
related effect of power
line radiation in the
magnetosphere.

T--l

l-u 1

Acknowledgement
The authors 'are deeply
indepted to Drs. H. Yarn;-gishi, T.Ono, H.Fukunishi,
H.Miyaoka and M.Ejiri of
NIPR, and the staff of
ESRANGE, and the staff of
ISAS to their cooperation
and to helpful discussion,
and to the assistance of
S. Yamakawa in the spectral analysis.

121 111 111 1s 181

-'&s' * * * . .
LONGITUDE
1984/6/2 UT
Fig. 8. The RLR observation over eastern China by
satellite EXOS-C "OHZORA",

171

- 301

56~1

THE NUMERICAL ELECTROMAGNETICCODE (NEC)"

J.K.Breakall, G.J.Burke, E.K.Miller

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Livermore, CA 95550

I.

INTRODUCTION

In the 20 years or so since the first

computer-based Moment-Method solutions for EM
radiation and scattering problems were
presented, numerous computer codes have been
developed. Relatively few of them have found
applications beyond those for which they were
originally intended. Of the latter, furthermore, only a small fraction have received
widespread acceptance and implementation.
The Numerical Electromagnetics Code--Method
of Moments (NEC) Cl] is one of those codes which
has entered this select category. There are
several reasons for this situation, including:
1) continuity of support and personnel involved
in its development; 2) systematic updating and
extension of its capabilities; 3) extensive,
user-oriented documentation; 4) its ready
availability; and 5) accessibility of its
developers for user assistance in applications. The result is that there are estimated
to be several hundred users of various versions
of NEC world wide.
NEC has been under development for more
than 10 years (in earlier forms it was known as
BRACT and AMP). It is a hybrid code which uses
an Electric Field Integral Equation (EFIE) to
model wire-like objects and a Magnetic Field
Integral Equation (MFIE) to model surface-like
objects with time harmonic excitation. A threeterm sinusoidal spline basis is employed for the
wire current while a pulse basis is used for the
surface current, with delta-function weights
employed everywhere. Provision is made for
connection of wires to surfaces via an
attachment, or interpolation, basis.
NEC includes a number of features for
efficient modeling of antennas and scatterers in
their environments. The most recent addition,
in the version NEC-3 [2,31, has been the
capability of modeling wires that are buried or
penetrate the ground-air interface. This paper
addresses the current status of NEC-3 and plans
for "Future NEC." Some typical results are
included.

THE SOLUTION METHOD

II.
Integral Equations
NEC-3 uses both an electric-field integral
equation (EFIE) and a magnetic-field integral
equation (MFIE) to model the electromagnetic
response of general structures. Each equation
has advantages for particular structure types.
The EFIE is well suited for thin-wire structures
of small or vanishing conductor volume while the
MFIE, which fails for the thin-wire case, is
more attractive for voluminous structures,
especially those having large smooth surfaces.
The EFIE can also be used to model surfaces and
is preferred for thin structures where there is
little separation between a front and back
surface. Although the EFIE is specialized to
thin wires in this program, it has been used to
represent surfaces by wire grids with reasonable
success for far-field quantities but with
variable accuracy for surface fields. For a
structure containing both wires and surfaces the
EFIE and MFIE are coupled. This combination of
the EFIE and MFIE was proposed and used by
Albertsen, Hansen, and Jensen at the Technical
University of Denmark [4] although the details
of their numerical solution differ from those in
NEC. A rigorous derivation of the EFIE and MFIE
used in NEC is given by Poggio and Miller [5].
The thin wire approximation is applied to
the EFIE to reduce it to a scalar integral
equation. The assumptions involved are:
a.
b.
c.
d.

Transverse currents can be neglected

relative to axial currents on the
wire.
The circumferential variation in the
axial current can be neglected.
The current can be represented by a
filament on the wire axis.
The boundary condition on the electric
field need be enforced in the axial
direction only.

These widely used approximations are valid

as long as the wire radius is much less than the
wavelength and much less than the wire length.

*Work performed under the auspices of the U.S. Department of Energy by the
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory under contract No W-7405-ENC-48.

302

An alternate kernel for the EFIE, based on an

extended thin-wire approximation in which
condition c is relaxed, is also included in NEC
for wires having too large a radius for the
thin-wire approximation [6]. With the thin-wire
approximation the EFIE becomes

for F on wires and

i,(F)

i?(F) - - &

t,(F)

I(s)(E

x 0

-3

2(F) = 2

I(s)(k2P

g(;,;))ds

- 3

t*,(F)

Is(G)

~1

a2

PC:,

i)ds

Z(s)

ZG f

:2(G)

[zs(:)

X V

g(;,;)]dA

(2)

s1

where
and
g(;, ;') = exp(-jk(r,

;I)/\;

;I

-i,(i)

k =WV!J E
00

i+(r) = & f,(T)

I&')(2

x 0'

g(t,;)ds
I is the induced current, E' is the exciting
field, s^ and s^'are unit vectors tangent to the
wire at s and s', and i;and P' are vectors to
the points s and s' on the wire contour C.

g(F) =:- 3 3p>

1
G

n(F)

x V

ES

where t?(P) is $e unit vector normal to the

surface at P, H is the exciting magnetic field,
and j is the surface current. This equation is
separated into the coupled scalar integral
equations for components of the surface current.
For a structure with both wires and
surfaces, the hybrid EFIE and MFIE equations are

V' g(r,?)ldA'

(3)

The integral equations (l), (Z), and (3)

are solved numerically in NEC by a form of the
method of moments. The test functions for the
method of moments solution on both wires and
surfaces are chosen to be delta functions
resulting in a point sampling of the fields
known as the collocation method of solution.
Wires are divided into short straight segments
with a sample point at the center of each
segment, while surfaces are approximated by a
set of flat patches or facets with a sample
point at the center of each patch. Straight
segments and flat patches are not mandatory for
the solution method but are used to simplify the
specification of the geometry and evaluation of
the fields.
Delta functions are also used in NEC as the
current expansion functions on surfaces. For
the MFIE this elementary Galerkin's method has
been found to provide good accuracy on large
smooth surfaces. Due to the nature of the
integral-equation kernels, however, the choice
of current expansion functions is more critical
in the EFIE than in the MFIE.

a2
asasl)

- -

g(;,;)dA

f i,(i). [?$l)x

Numerical Solution

g(;,;)]dA

I(s)(k2$

9 js(G)

for F on surfaces. The vectors i,(F) and t"*(P)

are orthogonal unit vectors tangent to the
surface at F, and the symbol / represents
integration over wires while,
represents
integration over surfaces exclu
+ Ing wires.

X [j,(?)

S,(G)

s1

The MFIE for a closed surface s is

a(;)

1
z?

- 5

(1

The expansion functions for the current on

wires are chosen so that the total current on
segment number j has the form

Ij(s)

= A. + Bjsin
3

k(s-sj)

Is-ss(

+ Cjcos

kb-sj)

< Ai/2
J

(4)

56

303 -

where s. is the value of s at the center of

SegmentJj and A. is the length of segment j.
This expansion das first used by Yeh and Mei L-71
and has been shown to provide rapid solution
convergence [S], [9]. It has the added
advantage that the fields of the sinusoidal
_
currents are easily evaluated in closed torm.
The amplitudes of the constant, sine, and cosine
terms are related such that their sum satisfies
physical conditions on the local behavior of
current and charge at the segment ends. On a
single wire with continuous radius, obvious
conditions are that the current and charge
density (aI/as) are continuous along the wire
and that the current goes to zero at free wire
ends. These conditions applied at segment ends
together with the equations from the method of
moments are sufficient to determine the current
in the form of (4) on all segments.

If the wire radius is discontinuous, Wu and

King Cl01 have shown that the charge density
should satisfy the condition

Jl

Kirchhoff's law and (5) for each segment at the

junction. If an end of segment j has no
connections, then f. goes to zero there with no
condition on the de&vative.
The general
equations for fj(S) are given in Cll, Part I.
Where a wire connects to a surface, a more
realistic representation of the surface current
is needed than the delta function expansion
used in NEC is
normally used. The treatment
quite similar to that used by Albertsen et al.
c41. In the region of the wire connection, the
surface current contains a singular component
due to the current flowing from the wire onto
the surface. The total current on the four
patches about the connection point, with
coordinates shown in Fig. 1, is represented as

4
S,(X,Y)

= Iofbw)

1 gj(x,y)

(sj-Iosj)

(6)

j=l
where I, is the current at the base of the wire,
and

x2+ yy
h

P(x,y)

2?T(x2 + y2)

=-.-L-L_
s at

junction

q$)

- y

(5)

5 =3(x,y)
j
s j

where a = wire radius,

k = 21~/X
y = 0.5772 (Euler's constant).

Q is related to the total charge in the

vicinity of the junction and is constant for all
wires at the junction.
,At a junction of several wires (5) is
applied on each wire. The continuity of current
is generalized to Kirchhoff's current law and
provides an equation to eliminate the unknown Q.

qx%Y)

= 1
(d+x)(d+y)
4d2

.!J2(XY)

= -+

(d-x) (d+y)

4d
.qXY)

(d-x) (d-y)

4d2
g4(xY)

(d+x) (d-y)

4d2

To enforce these conditions on total

current, the current on a structure with N
segments is expanded as

I(s)

j&jfj(5)

with the expansion functions fj(S) chosen to

satisfy the above conditions. On a uniform wire
f.(s) is a spline-like function extending over
s4 gments j-l, j, and j+l.
In general, if
several wires connect to each end of segment j,
f.(s) extends over segment j and all connected
sigments and has the form of (4) on each
segment. The constants A, 8, and C differ on
each segment and are chosen so that f. goes to
zero with zero derivative at the oute$ end of
each segment connected to segment j. At the
junctions at each end of segment j, fj satisfies

Figure 1. Detail of the connection of a wire

to a surface.

and (xj,yj) =

(x,Y)

304

at the center of patch j.

The current in (6) is integrated

numerically when computing the electric field at
the center of the connected wire segment due to
the surface current on the four surrounding
patches. In computing the field on any other
segments or on any patches, the delta-function
form is used for all patches including those at
the connection point. This saves integration
time and is sufficiently accurate for the
greater source to observation-point separations
involved.

ground surface. The solution is based on the

Sommerfeld-integral formulation for the field
near the interface. For the method-of-moments
solution, the field values are obtained by table
lookup and parameter estimation involving a
model for the complex behavior of the field
transmitted across the interface. The current
expansion is modified to account for the
discontinuity in charge on a wire penetrating
the interface. This numerical treatment for
burial wires is described in [2].

Efficient Solution Methods

III,

CAPABILITIES

OF NEC-3

NEC-3 includes a number of features for

convenient modeling of antennas and
scatterers. These are summarized below.

Source Modeling
A voltage source on a wire may be modeled
by an applied field on a segment or a
discontinuity in charge between segments.
Alternatively, a structure may be excited by a
plane wave with linear or elliptic polarization
or by the near field of an infinitesimal current
element.

Nonradiating Networks and Transmission Lines

Nonradiating two port networks and
transmission lines may connect points on
wires. These are modeled by deriving a drivingpoint admittance matrix from the admittance
matrix of the entire structure to avoid
modifying the larger matrix.

Loading
Lumped or distributed RLC loads may be
specified on wires. Also, the conductivity of a
round wire may be specified and the impedance
computed taking account of skin depth.

Ground Effects
Three options are available for an antenna
in or near the ground. A perfectly conducting
ground is modeled by including the image field
in the kernel of the integral equation. This
doubles the time to compute the interaction
matrix. An approximate model for a finitely
conducting ground uses the image modified by
Fresnel reflection coefficients. This
approximation is usable for antennas at least
0.1 to 0.2 wavelengths above the ground and
doubles the time to fill the matrix.
NW-3 includes an accurate treatment for
wire structures above, below, or penetrating the

The matrix equation is solved by factoring

the matrix into upper and lower triangular
matrices which are saved for reuse when the
excitation or other parameters that do not alter
the matrix are changed. Rotational symmetry or
reflection symmetry in one to three planes can
be used to reduce both the times to fill and
factor the matrix. New wires or surfaces may be
added to a structure for which the matrix has
already been computed, factored and saved on a
file. The new solution is found from the self
and mutual interaction matrices through a
partitioned-matrix algorithm with no unnecessary
repetition of calculations for the basic
structure. This feature can be used to take
advantage of symmetry in a portion of a
structure to which unsymmetric parts connect.

Input
A user-oriented input scheme permits
defining straight wires, arcs, and surfaces.
Electrical connections are determined in the
program by searching for wire ends and patch
centers that coincide. Shifts, rotations, and
reflections can be used in building complex
structures. A solution can be repeated for
modified model parameters (transmission lines,
loading, etc.) without respecifying parameters
that are not changed.

output
Output selectable by input parameters may
include:
current
charge density on wires
input impedance, admittance, and power
radiated power, ohmic loss, efficiency
radia,tedfield, power gain, directive
gain
average gain_
near E and H fields
maximum coupling (for matched source
and load)
receiving patterns
scattering cross section
For accurate results, the lengths of wire
segments should be less than about 0.1 A.
Longer segments up to about 0.15 x may be
acceptable on long, straight wires or

305

The wire radius, a, rf!lat.iVe

t0
X is
by the approximations used in the kernel
of the electric field integral equation. Two
approximation
options are available in NEC: the
thin-wire kernel and the extended thin-wire
kernel. In the thin-wire kernel, the current on
the surface of a segment is reduced to a
filament of current on the segment axis. In the
extended thin-wire kernel, a CUrtWIt
Uniformly
distributed around the segment surface is
assumed. The field of this current is apprOXimated
by the first two terms in a Series
expansion of the exact field in powers of a*.
With the extended thin-wire kernel, the
ratio of segment length to radius can be as
small as 0.5 before instabilities appear in the
solution, while with the thin-wire
approximation, the limit is 2. In either of
these approximations, only currents in the axial
direction on a segment are considered, and there
is no allowance for variation of the current
around the wire circumference. The acceptability of these approximations depends on both the
value of a/x and the tendency of the excitation
to produce circumferential current or current
variation.
Validation of results is an important step
in the modeling process. The ideal validation
is comparison with reliable measured data for
the antenna of interest. Lacking such data
there are several checks that can be made on the
internal consistency of the NEC solution. One
is to vary the density of segments or patches to
test the convergence of the solution. Since the
solution for wires uses different functions for
current expansion and field testing, reciprocity
is not assured. Hence, it is useful to check
reciprocity in the receiving and transmitting
patterns or bistatic scattering. The accuracy
Of the computed input resistance can be checked
(except for
antennas
over lossy ground) by
integrating the power in the radiated field.
The power obtained by integrating the radiated
field is insensitive to small errors in the
computed current and can, if necessary, be used
to correct the computed radiation resistance,
input power and values of gain.
An important consideration in using NEC is
the solution time versus model size since this
may limit the amount of detail that can be
modeled and the segment and patch densities.
For a model using N wire segments, the solution
time in seconds on a CDC 7600 computer is given
approximately by the formula

T = 3(10-4>kN2/M -I-2(10-6)~3/~2

where
and

(7)

M is the number of degrees of symmetry

k = 1 for free space
= 2 for perfectly conducting ground

Jl

or reflection coefficient
approximation

noncritical
parts of a structure while shorter
segments,
0.05 A or less may be needed in
modeling critical regions of an antenna.
A
reasonable
maximum for the area of a surface
patch appears to be 0.04 square wavelengths.

limited

56

4 to 8 for accurate (Sommerfeld)

tr:atment of finitely
conducting ground.
The first term in (7) is the time to fill the
matrix and the second term is the time to factor
it into triangular parts for solution. For a
model using No patches, the solution time is
I_
about

T = (10-5)k(2Np)2/M

+ 2(10-5

(2NJ3/M2

since two rows and columns in the matrix are

associated with each patch. The reduced time
factor for filling the matrix, due to the deltafunction current expansion, is one attractive
feature of this solution method. A more
complete relation for running time is contained
in [ll, Part III.
When the Sommerfeld ground treatment is
used, a fixed time of about 15 seconds on a CDC
7600 computer is needed to generate the
interpolation tables. The tables depend only on
the ground parameters and frequency, however,
and can be saved for use in any case in which
these parameters are the same.

IV.

REPRESENTATIVE RESULTS

NEC has been used to model a wide variety

of structures including LP and Yagi-Uda arrays;
Beverage, Discone-Cage and multiarm helical
antennas; spheres, cylinders, and cone-sphere
scatterers. Whip antennas mounted on a ship or
a simple box have been modeled using both the
wire-grid and patch methods.
Some results obtained with NEC-3 are shown
in Figs. 2, 3, and 4. The radiation pattern of
a cylinder with two attached wires is shown in
Fig. 2. The cylinder height is 22 cm, the
diameter 20 cm, and the wire dimensions are
shown in the figure. Wire 'a' was driven by a
voltage source at its base, while wire 'b' was
connected directly to the cylinder. This model
used the hybrid EFIE-MFIE capability of NEC.
The measured pattern was obtained by Albertsen
et al. C4l who presented similar numerical
results. NEC results for a higher density of
patches than was used for Fig. 2 were in worse
agreement with the measurements, possibly due to
inability of the MFIE to handle the square edges
of the cylinder.
The current on a monopole and radial-wire
ground screen is shown in Fig. 3 for the screen
above and below the ground surface. The sum of
the currents along the radials is plotted for
negative distance, while positive distance is
along the monopole. The transition from upper
to lower medium propagation factor for current
along the radials is seen-go take place within a
vertical distance of 2(10 )ho.

ol0

306

I
. 270

90

180

360

OBSERVATION ANGLE

Figure 2. Radiation pattern of a cylinder with

attached wires, with wire a excited.

In Fig. 4, a buried horizontal pipe is

illuminated by the field of a distant vertical
tower. The plot shays the magnitude of the
scattered field E (4 is normal to the direction
to the transmittifig tower) relative to the
incident field E, and represents measurements
made by moving a probe in a raster-like fashion
over the search area. Both active and passive
geophysical searches have been modeled with NEC3.

V.

-16.
-.5

-.4

-.3

-.2

Distance

-.l

0.

.1

.2

(Wavelengths)

Figure 3. Real part of the current on a quarter

wave monopole driven against a ground screen
consisting of six evenly spaced radial wires
with a screen radius of 0.5 h0 and 2_ = 16 j0. The height of the ground screen above the
interface is s. The sum of the radial currents
is plotted to obtain a continuous current at the
monopole-screen junction. It can be seen that
transition from the upper to lower medium
wavelength occurs6largely within a vertical
distance of 2(10 )ho.

CONCLUSION

NEC-3 is a versatile code for modeling

antennas and their environment including
transmission lines, networks, loading, and
ground effects. It has become widely used, due
mainly to its convenient operation, documentation, availability of the code, and continuing
support. NEC is written in Fortran IV, consists
of about 9,000 lines of code and requires about
95,000 words of memory on a CDC 7600. These are
also versions of the code on IBM 3033 and DEC
VAX-11 computers.
In a project now beginning, NEC is to be
revised with the new code to be called Numerical
Electromagnetics Engineering Design System
(NEEDS). In NEEDS, we hope to develop a truly
user-friendly code, taking advantage of both
user experience with the present code, and new
concepts in software design. One goal is to reengineer NEC into a tool that is more transportable. maintainable. and uodatable bv utilizina a

56

Jl

Buried Pipe

Figure 4. Typical signature (defined by the

magnitude of E relative to E ) of a buried
horizontal pip& (length L = 56 m, diameter d =
.2 m) buried 5 m below the interface for Z_ = 16
- j80 and f = 200 kHz. The excitation is
provided by a vertical electric source 10 km
distant. Only the left half of the field, which
is left-right symmetric, is plotted. The peaks
are associated with the charge accumulation on
each end of the pipe.

more module structure. The other primary goal

is to incorporate features that make NEC easier,
and therefore more productive to use. This will
be done through introduction of more diagnostics
and error checks, more use of standard geometry
modules, incorporation of interactive graphics,
etc.

In addition, a number of new modeling

capabilities are planned for NEEDS, including:
0

Electric field integral equation for

surfaces with the capability of
connecting wires to surfaces.
Coupling to GTD codes for reflector
antennas and scattering by plates and
cylinders.
Improved numerical precision on 32-bit
computers.
Modeling insulated wires in the ground
or air.

l
l

Propagation calculations for irregular

ground.
Further exploitation of symmetries and
repetition patterns to reduce solution
time.
Improved model for voltage sources.
Built in optimization capability for
design applications.

Plans for NEEDS were developed, in part, .

through a survey of the needs of current NEC
users. It is hoped that this interchange
between NEC users and developers and among users
can be continued through a NEC/NEEDS User's News
Letter published periodically. The news letter
would provide a forum for exchange of user
information gained in practical applications as
well as dissemination of information on new
developments in the code. Through this process,
we hope to develop an expanding set of modeling
guidance in a variety of applications.

- 308

REFERENCES

Cl1

Burke, G. J. and Poggio, A. J., "Numerical

Electromagnetic Code (NEC) - Method of
Moments Parts I, II and III," NOSC TD 116,
Naval Ocean Systems Center, San Diego, CA,
18 July 1977 (NEC-1) revised 2 January
1980 (NEC-2).

C81

Neureuther, A. R. et al., "A Comparison of

Numerical Methods for Thin Wire Antennas,"
presented at the 1968 Fall URSI Meeting,
Dept. of Electrical Engineering and
Computer Sciences, University of
California, Berkeley, 1968.

c21

Burke, G. J. and Miller, E. K., "Modeling

Antennas Near to and Penetrating a Lossy
Interface,' IEEE Transactions on Antennas
and Propagation, Vol. AP-32, No. 10, pp.
1040-1049, October 1984.

cg1

c31

Burke, G. J., "Numerical Electromaqnetics

Code - Method of Moments User's Guide
Supplement for NEC-3 for Modeling Buried
Wires," Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory, UCID-19918, October 1983.

Miller, E. K., R. M. Bevensee, A. J.

Poggio, R. Adams, and F. J. Deadrick, "An
Evaluation of Computer Programs Using
Integral Equations for the Electromagnetic
Analysis of Thin Wire Structures," UCRL75566, Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory, CA, March 1974.

DOI

Wu, T. T. and King, R. W. P., "The Tapered

Antenna and Its Application to the
Junction Problem for Thin Wires," IEEE
Transactions on Antennas and Propason,
Vol. AP-24, No. 1, pp. 42-45, January
1976.

c41

Albertsen, N. C., Hansen, J. E., and

Jensen, N. E., "Computation of Spacecraft
Antenna Radiation Patterns," The Technical
University of Denmark, June 1972.

c51

Poggio, A. J. and Miller, E. K., "Integral

Equation Solutions of Three-Dimensional
Scatterinq Problems," Chapt. IV in
Computer Techniques-for Electromagnetics,
edited by R. Mittra, Pergamon Press, NY,
1973.

Ccl

Poggio, A. J. and Adams, R. W.,

"Approximations for Terms Related to the
Kernel in Thin-Wire Integral Equations,"
UCRL-51985, Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory, CA, December 19, 1975.

This document was prepared as sn account of work \penwrrd

the Initcd

Stales (;evernment.

Wversity

of (alifornia

press or implied,
curary.

Neither

hy sn agency of

the (nited State\ Govcrnmmt

or awumcs any legnl liahilily

complctenesc. or uwfulncw

or respwnihilily

of any inform&m,

Yeh, Y. S. and Mei, K. K., "Theory of

Conical Equiangular Spiral Antennas," Part
I - Numerical Techniques, IEEE
Transactions on Antennas amropagation,
AVol. P- , p.

ex-

for the w-

appsralw.

preducl, or

process disclosed, or rcprewnts thrl its USCwould not infringe privately owned
rights. Referenre herein tu any specific commercial productr, procre.

c71

nor the

nor any of their empleyecb, makes any warranty.

hy trade name, trademark.

manufacturer.

constitute or imply its endorwmcnl,

or otherwise.

rrcommcndatien,

Stater Government or the University

of ~alifornia.

or wnice

doe\ no1 ncwwrily

or fweriog

hy Ihe Initsd

.I'he
views and opinion% or

awlhers expreasad herein de not necessarily Qrte or rellecl thow of the Iniled
States G~~~rnent
dorwmeot

thereof, and shall not IJP uwd for adwrti+ing

purposes.

or product cn-

CClvB?UTER-AIDED ANALYSIS
IN VHF-FM

309

57~2

OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
BROADCASTING

D. J. Bern, J. Janiszewski,
Technical

University
Wrockaw,

The paper
method

presents

a computer-aided
compatibi-

for electromagnetic

lity analysis
casting

(EMCA)

The method

networks.

developed

in VHF-FM

on the basis

mathematical

model

broad-

has been

of an original

of the VHF-FM

net-

NETWORKS

R. Zielidski

of Wroclaw
Poland

The coverage

The protection

considered,

is determined

called

compatible

mitters

which

compatible

tic environment
dition

requires

of compatibility

all systems

information

should

compatibility

of various

signals.

tions provide

kinds

Simulation
us with

the performance

making

external

interferences.

number

ters distributed

frequency

achievable
ceivers,

with

and, at

from

co-

transmit-

predetermined

method

presents

a computer-aided

for electromagnetic

compatibi-

(EMCA) in

networks.

VHF-FM

The computer
in

FORTRAN

broadprogram

1900.

munication
ponents
mitter

consists

of

transmit-

should be

area.
of

done in
area,

i.e.,

a good reception
domestic

of the system elements

In a computer

of

and allocation

normal

value)

adjacent-channel

Models

for possible

such a way that the service

the region where

in the

ever a definite

channels

the field

of distur-

of radio

This distribution

and

casting

and analysing

network

(protected

ters do not exceed

investiga-

allowances

A broadcasting

value

has been written

broadcasting

networks

which

is not less than the minimum

lity analysis

this

characteristics

and existing

a certain

In the

an effective

for forecasting

planned

signal

area. The

range of a transmitter

The paper

an undisturbed

of a desired

presence

method

network

so

of the trans-

this

the same time, interference

channel

the

level.

of

be observed.

means

to

signals

or processing

case of a broadcasting

bing

regard

using electrical

for transmission

reception

that the conwith

by

ranges

service

an area over

usable

of the electromagne-

i.e., the ratio Of

area to the total area

strength
Introduction

ratio,

the service

means

work.

COMPATIBILITY

is
re-

model

system

of a radiocom-

the following

can be distinguished:
models,

antenna

com-

trans-

models,

recei-

ver models,

propagation

models,

and a

geographical

environment

model.

These

models

describe

system

components

all properties

in compatibility
Propagation

which

are

of the

important

analysis.

model.

The propagation

curves based
370-4

on CCIR
Recommendation
are used for calculations of the

field strength.
strength

to path

covers

the greatest

poss'ible

valent

Part of a given

geographical

area.

a parameter

They relate
length with

transmitting

antenna

for various

field
the equiheight

percentages

as
of

- 310 -

in various

time from 50% to 1%

They represent

tic regions.
strength

exceeded

and apply

model

for

vegetation

Pr = -119.6

allowance

and to the limit value

and man-made

structures

surface.

paths

and

However,

terrain

the territory
cluded

is enough

the transmitter

follows

analysis

in-

patibility

the considered

for

emissions

as a determined

Power

nominal

distribution
spectrum

com-

showed

are beyond

range.

a frequency-dependent
ratio

The receiving
characterized

antenna.

(ij protected

by

part of the system

- rural

is

para-

of the field

emission:

areas, 6Q dBp - urban

70 dBp - great
emission:
- urban

value

(monophonic

cities;

54 dBp - rural

areas,

(ii) noise

mismatch

transmitting

and receiving

the omnidirectional

mismatch
power

are

not taken
adopted

model

value of the

the reception

absence

is correct

of interference

ble field strength).

value

66 dBp

cities);

field

prefer-

Tab.

1. The

antenna

since

in

is

the

it does

Table

in the

Transmitting
antenna
vertical
horizontal
circular
linear

Attenuation
coefficient

Receiving
antenna
horizontal
vertical
linear
circular

for the effective

ing conditions
sary

height

equal

to

e.g., when

to know

smaller

represented

3
made

of ,the recei-

10 m.

in cars,

In some

the

it

receiv-

.is neces-

field strength

and then

for

an additional

is introduced.

by

antenna

can

a probabilistic

in the case of an

nal antenna

18

testing

the

heigths

correction

CdB]

curves were

be
model

omnidirectio-

takes the form

z

usa-

Signal impairment due to

polarization
mismatch

which

for

(minimum

antennae

of EMC analysis

The transmitting

is the minimum

of

the

is

in

into account

cases,

level at the receiver

The protected

between

presented

method

areas,

input.

strength

case

gain of the receiving

ving antenna

stereophonic

74 dBp - great

the

polarization

48 dBp

areas,

of an omnidi-

In

Polarization

[2].

by two additional

recommended

or the model

rectional

CCIR propagation

strength

which

[4]

antenna

to

meters:

._

by

in the transmit-

introducing
protection

a directional

and the receiver

are taken into account

According
of

power[l] .

selectivity

models.

to the needs one can use the model

is

equal

output

is described

not play any role.

The

emission
value

antenna

red. The consequences of polarization

of the

to the internal

of the fundamental

ter output

The

Cl1f

emission

frequency

the transmitter

It

takes into account

of the system which

that the harmonic

treated

model.

from the character

related

of the nuisance

models

by two deterministic

CCIR

only the fundamental

power

has been

and the receiver.

model

dBm

E = -1.6 dBu

The receiving

deover

to use a common model

transmitter

This

Ah,

irregularities

and receiver

[3)

Antenna

in the model.

Transmitter

susceptibi-

field strength

on

irregularities.

of Poland,

cor-

it takes

map of the parameter

scribing

by

lity threshold

land-sea

mixed

terrain

to the receiver

pro-

introduced

consideration

figure was aSSU-

to 4,5 dB which

and

does not make

into

responds

noise

The discussed

attenuation

the Earth's

digital

med to be equal

ver-

to both horizontal

field

The receiver

field

at 50% of locations,

tical polarization.
pagation

clima-

the

[l]

- 311

57~2

where e is the mean value of the power

gain in dB, or by means of a determini-

The other method assumes that there is

no time and spatial correlation

stic model in the form of a measured

radiation pattern.

between the fields and that the wanted

field strength is dominant everywhere.
The point here is to determine - for

EMC analysis

a given percentage of time -

The fundamental task of the electromagnetic analysis is to determine the

probability p that the wanted signal
level exceeds the level of a resultant
interfering signal by a strictly defined value over a given percentage
of time
P=

PC(EU - EI) > ACT,)]

(2)

where EU - wanted field strength in dB

EI - resultant interfering field
strength in dB
protection
ratio for Ta
ACT,) percent of time in dB.
EU is a two dimensional random
variable of Gaussian distribution
with median E(50,50) and standard
deviations UT, DL.
From the analysis of the CCIR propagation curves the standard deviation
of spatial distribution
UL = 6 + 0.69a

- O.O063(Ah/h)
and of time distribution

(3)

YT = 0.5I0.429 [E(1,50) - E(50,50)] +

+ 0.781[E(10,50) - E(50,50)])
(4)
were found.

tial probabilities of undisturbed reception in the presence of successive

L. . The probabi7
lity of undisturbed reception in the
presence of all interfering signals
is equal to the product of probabiliinterfering signals

ties for individual interfering signals

= II Lj
LE
j
The calculation of the

omnidirectional antenna
the standard deviation of spatial
distribution of the field strength is

calculated from the formula

(5)

is the standard deviation

caiculateci from

formula (31.

There are two methods to determine

the probability distribution of the
random variable EI. The first, which
is more laborious and sometimes gives
no results, consists in defining the
distribution function as the convolution of successive interfering fields.

Lj probabi-

input:
usu

= HA + ESU(50,50) + PPATRU +

(7a)

+ 'EFHU + pPoLu

usI = HA + ESI(50,50) + PPATRI +

(7b)
+ 'EFHI + pPoLI
where U - signal median at the receiver
S
input (index U means wanted
signal and I - interfering
signal)
HA - effective lengthof the receiving antenna
ES(50,50)- median of field strength

'PATR

at the receiving antenna

- correction resulting from
the radiation pattern of
the receiving antenna

model of an

where 0L

(6)

lity starts with the determination of

the signal medians at the receiver

In the case of the probabilistic

u;,=&Y

the spa-

'EFH - correction due to the change

of receiving antenna height
pPoL - correction due to polarization mismatch
All quantities in eqs. (7a) and
(7b) are expressed in dB.
The median of the difference of the
wanted and interfering signals
AUs = Usu

USI = ESU - E

is

SI + Ap

(8)

where AP = (PpATRu - PpATRI) + (ppoLu- 'POLI)+ ('EFHU - 'EFHI) ('I

The difference in the levels of the
wanted and interfering signals exceeded
in T percent of time and in L percent

-'

- 312 -

is - according

of places

distribution

- described

AUS(L,T)

to the normal

which

by

last but not least,

(10)

= AUS - H(T) - H(L)

siderations.

H(T) = F(T) _I
0TU

(lib)

with

F(x) being

distribution

>

ratio depends

ference between
fering

of the protection

(11) to eq.

eqs.

and inter-

(7), (8)

(13)

ble

(14)

the spatial

lity of nondisturbed
The following

reception

parameters

in

EMC

probability

reception

[53:

of places

is fulfilled

with

Compatible

the value
exceeds
strength

included)

of the wanted

the minimum

signal

usable

segment

(MODY),

set of calculation

by the

as new transmitters

introduced

user may become

The

components

median

presence

of many

(in

point.

the

sources)
The SIP0

version

one; it selects

transmitters

to

EMC

performs

interfering

is a simplified

the previous

also the

of

analysis

observation

this

he wishes

procedure

where

at a given

which

well
by the

of

The user determines

POINT

net-

transmitter

of

only

at the observation

point.

with LVS

(16)
being

of the spatial
reception.
user of

takes into account

transmitter

Any
data file as

full interference

L* b LVS

limit value

who

from the permanent

useful

set

a particular

for analysis.

are possible.

(15)

is the

on disc,

one is the user

analysis

and the relation

of undisturbed

data file stored

Ta =

EU(5O,5O)>,EC

output

The first data source

permanent

Seven procedures

EC

algO-

of data are used in the

perform.

field

steering

particular

and data input and

rithms,

procedure

is fulfilled

realizing

kind of analysis

range of a transmitter

the area (boundaries

a supervisory

(Fig. 1)

where

99%.

in

systems.

data base with

network.

of undisturbed

- percentage
(2)

system

analysis

compatibility

MASTER,

selects

describing

was

segment

work

Lj.

program

1900 for the ana-

sound broadcasting

and the second

probabi-

sound broadcasting

are of interest
Spatial

VHF-FM

program.

the value H(L) one can now

determine

condition

is accepta-

=1-T

TX

computer

FORTRAN

segments.
TWO sources

of time

interference

VHF-FM

in

procedures

- A(T)

TX is the percentage

easily

and

- ESI(50,50)

+ AP + H(TX)

Knowing

NEWEMCA

described

of the

lysis of internal

(12) one gets

during which

method,
written

It contains

H(L)<ESU(50,5O)

where

dif-

signals.

By substituting

the

(12)

A(T)

the wanted

(17)

program

On the grounds

on the frequency

condition

= LVS

Computer

of time

that the value

the observation

the

be

of the protection

percent

AUS(L,T)
Notice

must not

one can

of the field

at

LE

of AUS(L,T)

less than the value

for

median

fulfilling

function.

The value

ratio

Gaussian

the inverse

strength
point

con-

the wanted

level of

- the value

signal
H(L) = F(L) JvL;
0LU

For example,

The lowest

(lla)

and,

the economic

LVS = 0.5.

assume

where

developed

the system was

the

probability
This value

the system who

the purpose

for

The
it

RANGE

possible

coverage
is

and AREA procedures

to determine

area of a given

or a set Of transmitters.
SIAR

procedures

the two previous

operate

make

the compatible
transmitter
The SIRA and
similarly

procedures,

to

the only

difference
fields

being

interfering

the

that

are calculated

in a simplified

313

57~2

at the analysed
interfering
denotation

manner.
interfering

fields

a function

to be presented

described

and capable

by the system
necessarily
physical
mainly

the
as

of frequency.

The program
oriented

allows

procedure

SPECT

The

who

need not
in the

specialists

phenomena

addressed

involved.

It is

the system

to

plan-

to which

frequency,

of undisturbed

for

inter-

transmitter.

transmitters

there

generating

levels exceed
However,

DATAR

opeproba-

reception

transmitter

In the example

the

condition

to a smaller

ners and designers.

name of

it belongs,

rating

wanted

of

contains:

and spatial

bility

fering

The list

of the transmitter,

the country

a pair:

applied

of being

analysts

be

user

is

point.

transmitters

three

are

signals whose

protected

value.

(16) is satisfied

degree

than it was assumed

EAD.

------a_

Fig.
Examples

of application

NEWEMCA
Fig. 2

shows

calculated
which

yield

tially

such which
generate
exceeds
means

by means

a signal

be compatible.

list of interfering
(after

amplitude

i.e.,

point

value.

absence

This

of

each of the listed

ters would

poten-

the level of which

that in the

ference

list of

inter-

transmitcomplete

transmitters

and frequency

tion) makes

it possible

investigate

the interference

selec-

to thoroughly
situation

of

is no

compatible

at the analysed

The results

of results

analysed

the protected

so there

ception

transmitters,

the

program

(50%)

of POINT procedure

an ordered

at

of

program

an example

compatible

1: NEWEMCA

discussed

point.

of spectrum

interference
point

are given

SPECT

confining

of frequency

within

The

operating

the transmitter
compatible
points

the

in

the range

71.5-72.0

MHz.

frequency

which would

reception

is 71.8.

at

Fig. 3.
realized
with

were

optimum

analysis

situation

The calculations
procedure

re-

at the

of

ensure
analysed

- 314

the frequency

possible

It is also
compatible

analysis
casting
SPECT

a perfect

and planning
networks.

procedure

By means

situation
transmitter

NEWEMCA

within

program
of

Fig. 2: Results
POINT

of calculations

and

pick up

frequency.

can be applied

the frequency
the

of the

at the site of

broadcasting

after completing

can

one

analysis

operating

case

attractive.

is very

interference

the optimum

broad-

latter

In this

the

modelling

tool for the

of this procedure

planned

model

VHF-FM

of

carry out the spectrum

the

set of

simulation

The

us with

MHz.

to determine

ranges of a given

transmitters.
provide

65.5-73

range of

range

for

systems
87.5-108MHz

TRANSMITTERS

set.

by

procedure
References
[l] Rotkiewicz, W. (edit.) : ElectroCompatibility
in Radio
magnetic
Engineering. Elsevier, Amsterdam,
WKiE, Warszawa 1982.
[2] Huet, M., Rutkowski, J., Harhi, M.:
Planning of FM sound broadcasting
in the VHF
band. Telecommunication
Journal, Vol. 50, 1983, No. 7,
PP. 295-31.
[3] Duff, W.G., White, D.R.J.: EM1
Prediction and Analysis Techniques,
A handbook series on electromagnetic interference and compatibility
Vol. 5.
[4] CCIR: Recommendation
412-3, Geneva,
1982. Planning standards for FM
sound broadcasting
at VHF.

Fig.

3: Results
SPECT

of calculations

[5] Janiszewski, J., Zielifiski, R.,

Computer-aided
spectrum management
in VHF-FM
broadcasting
systems
(in Polish). Doctoral dissertation,
Technical University of Wroclaw,
Poland, 1984.

by

procedure

Conclusion
The discussed
the VHF-FM
makes

possible

spatial

model

of

of the

undisturbed

over any area of Poland

for any set of

transmitters

or planned

of

system

the calculation

probability

reception

existing

simulation

sound broadcasting

operating

and

alrea,dy
within

- 315

58J3

COMPUTER MODELS FOR DETERMINATION OF SATELLITE

POWER-FLUX-DENSITY LIMITS
Andrew Farrar
National Telecommunications and Information Administration
Annapolis, Maryland, United States of America

SUmARY
Two computer models, one developed by
the Bell Telephone Laboratories (BTL) and the
okher by the Systematic8 General Corporation
(SGC) were modified and used in this analysis
to determine power-flux-density (PFD) limits
for satellites operating in the 2025-2300 MHz
These
modifications
range.
frequency
capability
to
the
extended
the models'
evaluation Of the PFD limits, using the
technical characteristics of equipments in
A distinction was made between
this band.
geostakionary and nongeoskationary satellites
for this analysis.
The Bell Lab model was
used to evaluate PFD limits for geostationary
satellites and the SGC model was used to
evaluate
PFD
limits
for nongeostationary
satellites.
These limits were calculated
using technical characteristics of equipments
in the 2025-2300 MHz frequency range.
The
analysis takes into account the emission
(spectra)
of
the
desired
and
undesired
signals
and
the
noise
criteria
for
interference from satellites as specified by
CCIR Recommendation 357-3.
This analysis
indicates that the PFD limits on the surface
of the earth adopted by the International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) for the 20252300 MHz frequency range may be raised by 10
dB for geostationary satellites and by 16 dB
for nongeoskationary satellites serving the
United States.
The results also indicate
that
the
calculated
PFD
limits,
which
restrict satellite emissions to analog radiorelay receivers are adequate for protecting
digital
radio-relay
receivers
in
the
frequency range noted above.
The procedure described for selecting
the input parameters and the modifications
made to the computer models are necessary and
sufficient for determining the PFD limits in
other frequency bands. A brief discussion of
the models used in this analysis is included
in this paper.
INTRODUCTION
The space activities during the second
half
of
the
1950's alerted
ITU member
administrations
to a new demand on the
frequency
spectrum.
Spectrum management
problems
encountered
among
ground-based
emitters and/or airborne transmitters had
been more regionally oriented.
The spectrum
sharing difficulties with global impact that

were surfacing between satellites and Systems

in the Fixed and Mobile Services made the
need for new provisions to control spacecraft
CCIR,
in
the
emissions
clear.
Later,
Recommendation 357-3, provided a guide to
equipment designers, and accepted the noise
limits shown in Figure 1. The noise levels
shown in Figure 1 are for a hypothetical
reference circuit (HRC) for telephony using
frequency
division
multiplex
in
an
international telecommunication network.
-40

7-

-45

F
1

3
a

-50

9
&
El
g
-55

-60

!O

PERCENTAGE OF ANY MONTH

Figure 1.

Interference noise power from satellites to an

HRC using FDM/FM. (The circles indicate the
noise limits in the CCIR Recommendationand the
line connecti"R them represents the interpolation
between the points.)

In the past, several methods ware used

to calculate PFD limits.
The method now
accepted by the CCIR is discussed in CCIR
Report 387-3. This method is statistical and
the limits established by it are incorporated
into the ITU Radio Regulations.
The maximum
permissible PFD limits calculated by this'
method in the 2 GHz band, are as follows.
-154

dBWtm2 I"

-154+.05

(b-5)

-144

where

is

any

kliz 8

.I

"

I.

I.

the

angle

of

< 6 < !+

<8

< 25=

6 > 25O

arrival

in

- 316 -

degrees. The ITU Radio Regulations make no

and
geostationary
between
distinction
nongeostationary satellites with regard to
the application of PFD limits. The potential
interference from geostationary satellites is
receivers.
terrestrial
to
continuous
However, a nongeostationarysatellite appears
to be in a different location, in the orbital
sphere, to an observer on Earth. This is due
to the relative motion of the Earth with
respect to the satellite. Therefore, the
potential interference from nongeostationary
satellites is intermittent as a function of
time in comparison with the potential
interference from a geostationary satellite,
which is continuous. The recognition of this
phenomenon and the fact that the CCIR
interference
to
noise
for
criteria
terrestrial radio relays is time dependent
should allow the evaluation of two different
sets of PFD limits. Two sets of PFD limits
were established by this analysis, one for
for
one
geostationary satellites and
Earlier
nongeostationary satellites.
analyses ([l] and [2]), as summarized in this
paper, indicate that ITU limits may be raised
without jeopardizing Fixed Service systems'
These also
operations in the 2 GHz band.
indicate that the PFD limits set to protect
terrestrial analog systems will protect
digital systems.
Determination of the PFD limits, using
the models discussed, was based on noise
criteria set by the CCIR for Fixed Service
line-of-sight mode of
systems using a
Technical characteristics of
propagation.
terrestrial
systems in
satellites and
prepare input
used
to
services were
The
parameters for the analysis models.
input data were obtained from Government and
non-Government sources. The models used in
this analysis are the Geostationary Model
Ratio
Power
Noise
(NPR),
(GM),
Nongeostationary Model (NGM), Bit-Error-Rate
(BERASK),
Amplitude-Shift
Keying
Bit-Error-Rate Phase-Shift Keying (BERPSK),
and Bit-Error-Rate Frequency-Shift Keying
(BERFSK).
GROSTATIOMARYHDDEL (GM)
The GM is a modified version of the
algorithm developed by BTL ]3]. The model
makes use of trendline characteristics.
A microwave communication circuit is
trendline that generally
defined by a
consists of a number of repeater stations
(radio-relays). In this model, the azimuth
of each trendline was assumed to be random,
varying uniformly between 0 and 2 II .
In
addition, for each radio-relay station in a
was
trendline, the antenna-pointing angle
assumed random, with uniform distribution
between f25degrees of the trendline. The
modifications to the algorithm took into
account the effects of desired-signalfading,
a microwave radio-relay system's frequency
plan, and desired and undesired transmitter
including
characteristics,
emission
modulation type. Of these, the effect of the
latter two modifications on the PFD limits
was found to be more significant.
Despite the highly directive antennas
now available (and even used in some of the
a
certain fraction of
trendlines), a
trendline station's transmitter power may

radiate in directions other than those

intended. This undesired radiation is worse
when less directive antennas are used in a
trendline. Cost considerationsoften make it
necessary to use less directive antennas for
systems
designed to
operate
in
the
2025-2300 MHz frequency range.
Depending
upon the coupling involved in the reception
of the undesired radiation, the interference
is called over-reach, adjacent-section, or
same-section interference. At every repeater
site, transmitter and receiver frequencies
are separated by Af ( Af is often larger
than 40 MHz) in order to avoid such
interferences In a system design, frequency
engineering is generally used in conjunction
with the selection of an appropriate antenna
in order to mitigate harmful results from
these interferences.
The selection of a frequency plan in the
design of a microwave trendline is a result
of a trade-off among various factors such as
economy, quality of performance, and desired
interference levels. Importantly, the impact
of the potential interferencefrom satellites
to stations in a trendline is dependent on
the frequency plan used in the design of the
trendline. The use of a single frequency in
the design of a multihop trendline is not
practical,
Highly directive antennas are
needed in a trendline that is designed to
operate with a two-frequency plan. However,
four- and six-frequency plans are common in
the 2025-2300 MHz frequency range.
For a
worst case analysis, the two-frequency plan
was considered.
Another modification to the GM program
was the change in the relationship for the
ratio of baseband interference to thermal
noise. The original relationship used in the
program was more appropriate for satellite
signals using a relatively high index of
modulation. In the 2 GHz band, satellites
generally have a medium index of modulation,
and a suitable relationship for the inputoutput interference-to-noise ratio may be
written as:
iC

i4
= k(Af,m) n4

(1)

where:
k(Af,m) = a
function
dependent
on
modulation indices of both the
undesired and desired signals
I4 =

interference power level, in

4 kHz
band,
at
the
any
receiver input

n4 =

noise power level, in any

4 kHz band, at the receiver
input

i, =

interference in
channel

nC =

noise in the receiver channel

the receiver

- 317

The original GM algorithm made the assumption

The
function k may be written as
that k=l.

t21:
'41nBW1

(2)

k(Af,m) =
Bwn

where:
i41n =
BWl =

BWn =

levels
normalized
interfering signal

of

the

bandwidth

of

noise

power

Note that if interference is noiselike, k in

For
unity.
will
approach
Equation 2
narrowband interfering signals with a low
index of modulation, the function k is less
Hence, characteristics of the
than unity.
the
radio-relay
satellite's
signals
and
spectrum
have
significant
transmitters'
effects on the evaluation of the function k.
The input parameters for the GM program
are:

IX
NF

- Random number generator starter

- Type of frequency plan (1,2,3,...)

VK
- Value of k function
N
- Number of stations in a trendline
NTR
- Number of trendlines
XL
- Latitude of the first station (deg)
DXLL
- Latitude of the last station (deg)
XL1
- Latitude increment (deg)
ss
- Satellite spacing (aeg)
DBRNCO - Allowed noise level in receiver
DBL
- Feed loss (dB)
TS
- Receiver noise temperature
FGHz
- Frequency (GH2)
_
The typical antenna pattern for a radiorelay receiver and the satellite PFD limits
are two sets of important input data.
The
antenna gain pattern for a radio-relay is
similar to that given by the CCIR [4].

G(0) =

dBi

O0 <e

A f B log 0

dBi

e1 <e

-10

dBi

<el

< e2
8 >02

80.0

the

for
the
ratio
receiver when the interference
is noise
(npr) = noise power ratio when the
noiseiis the interfering signal

(npr),

The constants FVl, FV2, and FV3 are the input

parameters (in dB) and EVA1 and EVA2 are
input data (in degrees).
A sample program output is shown
in
The
Figure 2 for illustrative purposes.
curve was calculated using the PFD limits
Note
given in the ITU Radio Regulations.
that the noise level corresponding to the 90%
Since the CCIR allowable
point is 550 pW.
noise power level shown in Figure 1 is
1000 pw, the PFD for the example in Figure 2
may be raised by 2.6 dB.
100.0

bandwidth of the l.th segment

of the spectrum density of the
interfering signal
noise
receiver

58~3

60.0

40.0

20.0I -

0.cI

80

1220

810

460

INTERFERENCE (PW)
Figure 2.

Cumulative distribution of interferencefrom

geostationary satellites to a 40 hop radiodelay trendline.

The modified
GM is useful for the
determination of PFD limits in any shared
frequency band.
However, care should be
exercised
in
the
preparation
of
input
parameters.
The input parameters for the GM
should be based on allocations in, and the
technical characteristics of the equipment
using, the frequency band.
Tn an earlier
analysis [2], it
was shown that PFD limits
for geostationary satellites can be raised by
'10 dB
based
on
the
use
and
technical
characteristics of equipments in the 20252300 MHz band,
CQMPUTATION OF NOISE-POWRR RATIO (npr)
The algorithm used in the computation of
NPR is based on the method developed by
Pontano, et al. (51.
The equation for the
determination of npr is:

(3)
npr =

ml 2 fml

HP(f) 2

(5)

(1 - E) I(a,b) fch2
where:
rms modulation index of desired
signal
fml = maximum baseband frequency of
desired signal
HP(f) = frequency response of preemphasis network
E = ratio of minimum to maximum
baseband frequencies
f ch = midfrequency of baseband
channel under consideration
m,

wherd
A,
B,
C,
el, and 0
are
input
parameters to the program.
T8l
e PFD limits
from the satellites to Fixed Service radiorelay receivers that have been accepted by
the CCIR are in the form of:
FVl
0 < 6 <EVA1
I(@) = FVl + FV2 (6 - EVAl) EVA1 < 6 ?EVA2
6 IEVA
I FV3
(4)

- 318

00

and

[Pl(f + a) P2(f - a) +

I(a,b) =

-O" + Pl(f + b) P2(f - b)]df

where:

(6)

;I gs; :r;;;
separation of desired
fs =frgquengy
and undesired signals

baseband frequency
Pl$f :: interfering signal spectrum
Pp(f) = desired signal spectrum
Evaluation of the convolution integrals given
in Equation 6 was done using the algorithm
For a large number of
developed by Das[6].
systems, the integrals in Equation 6 should
be evaluated numerically. This algorithm was
used in the determination of (npr), and
(nvr). in Equation 2.
I

-n

NOtiGEOSTATIONARY
MODEL (NGM)

emission
on
the
A
radio-frequency
surface of the earth from a nongeostationary
satellite is time-dependent because of the
relative motion of the satellite with respect
to the earth. More specifically, the time a
fixed radio-relay receiver on the earth is
exposed to the potential interference from a
nongeostationary satellite varies since the
satellite appears in a different location in
the orbital sphere as it travels in its
orbit. Since the potential interference from
the nongeostationary satellite to radio-relay
receivers is intermittent, it is feasible to
compute a different set of PFD limits for
satellites.
The
nongeostationary
interference criteria, as shown in Figure 1,
for a smalLer percentage of
are higher
Hence, the
reception time in any month.
potential
time
for
.accumulated reception
trendline
from
to
a
interference
nongeostationary satellites is a major factor
The GM
in the determination of PFD limits.
computer program discussed earlier does not
account
the
duration
of
take
into
interference, because the algorithm in the
program assumes continuous interference.
The NGM is an extension of the GM. This
program computes the potential interference
from nongeostationary satellites to trendline
receivers as a function of the percentage of
month.
This
for
model
time
was
any
originally developed by Locke and Rinker [7].
visibility
statistics
The
of
nongeostationary satellites were the subject
of an earlier article
[8].
A bounding
equation was derived that related the longterm visibility of a satellite in circular
orbit to the orbital inclination angle and
the latitudinal and longitudinal bounds of a
orbital
sphere
of
a
the
region
on
The percentage of time that a
satellite.
nongeostationary satellite will remain in a
certain region visible to a ground station,
over a long period of time, is given by:

sin(L1)
T(%) = hh
2x2

arcsin

sin i
(7)
sin(L_) 1
L
- arcsin xl00
sin i
I
-I
'where:
AX = the longitudinal region on the
orbital shell, between the
latitudinal limits of Ll andL2

i = the inclination angle of the

satellite orbit
L1,L2 = upper and lower latitudes of
visibility regions
Hence, the computation of the visibility
statistics mentioned above is facilitated by
first
calculating
every
L and L
for
visible segment of thle sate 1 lite's orbital
sphere.
Briefly, the NGM algorithm uses the
expression in Equation 7 to calculate the
percentage of visibility for every segment of
the visible orbit.
The interference power
received
by
trendline
stations
is
then
calculated
for
each
segment
where
the
visibility percentage was calculated.
cumulative
plot
of
The
interference
power, calculated in a manner similar to that
described for the GM, as a function of the
percentage of duration of interference over a
long period of time (say one month), is the
desired result.
The
GM
modifications
were
also
incorporated into the NGM.
In addition, the
NGM was changed to take into account the
effect of multiple orbits.
Nongeostationary
satellites
are
used
for
a
variety
of
missions.
The altitude and inclination angle
of
these
satellites
depend
on
their
missions.
For example, satellites in the
Earth Exploration Service are usually at
higher altitudes than those in the Space
Research Service.
The NGM was designed to
assess PFD limits for a finite number of
satellites in a single orbit.
Since, in
practice, satellites are in different orbits,
model
with multiple-orbit
capability
was
This was achieved by modifying the
needed.
NGM.
The NGM requires 15 different input
parameters.
These parameters are described
in TABLE 1 and are entered interactively.
The output from the NGM is generally
entered on a disc used in another program to
compute
the
interference
for
multiple
orbits. This latter program is a convolution
routine that reads the data stored on the
disc
the
evaluation
of
for
the
total
interference from multiple-orbit satellites.
Using
technical
characteristics
of
equipments operating in the 2025-2300 MHz
frequency range, the total interference to
typical radio-relay trendline was calculated
by the NGM. The results of such calculations
for a two frequency trendline are shown in
Figure 3.
Curve A in Figure 3 indicates the CCIR
criteria for interference from satellites,
while curve B shows the calculated results,
from the NGM, for eight satellites, two in
each orbit.
The results shown in Figure 3
were obtained using the ITU PFD limits.
Based on the results in Figure 3, these
Limits may be increased by 13 dB without
exceeding the noise level for interference
from satellites to a radio-relay trendline,
which is accepted by the CCIR. This increase
does
not
include
the
additional
3 dB
correction, due to the receiver transfer
function discussed in Equation 1.

319

58~3

TABLE 1. DESCRIPTION OF INPUT

DATA TO THE NGM 1
iNDOM NUMBER SEED:
tandem number generator (<3000))
RENDLINE SYSTEM LENGTH (km):
Length of the trendline in
analysis)
UMBER OF HOPS:
Number of hops in a trendline, and
integer)
. POWER CRITERIA FOR SUB-BIN
ANALYSIS (dBpWOp):
. POWER CRITERIA FOR SUB-SUB-BIN
ANALYSIS (dBpWOp):
Total interferencelevels above
which more detailed calculation is
needed)
ATELLITE ALTITUDE (km):
Satellite orbit altitude)

PERCENT OF TIME Y-VALUE

Figure

3.

ATELLITE ORBIT INCLINATION (deg.):

Satellite orbit inclinationangle)
EANSMITTER FREQUENCY:
Satellite transmitter frequency)
ECEIVER SYSTEM NOISE TEMPERATURE (K)
Radio-relay receiver noise
temperature)
. CCIR
2. BSS
3. FSS
Type of antenna pattern used by radio
relay)
LAXIMUMGAIN (dBi):
LINIMUMGAIN (dBi):
, VALUE:
Parameters for selection 1)

Interference
nongeostationary
in a trendline

IS

EXCEEDED

power from eight

satellites
orbits
to radio-relay
using
double
frequency

in
receivers
plan.

receivers in this band was less than 10e3.

The data used in this assessment were
calculated using three computer programs:
BERASK, BERFSK, and BERPSK. The BER, as a
function of the input S/N for three common
modulation types,
calculated by
these
programs is given in Figures 4, 5, and 6.
The input parameter required by any one of
these programs is M, which represents the
number of states for a digital modulation.
The analytical expression describing each
algorithm is superimposedon each figure.

S THIS A PERISCOPE ANTENNA?

(YES, NO)
Type of antenna)
ATITUDE STEP (deg.):
Nominal patch size in latitude this
number is generally 3 degrees for

1 .Descriptionfor each input data in

Table 1 is given in parenthetical
statement.

BI~~R~B

am

(BEP)~COWPUTATION ~DELS

It should be pointed out that the PFD

limits calculated with the aid of the GM and
NGM are based on noise criteria established
by the CCIR (CCIR Recommendation 357-3) for
radio relays using analog receivers. The
CCIR has not yet accepted any recommendation
that specifies noise criteria corresponding
to an acceptable bit-error rate (BER) for
digital systems. Using the signal-to-noise
ratio (S/N) commonly employed by the systems
in the 2025-2300 MHx frequency range, it was
determined that the BER for digital radio

6
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE

Figure

4.

RATIO S/N,

0,

Probability
of BER vs.
S/N
demodulator
for
a receiver
shift
keying.

(dB)

at the input
to
using
amplitude-

- 320

May, A.S. and M.J. Pagones, "Model for

Computation of Interference to RadioRelav Svstems from Geostationary Orbit",
Technical -Journal;
System
The - Bell
Vol. 50, No. 1 (1971).
t41. CCIR Report 614-1, "Reference Radiation
Radio-Relay
System
Patterns
for
Plenary
Antennae",
Volume
IX, XIVth
Assembly, Kyoto, Japan (1978).
Fuenzalida,
and
J.C.
[51. Pontano, B.A.,
N.K.M. Chitre, "Interference into AngleModulated Systems Carrying Multi-Channel
Telephony Signals," IEEE Transactions on
Communications,
Vol. Corn-21,
No. 6,
pp. 714-725, (June 1973).
[61. Das, A. and George Sharp, "Convolution
Method of Interference Calculations,"
Federal Communication Commission, Report
No. RS75-04.
[71. Locke, P. and Alan Rinker, "Low Orbit
Satellites - An
Interference
Model,"
Telecommunications
Journal,
Vol. 45,
(1978).
181. CCIR Report 684, "Preliminary Analysis
Satellites
of
Low-Orbit
Visiblity
Statistics,"
Vol. II,
XIV
Plenary
Assembly, (1978).
131.

SIGNAL-TO-NOISERATIO S/N, p, (dB)

Figure 5.

Probability of BER vs. S/N at input to

demodulator for a receiver usinS phaseshift keying.

1.

SIGNAL-TO-NOISERATIO S/N, 0. :dB)

Figure 6.

[Il.

[21.

Probability of BER vs. S/N at the input to

demodulator for a receiver using freqU=CYshift keying.

REFERENCES
Farrar, A.,
Assessment
of
Satellite
Power
Flux-Density
Limits
in
the
2025-2300 MHz Frequency Range, Part I,
NTIA Report 83-135, NTIA, Annapolis, MD
(1983).
Farrar, A.,
Assessment
of
Satellite
Power-Flux-Density Limits in the 20252300 MHz Frequency Range, Part II, NTIA
Report
84-152,
NTIA,
Annapolis,
MD
(1984).

COMPUTER
BOUNDS

321

PROGRAMS

FOR CALCULATING

OF INTERFERENCE

ARBITRARILY

59J4

BETWEEN

SHAPED WIRE ANTENNAS

Kazuhiro

Hirasawa

Institute of Applied Physics

University of Tsukuba
sakura, Ibaraki 305, Japan

This paper describes a computer

program designed to calculate the
bounds of the interference between
arbitrarily shaped wire antennas operating at different frequencies. For
antennas with only two inputs the global
bounds are obtained analytically, and
for antennas with more than two inputs
the local bounds are calculated iteratively by using the results for the two
input case.
Introduction
In recent years the use of radio
communication has been growing rapidly,
and antennas operating at different
frequencies must often be placed in
close proximity due to space limitations such as those on towers. In this
circumstance the original characteristics of each antenna may be changed
because of interference between antennas [ll and [21. Thus in the design of
communication
systems it is useful to
find the bounds of this interference.
The bounds of antenna performance have
been analytically obtained for two
transmitting antennas 131 and for two
receiving antennas [41. Since more than
two antennas are often placed closely,
it may be more useful to find the
bounds between those antennas.

Fig. 1: General

wire antennas

In this paper a computer program is

described for calculating the bounds of
the interference between arbitrarily
shaped wire antennas operating at different frequencies as shown in Fig.1.
It is assumed that antennas #l, #2, ..*
are arrays or single antennas, and that
they operate at frequencies f
. . . . For example at f = fl, &At&as
#2, #3, . . . can be considered as loaded
scatterers and the loading impedance
ZL (= RL + jXL) (RL 2 0) at each input
of antennas #2, #3, . . . is the input
impedance looking toward the transmitter. Since ZL is a function of
frequency and changes with the operating frequency fl, f2, ..*, it is not
easy to keep track of the value of ZL.
At the operating frequency with
Z& -. 0, the necessary parameters are
o tained by using the method of moments
[51, which is one of the most widely
used and accurate methods to analyze
this kind of problem. Then by using the
superposition concept on load voltages
and feed voltages the bounds
of the
transmitting antenna performance
indexes such as active impedance,
mutual impedance magnitude, VSWR, radiation field magnitude and power gain,
are analytically obtained with respect
to ZL. Thus the global bounds for one
load can be obtained readily without
using iterative optimization methods
with two variables RL (RL 2 0) and XL.
For more than one load a bi-quadratic
programming
method is used to find the
local bounds where at each iteration
the global bounds with respect to one
load are calculated analytically. Thus
the convergence may be obtained in many
fewer steps than with general nonlinear
optimization methods.
The program is written in FORTRAN IV.
Once the operating frequency and the
antenna configuration are specified in
the program, the bounds of the antenna
performance and the necessary outputs
such as current distribution, mutual
impedance, active impedance and radiation pattern can be calculated.

Computational Method
Wire antennas are analyzed by the
method of moments using piecewise
sinusoidal expansion and weighting
functions [63 for the current on the
antenna. The current is written as

. . . (1)
Im m
m=l
where M is the number of expansion
functions, and J, is the mth expansion
function of the position. The boundaryvalue problem for the current J can be
reduced to a set Of linear equations in
I, (m = 1, 2, .... M) by standard
methods [51. The results may be written
in a matrix form
5=

[Zl [II

= rvF + VLl

. . . (2)

where [Z], is an M x M generalized impedance matrix and [I] is the column

vector (11, 12, .... I ). The M by 1
column vectors [VF] an2 [VL] are the
voltages at the feed and the load, respectively, and have the only nonzero
elements corresponding to the feed and
the load port voltages. The vector [I]
is obtained from the inversion of [Zl
as
[II

tz1-~w,

+ VLl

. . . (3)

At

the ith load port the voltage and

the current are related as
VLi =

...(4)
Li*Li
where ZLi (= RL;'t jXL_) is the load
impedance and ILi is l&e element of [II
corresponding to the load port.
Consider the case where there is
only one load ZLi' and the feed voltages [V,l are known. By using (4) the
vector [I] in (3) is expressed with
respect to a variable ZLi, and an antenna performance index such as active
impedance, power gain, etc. can be
written as
* *
2
allZLil +a2ZLi+a2ZLi+a3
...(5)
**
'i bllzLi12+b2ZLi+b2ZLi+b3

322

obtain
Pmin or cmaxr and [Z + Z,]-1
in (7) becomes a new [Z]-l in (3) as
the start of a new iteration. Although
at the start of the iteration it is
assumed that all the load values are
zero, any initial load values can be
chosen. Also note that this algorithm
finds only the local bounds for more
than one load and the global bounds
may not always be obtained.
The bounds are analytically obtained at each iteration, and the iterative method used here is equivalent to
P-dimensional search procedures without constraints (P is the number of
the loads.). On the other hand, general nonlinear optimization methods
require 2P-dimensional search with
constraints RLi 1 0 (i = 1, 2, .... P)
for the same problem. Thus the method
used here may find the bounds in many
fewer steps than general nonlinear
optimization methods do.
Description of the Computer Programs
The program is written in FORTRAN
IV and has been run on an HITACHI Ml70
computer.
The antennas are assumed thin and
are thought of as being divided into a
number of short segments connected
together. Each segment is defined by
its two axial end points. The complete
set of points (together with the antenna radius) essentially defines
the geometry of the antenna structure,
and individual points are numbered
consecutively from the first point of
the first antenna to the final point
of the last antenna. The spatial coordinates of these Noints are a part of
the required data input. Normally,
about 20 segments are used for each
wavelength of the antenna subject to
the condition that each segment length
should be at least five times the
radius of the corresponding antenna.
One current expansion function

where a 1' a3, bl and b are real constants, a2 and b2 are 2omplex constants, and * stands for the complex
conjugates. Then the bounds of pi and
the correswondina values of Zl:
(RLi ) 0) can be-obtained anayftically [31 .

Pj_( Li,min) 2 Pi,2

Pi

(Zr,i,max)

Once we know Z
the vector III
obtained from (2)L&Ad (4) as
[II

[Z + z,1-lny

L,=1.25m
L2=lm
L3=0.6m
L4=0.5m

(6)
is

. . . (7)

where [Z 1 is an M x M diagonal matrix

and the bnly nonzero element is the
load value corresponding to ZLi min or
ZLi,max in (6). The matrix invefision
in (7) is calculated very quickly [71,
since [z]-l is already known from (3).
From (3) to (6) is one iteration to

-4

Radius:#l=#2=O.Olm,_ #3=#4=O.O06m
f,=120MHz, f2=150MHz
f3=250MHz, f;=300MHz
Fig. 2:

Four dipole antennas

59J4

- 323 -

FREQ(MHZ)=
IMAGE= Y , i#l;;ANT=
4 , # DF FEED=
ANTENNA
LENGTH(METER):
0.250
0.500
0.300
0.625
ANTENNA
RADIUS(METEH):
0.01000
0.00600
0101000
0.00600
# OF EXP FUNS:
4
6
3
7
FEED POINT:

1 v fd OF LOAD=

L;IAD POINT:
8 12 la
50 OHM

LOAD

CHARACTtRISTICS=

tttt BOUNDS CALCULATED

+tt+
INPT R= N 1 INPT X= N , MUTL
PRINT OUT (CURRENT=
N , ZIN=
POSITION
X(MtTER):
Or0
010
0.0
2.000
2.000
2.000
2.000
2.000
2.000
POSITION
Y(METER):
0.0
0.0
0.0
zoo
0.0
zoo
2.000
PDSITION
L(METER):
0.089
-0.089
0.0
0.150
oto
0.075
0.500
0.333
Oe417

N 9 PWR
2: N 9 VSWR= N , E-FIELD=
N , E(THE)=
N ? E(PHI)=
N )

0.0
2,000
0.0

;:;oo

%oo

;:",oo

;:;oo

0.0

o*o

0.0

0.0

0.0
izoo

0.0
0.0
!?!:800 2.000
2,000

0.0
2.000
2.000

0.357
-0.083
0.083

0.446
0.0
01167

01179
0,225
-0.083

Oe268
0.300
0.0

LPZ
a 9 LOAD
++ i_P= 12 s LOAD
tt LPZ 18 I LDAD

tt

FP
1

LOAD

IMP=
IMP=
IMP=

CHARACTERISTICS

0.5000Et02
0.5000E+O2
0.5000E*02

2rooo
2.000

0.0
2.000
2,000

0.0
2.000

o*o
2.000

0.536
01083
0.250

0.625
0.167

-0.075
0.250

INPUT IMP(OHM)
0.9265Et02
0.3954E+02

PHMX=
PHI

270.

EMX=
MAG

3::
60.
90.
120.
150.
180.

0.9614
0.8267
0.9533
0.8247
Or9965
0.7921
0.9938

###X#

a*0
0.0
0.0

(OHM)
(OHM)
(OHV)

VSWR(ZO=
50.
2.29

-1.65
-0.34
-0.42
-1t67
-0.03
-2.02
-0.05

210.
180.
240.
270.
300.
330.
360.

0.8439
0.9938
0.8496
1*0000
0.7920
0.9995
018267

3.01
MAG(DB)
-0.05
-1.47
-1.42
-Z3
-0100
-1.65

##K## BOUNDS
DF POWER GAIN ####Y
(RELATIVE
TO HALFWAVE
DIPOLE)
PHI
3::
60.
90.
120.
150.
180.
2100
240.
270.
300.
330.
360.

GAIN
3r29
2.45
2.45
3.29
2.43
2.86
4.83
2.29
2.29
4r82
2.86
2.43
3.29

(08)
3r03
1.74
1.75
3.03
lr72
2.42
4.70
1.46
1*45
4.69
2.42
1.72
3.03

Fig.

GAIN
0.44
0.49
0*49
0.44
0.48
0.77
lr29
0.39
0.39
1.29
0.77
0.48
0.44

(DB)
-5.68
-5r24
-5.22
-5.66
-5.35
-3.28
-I*02
-6.23
-6.25
-1.03
-3.29
-5.35
-5.68

3: The output

+t
t*
**

OHM)

""HORIZONTAL
PATTERN""
0.7405
GNE
2,002
GN(DB)=
-----THETA=
90.0 ----MAG(DB)
PHI
MAG

0.0
2.000

FEED VDLTAGE(HEALIIMAG)(VDLT):
1.000
0.0
,c%%ia# 50 OHM

G=

of the program

- 324

extends over the two consecutive segments, and two adjacent expansion functions are overlapped on one segment.
Thus the first expansion function
begins at the first point, has the
peak (= 1) at point two and terminates
at point three, while the second begins
at point two, has the peak (= 1) at
point three and terminates at point
four, and so on.
As an example, the bounds of the
power gain of antenna #l operating at
120 MHz as shown in Fig.2 are calculated where antenna #2, #3 and #4 are
loaded at the center of each antenna.
The computer output is shown in Fig.3.
The first statement is the operating
frequency in MHz and is 120 MHz. The
next statement is IMAGE (= YES), the
number of antennas (= 4), aiid the
number of feeds (= 1) and loads (= 3).
If IMAGE = YES, the symmetry of the
antenna structure with respect to the

x-y plane (i.e. the image) is used in

the program to save about 40% or more
of the computation time. If the image
cannot be used, IMAGE = PJP has to be
specified. When IMAGE = Y, only those
antenna parameters above or on the x-y
plane are considered in the data statement, and those below the x-y plane
are automatically taken into account
in the program. The next statement is
the antenna length above the x-y plane,
which is half of the actual length in
Fig.2 due to the image. The next statement is the antenna radius. Then the
number of the expansion function of
each antenna above the x-y plane is
specified. After that the feed point
and the load point, which correspond to
the centers of the antennas and the
peaks of the expansion functions, are
specified. 50 OHM LOAD CHARACTERISTICS
= YES means that the input impedance
an';lthe radiation pattern of the

-_-

50 R loaded

-5

180

360

@(degrees)
(a) Antenna

i
-101
0

,
180
$(degrees)
(c) Antenna

#l at 120 MHz

I
360

#3 at 250 MHz

I-

s
-0
F:
vi
2

50 R loaded

L,

,1

-5

-10

Bbunds

180

360

'0

180

360

@(degrees)

@(degrees)
(b) Antenna

#2 at 150 MHz

Fig. 4: The power

(d) Antenna
gain relative

to a halfwave

#4 at 300 MHz
dipole

(0 = 90)

59J4

- 325 -

antenna for all ZS,i'S = 50 R at the

specified load points are calculated.
If not, NO has to be specified.
Then The selection of the bounds iS
made. In this case the bounds of input
impedance, input reactance, mutual
impedance magnitude, VSWR and electric
field magnitude are not desired, and
only the bounds of power gain are Calculated. For those bounds, the current
distribution on the antenna, the input
impedance and the vertical and horizontal radiation patterns are not calculated, since PRINT OUT (CURRENT = NO,
ZIN = NO, E(VERT) = NO, E(HOR1) = NOT.
After Ehat the positron of the segfiient
of the antenna is sPecified in the x-,
y- and z-coordinates.
In this case the
image is used and the first point of
each antenna starts below the x-y
plane SO that the peak of the expansion
function corresponds to the z = 0
plane. The final value specified is
the feed voltage; one element of [VF]
in (2) is set to 1 volt in this case.

L1=0.5m, L2=0.6m
Radius: #1=#2=0.005m
Fig. 5: A linear
antenna

array and a dipole

The bounds are calculated every 30

degrees
in the horizontal plane, which
has to be specified in the program. It
took 41 seconds to calculate the
quantities before the calculation of
the bounds and after that took 11
seconds to get the bounds of Power
gain
in thirteen +-directions. Thus
the calculation of the bounds of Power
gain in each direction requires less
than a second. The number of iterations
was 6 % 10 to get the bounds in each
@-direction; iteration stops when further improvement cannot be obtained.
Numerical

Consider four transmitting dipole

antennas as shown in Fig.2, each
operating at 120 MHz, 150 MHz, 250 MHZ
and 300 MHz.
Although each antenna by
itself has an omnidirectional
horizontal radiation pattern, due to mutual
coupling those antennas do not radiate
uniformly in the horizontal directions.
The bounds of the relative power gain
in each horizontal direction are calculated and are shown in Fig.4. For
example, in Fig.4(a) in the direction
((3= 900, 4 = 0') the power gain may
have any value between 3 dB and -5.7 dB
which depends on the input impedance
looking into the transmitter of antenna
#2, #3 or #4 at 120 MHz. Also in
Fig.lZ(a) the Monte Carlo method is
used to find the bounds where 2000
sample Points for each 6 variables
(3 loads) are used. The bounds are
(-2-B dB, 2.2 dB) and the probability
of reaching the bounds (-6.5 dB, 5 dB)
may be quite small in this case. The
important point is that the power gain
is dependent on the direction, and the
maximum losses of about 6.5 dB at 120
MHz, 7.6 dB at 150 MHz, 4.4 dB at 250
MHz and 6.7 dB at 300 MHz have to be
taken into account compared with a
halfwave dipole antenna alone.
As a second exmaple, consider a

(IT

f?

= 300 MHz, D = 1 m

= 300 MHz, D = 2 m

fl

-_a

a
if

-20

-2c)._

-30

-40
-90

D=co

--I cl-

fl10
a
Q
=
w

Results

-30

-40

90

@(degrees)

@(degrees)
(a) D = 1 m
Fig. 6: The electric

90

(b) D = 2 m
field magnitude

of the linear

array antenna(6

= 90')

- 326 -

dipole antenna operating at 250 MHz in

front of an eight element linear array
operating at 300 MHz as shown in Fig.5,
and find the bounds of the radiation
field magnitude of the linear array due
to the interference of the dipole
antenna. The array is equally spaced
and equally excited. The results are
shown in Fig.6. The distance D between
the two antennas is chosen as 1 m and
2 m. The radiation pattern does not
change much around the main beam direction (broadside), but toward the
endfire direction the effects of the
dipole antenna become larger and unexpected higher sidelobes may appear
around the endfire direction.
Conclusions
The computer program described calculates the bounds of the interference
between arbitrarily shaped wire antennas each operating at a different frequency. The bounds of the transmitting
antenna performance indexes such as
active impedance, mutual impedance magnitude, VSWR, radiation field magnitude
and power gain were analytically
obtained for two antennas, and for more
than two antennas the bi-quadratic
programming method was applied with
the results for the two antenna case
to obtain the local bounds. The convergence is very fast due to the use
of the global. bounds obtained analytically for the two antenna case at each
iteration.
The calculation of the bounds of
,the antenna performance index requires
very little storage and computation
time. The storage required depends
primarily on the size of the

generalized impedance matrix [Z].

The example shows that the uncertainty of ZL has significant effects on
closely located antennas. The predic,tion of the effects of ZL is important
to avoid degradation, and can be done
quickly by the program described here.
References
111 Perini, J. and Hirasawa, K.: Antenna Pattern Distortion and
Mutual Coupling in Antenna Farms.
IEEE Int. Electromagn. Compat.
Symp. Rec., 201-208 (1973)
[21 Adams, A.T. and Warren, D.E.: Dipole Plus Parasitic Element. IEEE
Trans. Antennas Propagat., AP-19,
536-537 (1971)
[3] Hirasawa, K.: Bounds of Uncertain
Interference between Closely
Located Antennas. IEEE Trans.
Electromagn. Comp., EMC-26,
129-133 (1984)
[4] Hirasawa, K.: Bounds of Uncertain
Interference between Closely
Located Antennas. IEEE Int.
Electromagn. Compat. Symp. (Tokyo)
Rec., 896-900 (1984)
[51 Harrincton, R.F.: Field Comnutation by Moment Methods. New-York:
Macmillan CO. (1968)
[61 Richmond, J.H. and Geary, N.H.:
Mutual Impedance between CoplanarSkew Dipoles. IEEE Trans. Antennas
Propagat., AP-18, 414-416 (1970)
[71 Westlake, J.R.: A Handbook of
Numerical Matrix Inversion and
Solution of Linear Equations.
New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
30-30 (1968)

NUMERICAL

SIMULATION

327

OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
IN TIME

AZRAK

G.

The
development
of
system5
with
high
electromagnetic
noise
immunity
levels,
in the
civil domain
as well as in the military
one,
electrodevelopment
of
the
necessitate5
magnetic
compatibility
simulation
models.
TO
different
the
analysis
of
end,
an
this
coupling
paths
between
electromagnetic
noise
system
is
prethe
perturbed
sources
and
This
analysis
is based
on the "Twosented.
A spectral
study
and associated
Box** model.
computer
program
package
have
been
developed
to
find
either
the
system
response
in the
time or frequency
domains.
The
temporal
study
is particularly
interesting
when perturbations
As
illushave
a wide
frequency
spectrum.
simulations
and experimental
results
tration,
are presented.
I- -IoN
During
the
last
decade,
a
technology
trend has baen to assemble
in the same system
the power
and control
equipments,
this could
not be undertaken
without
initiating
problem5
involving
the
compatibility
in
the
same
electromagnetic
environment
of the different
elements
of the system.
Another
trend,
in the
drive
for
greater
performance,
has
led
to
signals
with
steep
fronts,
therefore
very
wide
emission
spectrum
will
occure.
very
Equipments
must
then
operate
in a polluted
electromagnetic
environment.
In
addition,
electronic
circuits,
especially
digital
ones,
are
more
sensitive
to
perturbations.
It
follows that these EMC problem5
must be dealt
with
in proportion
to the
important
safety
ma
economic
impact
involved.
lb.-o big
packages
to simulate
the EMC problem5
exist
in the USA. These packages
are very ponderous
to
handel,
require
large
computers
and
operate
in
the
batch
mode.
Other
computer
programs
are
conceived
for micro-calculators
and
dont
take
into
account
the
phase
variation5
of the
coupling
modes.
Thus,
we
found
it
necessary
to
develop
a
coupling
model
between
offending
sources
and
target
syotems
ana
an
associated
computer
package
adapted
to
widly
distributed
mini-systems.
This package
takes
into account
the principal
physical
parameters
of the system.
APPIUNCFI

COMPATIBILITY

DOMAIN

Merlin-gerin
Generales
Dpt. Recherches
38050 Grenoble
- FRANCE

II- SPECTBAL

60~5

Dpt.

AURIOL Ph.
Ecole Centrale
de Lyon
Electrotechnique
(U.A. CNRS
69131 Ecully - FRANCE

629)

of
the
nature
impulse
of
the
Because
the
EMC
study
of
signals,
a
offending
pr&lema
in the tFme domain
is necessary.
The
dependent;
are
frequency
system
parameter5
a spectral
analysis
coupled
with a
therefore,
Fourier
Transform
may be used.
In addition
to
this approach
can provide,
the time response,
with
modest
computing
power
and with
enough
the coupling
spectrum
independently
accuracy,
of the type
of interfering
signal.
This
is
very useful
to find the frequency
band where
the
system
is most
susceptible.
The
direct
approach
by
resolving
differential
equations
using
the
finite
difference
method
is also
interesting,
especially
when
non-linear
elements are to be integrated
in the system.
In
order
to
formulate
different
the
coupling
paths
and to simulate
the effect
of
an offending
signal
on
a system we have used
the following
simulation
models.
IIIOur study

SIMULATION

is based

incident

W3DEI.83

on the

Two-Box

model:

electromagnetic
YaYe
---.-_-

boxx

---.____--

box+2

interCOnneCtlo

-----__-_
- &iprit-&&f
------__-

- Z&l. cl&it- -

boxa

ground

ourrent

ground

grounding

impedance

The two boxes,

each
containing
its
own
circuits
are interconnected
to each other
by
cables
and have
a common
ground
plane.
This
model
covers
most
EMC problem5
from printed
circuits
to power electric
equipments.
In the
study,
the disturbing
source
has
one of the three following
forms,

328

rib
--.cosa.cosP
A
nl
c = -.cosa.sinP
A
h,l = loop geometry
a, 13, 9 = wave space

where

double

exponential,

nonnalised

form

form

used

to simulate

chopped

parameters

. GLR is defined
as the
ratio
of
victim
voltage
over the induced
voltage.
equivalent
scheme is the following:

CAI-

mixed

Y=

the
The

CA2

fronts

boxe

grounding

impedance

v.

The

damped sinusoid
used to simulate
oscillatory
circuits
with a
damping
factor

phenomenon

equations
that
set
of
can be written
as:

govern

the

t r = rise time
tf = fall
= peak

xP

time
value
IV- EMCCGUPLINGPATHS

Electromagnetic
interference
may enter the
system by a number
of different
paths
leading
from
the
offending
emission
source
to
the
We
could
devide
the
paths
victim
receptor.
into two main classes:
l- radiated
coupling
paths
2- conducted
coupling
paths

Yh -

predominate:

Field-to-cable
common-mode
coupling.
This
mode=
devided
into two parts:
l
Common-Mode
Coupling
(CMC)
l
Ground-Loop
Rejection
(GLR)
Ct4C converts
an electromagnetic
field
to
a common
voltage
into
the ground-loop
area.
This
voltage
then
acts
as
a potential
EMI
source
to push
current
around
the loop area
which
includes
the victim
cabl.e. The
resulting
differential-mode
voltage
developed
in
the
victim
cable
appears
across
the
victim
input to constitute
the potential
EMI threat,
l
CMC
coefficient
is
the
ratio
of
the
voltage
over
induced
the
electric
field,
i.e.:

vi

4h

-=--*
EO

77 cosa.sin(

CO98

.sin(y) .sin(a).
20)

sin(&)

ii-ii
5, -

*here

Radiated
coupling
paths
Three coupling
modes

rrs1

cc _ -_

sh(pX)

trc.(x

+ -y--j
P

ID.(X

z2,
P

+Vc.( CWih-l
-------)I
P.2,

-its-E
(RG

S=

s.lc,.iz

CP.Bl

B.(LBl

Ht(Z

rem
LLG!

bnm)l

(ET - G + IT)

ju

The nterconnection
is
considered
as
a
distributed
constant
line.
The resolution
of
this
system
leads
to the
rejection
coefficient
lVi/Vol.
Field-to-cable
differential-mode
couplinq,
This
coupling
mode
is
the
same
as
the
previous
one
except
that
the
Field
couples
into
an
area
formed
by
the
wire-pair
separation
in a cable
along
its length.
For
this coupling
mode,
two protections
are often
used.
One
consists
in shielding
the
cable,
the other,
less
expensive,
in twisting
it,
Shielding
effectivness
is represented
by the
ratio
SE of
the
transmitted
wave
over
the
incident
one;
hereunder
we
give
the
SE
corresponding
to
the
shielding
by
a rlgid
tube. As for the twisting
effectivness,
it is
represented
by
the ratio
TE of the induced
voltage
in the twisted-wire
pair over the one
that would have existed without
twisting.

z-1
=-)Texp(-2yt)lI
K+l

(l+Tt)2
Iexp(s).--.rl-(
4ii

SE =

it

where

329

-12c12-ml2(cl+cl2)

-11c12-m12(c2+c12)

m12c12+12(c2+C12)

The study
of separated
tive
and capacitive)
leads
system:
%I
= CMI.[VLI
complex
where
is
a

relative
to air
/+ z tube permeability
cl = tube conductivity
propagation
constant
in the
metal barrier
iI
1 tube thickness

1%

ll(cl+cl2)+ml2cl2
CBl =

= Cl/(l+j)l.J2a/(w&+o)

2nx+
1
1 + 2nX.sinC3rr/(4n~)l

60~5

couplings
(inducto the
following

expression

mij

which

depends

on:
common length
of cables;
line constants
Per
mutual
capacitance
and inducunit
length;
the
propagation
phenomenon
in both
tance;

nh > 1

lines.

x = wire length
n = twists Per length unit
A = wavelength
of the incident

where

wave

cables.
coaxial
for
exists
also
DMC
are
currents
then
surface
Field-coupled
produced
on the outer surface
of the Coax. By
the transfer
imPedance
of the coaxial
line, a
differential-mode
voltage
is produced.
cable-to-cable
couplinq.
By
field
Near
inductive
and/or
means,
from
a
capacitive
nearby
source
cable carrying
either
raw Power
or
signal
emissions,
cable-to-cable
coupling
produces
unintentional
emissions
on a victim
cable.
The following
figure
shows the network
involving
coupling
between
culprit
and victim
circuits:

Conducted
coupling
Paths
we limit
our study
to
As a first
step,
the
common-impedance
coupling.
Another
COUPling mode
(Power
supply)
exists.
Within
the
framework
of our
study
we thus
suppose
the
supplies
ideal.
common-impedance
coupling
exists when two,
networks
or equip
ments
circuits,
or more,
share a commun
section
of a ground
plane
due
also
exists
grounding.
It
to
multi-Point
current
high
frequency
goes
whenever
a
through
the
ground
plane.
In the
study
the
ground
plane
is considered
as an homogeneous
plate. !lwo theories
are developed:
l
finite thickness
plate
l
infinite
thickness
plate
The
calculation
of the
dissipated
Power
and of the electromagnetic
energy
accumulated
in
a
Prism
(a,b)
leads
to
the
following
exPressions
of the ground plane impedance:
*finite

thickness

plate.

1X

dx

The equivalent
follows:

scheme

may

be

presented

as
a
R=

(a/b).

L = (a/&)

2~6

206

*infinite

- -.

sin(e/s)
+ sh(e/6)
Cch(e/6) - cos(e/6)1
sh(e/6) - sin(e/6)
Cch(e/6) - cos(e/6)1

thickness

plate.

. . --_
dx
nr I *#It=2
,,=Z.rn-I

Both,
culprit
and victim,
are considered
as distributed
circuits.
The equations
governing the phenomenon
may be written
as:

a2

[VI =

$&

a2
lil = CBl ~2

CA1 s

Cvl
R=LU
where

[il

where:
ll(cl+cl2)+ml2cl2

-llcl2-ml2(c2+cl2)

CA1 =

1
L-12c12-m12(cl+c12)

m12c12+12(c2+c12)_l

= a/sb6
6 is the

skeen

depth

in metal

= G,

As
for
common-mode
voltage,
the
any
ground-loop
rejection
ratio is applied
to the
common-impedance
coupling
to find the differential-mode
voltage
that
appears
acros8
the
victim
input
and
constitutes
the
Potential
EMI threat.

v-

330

sIMuLAT1OW

Package characteristics
for research and industrial
A
package
applications for computer aided design in the
area of BMC has been realized on the basis of
the different coupling modes developed in
It covers most problems related to the
IIV.
Two-Box modelr
.
interconnection. we
can consider a
simple wire-pair, a twisted wire-pair or a
we
can also consider
shielded wire-pair:
shielded and twisted wire-pair or a coaxial
line with the shield grounded or not.
l
boxe grounding. we can choose solid
grounding, isolated boxes or inductive grounding with or without cabinet bond.
We can also consider optical isolators.
As offending signal the three forms developed
in 5x11 are used. A real signal f(t) can be
entered directly on a computer terminal.
The package is especially designed for
users who are not particularly expert in EMC.
This has required the development of special
procedures to facilitate the input of data
and the output of results. The modularity of
the package enables it to be useful even when
the initial hypothesis are inadapted; in this
case it is easy to replace or to modify the
corresponding routines.
This full interactive package, written in
Fortran 77, is implemented on a mini-computer
(HP 1000) and is thus easily transportable,
Computed results
As
illustration,
we
present
spectral
simulations that show the effect of the
grounding and the interconnection nature on
the ground-loop rejection (figure 1).

0 . --

-figure lA) coupling by the wire-pair

B) coupling by the shield

isolated

t boxes

inductive
C) coupling by the
wire-pair
grounding with
D) coupling by the shield I cabinet bond
E) coupling by the wire-pair with solid
grounded boxes

We notice that for low and especially for

medium frequencies, use of inductive grounding
in
addition
to
a
cabinet
bond
is
particularly
efficient
compared
to
solid
grounding (-4 to -25 da), also we notice that
coupling by the shield is negligible compared
to the coupling by the interconnection,
In the time domain, the simulation of a
system with two configurations is presented.
The offending
signal is considered as a
current source and
we simulate the response
of
a ground
plane with
the
ground-loop
rejection (figures 2-3).

I;
t(/ksec.)

figure 2- solid grounded boxes

_.
-

331

60~5

t(psec.1

figure

3- isolated

boxes

wo
conclusions
are obvious:
with the ungrounded
boxes
the peak voltage
is
13
times
than
with
leas
grounded
ones.
Elsewhere,
oscillations
appear
around
4.5 MHZ
which
is the maximal
susceptibility
frequency
of the system.

Experiments
were made
in spectral
domain.
They were
carried
out in a Faraday
cage.
As
illustration,
we
present
the
calculated
and
mesured
ground-loop
rejection
for two lengths
of wire-pair
(figures
4-5).

figure

5- cable

length

= 113.5

meters

agreement
up
to
We
notice
loogood
30ckBz.
Beyond
this, oscillations,
due to the
propagation
in the wire-pair,
are noticed.
VII-aNzLoBIoN

figure

4- cable

length

= 40 meters

We have
presented
a methodology
to study
the susceptibility
of an electronic
equipment
to
electromagnetic
perturbations.
An
associated
interactive
package
has
been
presented which
operates
in both
the spectral
and
time
domains.
The
different
starting
hypothesis
were
always
incorporated
with the aim
to realize
a versatile
tool adapted
to minicomputers
and
corresponding
to
an
investment
easily
justified
by the quality
gain
on the equipment
to design.

332

EM1
may
now
With
numerical
simulations,
somewhat
predictable.
as
being
be
regarded
The
package
is not
limited
to the
computer
aided
design
but
could
also
be used
for a
posteriori
analytical
study
of a system
with
Simulation
its
immunity.
improve
a view
to
coupling
a
improved
by
quality
could
be
station
to
the
calculator
so
that
testing
real
perturbing
signals
could
be
directly
analysed.

C63

technique
for
CLYTON
R. PAUL - A simple
- CH 1936-2/t33/0000estimating
crosstalk
0430, 1983, IEEE, p.430.

173

HENRY
JASIK,
Editor
- first
ring
handbook
Bill Book Company,
Inc.

I81

EUGENE
D.
KNOWLES
Cable
effectiveness
testing
- IEEE
Electromagnetic
Compatibility,
16, No. 1, Feb. 1974, ~~~16-23.

and
C.D.
TAYLOR
HARRISON,
J.R.
Cl1 C.W.
terminated
transmission
Response
of
a
line
excited
by a plane
wave
field
for
IEEE
incidence
arbitrary
angles
of
on Electromagn.
compatibility,
vol.
Trans.
EMC-15,
No. 3, August 1973.

193

M.A.
DINALLO,
L.0,
HOEFT,
J.S.
HOFSTRA,
effectiveness
of
D. THOMAS
- Shielding
typical
cables
from lMBz to 1000 MHz The BDM Corporation,
1601 Randolph
Road,
N. M. 67106, pp.499-493.
SE Albuquerque,

C21 L.J. GREENSTEIN,

H.G. MBIN
- Analysis
of
cable-coupled
interference
- IEEE
Trans.
Interference
- vol.
on
Radio
Frequency
RFl-5, NO. 1, March 1963.

233 Donald

R.J.
White,
MSEE/PE
- A handbook
on electromagnetic
shielding
materials
and
1960,
second
copyright
performance
edition,
sec. 1.3, pp. 1.8-1.14.

C41 J. LIFERMANN
- Theorie
la
transformation
de
Masson 1977.

et applications
Fourier
rapide

de
-

C51 V.M.
TCJRESIN
- Electromagnetic
compatibility
guide
for design
engineers
- IEEE
on Electromagnetic
Compatibility
Trans.
vol. EKC-9,
No. 3, Dec. 1967.

Antenna
edition,

engineeMcGraw-

shielding
Trans.
on
vol.
EWC-

simulation
des
AZRAK
Etude
et
Cl01 G.
subies
perturbations
electromagnetiques
systemes
electroniques
dans
les
par
These
de
l'appareillage
electrique
a
1'Ecole
Oocteur
Ingenieur
presentee
Centrale
de
Lyon
(France)
le
16 Oct.
1994.
Cl11 G.
AZRAK,
Ph.
AURIOL
- Calcul
de
la
susceptibilite
electromagnetique
des systemes
electroniques
industriels
- S.E.E.
Journees
d'Etudes
9,
10
et
11 Mai
1984, Grenoble,
France.

333

61JS

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE SCATTERING

OF THIN

CYLINDRICAL

ANTENNAS LOADED BY NONLINEAR

W. Krzysztof

Technical

University
Wroclaw

A procedure
for treating
a nonlinearly
loaded
thin
cylindrical
antenna
as a scatterer
is described
and illugtrated.
Following
the procedure
the
use of computer
to solving
nonlinear
magnetic-field-type
(Hallen-type.1
integral
equation
for a current
distrlbution
on the antenna
has been shown.
The equation
IS solved
numerically
by
method of moments and nonlinear
problem is treated
by applying
the Bairistov numerical
procedure.
Numerical
and experimental
examples
for several
loads
are presented.
Introduction
A number of man-made objects
and
many physical
phenomena are inherently
nonlinear
in nature.
In the area of
nonlinearitles
may
electromagnetics,
be unforeseen
and undesirable
In the
design
of a particular
system.
For example,
in radar
applications
it may
exhibit
nonlinear
effects
which In turn result
in new frequency
components
appearing
in the backscattered
field.
Whereas others
nonlinearitiee
may be
essential
in functioning
of the system
i harmonic
radar
detecting
system).
One
example
of this
nonlinearity
involves
metal-to-metal
contacte
were nonlinear
properties
are belived
to be caused by
discontlnultiss
or joints
of imperefect contacting
junctions
and oxide
layers or films
in the component.
Other
important
example
of such man-made nonlinearities
are antenna
systems
containing
devices
involving
semiconductor
junctions
(diodes,
integrated
circuits,
voltage
limiters,
etc.
I . This
nonlinearlties
are especially
present
at high RF levels
(transmitters,
lighting
strike,
EMP 1 .
The objective
of this
paper is to extend the formulation
of nonlinearly
loaded
antenna
or scatterer.
The behaviour
of antenna
or scatterer
when loaded with nonlinear
element
can be
than ed greatly
from that
observed
under 9 inear
conditions.
In some cases,
the nonlinearity
causes effects
such
as the harmonic
( Intermodulation)
products.
Various
methods of calculating

IMPEDANCES

ik
of Wroclaw

, POLAND

of an antenna
with a nonlinear
load
have been addressed
in literature.
Alternate
integral
equation
have been
develaped
by Schuman [ll , Liu and
Tesche
121 and Sarkar
and Weiner
131
to study
influence
of a nonlinear
loads on the behaviour
of a linear
Wire
Network
loading
of the wire
antenna.
antenna
or scatterer
was reported
by
an alternate
techniLandt [41 . Here,
For the present
dique is presented.
scusion
of an antenna
with a nonlinear load,
which is localized
at a single point
on the antenna,
the magnetic-field
integral
equation
(MFIE)is
used for obtainfng
a solution.
The
electromagnetic-field
problem
is reduced to a network
problem
by appllcation
of the method of moments. Sol ving MFIE numerically
by this
method,
reduces
It to a linear
system of nonlinear
algebraic
equations.
The study
of behaviour
of nonlinearly
loaded
antennas
or scatterers
can next be described
as an electric
circuit
analysie
problem
with characteristics
of nonlfnearity
and periodic
steady-state
conditions.
The formulation
is cast for
the stead -state
response,
and solution
is oz tained
by extrapolation
method,
based on the harmonic
balance
method.
The nonlinear
problem is solved by applying
the Balristov
algorithm. The numerical
approach
is outlined, and the frequency-dependent
reponses Of several
examples
are presented.
Formulation
Throughout
this
paper,
we shall
consider
the antenna
configuration
depicted
In Fig.1
. Most of numerical
results
will
be for the scattering
problem.
The wire antenna
(cylinder)
with
radfus
a and length
2H is assumed to be perfectly
conducting.
The
axis
of the wire
is taken
to be parallel
to the z-axis
of Cartesian
oo-ordfnate
sytem,
ae shown in Fig.1. It is
placed
in fbee space and is excited
by
electric
e
field,
tangential
to the
wire.
A current
i
Is induced
on the
antenna
by incident
wave and this
induced current
in turn produces, a acat-

334

L2k]

=_{

t+z;tl

K(H,z*l

dz

Medium
Kit,z*~=
KiH,zj-

= [(z-z)

Rin

Flg.1:

Conducting
cylinder
with
central
nonlinear
load,
illuminated by slnusoidel
time-dependent plane wave

tered
electromagnetic
field.
If an impedance is added at the center
of the
the induced
current
Is modiantenna,
fied
and likewise
the scattered
field.
The technique
of impedance
loading
has
been applied
to a linear
antenna
to
modify
Its
radiation
and scattering
characteristics
before.
The nonlinear
resistive
element
contained
in the load, which is located
at z-0 has a votage-current
i v-i)
characteristic
defined
by
vLiO,t)
- F C iL( 0,t)l
ii)
FL.3 is,
in general,
a known zewhere
ro-memory
nonlinear
function
and
v
are the instantenuous
voltbge
and
IL
across
and current
through
the load
respectively.
The formulation
element,
of solution
of the harmonic
responses
of thin-wire
loaded
antennas
as scatterers
is covered
in great
detail
by
invokes
the usuKrrysztof
lk C51 , it
al thin-wire
approximations
to a space-time
domain MFIE. Th? advantages
of
using
the MFIE of Hallen-type
for solving
antenna
problems
have been discussed in a previous
paper
C61. We shall
use this
formulation
for the solution
of the induced
current
on the antenna
with
a nonlinear
load.
The analysis
was limited
to a thin-wire
antenna
in
the Interest
of simplicity
in developing the theory.
As such,
the treat
ment can be applied
to the large
class
of objects
modeled by wires.
For conf iguratlon
illustrated
in Fig .l
solving
the boundary?
value
problem,
the MFIE for the total
axial
current
i(r,t)
Is given,
in operator
form,
by
LEI it,tll

--

FCi

(0, t 11 C3(zI -

C,eJz)Ep,owt
(21

where

LCliz,t)l-

LIC i(s,t)lI,(

z,jt)Klr,z)

Cd(Z) L2Ciiz,t)l,
dz

R -
11
R
4

expi-jkoRZ)

expi-jk
RH)
+ a 2 ,I/9

RH quantity

z -

C,(z)

=Lcos

C3 (z)

sin

CJzl

cost kozl/cos(

(k,z)/cosi
k,i

H-

,
,

k,W~I/60

11/30k,,

cos ikoH)

k,H)

iiz,t)is
the unknown current
along
the
thin
straight
wire surface,
FliiO,tll
relating
cuIs a known function
ill
rrent
to the total
tanget&ial
E-field
along the wire
sIrface,
k Is the waand E is the tangential
ve number,
component
of theincident
E-field
along the wire surface.
For
x=0
i iz,tl
= i(t)
as can be observed
in Fi.l.
The
first
term on the right
side o $ $\now
contains
the unknown quantity
.
The relation
between
load voltage
VL
is in geneand the load current
i
ral described
by a non&near
function.
Several
methods can be used to treat
nonlinear
elements.
A method that
has
been
found to give correct
results
Is outlined
here.
Recent works indicates that
an appropriate
approach
Is
to model of nonlinear
v-i
characteristics
by a Taylor-type
power series
expansion,
which is intrinlsically
polynomial
in nature.
Both,analytical
and experimental
studies
indicate
that
such an expansion
is a valid
representation
and, furthemore,
the backscattered
response
is characterized
by
harmonics
and intermodulation
products
of the input
frequencies,
as predicted
by the polynomial
model.
Let as assume
that
Fc.1 is adequatly
characterized
by the power series
l

vLit)

A ikit)
(3)
k=i
k L
are theconstants
represenwhere
Ak
ting
the
parameters
of the nonlinear
load.
By putting
this
nonlinear
relation
in 12) we observe
that
the only
unknown quantity
is the current
through the load.
Hence,
the induced
current
on the surface
of antenna
linearly
related
to the incident
eld.
Numerical
Treatment

Is

nonE-fi-

Nonlinear
MFIE (21 may be reduced
to a linear
system of nonlinear
algebraic
equations
through
the method of
moment8. A PopovlEs
polynomials
C6,61
expansion
procedure
is
employed
in
space-domain
for the current
basis
functions.
The wire
structure
is approximated
by straight
segments
of finite
radius,
and point
matching
is employed
at the centers
of these
segments.
At a point
2*0
and time
t, the
numerical
approximation
of (21 yields

61~6

335

the

following

ctlymonotically

eguat ion

increasing.

Numerical
Li;

P;i)

I~%osWtl}.

(4)

151 r-l=1
N

= 43

(z) &Ak(
I

+lPncos@t)
I

k
-c.$

REcosmt

L (-1 is the value

resulting
where
from numerical
approximat$on
of the
integral
of kernel
K( z,z
1,

are the Popovid* s polynomial

expansioP are unknown constans of current,
nts of the Popovi~*s
polynomial
expansions,
and
E$ , Cg), C,(z) are the quantity
as in(Z)
.
After
the expansion
of power series
(31,
the application
of the extrapolation
method based on harmonic
balance
method,
for different
harmonics
f requallows
the equation
(4) to be
encies,
rewritten
as a set of nonlineer
algebraic
equations
[51 . Such a mathematical
developement
leads
to formulawhich can be interpreted
in
tions,
terms of the equivalent
networks
as
shown in
Fig.2
.

Fig.2:

Equivalent
circuit
representations
of cylindrical
antenna
with
nonlinear
load for three
harmonic
frequencies

As seen in
Fig.2,
nonlinear
load have
been replaced
by series
current-cont&led
voltage
sources
A I (01. The
nonlinear
portion
of condbcto 5 A
manifests
itself
as a dependent
vo f tage
sources,
driving
the linearized
circuit,
different
for other
harmonic
f requencles .
The solution
of nonlinear
algebraic
eguations
(4) may be obtained
by using
a standard
numerical
procedures,
such
the Newton-Raphson
or Bairlstow
as
metl!rods. It Is sufficient
to state
that
for the configuration
under study
in this
paper the solution
exist
and
is unique
if the nonlinear
loads
v-l.
characteristic
function
F1.l la stri-

Results

Following
the procedure
outlined
above the method under study
is now
applied
to the analysis
of center-lodipole
antenna
irradiated
aded , thin
by a 330 MHz E plane wave parallel
to the dipole.
Specifically,
the analysed
system consists
of a center-loaded dipole
of length
0.57 m and raload con.002 m . The nonlinear
dius
sist
of single
diode or two parallel
Schottky-barrier
HP 2800 diocircuit
des. To continue
the analysis
of a
diode loaded
system,
it is necessary
to have a reasonably
accurate
v-l
relationship
for these
type of load.The
data needed to specify
the
v-i
characteristics
of the diodes
were measured and then fit
in to the analytic
Ak
expansions
( 3 1 . The COeff ICientS
of series
expansions
of the
single
diode and two parallel
diodes
are chosen as

load for
circuit

1-11;:
;:;Q@rn
2tw
..
(11
flz
fq3
R4
fl?

.::y$,~
..JIII,t7 :+#
:$I1 :s
$r~~~,~..~t_f.fl
:$X:23
(rljf~..l.!.~ :!#:f:gI.
+:rf~~).+.A:.$:#4)
4pYdll.,l.fl :#t$!~)

3.277x
Ql
- ,/G975E 9@
., 82 1SF-W3
=,
- I 2@64E-l$4
2 Y61 ?ME-88

2888

4. %I41.9E 68
5 I/3!?22E-85
-I 8264E-04
- 1ZVE!E,-@8
5.%E!lE-I.0
n

respectively.
The scattered
field
from the nonllnearly
loaded
antenna
structure
contains
many components
at frequencies,
such
as
330 MHz (f,) , 660 MHz (2f I
MHz (3f I, etc..
To obtain
th& i9.z::
strengths
at different
harmonic
frequencies
the current
distributions
&nduted on the antenna
surface
are determined at frequencies
of interest
.6ince
the voltages
across
the nonlinear
loads are known at different
harmonic
frequencies
the current
distribution
on
antenna
structure
Is obtained
by
premultiplying
the voltage
vector
eveluated
at a certain
frequency
by the
admitance
matrix
of the antenna
structure
evaluated
at the same frequency.
Once the current
distribution
is known
the problem
is reduced
to a conventional antenne
analysis
problem.
The antenna is then excited
by these
currents at different
frequencies
to give
the scattered
field.
The harmonic
backscattering
cross
sections
G
be used to quantitavely
descrkbe
!tx
scattering
characteristics
of nonlinearly
loaded
antenna
structure
as a
scatterer.
It is clear
that
the knowledge
of higher
order
6,
could
provide addStiona1
signifficant
information
useful
in classifying
and identifying
the
scattertng
antenna.
Also,
the knowledge of
should
allove
to predict
the powk r spectrum
of the received signal
once the power spectrum
of
the trensmitted
signal
is specified.
The
&k
Is def lned,
as

2
Ep 1

= 10 log 1 E;i)&

k
where
the

E ( k1
re-t-ad
E-field

are

[d6 m21

amplitudes

the

reradiated

st

336

k-t-h

of

shows the computed and meas function

of the broadE-f iald
at
frequency
side inc k dent
f,330 MHz.

-80
1

-20

-30

EP ;0[d13/rn I0

k*

kre$l experiment
20-H

000
xxx

2
6
3

___

ber (five)
of terms in the series
exThe discrepancies
can be
pansion
(31
further
red&ed
if a more elaborate
model of the nonlinearly
loaded
antenna will
be used.

fre-

~%~~~%F3

-40

theory

Conclusions
In general,
the analysis
of scattering
by nonlinearly
loaded
wire antenna is an extremly
difficult
pro kkreces
demonstrated
in this
paper,
the special
case of ainusoida1 excitation,
for
a nonlinearly
loaded antenna
can be described
as an
electric
circuit
analysis
problem
involving
it*s
nonlinearities
and respoas well
as, preassumed
steady
nses,
- state
conditions.
In such applications
of the procedure
can be adopted
that
do not require
a detailed
knowledge
of the transient
phenomena.
In
this
paper the use of the extrapolation
method,
based on numerical
approximation
of nonlinear
MFIE by means of
method of moments and the harmonic
balance
method has been investigated.
In
any har-c,
particular,
the responses
at
manic frequencies
are obtained
by solving
of the linearized
equivalent
network in which the nonlinearities
sppear as known excitations.
To validate
the analysis
the
redictsd
responses
of the system fol e owing known incidens have been compared with
those measured by the author.
The two sets of
results
agree favorably
.
Acknowledgments
The author
wish to express
his
thanks
to
Prof.
0.3.
Bern of Wroclaw
Technical
University
forhis
discussion
and valuable
comments.
References
(11

-30

40

-io
.
0
EP ) [dBV/ml
backscattering
cross
Fig .3 t Harmonic
sections
of cylinder
(2H no.67
a- .002 m ) with
central
m,
nonlinear
load
: A/ by single
Schottky-barrier
HP 2800 diode
B/ by two parallel
circuit
similar
Schottky-barrier
HP 2800
diodes,
a5
function
of
330 MHz
E-field
strength
of broadside
incident
wave
-40

The compairison
shows the relative
agreement
between
the measured and
theoretically
predicted
harmonic
beckecsttering
cross sections.
The exsting
discrepancies
may be attributed
to the
simplicity
of the assumed model,
especially
to nonzero
junction
capacitance
of the diodes
and other
parasite
components.
Moreover,
the nonlinear
v-i
characteristics
of the loads were approximated
by a relatively
small
num-

121

[31

141

[51

Schuman, H.: Time-Domain

Scattering
from Nonlinearly
Loaded Wire.
IEEE
Trans.
Antennas
Propagat . , vol .AP22
611-613,
July
(1974)
Liu,
T.K.,
Tesche,
F .M. r Analysis
of Antennaa
and Scatterers
with
Nonlinear
Loads.
IEEE Trans.
Antennas Propagat . , vol.AP-24,
No.2,
131
-139,
March (1976)
Sarkar,
T.K.,
Weiner,
D.D.r
Scat tering
Analysis
of Nonlinearly
Loaded Antennas.
IEEE Trans.
Antennas
Propagat.,
vol.
AP-24,
No.2,
125131,
March (1976)
Landt,
D.A.:
Nstwork
Loading
of
Thin-Wire
Antennas
and Scatterers
in the Time Domain.
Radio Science,
~01.16,
No.6,
1241-1247
, ( 19811
Krtysrtofik,
W.: Electroms
netlc
Wave Scattering
of Thin Cy 9 indrical
Antennas
with Nonlinear
Loaded ImPh.D.
Dissertation,
Wropedances.
claw Technical
University,
(1983)

[61 Bern, D.J.,

Wa1kowiak.M.:
Polynomial
Approximation
of Current
Dlstributlon
. . . . Archives
of Elect romagnatiques,
t .XxX, 463-476,
(1981)

DETERMINING

EMI

337

62

Kl

IN MICROELECTRONICS - A REVIEW OF THE PAST DECADE

James J. Whalen
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
State University of New York at Buffalo
Amherst, New York

Summary
During the past decade there has been a
considerable effort to determine the effects
of EMI upon microelectronic circuits. Some
efforts have been essentially experimental.
The microelectronic circuits investigated experimentally have included analog small-scale
integrated (SSI) circuits such as broadband
amplifiers and operational amplifiers, digital
ss1 circuits such as NAND gates and line
driver/receivers, digital medium-scale integrated (MSI) circuits such as lk memory
devices, and some very preliminar work on
very large scale integrated (VLSIr circuits
such as microprocessors. Other efforts have
focused on developing models for computeraided analysis and prediction. The Nonlinear
Circuit Analysis Program NCAP has been shown
to be useful for predicting low-level RF1
effects in both bipolar and FET analog SSI
circuits. The computer program SPICE has been
used to predict RFI-induced upset in both
bipolar and FET digital SSI circuits but not
in MS1 nor LSl nor VLSI circuits. Prediction
of EMI effects in MSI, LSI, and VLSI circuits
which have thousands of transistors must
await the development of macromodels for this
purpose. Such a development is occurring,
but at a slow pace. More recently the emphasis of several investigations has shifted
toward being able to determine the statistical
variations of EMI in microelectronic circuits
and toward developing procedures for coping
with these variations. The review will attempt
to place in perspective what success has been
achieved during the last decade and what problems remain for future investigators to solve.
1.

14260, U.S.A.

bility criteria for analog and digital Circuits which are valid today [2]. UnfOrtUnately, there is not enough space to review the
earlier papers on EM1 in microelectronics,
and this paper will concentrate on the work
done during the last decade. Reviews on the
status of determining EMI in microelectronics
were given in 1981 at Zurich [3] and at
Boulder [4] and were updated in 1983 at Zurich
[B]. The purpose of this paper is to consolidate and to extend the previous reviews, to
describe on-going investigations, and to
indicate the additional efforts needed in
the future. The emphasis continues to be on
how microelectronic circuits respond to conducted EMI signals. It is convenient to organize this paper into the following sections:
the basic approach used to determine EM1 in
electronic systems containing microelectronic
Circuits;
predicting EM1 caused by UHF and
microwave signals; predicting EM1 caused by
MF, HF, and VHF signals; statistical investigations and probabilistic approaches;
future needs and problems.
2.

The basic approach used to predict RF1 in

electronic systems containing microelectronic
circuits is to partition the problem into four
parts [6]:

(1)
(2)

Introduction

During the most recent decade the author

has been extensively involved in several major
efforts to determine EM1 in microelectronics.
He has also observed closely other similar investigations. However, efforts to determine
EM1 in microelectronics started long before
this author's involvement. Two decades Schulz
and Clapsaddle wrote a set of pa ers on the
EMC aspects of microelectronics E11. In 1968
Cowles and Showers wrote a paper on "A General
Model for Integrated Circuit Susceptibility
Prediction" in which they proposed suscepti-

Basic Approach

(3)
(4)

to predict the electromagnetic fields inside a system enclosure for a known electromagnetic environment (field-aperture
penetration);
to predict the pickup of the internal
fields by the cables and wires inside
the system enclosure (field-to-wire
coupling);
to predict the resultant EM1 effects in
the microelectronic circuits connected
to the cables and wires;
to predict the behavior of the electronic
system which results from the EM1 effects
induced in the microelectronic circuits
in the system.

All four parts of -the

- EM1 prediction problem
were reviewed in J-61. The reader interested
in items (1) and (2) should examine the references given in 161. In this section Item (3)

- 338 -

on predicting conducted EM1 effects in microelectronic circuits will be emphasized.

The choice of techniques used to predict
conducted EM1 effects in microelectronic circuits is strongly influenced by the frequency
of the interfering signals [7]. For EM1 frequency less than 100 MHZ, electronic circuit
analysis programs can be used for EM1 analysis
[8-IO]. These computer programs contain
models which have been developed to predict
semiconductor device performance at frequencies up to the device cutoff frequency. In
other words the models are appropriate for
the frequency range for which the semiconductor device is used to perform its intended
circuit functions. At EM1 frequencies greater than the semiconductor device cutoff frequency, additional factors must be considered.
Thus it is convenient to partition the prediction problem for conducted EM1 in microelectronic circuits into frequency ranges below and above a nominal semiconductor device
cutoff frequency of 300 MHz. In Section 3
efforts to determine EM1 in microelectronic
circuits above 300 MHz will be reviewed.
3.

Predicting EM1 Caused By UHF

and Microwave Signals

A major program to determine Integrated

Circuit (IC) Electromagnetic Susceptibility
(ICES) which was initiated approximately one
decade ago has been reported upon in considerable detail [II-133. In its initial phase the
effort was focused on determining experimentally the permanent damage and degradation
caused by conducted EM1 injected into IC
terminals at the following frequencies: 200
MHZ; 900 MHz; 2 GHz; 5 GHz; 9 GHz. In its
intermediate phase the effort was focused on
determining experimentally at the same set of
frequencies interference effects which existed
only when the interfering signal was present.
In its final phase the effort was focused primarily on developing models which could be
used to predict the main effect observed experimentally which was interference caused by
rectification of the UHF and microwaves signals injected into the IC. In this section
the prediction models developed for EMI rectification effects will be reviewed. Before
discussing these relatively new models, it
is useful to review two obstacles to making
accurate predictions of EM1 in low frequency
circuits caused by UHF and microwave signsls:
(I) parasitic effects of passive components
and (2) semiconductor device behavior above
its cutoff frequency.
Predictions made with computer programs
such as NCAP, SCEPTRE, SPICE, etc., are only
as accurate as the circuit and device models
used. Accurate predictions require a detailed
and accurate description of the entire circuit, including the parasitic effects associated with passive components, such as resistors, capacitors, and inductors, and with the
wiring among components 1145. Modeling parasitic effects at radio frequencies greater
than 10 MHz is a difficult task, but one which
is receiving attention 115-161. Even if success is achieved in modeling the parasitic

effects mentioned, there is still another

factor to consider. The semiconcutor device
models used in electronic circuit analysis
programs, such as NCAP, SCEPTRE, SPICE, etc.,
were developed to account for device performance at frequencies where the device is normally used. At frequencies greater than the
semiconductor device cutoff frequency, the
validity of the semiconductor device models
used in these electronic circuit analysis programs should be questioned [17].
An important contribution during the last
decade has been the development of new semiconductor device models for predicting the
main EM1 effect caused by UHF signals in low
frequency ICs [13]. These models account for
rectification effects in transistors at radio
frequencies greater than the transistor cutoff frequency. One model is a small-signal
model for bipolar junction transistors (BJTs)
[18]. It is useful at low RF power levels
where EM1 effects first manifest themselves.
It has been applied to linear circuits (including op amp circuits) at RF frequencies
well above 100 MHz. Similar models have been
used to account for EM1 rectification effects
in single-stage BJT circuits [I91 and in
field-effect-transistor (FET) circuits [20].
Another model for the BJT, called the modified Ebers-Moll model, is useful at both low
and high RF power levels [21]. It has been
applied to bipolar linear and digital integrated circuits [22-231. A characteristic
of these models is that they are low-frequency models; the RF-induced rectifications
effects are accounted for by adding low-frequency generators whose excitation levels are
controlled by the RF power absorbed by the
semiconductor device. The important assumption
is usually made that abosrbed RF power equals
the RF power incicent upon the device. This
assumption is viewed as a worst case assumption, which causes EM1 rectification effects
in bipolar semiconductor devices to be overpredicted. The main practical advantage of
this assumption is that it eliminates the
need for the development of an accurate model
at radio frequencies for the electronic circuit which accounts for the parasitic effects
mentioned previously. The new models can be
used with existing electronic circuit analysis programs, such as SCEPTRE and SPICE, and
the EM1 analysis can be carried out at dc
for CW EM1 [22-231 or at the AM-modulation
frequency for AM-modulated RFI [24]. In
essence, the new models shift a major part of
the EM1 analysis from the RF region to the AMfrequency region. Clearly, this procedure
cannot answer all questions about how semiconductor devices respond to UHF/microwave
signals. However, it does provide useful information about how such signals are rectified
to cause undesired low-frequency responses in
bipolar discrete transistors and ICS.
4.

Predicting EM1 Caused By MF, HF, and VHF

Signals in Analog Microelectronics

For EM1 signals with frequencies below

300 MHz, it is possible to use general-purpose electronic circuit analysis programs,
such as SCEPTRE and SPICE, to predict EM1

effects in analog integrated circuits F-91.

BothSCEPTRE and SPICE COntain large-Signal
semiconductor device models and time-domain
(transient) analysis routines which can be
used to analyze analog ICS. However, there
are two numerical difficulties which may
occur singly or jointly depending upon the
microelectronic circuit being analyzed and
the EM1 signal conducted into it. USUallY,
the dc bias voltages are in the 1 to 20 V
range. If the desired and the EMI-derived
signal levels are in the pV range, the node
voltages must be calculated to UV precision.
This is usually not done - e.g., SPICE2 node
voltages are usually calculated to a 50 uV
precision. To increase the precision from a
50 pV limit to a 1 pV limit would undoubtably
caused a considerable increase in computation
time. Another numerical problem occurs when
the EM1 signal contains both short and long
time constants. Calculations must be made at
time intervals (time steps) short compared to
smallest time constant and must be continued
for a time interval long compared to the
longest time constant associated with the EM1
signal. For example, consider one of the
worst cases for time domain analysis: the
AM-modulated RF carrier. The size of the time
step must be a fraction of the RF period, and
the time interval over which the analysis is
carried out must contain several periods of
the AM-modulation signal. The minimum number
of time steps required exceeds ten times the
ratio of the radio frequency to the AM-modulation frequency. Even for radio frequencies
less than 100 MHz, the number of time steps
required can approach one million. As a result, the cost of a single computer simulation
will be high, and the cost of many different
simulations may be too high for most EMC
analysis.
A limited effort was carried out by the
author and co-workers to demonstrate the
feasibility of using the transient analysis
routine of SPICE to predict EM1 in analog
microelectronics. The EM1 was injected into
the input of a CA3026 broadband cascade amplifier circuit. The circuit used is the same
as that described in [27). A 50% AM-modulated
signal was used. The AM-modulation frequency
was 1 kHz. The RF carrier frequency was only
50 kHz. The signal generator available power
output was -35 dBm into a 50 ohm load which
resulted in an EM1 signal level of approximately 5 mV at the amplifier input. The EMI
response at the amplifier output at the 1 kHz
AM-modulation was measured to be 1 mV. The
SPICE2 prediction was 1.35 mV. The number of
time steps was 1000. If the RF frequency was
increased from 50 kHz to 50 MHz, One million
time steps would be needed. The cost of the
computer simulation would increase greatly.
The effort demonstrated that the SPICE (or
SCEPTRE) transient analysis routine could be
used to predict demodulation effects in linear
integrated circuit amplifiers. However, the
cost of using these programs needs also to be
considered. Time-domain analysis techniques
are very expensive to use when steady-state responses of electronic circuits to AM-modulated
RF signals are desired.

339

62

HI

Another computer program exists which is

well-suited for calculating the steady-state
responses of linear SSI and MS1 microelectronics [lo]. The Nonlinear Circuit Analysis Program NCAP contains nonlinear incremental
models and uses frequency-domain analysis techniques to analyze nonlinear interference effects in weakly nonlinear circuits [25]. It
should be emphasized that NCAP cannot be used
for EMI analysis of digital circuits because
the NCAP models are nonlinear incremental
models. However, NCAP is especially Wellsuited for predicting very low-level EM1 effects in linear circuits caused by sinusoidal
EMI. It has been used successfully to predict how AM-modulated RF signals with radio
frequencies up to 100 MHz are demodulated
in bipolar ICs to cause undesired low frequency responses [26-301. The ICs analyzed
included a CA3026 dual-differential-pair used
in a broadband cascade amplifier circuit and
a ~A741 operational amplifier (op amp) used
in a unity gain voltage-follower amplifier
circuit. The predicted and measured EM1 results for radio frequencies in the 0.050-100
MHz range were in good agreement. It is interesting to note the use of macromodels containing just two transistors to predict EM1
effects in bipolar op amps which contain 25
transistors 1301. Although macromodels are
not essential for EM1 calculations in smallscale integrated circuits (SSI),
macromodels
will be essential for EM1 calculations in
very large scale integrated circuits (VLSI)
which contain more than 10,000 transistors.
The author believes the use of macromodels to
predict successfully EM1 effects in bipolar
OP amps is one of the most encouraging results
of the past decade.,
The program NCAP does not contain a model
for Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect
Transistors (MOSFETS) and cannot be Used to
predict EM1 in electronic circuits containing
either MOSFETs or MOS ICs. For this reason a
MOSFET model was developed that could be incorporated into NCAP or used with other electronic Circuit analysis programs to make EM1
predictions for electronic circuits containing
MOSFETs and MOS ICs [31]. Initially, a CMOS
amplifier circuit was investigated to determine how well the model could predict how
amplitude-modulated (AM) RF signals are demodulated in MOS circuits to cause undesired
1OW frequency responses. The experimental
and calculated values for demodulation EM1
agreed within 3 dB over the RF frequency range
.l to 100 MHz [32]. Next, Bi-MOS operational amplifier (op amp) was investigated which
had MOSFET input transistors followed by bipolar interior and output stages. Again the
experimental and predicted values for demodulation EM1 were in good agreement over the
RF frequency range .l to 100 MHz [33]. The
MOSFET model developed has also been Used
successfully to predict third-order intermodulation products in a CMOS amplifier [31].
It iS anticipated that the MOSFET model developed will be incorporated into NCAP at
some future time.

- 340

Since the program NCAP contains models for

junction field-effect transistors (JFETs), it
can also be used to predict demodulation RFI
effects in op amps with JFET input transistor
[34-351. The NCAP predictions indicated that
demodulation EM1 effects are weaker in JFETbipolar op amps than in bipolar op amps. Experiments performed subsequently were in agreement with the predictions [36]. Again macromodels were used to represent the op amps, and
the values for the macromodel parameters were
determined from information provided in data
sheets published by the op amp manufacturers.
Predicting demodulation RFI effects in op
amp circuits is one thing. Doing something
about suppressing demodulation RF1 effects in
op amp circuits is something else. Fortunately, a very valuable paper on suppressing these
effects has been published recently [37]. By
adding small RF1 suppression capacitors in
several locations, it is possible to significantly reduce demodulation RF1 effects in bipolar op amp circuits. The same techniques
have been used successfully also on JFET-bipolar op amp circuits t-381.
5. Predicting EM1 Caused By MF, HF, and
VHF Signals in Digital Microelectronics
The computer program SPICE (Simulation
Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis) is
well-suited for transient analysis of digital
microelectronics circuits [9]. SPICE simulations of EM1 effects in a 7400 TTL NAND gate
have been described [39]. Sinusoidal EMT with
an amplitude in the range 1 to 20 V and an RF
frequency in the range 0.1 to 100 MHz was used.
The EM1 signal was injected into different terminals of an input NAND gate in a cascade of
two-NAND-gate inverters. Waveforms at the output of the second NAND gate were predicted and
compared to waveforms corresponding to no EMI.
Parameters were defined to characterize degradation in voltage and current waveforms.
The investigation demonstrates that SPICE (or
SCEPTRE) large-signal transient analyses can
yield useful information on EMI performance
criteria for digital SSI microelectronics. A
similar set of SPICE simulations of sinusoidal
interference in a bipolar Differential Line
Receiver have also been performed 14Cl]. The
CW interference was injected at the two inputs
of the IC as either common-mode or differential-mode voltages. Representative output
waveforms were described. EM1 effects such
as change of output logic state and propagation delay were described as a function of
the sinusoidal interference amplitude and
frequency (dc to 500 MHz). RF1 effects in
MOSFET ICs have also been simulated using
SPICE [41]. Sinusoidal RF1 is injected at
the output of MOS output driver stage which
is connected to a buffer stage which is loaded by another buffer stage. Values of risetime delay and fall-time delay as a function
of RF voltage amplitude and frequency are
presented. It was noted that for a large
enough RF voltage stuck-at faults occurred.
In particular a stuck-at zero logic state was
observed. The computer simulation results
were used to analyze the RF1 susceptibility
of the input/output (I/O) section of a microprocessor.

Many papers have been presented on determining conducted EM1 in Small-Scale Integrated
Circuits (SSI) which contain less than 100
active devices. Few papers have been presented on determining EM1 in Large-Scale Integrated
Circuits (LSI) which contain over 1000 devices.
An exception is a recent paper on measuring
the EM1 susceptibility of a lk NMOS memory
IC [42]. In that paper the problems associated with measuring the susceptibility of digital ICs were discussed. A method suitable for
determining the susceptibility of a lk NMOS
memory and its susceptibility levels was presented. Sinusoidal RF signals with frequencies
in the range 1 to 500 MHz were injected onto
one line. That line was connected to an address pin or the chip enable pin or a data-in
pin. An important observation was that stored
data were not altered by the application of RF
during a Read Cycle. All RF-induced errors occurred when information was being transferred
in or out of memory, The errors were caused
primarily by the wrong memory cell being read,
by the wrong IC being enabled, or by the wrong
information being written into memory. Plots
of incident RF power or RF volts (peak-to-peak)
vs RF frequency are given. It was noted that
some of the RF-induced errors (e.g., the wrong
cell being read) cannot be detected by error
checking codes such as a parity check. The use
of repeated operations to detect errors may not
be successful if the RF is present during all
repeated operations.
It is doubtful that an IC as large as a
lk NMOS can be simulated in its entirety using
a complete model. Even computer simulations of
EM1 effects in a single line receiver using a
complete model in which every resistor, diode,
and transistor is modeled completely, as in
1401, require much computer time and are expensive. When a digital system consisting of line
drivers, transmission lines, and line receivers
is to be simulated on the computer, a complete
model for each integrated circuit is undesirable because computer time and expense may be
too great. Both computer time and expense can
be reduced by using macromodels. Recently, the
EMC design of digital systems containing line
drivers, transmission lines, and line receivers
usin macromodeling procedures has been described il
431. The paper describes the macromodel
topology for the ICs and their interconnections,
macromodel parameters and procedures for determining their values, and computer simulation
results.
The development of macromodels for digital
microelectronics that will facilitate the EM1
analysis of large digital ICs is one of our
most important needs. Initial efforts have
begun for small-scale digital ICs such as TTL
NAND gates [44]. However, much more remains to
be done before LSI and VLSI microelectronic
circuits can be simulated for EMI.

62

- 341

6.

Probabilistic Approaches and Statistical

Data Bases
-

A procedure for determining how an electronic system which contains microelectrOniC

circuits functions in a specified electromagnetic environment can be called a methodology
for EMC in microelectronics. A methodology
based upon two well-established reliability
procedures known as Fault Tree Analysis and
Failure Modes and Effects Criticality Analysis
has been reported upon recently [45-471. In
a parallel development which is also based
upon well-established reliability procedures,
a probabilistic approach to EMC modeling and
analysis has been developed [48] and refined
[49]. Performance criteria, acceptable
performance, EM1 performance curves and performance thresholds are concepts related to
EM1 susceptibility levels in a probabilistic
manner. In addition, the interactions at
different levels such as system, subsystem,
equipment, and component are also discussed.
Because large portions of systems are being
replaced by complex ICs such as VLSI microelectronic circuits and because the EM environment and equipment susceptibility are random in nature, a probabilistic approach may
enable one to develop a statistical macromodel. In such an approach, detailed circuit models and functions are replaced by
statistical models where probability density
functions are used to evaluate probabilities
and statistical averages associated with
responses at various operational levels.
Probabilistic approaches cannot be used
by EMC engineers until data bases are acquired.
Unfortunately, statistical data bases on EM1
in microelectronics are very limited. An
effort to acquire statistics on the EM1
susceptibility of 7400 TTL NAND gates has
been described recently [50]. A large number
of NAND gates were subjected to CW sinusoidal
EM1 at VHF frequencies. DC rectification
effects and waveform distortion measures
were tabulated.
'The author and his co-workers have long
been interested in determining demodulation
RF1 effects in analog 113.
The specific RF1
effects investigated is how amplitude-modulated
(AM) RF signals are demodulated in operational
amplifiers (op amps) to reduce undesired low
frequency responses at t Re AM-modulation frequency [26-301. The undesired demodulated
response may then be processed as a desired low
frequency signal by the low-frequency components that follow the op amp. Initially, the
emphasis was placed on comparing predicted RF1
effects to RF1 measurements made on a few op
amps of each type. Now an experimental investigation to determine the statistical variations of RF1 demodulation effects in op amps
is being conducted. The op amps being investigated are the 741 bipolar op amp which has
conventional npn input transistors, the LMlO
bipolar op amp which has less conventional pnp
input transistors, the LF355 JFET-bipolar op
amp which has JFET input transistors and the
CA081 MOS-bipolar op amp which has MOSFET input
transistors. Mean values and standard deviations for demodulation RF1 for 30 units of
each type have been presented [5l]. One lmPor-

Kl

tant observation was that in the frequency

range 1 to 20 MHz where the demodulation RFI
effects are largest, the mean values are 10
to 20 dB lower for FET-bipol ar op amps than
for bipolar op amps. New results will be presented at this session [52]. The experimental
investigation to measure RF1 demodulation effects in op amps will produce statistical EMI
susceptibility data for four op amp types. It
is anticipated that the op amp statistical data
will also be used to evaluate the usefulness
of probabilistic approaches to EMC analysis
and prediction.
7.

Conclusion

This paper has attempted to review investigations to determine EMI in microelectronics

conducted during the last decade. Almost all
the investigations reviewed were on how one or
a cascade of two small-scale integrated circuits (SSI) responded to conducted EM1 signals.
In the future it is anticipated that the emphasis will be on developing probabilistic
approaches for EM1 in microelectronics and the
statistical data bases required to use such
approaches. The emphasis will shift from determining EM1 in SSI and MS1 microelectronics
to determining EM1 in LSI and VLSI microelectronics. Such efforts have already begun [53].
Acknowledgments
I thank the many who have worked extensively with me during the past decade: Dr.
Don We iner of Syracuse University; Mr. Carmen
Paludi of RADC; Mr. Curt Larson and Mr. Jim
Roe of MDAC. Several others have also aided
whenev er requested to do so: Mr. Johh Spina
and Dr. Gerry Capraro of RADC; Dr. Bob Richardson and Dr. Vince Puglielli of NSWC. I am
especially grateful to my students from SUNY/
Buffalo: Dr. Ta-Fang Fang; Dr. Gordon Chen;
Dr. Kun-Nau Chen; Dr. Yue-Hong Sutu; and Dr.
Joe Tront (now at Virginia Tech.). All should
know that they have done the work and that I
was allowed to tell the story.

References

[II

R.B. Schulz and R.L. Clapsaddle, "Electrocompatibility Aspects of Microelectronics:'

IEEE Trans. Electromagnetic Compatibility:
vol. EMC-6, pp. 37-46, January 1964. Also
"Environmental Effects of RF1 on Microelectronics," Electrotechnology, vol. 75,
pp. 46-50, June 1965.

RI

W.W. Cowles and R.M.Showers, "A General

Model for Inteqrated Circuit Susceotibilitv
Prediction," 1968 IEEE Intern'1 Elkctro- "
magnetic Compatibility Symposium Record,
pp. 280-290, Seattle, Wash., July 1968.

c31

J.J.

Whalen, "Current Status of Determininu EM1 in Microelectronics," A~Proc.

4th S-m . & Tech. Exhibition on Electromagne;i! Compatibility, pp. 141-145,
Zurich, March 10-12, 1981.

342

[41

[51

I.J. Whalen, "Determining EM1 in Micro?lectronics&

Overview,' 1981 IEEE
Intern'1 Electromagnetic Compatibility
jymposium Record, pp. 75-78, Boulder,
t:olorado, Auqust 1981, IEEE Pub.
3lCHl675i8. _

Whalen and C.A. Paludi, "Computer[I41 J.J.

Aided Analysis of Electronic Circuits-The
Need to Include Parasitic Elements."
Int. ji Electron., Vol. 43, pp. 5oi-511,
Nov. 1977.

I.J. Whalen. "EM1 in Microelectronics-An

Jpdate," Proc. 5th Symp. & Tech. Exhibition on Electromagnetic Compatibility,"
3~. 455-458, Zurich, Switzerland, March
3-10, 1983.

"Modeling
[I51 J.A. Woody and C.A. Paludi, Jr.,
Techniques for Discrete Passive Components
to Include Parasitic Effects in EMC
Analysis and Design," Rec. IEEE 1980
Internat. Symp. Electrzagnetic Compatibility, pp. 39-45, Baltimore, MD,
Oct. 7-9, 1980, IEEE Pub. 80CHI538-8 EMC.

I61

V.G. Puglielli, "Current Status of RF1

Iredictions in Electronic Systems Containing Semiconductor Devices," Proc.
3rd Symp. & Tech. Exhibition on Electronagnetic Compatibility_, pp. 275-279,
Rotterdam, The Netherlands, May l-3, 1979.

c71

J.J.

Whalen, "Predicting RF1 Effects in

Semiconductor Devices at Frequencies
Above 100 MHz," Guest Editorial for Special
Issue of RF Interference Effects in Semiconductor Discrete Devices and Integrated
Circuits, IEEE Trans. Electromagnetic
vol. EMC-21, pp. 281-282,

C81

J.C. Bowers and S.R. Sedore, SCEPTRE:

A Computer Program of Circuit and Systems
Analysis, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall, 1971.

[91

L.W. Nagel and D.O. Pederson, "SPICE:

Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit
Emphasis," Electronics Research Laboratory
Univ. California, Berkeley, CA 94720,
Tech. Memo. ERL-M382, Apr. 12, 1973.

[lOI "Nonlinear Circuit Analysis Program Documentation," Tech. Rep. RADC-TR-79-245, ~01s.
I-III,
Rome Air Development Center,
Griffiss AFB, NY 13441, Sept. 1979. J.F.
Spina, C.A. Paludi, Jr., D.D. Weiner, and
J.J. Whalen, Engineering Manual, vol. 1,
J. Valente and S. Stratakos, User's Manual,
vol. II, J.B. Valente and S. Stratakos,
Programmer's Manual, vol. III.
till "Integrated Circuit Electromagnetic Susceptibility Handbook," Final Version,
Report MDC E1929, 1 August 1978, McDonnell
Douglas Astronautics Co., St. Louis,
Missouri 63166. This handbook contains a
bibliography which includes approximately
20 titles of technical reports published
on the MDAC Integrated Circuit Electromagnetic Susceptibility Investigation conducted over the period 1972-1978. Copies
of the handbook (NTIS N79-14312) can be
obtained from the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA, 22161,
U.S.A.

Woody, "Modeling of Parasitic Effects

in Discrete Passive Components, "Technical
Report RADC-TR-83-32, RADC, GAFB, NY 13441,
February 1983.

[I61 J.A.

Cl71 C.A. Paludi, Jr. and J.J. Whalen, "The

NCAP Nonlinear T Model for Bioolar Junction
Transistors at UHF Frequencies," REC. IEEE
1979 Internat. Symp. Electromagnetic
Compatibility, pp. 112-117, San Diego, CA,
Oct. 9-11, 1979, IEEE Pub. 79CHI383-9 EMC.
"Modeling of LowCl81 R.E. Richardson, Jr.,
Level Rectification RF1 in Bipolar Circuitry," IEEE Trans. Electromagnetic
Compatibility, vol. EMC-21, pp. 307-311,
Nov. 1979. Also "Small Signal Rectification Effects in Linear Transistor Circuitry," Proc. 3rd. Symp. & Tech.
Exhibition on Electromagnetic Compatibility,
pp. 281-285, Rotterdam, May l-3, 1979.
[I91 M. Elliott, "The Susceptibility of Analogue Circuits to Radio Frequency Interference-prediction and Measurement,"
Proc. Conf. on Electromagnetic Compatibility, pp. 103-112, Univ. of Surrey,
September 21-23, 1982, IERE Publ. No. 56.

c201 M.L. Forcier and R.E. Richardson, Jr.,

Microwave-Rectification RF1 Response in
Field-Effect Transistors," IEEE Trans.
Electromagnetic Compatibility, vol. EMC-21,
pp. 312-315, November 1979.
C2ll C.E. Larson and J.M. Roe, "A Modified
Ebers-Moll Transistor Model for RF Interference Analysis," IEEE Trans. Electromagnetic Compatibility, vol. EMC-21, pp.
283-290, Nov. 1979. Also in Proc. 3rd
Symp. & Tech. Exhibition on Electromagnetic Compatibility, pp. 257-262,
Rotterdam, May l-3, 1980.
Whalen, J.G. Tront, C.E. Larson, and
c221 J.J.
J.M. Roe, "Computer-Aided Analysis of RF1
Effects in Digital Integrated Circuits,"
IEEE Trans. Electromagnetic Compatibility,
vol. EMC-21, pp. 291-297, Nov. 1979.

[l21 Session on Predicting RF1 Effects in InteWhalen, C,E. Larson, and

[231 J.G. Tront, J.J.
grated Circuits, Proc. 3rd Symp. & Tech.
J.M. Roe, "Computer-Aided Analysis of RF1
Exhibition on Electromagnetic Compatibl'lity,
Effects in Operational Amplifiers," IEEE
pp. 251-285, Rotterdam, May l-3, 1979.
Trans. Electromaqnetic &mpatibility,.
EMC-21, pp. 297-306, Nov. 1979. Also in
Cl31 Special Issue on RF Interference Effects
Proc. 3rd Symp. & Tech. Exhibition on
in Semiconductor Discrete Devices and
,Electromaqnetic Compatibilu
pp. 269Integrated Circuits, IEEE Trans. Electro_I__
274, Rotterdam, May l-3, 1979.
magnetic Compatibility, vol. t'-21,
pp. 281-315, Nov. 1979.

343

Kl

Tront, "Some Results from Using the

Modified Ebers-Moll Model to Predict EM1
in Active Filters," Proc. 4th Symp. &
Tech. Exhibition on Electromagnetic
Compatibility, pp. 147-150, Zurich,
March 10-12, 1981.

Whalen, "MOSFET Nonc331 K.N. Chen and J.J.

Linear Incremental Model for NCAP," 1982
IEEE Intern'1 Electromagnetic Compatlbility Symposium Record, pp. 66-73,
Santa Clara, California, Sept. 8-10, 1982,
IEEE Pub. 82CH1718-6.

0.0. Weiner and J.F. Spina, 'Sinusoidal

Analysis and Modeling of Weakly Nonlinear
Circuits with Application to Nonlinear
Interference Effects," New York: Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1980 (ISBN 0-442-

Whalen,
c341 K.N. Chen, G.K.C. Chen and J.J.
"Using Macromodels to Compare RF1 in Bipolar and FET-Bipolar Operational Amplifiers," Proc. 4th Symp. & Tech. Exhibition
on Electromagnetic Compatibility, pp. 157162, Zurich, Switzerland, March 10-12,
1981.

II241 J.G.

cm

62

26093-8).
Fang, "Nonlinear System Analysis in
Bipolar Integrated Circuits," Ph.D.
Dissertation, State Univ. of New York at
Buffalo, Amherst, NY 14226, Feb. 1979
(copies of the dissertation can be obtained from University Microfilms, 300
N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106); also
published as Tech. Rep. RADC-TR-79-324,
RADC, Griffiss AFB, NY 13441, Jan. 1980.

[261 T.F.

t-271T.F.

Fang and J.J.

Whalen, "Application of
the Nonlinear Circuit Analysis Program
NCAP to Predict RF1 Effects in Linear Bipolar Integrated Circuits," Proc. 3rd
Symp. & Tech. Exhibition on Electromagnetic
Compatibility, pp. 263-268, Rotterdam,
May l-3, 1979.

C281T.F.

Fang, J.J.
Whalen, and G.K.C. Chen,
"Using NCAP to Predict RF1 Effects in
Operational Amplifiers," 1979 IEEE Int.
Ep,
pp. 96-103, San Diego, CA, Oct. 9-11,
1979.

II291T.F.

Fang, 3.5. Whalen, and G.K.C. Chen,

"Using NCAP to Predict RF1 Effects in
Linear Bipolar Integrated Circuits," IEEE
Trans. Electromagnetic Compatibility, vol.
EMC-22, pp. 256-262, Nov. 1980.

[301 G.K.C. Chen and J.J.

Whalen, "Macromodel
Predictions for EM1 in Bioolar Ooerational
Amplifiers, IEEE Trans. Electromagnetic
Compatibility, vol. EMC-22, pp. 262-265,
Nov. 1980. Also see Proc. Conf. on
Electromagnetic Compatibilitv, Univ.
Southampton, 16-18 Sept. 1980, IERE
Conf. Proc. No, 47, pp. 363-375.

[311 K.N. Chen, "Nonlinear Modeling of Metal-

Oxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor

with Application to Radio Frequency
Interference Analysis," Ph.D. Dissertation,
State Univ. of New York at Buffalo, Amherst,
NY 14260, February 1982. Available from
University Microfilms, 300 N. Zeeb Road,
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106, USA.

[321 K.N. Chen and J.J.

Whalen, "A Nonlinear

Incremental Model for Predictins EM1 in
MOS Transistors," Proc. Conf. on Electromagnetic Compatibility, pp. 113-129, Univ.
of Surrey 21-23 September 1982, IERE Pub.
No. 56.

Whalen, "Comparative
c351 G.K. Chen and J.J.
RF1 Performance of Bipolar Operational
Amplifiers," 1981 IEEE Intern'1 Electromagnetic Compatibility Symposium Record,
Boulder, Colorado, August 1981, IEEE Pub.
81CHI675-8, pp. 91-95.

C361 Y.H. Sutu and 3.5.

Whalen, "A Comparison

of RF1 in Operational Amplifiers," Proc.
5th Symp. & Tech. Exhibition on Elexmagnetic Compatibility, pp. 477-482,
Zurich, Switzerland, March 8-10, 1983.
Goedbloed, K. Riemans and A.J.
Stienstra, "Increasing the RF1 Immunity
of Amplifiers with Negative Feedback,"
Proc. 5th Symp. & Tech. Exhibition on
Electromagnetic Compatibility, pp. 471476, Zurich, Switzerland, March 8-10,
1983.

[371 J.J.

[381 Y.H. Sutu, "Demodulation Radio Frequency

Interference Effects in Operational Amplifier Circuits," Ph.D. Dissertation, State

Univ. of New York at Buffalo, Sept. 1984.
Available from University Microfilms, 300
N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106.
Alkalay and D. Weiner, "Computer Simulation of EM1 Effects in a 7400 TTL NAND
Gate," Proc. 4th Symp. & TecQxhibition
on Electromagnetic Compatibility, pp. 151156, Zurich, Switzerland, March 10-12,
1981.

Ii391 J.

c401 T. Dave and D.D. Weiner, "Computer Simu-

lation of EMI Effects in a Differential

Line Receiver," 1981 IEEE Intern'1 Electromagnetic Compatibility Symposium Record,
Boulder, Colorado, August 1981, IEEE Pub.
81CH1675-8, pp. 96-98.

c411 J.G. Tront and D.W. Royster, "RF1 Effect

in MOSFET Integrated Circuits," Proc. 5th

Symp. & Tech. Exhibition on Electromagnetic
Compatlblllty, pp. 459-464 Zurich,
Switzerland, March 8-10, 1683.

Roach, "The Susceptibility of a 1K NMOS

Memory to Conducted Electromagnetic Interference," 1981 IEEE Intern'1 ElectroImagnetic Compatibility Symposium Record,
Boulder. Colorado. Auuust 1981. IEEE Pub.
81CH1675-8, pp. 85-90:

[421 J.

344

[431 S. Caniggia, "EMC Design of Digital Systems

Using Macromodeling Procedures for Integrated Circuits and Their Interconnections,"
Proc. 5th Symp. & Tech. Exhibition on
Electromagnetic Compatibility pp. 465410, Zurich, Switzerland, Margh 8-10,
1983.
[441 J.C. Bowers and R.S. Vogelsong, "Basic
EMC Technology Advancement For C3 Systems,
Macromodeling of Digital Circuits,"
Technical Report TR-82-286, vol. IIB,
RADC, GAFB, NY 13441, April 1984.
c451 C.A. Paludi, Jr., R. Bossart and J.
Shekleton, "A Methodoloav for EMC in
Microelectronics," Procy4th Symp. & Tech.
Exhibition on Electromagnetic Compatibility,
pp. 163-168, Zurich, Switzerland, March
10-12, 1981.

[461 R. Bossart, J. Shekleton and B. Lessard,

"EMC in Microelectronics-A Methodoloov,"

1981 IEEE Intern'1 Electromagnetic Co%
patibility Symposium Record, Boulder,
Colorado, IEEE Pub. 8lCHl675-8, pp. 79-84.

r471 R. Bossart, J. Shekleton, and B. Lessard,

"EMC in Microelectronics, "Technical Report
RADC-TR-83-30, RADC, GAFB NY 13441,
February 1983.
C481 A. Ephreth, D.D. Weiner, G. Capraro and
C.A. Paludi, Jr., "A Probabilistic Approach
to EMC Modeling and Analysis," 1982 IEEE
Intern'1 Electromagnetic Compat%?lity
Symposium Record, Santa Clara, California,
September 8-10, 1982, IEEE Pub. 82CHl718-6,
pp. 81-84.

c491 A. Ephreth and D.D. Weiner, "EMC Modeling

and Analysis-A Probabilistic Approach,"
Technical Report RADC-TR-83-102,
Rome Air Development Center, Griffiss AFB,
New York 13441, U.S.A., April 1983.
c501 D.D. Weiner, J. Gormady, G. Capraro, C.A.
"Random Susceptibility of an
Paludi, Jr.,
IC 7400 TTL-NAND Gate," Proc. 1982.
Government Microcircuit Application
Conference, Orlando, Florida, Nov. 2-4
1982, pp. 348-351. Also 1983 Intern'1
Electromagnetic Compatibility Symposium
Record, Washington, D.C., August 23-25,
1983. IEEE Publication No. 83CH1838-2,
pp. 21-24.
Whalen, "Statistics for
[511 Y.H. Sutu and J.J.
Demodulation RF1 in Operational Amplifiers,"
1983 IEEE Intern'1 Elkctromagnetic'Compatibility Symposium Record, pp. 220-225,
Washington, D.C., August 23-25, 1983.
(IEEE Catalog No. 83CHl838-2)
Whalen, "Demodulation
[521 Y.H. Sutu and J.J.
RF1 in Inverting and Non-Inverting
Operational Amplifier Circuits," in
this issue of Proc. 6th Symp. & Tech.
Exhibition on Electromagnetic Compatibility,
Zurich, Switzerland, March 1985.
t-531A Dad/NBS Conference on Microelectronic
Electromagnetic Susceptibility is scheduled
for March 12-13, 1985 at Washington, D.C.
(by invitation). The main topics are the
characterization and control of upset and
damage in large digital microelectronic
circuits.

345

63~2

COMPARISON OF THE RF1 SUSCEPTIBILITY OF SEVERAL TYPICAL IC

PIN DRIVERS/RECEIVERS

Joseph G. Tront

Department of Electrical Engineering

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Blacksburg, VA 24061 USA
(703) 961-5067

ABSTRACT
VDD

PADDUT4
Several typical input and output stages for
a digital IC have been simulated using the
electronic circuit analysis program SPICE2. An
RF1 signal is injected into the circuit at the
point where the output stage is connected to an
input stage. The effects of this RF1 are
exhibited as a changes in the dc transfer
characteristics of the circuit, as well as, a
changes in the transient behavior of the circuit.
A comparison of the relative RF1 susceptibility
of several different types of integrated circuit
pin drivers and pin receivers is made.

tl

A-+
PAD

Figure 1.

Schematic diagram
driver PADOUT4.

for

the

pad

INTRODUCTION
Digital integrated circuits are being used
in a wide variety of applications. Many of these
applications leave the integrated circuit exposed
to
a harsh
external environment. In some
. applications there exists the possibility for the
introduction of radio frequency interference
(RFI) into the digital circuitry. The effect of
this interference could be detrimental to the
digital circuit. Thus, it is necessary to
determine how various levels and types of RF1
will effect a digital circuit. Since many digital
circuits are fabricated as MOSFET integrated
circuits, an investigation has been undertaken to
determine the susceptibility of a MOSFET IC to
being 'upset" by the effects of RFI.
The term "upset" means that the digital
circuit will operate uncharacteristically during
all or part of an RF1 event, but will return to
normal operation after the event is ended. This
excludes the condition where any part of the
circuit is permanently disabled by the RF1 event.
Several researchers have used simulation
techniques to investigate the problems caused by
RF1 in bipolar analog as well as digital circuits
[l-3]. RF1 effects in MOS circuits have also
been studied [4,5]. Typical simulation tools
used to conduct these studies include the
computer programs SPICE [6] and NCAP [7]. These
programs perform a simulation of the circuit
operation at the electronics level.
This paper reports on the continuation of
the work performed by the author and reported on
at Zurich in 1983 [8]. In that work a single
driver/receiver pair was analyzed. Here, a

comparison will be made of the RF1 susceptibility

of several different types of pin drivers and pin
receivers.
NMOS IC DESIGNS
The majority of the ICs being produced today
are fabricated as NMOS custom designs. This study
is concerned with the effects of RF1 in NMOS
circuits. The term custom design means that the
internal circuits of the IC are comprised of a
variety of individually designed sizes and shapes
of depletion and enhancement mode transistors.
However, the circuit stage which is used to drive
the pins of an IC is usually somewhat standard.
This standardization is motivated by the desire
for an IC to be TIL compatible. Thus, standard
libraries of pin drivers and pin receivers have
been generated and are used by IC designers [9]..
The
susceptibility
of
several
of
these
standardized circuits will be analyzed here.
Pad drivers are usually large transistors
driven from internal logic by a sequence of
increasingly larger transistor stages. There is.
usually three levels of buffering separating
internal logic-performing transistors from an IC
pin. A schematic representation for atypical pad
driver called PADOUTO is shown in Fig. 1.
Pad receivers can be as simple as a wire
interconnecting the pad with a logic circuit, or
as complex as a configuration of transistors
which allows the pin to be multiplexed as either
an input or an output. Receivers usually contain
an electrostatic discharge device to protect the
gates of the MOS transistors which are directly
connected to a pin.

- 346

o VDD

PADOUT
Figure 2.

PADIN

with Load

Diagram of the RFI-injection scheme with the transistors

for the circuits PADOUT and PADIN shown.

RF1 INJECTION
The sources of EM1 and the mechanisms by
which it is coupled into an IC are not within the
scope of this paper. It is assumed that RF1 is
picked up by any of the conductive elements of a
circuit. This includes the conductive traces of a
pc board on which ICs are mounted, as well as, the
conductive materials within the IC. However, for
a given EM1 strength, the RF1 voltages and
currents induced in leads external to an IC will
be stronger than those induced internally because
of the physical size of the conductive materials
involved. Hence, the injection of RF1 into the
circuit is modeled as an effect seen at the pins
of the IC.
We have chosen to model the RF1 as a simple
voltage source (VRF) in series with a capacitor:
This source is connected to the wire which joins
an output pin of one chip with the input pin of
another chip. The effects of injecting RFI'into
the power supply pins is not considered here
since it is assumed that the power supply pins
capacitively
bypassed. A
appropriately
are
diagram of this injection scheme is shown in Fig.
2. Figure 2 further provides .a view of the
electronics internal to the PADOUT and PADIN
, .circuits.

The magnitude (VMAG) and the frequency (f)

of the source VRF are varied to simulate
different sources and different coupling of RFI
into the circuit.
The effects of the RF1 on the chip are
measured at the output of the transistor stage
which follows the pin receiver. This type of RF1
injection causes a change in both the dc and the
transient behavior of the IC [8]. For high levels
of RFI, the circuit exhibits a stuck-at zero
behavior. At lower RF1 levels the circuit's
transient operation is affected. Specifically,
there is a change in the delay characteristics of
the circuit.
The nominal output fall time delay TDF is
the time it takes for an input stimulus to cause
the output to go low. Likewise, the output rise
time delay TDR is the time it takes from when an
input stimulus is applied to when the output
rises. The nominal values for TDF and TDR are
measured with VRF=O. When RF1 is injected into
the circuit, the value of TDF decreases while the
value of TDR increases. These changes as a
funtion of both VMAG and f were reported on in
[8]. This paper reports on further data collected
driver/receiver
different pin
several
from
configurations.
SIMULATION EXPERIMENTS

Figure 3.

Schematic
circuit.

diagram

of

the PADMUX

The pad drivers/receivers used in the

simulation experiments performed here are taken
from a library of IC components [9]. Three pad
receivers and two pad drivers are used. (The
PADMUX circuit is used as both a driver and as a
receiver.) Various combinations of these circuits
five
different
experiment
provided
Schematics for the PADOUT4,
configurations.
PADMUX, and PADIN circuits are shown in Figs.
l-3. The PADIN circuit, which is used in one of
the experiments, is basically a sizing variation
of the PADINC circuit.
Simulation
runs
were
made
for
each
configuration with the frequency of VRF set to
100 MHZ, 150 MHz, and 200 MHz. These frequencies
were
from
results of
earlier
chosen
the
experiments. Ideally, more frequency points would

63~2

- 341 -

tDRT

tDR

10
9 t

PADllUT4- PADIN

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

PADClUT4- PADIN

8
7
6
5
'4
3
2
1
1-1
1 1 I2 I3 4
;
11; 6 7 8
5
f
I
9

>

10VMAc
Figure
4.

A plot of the change in TDR(nsec.)

as a function of VMAG(volts) and f
PADOUT4-PADIN
the
for
configuration.

be used, and future plans call for these

simulation runs to be made. The range of voltages
used for VMAG (and correspondingly the value of
the coupling capacitor CRF) was designed so that
at the largest value of VMAG, the circuit would
be driven very near the point where stuck-at
behavior is observed. This range of voltages and
the value
of CRF are the same for each
configuration so that a relative comparison of
configurations can be made.
Eleven different voltage values are used for
VMAG. Each configuration was analyzed at three
different frequencies. Five configurations were
simulated. Thus, 165 simulation runs are reported
on here. Each run consumed about $2.00 in
computer time.

>

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10VMAG
Figure 6.

A plot of the change in TDR(nsec.)

as a function of VMAG(volts) and f
the
PADOUT4-PADIN
for
configuration.

SIMULATION RESULTS
The results of the simulation experiments
are shown as plots of the change in the value of
TDR and TDF as a function of the VMAG. Each plot
is a composite and shows the change in TDR and TDF
values for three different frequencies of RFI.
The changes in TDR and TDF taken together tend to
cause negativeigoing pulses to become wider and
conversely,
positive-going pulses to become
narrower. In the limit, this is what produces the
stuck-at zero behavior. However, even before the
stuck-at situation occurs, a change in the width
of a pulse can cause an upset to occur in a
digital system.

tDF

-c

10

I--T1

PADllUT4- PADIN

I
>

1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 lOV,,,
Figure 5.

A plot of the change in TDF(nsec.)

as a function of VMAG(volts) and f
PADOUT4-PADINB
the
for
configuration.

Figure 7.

A plot of the change in TDF(nsec.)

as a function of VMAG(volts) and f
for
the
PADOUT4-PADIN
configuration.

Changes in TDR and TDF for the PADOUT

connected to PADIN are shown in Figs. 4 and 5.
Notable for this configuration are the larger
changes in TDF at lower values of VMAG for lower
frequency values. However, the curves for each
value of frequency meet at high values of VMAG.
The results of the PADOUT - PADIN circuit
simulations are shown Figs. 6 and 7. It can be
seen that the behavior of this configuration is
similar to that of the PADOUT - PADIN circuit.
Because of this similarity in behavior, the
PADIN receiver was not used combination with the
other pin drivers to form further configurations.
It assumed that it would behave in the same
manner as the PADIN receiver.

tDR

- PADMUX
The behavior of the PADOUT
configuration is shown in Figs. 8 and 9. This
configuration exhibits a slightly lower level of
than do the other two. In
susceptibility
particular, the value of TDF at the high values
of VMAG is noticeably lower than is the case for
the previous two simulations. The PADMUX - PADMUX
simulation results, shown in Figs. 10 and 1'1,
indicate that this configuration is also less'
PADIN
PADOUT
the
than
susceptible
slightly
more
but,
it
is
configuration
susceptible
than
the
PADOUT
PADMUX
configuration in terms of changes in TDF.

tDR

10

T
PADMUX

PADMUX

9
8
7
6

Figure 8.

A plot of the change in TDR(nsec.)

as a function of VMAG(volts) and f
the
for
PADOUT4-PADMUX
configuration.

PADOUT

PADMUX

Figure 10.

A
plot
of
the
change
in
TDR(nsec.)
as a function of
VMAG(volts)
and
f
for
the
PADMUX-PADMUX configuration.

PADMUX

PADMUX

8
7
6

MAC
Figure 9.

A plot of the change in TDF(nsec.)

as a function of VMAG(volts) and f
for
the
PADOUT4-PADMUX
configuration.

Figure. 11.

A
plot
of
the
change
in
TDF(nsec.)
as a functicm
of
VMAG(volts)
and
f
for
the
PADMUX-PADMUX configuration.

349

63~2

TDF are taken together, ti;Di;;;t susceptible

PADMUX
the
configuration
is
combination.
Use of the analysis technique demonstrated
IC designer
to make
allow
an
will
here
of
drivers/receivers
when
choices
appropriate
designing an IC which may be exposed to RF1 in its
environment.
REFERENCES

PADMUX - PADIN

1.

J.Tront, J. J. Whalen, Ci E. Larson, J. M.

Roe, "Computer-Aided Analysis of RF1 Effects'
in Operational Amplifiers", IEEE Trans. on
EMC. vol. EMC-21, pp. 297-306, Nov. 1979.

change
in
plot
of
the
A
TDR(nsec.)
as a function of
for
VMAG(volts)
and
f
the
PADMUX-PADIN configuration.

Figure 12.

The most susceptible circuit combination

found in those tested is the PADMUX - PADING
configuration. The simulation results for this
configuration are presented in Figs. 12 and 13.
Examination of these figures shows that the
values of TDR and TDF increase rapidly with
increasing VMAG. In fact, most of the data points
for these two plots are off the scale used here.

2.

J. J. Whalen, J. G. Tront, C. E. Larson, J. M.

Roe, "Computer-Aided Analysis of RF1 Effects
in Digital Integrated Circuits", IEEE Trans.
on EMC, vol., EMC-21, pp. 291-297, Nov. 1979.

3.

"Computer
Weiner;
J.
Alkalay,
D.
D.
Simulation of EM1 Effects in a 7400 TTL NAND
Gaten, Proc. 4th Svmw. Tech. Exibition on
EMC. Zurich, March, 1981.

4.

K. N. Chen, G. K. C. Chen, J. J. Whalen,

"Using Macromodels to Compare RF1 in Bipolar
and FET-Bipolar
Operational Amplifiers",
Proc. 4th Svmw. Tech. Exhibition on EMC,
Zurich, March, 1981.

5.

J. N. Roach, "The Susceptibility of a 1K NM&

Memory
to
Conducted
Electromagnetic
Interferencd',
Proc.
Conf.
on
EMC,
Southamnton. UK. Sent. 1980.

6.

CONCLUSIONS
This study shows how several standard pairs
of drivers/receivers are more susceptible than
others, giving an indication of the relative
susceptibility of the configuration pairings.
The most susceptible combination is the PADMUX PADIN configuration. When the change in TDR and

10
9

0100 MHz
0150 MHz
A200 MHz

El
Y

I
I

I,

I,,

>

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10VMAc
Figure 13.

w.

Nagel,

D.

0.

Pederson,

"SPICE:

Emphasis", Electronic Research Laboratory,

Univ.
Calf.,
Berkeley, CA, Tech. Memo
ERL-M382, April 1973.
7.

nNonlinear
Circuit
Documentation", Tech.
vols. I-II, Rome Air
Griffiss AFB, NY, 1979.

8.

J. G. Tront, D. W. Royster, "RF1 Effects in

MOSFET IntegratedCircuits", Proc. 5th Svmn,
Tech. Exibition on EMC, Zurich, March, 1983.

9.

J. A. Newkirk, R. Mathews, The VLSI

Designer'sLibrarv, Addison-Wesley, 1983.

PADMUX - PADIN

8
7
6
5
4
3
2

L.

Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit

A
plot
of
the
change
in
TDF(nsec.)
as a function of
VMAG(volts)
and
f
for
the
PADMUX-PADIN configuration.

Analysis
Program
Rep. RADC-TR-79245,
Development Center,

- 351

64~3

DEMODULATION RF1 IN INVERTING AND NON-INVERTING OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS

Yue-Hong Sutu and James J. Whalen

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
State University of New York at Buffalo
Amherst, New York

Summary
The paper describes an investigation to
determine statistical variations for RF1 demodulation responses in operational amplifier
(op amp) circuits. Amplitude-Modulated (AM)
RF signals were injected into the op amp
signal input terminals to produce undesired
demodulated responses at the 1 kHz AM-frequency. The RF frequency was varied over the
range 0.1 to 400 MHz. Previously 30 to 35
741 op amps were tested in a non-inv$ing
circuit with voltage gain Av = +l.
same 741 op amps were tested in an inverting
amplifier circuit (Av = -10) without and with
RF1 suppression capacitors (27 pF). Mean
values and standard deviations were determined
for the demodulation RF1 which was characterized by a nonlinear transfer function H2.
When the RF1 suppression capacitors were included, the experimental mean values for H2
were suppressed from 10 to 35 dB over the RF
frequency range 0.1 to 150 MHz except at 0.15
MHz where only 3.5 dB suppression was observed.
A method of comparing values for RF1 demodulation responses (H2) for a non-inverting circuit (Av = +l) and an inverting circuit (Av =
-10) is described; the mean values for H2 for
the two circuits were found to be surprisingly
similar with both sets of data having a 10 dB
peak value. Experimental and NCAP computer
simulation results are compared for a 3-stage
op amp circuit without and with RF1 suppression
capacitors. Macromodels were used for the
741 op amps in the NCAP simulations.
1.

Introduction,

Over an extended period of time, a series

of investigations has been carried out to
determine conducted RF1 effects in analog
microelectronic circuits [l-lo]. The conducted RF1 effect investigated is how AmplitudeModulated (AM) RF signals are demodulated in
operational amplifiers (op amps) to produce
low frequency responses at the AM-modulation
frequency. Subsequently, the undesired demodulation response may be processed as a
desired low frequency signal by the low frequency components that follow the op amp.

14260, U.S.A.

Initial investigations were focused on the.741

bipolar op amp which has conventional npn lnput transistors l-l-41. The next investigation considered also the LMlO bipolar OP amp
which has less conventional pnp input transistors
[5-61. This was followed by an investigation on the LF355 JFET-Bipolar op amps
which have junction field-effect transistor
(JFET) input transistors [7]. Next to be investigated were CA081 MOS-Bipolar op amps
which have Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FieldEffect-Transistors (MOSFET in ut transistors
[B-9]. In investigations t 11- If91 the objective was to determine how well predicted
RF1 effects compared to measured RF1 results
made on a small number of op amps of each
type. More recently the emphasis of our investigations has shifted to measuring the
statistical variations of RF1 demodulation
effects in 30 or more op amps of each of the
four types investigated previously [lo].
In all the previous investigations the
op amp circuit configuration was kept constant [l-lo]. The specific op amp circuit
used was the unity voltage gain circuit
called a voltage follower which is shown in
Fig. 1. The circuit configuration is also
called non-inverting because both the intended
signal and the RFI signal are injected into
the non-inverting input denoted by (t). We
are now investigating the inverting op amp
configuration shown in Fig. 2. The intended
signal voltage gain Av = -R2+Rl and the intended signal input impedance is Rl. Our
ultimate goal is to investigate the combinations of Rl and R2 listed in Table 1 for 30
or more of the four op amp types (741, LMlO,
LF355 and CA081). We plan to measure demodulation RF1 using the experimental configuration shown in Fig. 3 for RF frequencies in
the range of 100 kHz to 400 MHz.
The statistical variations of RF1 for
each op amp type for the resistor combinations listed in Table 1 will be determined.
Statistical parameters such as means and
standard deviations will provide quantitative
measures on variations in op amp RF1 susceptibility similar to that reported upon in [lo].
NCAP simulations corresponding to the experiments will be performed to determine how well
the mean values for the RFI susceptibility

- 352

I
I
,

T
4

L__--___-_-___--_-__A

Fig.1: Experimental set-up for demodulation

RF1 response measurement of non-inverting unity gain op amp circuit. The
687 ohm resistor is often replaced by a
short-circuit in voltage follower circuits of this type.
can be predicted. The NCAP simulations*are
known to be sensitive to the values of lnternal transistor capacitances and to external
parasitic circuit capacitances. This sensitivity is also being studied. Finally, RF1
suppression capacitors, especially in the
feedback path, are known to yield positive
results [ll]. Experiments and NCAP simulations
illustrating the usefulness of RF1 suppression
capacitors are also currently being conducted.
The total amount of data to be measured is
very great, and it will take many man-hours to
accumulate. We plan to report upon what we
have accomplished at several stages during
our investigation. This paper reports our
first set of demodulation RF1 data for op amps
in an inverting circuit configuration similar
to that shown in Fig. 2. An input resistor
Rl = 10 kohm and a feedback resistor R2 = 100
kohm were used. Data were obtained both with
the RF1 suppression capacitor omitted (C4 = 0)
and included (C4 = 27 pF). Information on the
35 741 op amps reported upon is given in
Table 2.
TABLE 1
COMBINATIONS OF Rl, R2 and C4
FOR INVERTING OP AMP CIRCUIT CONFIGURATION
Input
Resistor

Feedback Resistor:
Voltage Gain

RF1 Suppression
Capacitor

Rl (Q)

R2 (@:A,

C4 (F)

10 k

100 k:-10

10 k

100 k:-10

27 P

10 k

1 M:-100

10 k

1 M:-100

27 P

100 k

1 M:-10

100 k

1 M:-10

27 P

This paper is organized in the following

manner. The experimental procedures are described in Section 2. Experimental results
for demodulation RF1 for the 35 741 op amps

Fig.2: W;r;ing
V

op amp circuit with voltage

= -RZ/Rl. The capacitor C4,

when included, provides RF1 suppression Ill].

msig.(irn.
lwKl
Attewotor
HP6061

*nplifin
undn
Test

Lo*Paw

TmM
wtfnrter

Filter
WOSSiil
-

Gft(600

f&RFemcr

ftRF
f&tF-b

fA@

Modulation: !NMb AM

at fw

fnquUrY

yig.3: Block diagram of experimental system

for measuring the demodulation RF1
response.
tested are given in Section 3. Statistical
results (means and standard deviations) are
given in Section 4. In Section 5 experimental
mean values are compared to mean values predicted using the Nonlinear Circuit Analysis
Program NCAP. Section 6 is the conclusion.
2.

Experimental Procedures

The actual circuit used to measure demodulation RFI effects in inverting op amp
circuits is shown in Fig. 4. The circuit
is called the 3-stage op amp LED circuit.
The circuit was designed to correspond to a
circuit in a system in which a transducer
generates a signal which must be amplified
to turn on a warning light such as an LED
(Light Emitting Diode). A complete description of the circuit is given in [12]. The
RFI is injected into the inverting input of
the first stage. The RF1 signal has an RF
frequency fRF in the range 0.1 to 400 MHz and
is 50% AM-modulated at an audio frequency
= 1 kHz. Because of nonlinearities in
fAF
the 1st op amp, a demodulated RF1 response
at I kHz exists at the output of the 1st op
amp stage. The demodulated RF1 signal generated within the 1st stage is amplified by
the 2nd stage and by the 3rd stage which
drives the LED. The demodulated RF1 signal
at 1 kHz when amplified to 1.1 V (rms) can
light the LED to produce a visual display of
the existence of RFI.

- 353

3-Stage

Op Amp LED Experiment

Fig.4: Three-stage op amp LED experiment.

J.JF
unless otherwise specified.

Resistor values are in Q.

In all measurements of demodulation RFI

responses, the 741 op amps for the 2nd and
3rd stages of the 3-stage op amp LED circuit
shown in Fig. 4 were the same. The 1st stage
op amp was changed. Each of the 3.5 units of
741 op amps listed in Table 2 was used in the
1st stage. The input RF signal at a specific
RF frequency was adjusted so that the demodulated 1 kHz Audio Frequency (AF) component at
output V3 of the 3rd stage reached rms values
of vi; = 1.0 V and 0.4 V sequentially.

At the

same time, the meter readings of the RF generator and RF voltmeter were recorded. This procedure was used to verify the square-law response region described in [4] and [lo]. To
understand this, note that the two AF voltages (1.0 V and 0.4 V) at output V3 correspond to a ratio of -8 dB. Therefore, the two
corresponding meter readings of the RF voltmeter or RF generator should give a ratio of
-4 dB. If otherwise, the data taken do not
reflect the characteristics of second-order
nonlinearities. If the data correspond to
the square-law response region, the secondorder nonlinear transfer function H2 can be
used to characterize the demodulation RFI response at 1 kHz. See Cl], 141 or [lo].
AF
The 1 kHz AF rms voltage Vo3 at the output is related to the RF rms voltage Vi' from
the RF generator b the second-order transfer
function H2(fl,-f2Y by the expression
mti

= m(m!F)21H2(fl,-f2)/

64~3

(1)

Capacitor values are in

where m is the modulation index, fl the RF

carrier frequency fRF, and f2 the lower sideband frequency fRF - fAF.

In obtaining Eq. (l),

it was assumed that the lower and upper sidebands contributed equally. The factor &!arises because amplitudes are used in nonlinear
transfer function expressions. From Fig. 4,
we note the voltage relationship between the
RF
RF generator voltage ViF and the voltage V,
indicated on the RF voltmeter is given by
VRF = 4vFF
g
Substitute Eq. (2) into Eq. (1) and solve for
H2(fl,-f2) with m = 0.5. The result is
IH2(f,,-f2)1 = fiV;;/(4V;F)2
AF
RF
where Vo3 and V, are in rms volts.

(3)

Equation

(3) can be expressed in dB as

2010g101H2(f,,-f2) 1 = 201wlo$~

- 4ologlovllfF- 21.0

(4)

The second-order transfer function Hi of the

1st stage alone, i.e., between the output node
of the 1st stage and the node connecting Cl
and Rl, can be related to the second-order
transfer function H2 of the complete circuit.
Accounting for the linear gains of the 2nd
stage (100) and the 3rd stage (10) and the
attenuation factor (0.5) of the input attenua-

$54 -

74 1 Invortlng

Ampllflor

35 Dovlcoa
R, =

10 kfl

R. = 100

f,, RF

FrcqwnC~

In MHS

Fig.6,:Measured values of the second-order

transfer function H2(f,,-f2) of the

Fig.5: Measured values of the second-order

transfer function H2(f,,-f2) of the

3-stage op amp LED circuit vs RF

frequency for 35 741 op amps. RF1
suppression capacitor included.

3-stage op amp LED circuit vs RF

frequency for 35 741 op amps. RF1
suppression capacitor omitted.

for H2(fl,-f2) which are denoted by E2 and the

tor, we obtain the results

IH;(f,.-f2) 1 = IH2(f,,-f2) 1(2)2/(100*10)
(5)

= (H2(f,,-f2) 11250
or
2010g,0/H;(fl.-f2) ( = 2010q01H2(f,d2)
- 48.0
3.

1
(6)

Experimental Results

As just discussed, the demodulation RF1

at 1 kHz in the square-law response region
can be characterized by the one parameter
H2(fl,-f2). Using Eq. (4), experimental values
were determined for H2(f,,-f2) of the 3-stage
op amp LED circuit for RF frequencies in the
range 0.1 to 150 MHz for 35 741 op amps. The
experimental values for H2 are plotted in Figs.
5 and 6. For Fig. 5, the resistor and capacitor combination was Rl = 10 kfi,R2 = 100 kQ,
and C4 = C5 = 0. The H2(f,,-f2) values at a
specific RF frequency vary + 3 to + 11 dB.
For Fig. 6, the resistor and capacitor combination was Rl = 10 kQ, R2 = 100 kn, and C4 = C5
= 27 pF. The H2(f,,-f2) values at a specific
RF frequency vary + 4 to + 15 dB.

Whereas H2

values in Figs. 5 and 6 are for the complete

3-stage op amp LED circuit, the H2 values for
the 1st stage alone can be obtained easily by
subtracting 48 dB from H2 values for the complete circuit. See Eq. (6). The value of the
ordinate in Figs. 5,and 6 is reduced by 48 dB.
The variations of H2 values in dB at a specific frequency are idential to those of H2
values.
4.

kfl

Statistical Result2

Shown in Figs. 7 and 8 are the mean values

standard deviation, (I,for 35 units of the 741

op amp tested in the 3-stage op amp LED circuit.
One of the two sets of data in each figure
corresponds to ,Rl = 10 kfi,R2 = 100 kn, and
C4 = C5 = 0. Another set corresponds to Rl =
10 kQ, R2 = 100 kR, and C4 = C5 = 27 pF. The
mean values for H2(f,, -f2) indicate clearly
the effect of the RF1 suppression capacitor C4
when it is connected in the feedback path of
the 1st stage. The suppression of demodulation
RF1 effects caused by a 27 pF capacitor results
in a reduction in K2 from 3.5 dB to as much as
36.5 dB at a specific RF frequency. Another
effect of the RFI suppression capacitor C4 is
indicated by the two sets of standard deviation data in Fig. 8. That plot shows that the
spreading of H2 values is wider in general by
including C4 = 27 pF. An increase as much as
5 dB in standard deviation is observed at
certain RF frequencies.

In Fig. 9, RF1 demodulation responses in

two 741 op amp circuits are shown. One set of
data are mean values of measured H2 for the
741 unity gain buffer shown in Fig. 1 which
were reported upon previously [13]. Another
set of data are mean values of measured H2
for the 741 inverting amplifier with a voltage
gain of 10 and no RF1 suppression capacitor
(C4 = 0). For comparison purposes, the H2
values for the 741 unity gain buffer from [13]
have to be adjusted.

We want an Hi for the

unity gain buffer that relates the audio-frequency voltage at the op amp output to the
RF voltage at the noninverting input terminal.
We must account for the voltage division at
the output which contributes a factor of (2)
and the voltage division at the input which
contributes a factor of (2)2. See Fig. 7 in
Chapter 4 in rl2]. The relationships between
Hi and H2 for the unity gain buffer are given

355

64~3

I$
I

30

2
^.
f

. 1 t*

: .*

.*

0.

.
.

I .l

. lhlty

Buffor

aoht

0 fnr*rtln#

A~llflW

.I

(&I=-10,

Vduo~ hwr bwa wwted

,n(

gd w

H&

raw,(*

10

UW.)
I

I
6

20

60

100

200

600

In WI=

RF frequency for two 741 op amp circuits. The H2 values for the unity
gain buffer were obtained by adding
18 dB to the H2 values reported preThe H2 values for

the inverting amplifier were obtained

by subtracting 48 dB from the H2 values
shown in Fig. 7.

-1.1

741 kbvatkw Am66fku

35 Dwkn

lo-

R, = 10 kn
oC.=Cs=O

IPI

R, = 100 WI
nC.=C,=27pF

justed mean values for H2 are surprisingly

L,

similar in that both sets of data points have

a peak value near 10 dB. The comparison shows
that the 741 unity gain buffer has an average
lower RF1 response for RF frequencies below
8 MHz. Above 8 MHz, the average RFI demodulation response in the 741 inverting amplifier
is lower.

II

o 6;

4-

2-

5.

Fig.8: Standard deviation, a, of the measured

H2(f,,-f2) of the 3-stage op amp LED
circuit for two feedback capacitor
values, C4 = 0 and C4 = 27 pF.

by

lttmwtla,t.w In wwlrmt

viously in [13 1.
Stmdudw

C.=O)

Fig.9: Measured mean values of the secondorder transfer function H2(fl, -f2) vs

14-

12-

f,, RF Fr.4Wnc7

the 3-stage op amp LED circuit for two

feedback capacitor values, C4 = 0 and
C4 = 27 pF. This plot shows the suppression of the demodulation RF1 effects by the feedback capacitor.

.
.

.2

l.

.*

,~fk.tlm

l.

.
I

3
s-

Fig.7: Mean values of measured H2(fl,-f2) of

. . . . .

t::

-/

. .

IH;(fl,-f2)( = 81H2(fls-f2)I

(7)

Previously, we have described the NCAP

procedure for determining the nonlinear transfer functions which characterize many nonlinear effects including demodulation in weakly
nonlinear circuits [4]. We have also described the macromodeling procedures for a 741
(bipolar) op amp [51. Now in this section we
shall present NCAP simulations of demodulation
RF1 effects in the 3-stage op amp circuit used
in our experiments. The NCAP predictions are
compared with measurements. The NCAP values
for the second-order transfer function
H2(fl,-f2) will be compared to the mean measured values of H2(fl,-f2) since most NCAP

2010g,01H;(fl>-f2) t =
2010g10~H2(fl~-f2)~ + 18

NCAP Simulations of Demodulation RF1

(8)

The change in nodes at which voltages are

measured results in an increase in 18 dB in
the H2 values. Also H2 values for the 741 inverting amplifier from Fig. 5 have been adjusted using Eq. (6). The result is a decrease
of 48 dB in the values plotted in Fig. 5. The
adjusted H2 values in Fig. 9, therefore, exclude the linear amplification and attenuation
stages in the experimental setups. The ad-

parameter values were determined from typical

values given by manufacturers. These typical
values are believed to correspond to mean
values.
The incremental circuit of the J-stage op
amp LED circuit for NCAP simulations is shown
in Fig. 10. All three 741 op amps have been
replaced by an equivalent 741 macromodel.
The values for the 14 linear macromodel elements and the 16 nonlinear BJT parameters are
not significantly different from the values
given in 151. The values actually used are

- 356

&waemtrl

Macromhl

Of lb

3-2tap

0, Amp LED Clrcuit Fw NCAP Slmuhtlon

I)*

lOOh

r----------r
-vvv-I---1

Fig.11: NCAP simulation and measured mean

values of the second-order transfer
function H2(fl, -f2) for the 3-stage
op amp LED circuit without and with
RF1 suppression capacitors.
TABLE 2
-INFORMATION ON 741 OP AMPS TESTED

Fig.10: Incremental macromodel of the 3-stage

op amp LED circuit for NCAP simulation.
given in Tables 3-2 and 3-5 of [12]. Values
for the 14 linear macromodel elements were
determined from typical values of 741 op amp
characteristics using the procedures developed
by Boyle et al. L-141. Most of the 16 nonlinear BJT parameters were obtained from Fang's
measurements of the 741 input stage [4]. The
NCAP input data for the circuit shown in Fig.
10 are listed in Appendix A in [12]. First
we verified that the second and third stages
of the 3-stage op amp LED circuit indeed did
provide linear gain for the demodulationAF
component produced by the first stage. Using
NCAP we calculated values for the magnitudes
of H2(fl,-f2) at nodes 17 and 42 of the circuit shown in Fig. 10. Throughout the RF
frequency region of interest, the ratio of
the two H2 magnitudes at nodes 17 and 42 is
72.95 2 0.05 dB, which corresponds to a linear
gain of about 4440. The experimental value
for the linear voltage gain at 1 kHz is $5

v;; = 4000 (72 dB).

Shown in Fig. 11 are NCAP simu1atIon.s of
H2 of the 3-stage op amp LED circuit with Rl
= 10 kS2and R2 = 100 kQ for two values of
the RF1 suppression capacitor C4 (0 and 27 pF).
The corresponding measured mean values are

Maker
-

Year

Week

RCA

1981

27

Fairchild

1976

36

10

Fairchilda

1981

38

Fairchilda

1981

35

Fairchildb

1982

49

National

1982

Group
--

Units
_

a Manufactured in Hong Kong

b Manufactured in Korea.
also shown. Let us first discuss the two
sets of experimental results obtained with
C4 = C5 = 0 and C4 = C5 = 27 pF. Note that
the RFI suppression capacitors reduce
H2(fl,-f2) at every RF frequency. The reduction in H2 varies ,froma low of 3 dB at .15
MHz to a high of 36 dB at 10 MHz and exceed;
15 dB at all RF frequencies above 10 MHz. Now
let us compare NCAP simulation results to experimental results with the RFI suppression
capacitors omitted (C4 = C5 = 0). Below 1.0
MHz the NCAP simulation values exceed the
measured values by 10 to 17 dB. From 1.0 to
6.0 MHz the NCAP values and the measured
values agree within 1 to 4 dB. Above 6 MHz
i6h;oNf;Pd;alues exceed the measured values by
Finally let us compare NCAP simulation results and experimental results with
the RF1 su pression capacitors included (C4 =
C5 q 27 pFP. Below 1.0 MHz the NCAP simulation values exceed the measured values by 23

- 357

to 42 dB. Note that below 1 MHz NCAP Predicts an increase in H2 when the RFI suPPression capacitors are added and that this is
contradictory to what is observed experimentally. Above 1 MHZ NCAP predicts a decrease
in H2 when the RF1 suppression capacitors are
added; this is in agreement with what is observed experimentally. From 2 MHz to 20 MHz
the NCAP values and measured Values agree
quite well with differences in the range 0
to 7 dB. Above 20 MHz the NCAP values decrease much more rapidly than the experimental
values which exceed the NCAP values by 20 to
40 dB. The NCAP predictions leave something
to be desired, and this indicates that additional modeling effort is required. It would
be worthwhile to include in the NCAP simulations the appropriate parasitic elements
associated with all the passive components,
but especially RI, R2 and C4 in the first
stage and the capacitance associated with the
Printed Circuit Board wiring.
5

Conclusion and Recommendations

Based upon the results obtained to date

there are three major recommendations for
future investigations. Each recommendation
will now be presented.
(1)

Additional Measurements of Demodulation

RF1 in Inverting Amplifiers

Additional measurements of demodulation

RF1 in inverting operational amplifier circuits
are needed. The sets of values for the input
resistor RI and the feedback resistor R2 listed
in Table 1 are suggested. Data should be
obtained for four op amp types: the bipolar
741; the bipolar LMIO; the Bi-MOS CA081; the
JFET-bipolar LF355. The measurements should
be made without and with RFI suppression
capacitors in the locations suggested by
Goedblood et al. [ll].
(2)

Automatic Measurement System

The data generated for this paper was obtained with a manual measurement system. The
volume of data was large and almost unmanageable. The volume of data that would.be generated by implementing the first recommendation
requires an automatic measurement system.
The automatic measurement system would need
to set the RF frequency and amplitude, turn
on the 1 kHz AM-modulation, measure RF and
AF voltages, store the data, compute secondorder transfer functions such as H2(fl,-f2),
and plot the results for each op amp tested
in each circuit configuration. The data stored
for all op amps of one type could then be used
to calculate mean values, standard deviations,
etc. which also would be plotted.
(3)

Additional NCAP Simulations In Which

Parasitic Effects Are Accounted For
More Thoroughly

It would be desirable to model more completely the external circuit wiring on the
printed circuit board to account for small
capacitances from wire to wire and wire to

64~3

ground. It would also be desirable to model

the external circuit component parasitics.
Of particular importance are parasitic effects
in the op amp input resistor RI, the feedback
resistor R2, and the RF1 suppression capacitors.

References
111 T. F. Fang, "Nonlinear System Analysis in
Bipolar Integrated Circuits," Ph.D. Dissertation, State Univ. of New York at
Buffalo, Amherst, NY 14226, Feb. 1979.
Also published as Technical Report RADCTR-79-324 by Rome Air Development Center,
Griffiss Air Force Base, NY 13441, USA,
January 1980.

I21

T. F. Fang and J. J. Whalen, "Application

of the Nonlinear Circuit Analysis Program
NCAP to Predict RFI Effects in Linear
Bipolar Integrated Circuits," in Proc.
3rd. Symp. Tech. Exhibition on Electromagnetic Compatibility, Rotterdam, May
l-3, 1979, pp. 263-268.

L31 T. F. Fang, J. J. Whalen and G. K. C.

Chen, "Using NCAP to Predict RF1 Effects
in Operational Amplifiers," in 1979 IEEE
Int. Electromagnetic Compatibility Symp.
Rec., San Diego, CA, Oct. 9-11, 1979,
pp. 96-103.
L.41T. F. Fang, 3. J. Whalen and G. K. C.
Chen, "Using NCAP to Predict RF1 Effects
in Linear Bipolar Inteurated Circuits."
IEEE Trans. Electromagnetic Compatibility,
Vol. EMC-22, pp. 256-262, Nov. 1980.
151 G. K. C. Chen and 3. 3. Whalen "Macromodel Predictions for EM1 in Bipolar
Operational Amplifiers," IEEE Trans.
Electromagnetic Compatibility, Vol EMC-22,
pp. 262-265, Nov. 1980. Also see Proc.
Conf. on Electromagnetic Compatibim,
Univ. Southampton, 16-18 Sept. 1980,
IERE Conf. Proc. No. 47, pp. 363-375.
L61 K. N. Chen, J. J. Whalen and G. K. C.
Chen, "Using Macromodels to Compare RF1
in Bipolar and FET-Bipolar Operational
Amplifiers," Proceedings of the 4th
Symposium and Technical Exhibition on
Electromagnetic Compatibility, pp. 157162, Zurich, Switzerland, March 10-12,
1981.
r71 G. K. C. Chen and 3. 3. Whalen, "Comparative RF1 Performance of Bipolar Opera,
tional Amplifiers," 1981 IEEE International Electromagnetic Compatibility
Symposium Record, pp. 91-95, Boulder,
Colorado, August 18-20, 1981.

PI

I31

II01

358

K. N. Chen, "Nonlinear Modeling of MetalOxide Semiconductor Field-Effect Transsistor with Application to Radio Frequency
Interference Analysis," Ph.D. Dissertation,
State Univ. of New York at Buffalo,
Amherst, NY 14226, Feb. 1982. (Available
from University Microfilms, 300 N. Zeeb
Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48106, U.S.A.)
K. N. Chen and J. J. Whalen, "MOSFET
Nonlinear Incremental Model for NCAP,"
1982 IEEE International Electromagnetic
Compatibility Symposium Record, pp. 66-73,
Santa Clara, CA, September 8-10, 1982.
Y. H. Sutu and J. J. Whalen, "A Comparison of RFI in Operational Amplifiers,"
Proceedings of the 5th Symposium and
Technical Exhibition on Electromagnetic
Compatibility, pp. 477-482, Zurich,
Switzerland, March 8-10, 1983.

[llJ J. J. Goedbloed, K. Riemens and A. 3.

Stienstra, "Increasing the RF Immunity
of Amplifiers with Negative Feedback,"
Proceedings of the 5th Symposium and

Technical Exhibition on Electromagnetic

Compatibility, pp. 471-476, Zurich,
Switzerland, March 8-10, 1983.

II21

Y. H. Sutu, "Demodulation Radio Frequency

Interference Effects in Operational
Amplifier Circuits," Ph.D. Dissertation,
State Univ. of New York at Buffalo,
Amherst, NY 14260, U.S.A., Sept. 1984.
Also to be published as Technical Report
RADC-TR-82-281, by Rome Air Development
Center, Griffiss Air Force Base, NY
13441, U.S.A.

Cl32

Y. H. Sutu and J. J.
for Demodulation RFI
Amplifiers," 1983~It
ElectromagneticaE
&cord,
pp. 220-225,
_--August 23-25, 1983.
No. 83CH1838-:?).

Whalen, "Statistics
in Operational
International
ibility Symposium
..,L,'..,C. .
WUXIIIIYLO~,
U-L.,
(---lttt catalog
-

Cl41 G. R. Boyle, B. M. Cohn, D. 0. Pederson

and 3. E. Solomon, "Macromodeling of
Integrated Circuit Operational Amolifiers."
IEEE-J. Solid-State Circuits, Vol'. SC-g, .
pp. 353-363, December 1974.

TRANSIENT

359

FIELD DISTRIBUTION

65

IN A TRANSMISSION

LI

LINE SIMULATOR

0. DAFIF, C. BARDET and B. GECKO

L.C.O.M.
- U.E.R. des Sciences
University
of Limoges
87060 LIMOGES CEDEX (FRANCE)

determines

ABSTRACT
The

purpose

theoretically
bution
is

the

in

an

sections

wire

structures.

space-time

The

is

transient

by

electric

the conical

plates

nuniformity

of

of

problem

is

determined

the

field

amplitude,

components

the

rise-time

the

The
between

area.

The

the

with

no-

presence

nonnegligible

variations

are

of the

current

structure

solving

Secondly

field

is

area

a space-

the

deduced

conical

induced

transient

everywhere,

and

in the

working

area.
II - INTEGRAL

EQUATION

The
of radiation

is

the

induced

is

problem

wires

[2]

APPROACH

of transient

conducting
used

these

analyzed.

transient

equation.

in the

equation

techniques.

wire

thin
integral

particularly

thinin

integral

and in the working

transversal

amplitude,

treated

numerical

field

by

time

the

electromagnetic

transmission

is

an

distri-

simulator

approximated

using

solved

The

flat-plate

are

domain

field

simulator.

witch

on any

is to determine

electric

three

of

line

paper

transient

E.M.P.

composed

which

of this

firstly

time

involves

currents

currents

waveforms
A

[I!.

which

formulated

on

are

from

technique

computation

wires.

obtained

terms

perfectly

domain
the

the

in

of

In free

solving

the

space
integral

[21 :

equation

I - INTRODUCTION
The

purpose

is to provide
ximates

the
at

sion

in the

to

plate

The

of

the

modes.

This

technique

guided

wave

sloping
of

central

or

meshes

wires

to be perfectly

and

are

the

ground

conducting.

this

response

I)

consisting
to opposite

parallel

simulator
are

Our rigourous

s and
c

and

the

are
9
s

J (s-so)*

the

are

wire

+ a2

observation

the

unite

contour,

is the

incident

plane

(x o y on figure

and

tangent

is

the

source

points,

vectors,

wire

radius

c
and

is
O zi

field.

The

parallel-

the

joined

plane

two

space-time

approximated
the

domain

(Fig.

rectangular

because

treated

presents

plates

plates

this

frequency

determine

triangular

conducting

have

simulator

where

to+
of

important

TEM and higher

paper

be

explo-

that

between

via

to

from

it is very

authors

of the

to

in a transmission

differencies

in terms

of two

grids

the

Then

(1)

appro-

a nuclear

different

wave.

that

wavefront

The field

quite

simulator

field

from

theoretically

domain

The

is

Most

generally

sides

atmosphere.

determine

problem

E.M.P.

traveling
distance

traveling

fields.

of

plane
some

simulator

a plane

an

an electromagnetic

expected

line

of

plate.
by
is

wire
large.

of

the

wire

image
obstacle

account

the

considerations
used

in

function

rnethod
(the

which

size

effect
(cf.

of the wave
In

the

of a perfectly
I) introduces

is

of

the

III),

our treatment

assumed
approach

presence

following

this
form

conditions

usely
twice)

to
For

the

application

modifies

ground.

to
operator

conducting

the

image
modifie

the

take

into

numerical
method
the

is

Green

[3] [4] .
the

integral

takes

p(s,t)

360

a~ (s,,r)

= +f0

3.&

Z.-d*a1
_-J.& mar (So$)- c R*2
5

(SoJo*) - c*

&e,t)

&

- 4%

aI
R z

(soJo)

+ c $* $-(so,to)

. $0

- using

R*

t*_t_0

so*

Ea(s,t)

of source,

and zo* in

vector

is the

sould

the

be introduced

are

deduced

field

related

For

example

the

magnetic

knowledge

electric

III - NUMERICAL

1)

- reducing

the

scattered

fields

of the

field

is

and
the

effect

by

ters

are analysed.

given

(3).

of

step

is

wires

constitued
into

basis

Similar

is
in

the

segment

in terms

bouring

segments.

representation
choosed

to

(2)

and

and

the

solution

procedure
rical

equation
means.
spatial
time

current

in

and
and

the

thin

for

these

one

for

the

and

the

Finally

is obtained

using

a time

accuracy
how

by

are

equation

account

the

of

presence

(2)

perfeclty

in

the

computer

substantially
to

take

into

conducting

plane.
Morever
allowed
3081

by
IBM)

the
being

the

storage

computer

(5500

limited

line

for

every

user,

on

time

on the

middle

ted

an

some

is

by : T N 2.19/b,

excited

on the

and the

by : A 2 0.69101.

and field _____

distribution

dependance
wire

Figure

of

near

the

2. The

induced

current

generator

shape

is presen-

of the

transient

is conserved.
Figure

the

currents

for different

shows

space

pulses

along

values

- The distribution
along

of the

shape
the

the

Ex(P,t)

are

presented

(x

observed

on

as

(Fig.

the

shown

Ey(P,t)
for

values

middle

6.

wire,

4) observed
m)

metallic

region,

shape

the

current

line

conical

spherical

snapshots

of time.

transverse

typical

I)

parame-

- exp (-I%)]

Current

and

front

has

Figure

EZ(P,t)

P (x = 6 m,

the
[S].

wave
in

has

plates

5 where
components

y = 2 m,

1 m).
- On

the

given

in

Figure
the

sphericity

requirement
Koctets

IV-l.

of

Secondly

of some

(Fig.

conical

is defined

- The

- In

numerical

the

requirement

numeintegral

rates

domains,

[31, [51 using

stepping

the

sampling

reduced

form

of the

well

approximated

storage

in the

presented.

simulator

at half-height

- The
the

matrix

results

are

voltage

The rise-time

voltage

interpolation

on

neigh-

polynomial

[21.

the

time

in the

take

temporal

to

: A = 1.05 V

with

time.

and

order

Lagrangian

give

matrix

modification

V(t) = A rexp(-at)

width

scheme

space

values

the

segments.

applied

second

of

expressing

equations

to

set

interpolation

used

been

order

of

of current

depends

has
In

division

also
an

[2]. Clearly,

solution

first

of

uses

be

(3)

the

each

[61 is

(1)

(3),

segments.

is

step

-to express

(Z),

defined,

segmentation
second

the

elementary

Ns

current

unknown

is

by

functions

The

equations

typical

The

CONSIDERATION

solve

field

areas

working

currents.

by a transient
To

(x o Z

IV - RESULTS

and

electric
the

the program:

of simulator

to the

voltage.

from

into

symmetryeproperties

Some
The

(3)

& } dso

matrix.

applied

transient

(+
0

, Fig.

plane

is the imagepoint
the unite

$-

(S0 t 0 *) - C* &
modifications

- s *) + a2

(2)

: R* = J(s

(so,) dr 1 dso

as

- GK * ai
at +(S00t *) - C&R
where

O* ar

RS

dt

g0

line

A slight

be
the

electric

longitudinal

of the

can

region

6 the

wave

observed.
wave

inclinaison

is

field

plane

in the

Morever
practically

of the

(x

conical

lines

are

z).

The

transmission

in

the
a

Ev component

working

plane

one.

appears

- 361

65

-2

-1.5

-I

0-z

Simulator
Fig.l-Schematic

diagram

of

Simulator.Wires

radius:lcm.

the

Fig.b-Transverse
current

on

the

LI

10 wires
distribution

transverse

simulator

of

line

x=6m.

10 wires

V(t):z=Sns,A=150nd.
P:x=6m,y=2m,z=lm
Fig.2-Induced
wire

segment

current
near

on one

the

middle

generator.

Fig.5-The

time-dependent

components

in the

E field

conical

region.

(V/m):

Simulator

10 wires

Fig.G-Electric
regionsfor

Fig.3-Current
along

the

space

middle

snapshots

wire.

field

lines

t=190ns.Simulator
V(t):t=lOns,A=200ns.

in

0.0626
c--)

the two
6 wires.

362

pI \ \ \

I I \\\
1 I \\\
j 1 \ \

2m
i *lmI

x=53m

I I 1 \

'

Simulator:...20

Fig.?-Transverse
in the

electric

working

Simulateur

region

for

Fig.lO-Effect

lines

transverse

t=212ns.

the

6 wires.V(t):r=lOns,A=2OOns.

2-r

wires

---22

fields

of

t=46ns

electric

conical

wires I
added

wires

field

on

the

lines

in

region.

IhlW~mFl)

x=6.3m

Simulator:

x=6m
mT$v,m

WY
ground

0734Vfm
-

t=3*.5ns

'f

t
1

-2

-1

y(m) I

Yll,
,....I....1

-2

-1.1

..I...

-I

-.a

cr:constant
Fig.8-Wires
transverse

..I*

.a

current

number

Simulator:(l)with

on

transverses

wires.

(6 wires)

transverses
[(2) without
Fig.ll-Transverses wires
effects

region

effect

current

1.5

the

trically

connected

to

the

wires.
elec-

longitudinal

distribution.
one,on

the

transverse

current

distrib-

ution.

tz

I(&)

Added

Simulator:20

x=6m

22 wires==Fig.9-Effect
the

transverse

of added
current

wires

on

6 wires

wires

wires+++

Simulator

! I ,! 1 \ \

I- I I I

distribution.

with

----

without

Fig.lZ-Transverses
field

homogeneity

transverses

ground
ll.61
I",m

wires

transverses

wires

wires

effects

on

the

in the

conical

region.

363

on the

Figure

tinuity

of the

simulator

_ The

electric

field

vertical
the

6, witch

plane

Figure

observed

(x
7.

near

provides
shape

the

(France)

discon-

prOjeCtiOfls

m)

are

in

presented

inhomogeneities

be

Dl DAFIF

can

dependent

on

on Figure
bution

[8]
the

of

increasing

effect

of

the

is

analysed.

the

as

slight

inhomogeneity

on the

field

- The

near

The

more

can

be

on

seams

is

observed

But

de
a

(Fig.10)

inside

electrically

ones;

in the

Figures

the

the

conical

11

and

is

a field
effects

working

12.

slightly

uniformity
on

the

region

field
remain

V - CONCLUSION

been
in

developed
a

treated

wave

using

application

in

the

of

describe

EM

field
is

results

problem

solved

directely

program

distribution

in

was

and

techniques

Computer

has

propagation

The

formulation

numerical

which

approach

pulse

simulator.

domain.

transient

experimental

domain

a rigorous

time

simulator

time

to

guided

by

the

space

good

gives

inside

agreement

the
with

[7].

REFERENCES

[II

Transient
ed

EM field

: LB FELSEN.

New-York
121 MILLER
G.J.
for

Topics
Vol.

E.K.,

time

[3] DAFIF

POGGIO

domain
Journ.

Verlag.

equation

analysis

filaires

and

A.J.

of

thin

of Camp. Physics

0. and JECKO

des structures
~011. nat.

Physics

(1976).

An integrodifferential

trures

in Applied
10. Springer

B. Diffraction
en presence

sur la Compatibilitk

BURKE
technique

wire

I2-24-48(

struc1973)

dIEM par
du sol 2e

EM.Trigastel

de

dondes

des

presence

de

Aspects

regime

cycle

structures

en

Universite

0.

en

3eme

electromagne-

par

quelconques

DAFIF

Ann.

pp.215-225(1983).

doctorat

(1983)

impulsion-

mitalliques

transitoire

Nationales

des
dIEM

Limoges

numiriques

transitoire

Microondes.

Jour-

Toulouse,

juin

contrat

champs
a

ligne
no413

EM c&s
de

dans

transmission

103

01

un simulaRapport

DGA/DRET/CEG

(1984).
CSI MEIXNER

J. The

fields

edges

Antennas

to be studied.

diffraction

la

teur

quite

9.

distribution

But

B.,

de

[7] Etude

was

modification

effects

the

[61 JECKO

EM

1982.

inter-

wire,

Figure

introduce

large.

homogeneity

the

distribution
the

current

and

region

of
middle

longitudinal

shown

transverse

modified

8),

de

formes

n8-83

sol.

&es

The

on

wires

to the
is

region,

(France).

wires.

transverse

connected

current
shown

du

number.

-These

de

shown

(Fig.

obstacles

de la diffraction

distri-

uniform.

simulator.

transverse

important,

wire
region

modification

to a 20 wires

as

dondes

Vol. 38 n05-6,

en regime

filaires

quite

plates

the

is almost

iS

wires,

current

spacing

added

of

to metallic

constant
field

0.

tiques

distribution

number

with

the electric

wire

the

8, and tends

Within

- The

current

des

Telecomm.

Etude

wires.

transverse

par

des

IV.2. Main parameters effects

- The

B. Diffraction

nelles

on

LI

juin 1983.

[41 JECKO

(x = 33 m).

vector
53

Some

the

from

65

of

behavior
I.E.E.E.

and Propagation,

for

elecromagnetic

Transactions
july 1972.

on

- 365

CALCULATION

AND MEASUREMENTS

ELECTROMAGNETIC

FIELDS

66

L2

OF TRANSIENT

IN EMP SIMULATORS

H.-D. Briins, D. Kijnigstein

Hochschule
Hamburg,

der Bundeswehr
West Germany

Summary
The method of moments was applied
to calculate transient effects-on two
different types of EMP-simulators,
which are located above a plane of
high conductivity. The simulators are
composed of a great number of thin
rods. A computer program was written,
based on an integral equation, which
can be derived from Maxwell's equations. In order to find a numerical
solution triangle functions were used
to approximate the currents along the
wires. A new method has been employed
to treat arbitrary thin wire juncfields
tions. First electromagnetic
were determined in the frequency domain. Then a Fourier transform technique was used to get the desired
transient responses in the time domain.

2. Calculation of Transient Fields and

Currents
2.1 Basic Theory
In order to fully understand the
following sections it is necessary to
give a short outline of the mathematical background, that is the basis for
all computer-calculations.
More details
can be found at [Il.
Starting point is
the following boundary condition

A lot of measurements were carried

out with different kinds of EMP-antenna arrangements. So it was possible to
compare measured and calculated results. The electric and magnetic
fields were measured by means of Dand'B-dot sensors respectively. A Tektronix waveform-processing
system
R 7912, combined with a desktop computer, allowed measurements and storage with a system-risetime
of 0.7 nanoseconds. It
is shown that there is a
good agreement between measured and
calculated results.

We assume that all conductors of the

structure are wirelike with a circular
cross-section, which is very small compared to the wavelength of the highest
frequency applied by the excitation
system (thin wire approximation).
Each
wire of the system is divided into a
certain number of segments or subdivisions, as shown in Fig. 1.

(I)
where

St,,

field,
region.

is the impressed

only acting
-+S

electric

in the generating

E tan is the tangential

compo-

nent of the field, caused by all the

charges and currents of the system under consideration.

1.

Introduction
EMP-simulators
nowadays are widespreadly used to test the shielding
effectiveness of electronic equipment.
A complete system can be divided into
several components. In detail we are
able to distinguish an exciting voltage source, an antenna, which, as far
as possible, has a matched termination
and a measuring system to record the
responses of the system under test. To
have a check of the measured results
or to optimize the antenna termination
it sometimes is desirable to calculate
the electromagnetic
fields, currents
and voltages at discrete points below
the simulator arrangement and on the
simulator rods respectively.

Fig. 1: Location

of subdivisions m and
n in Cartesian coordinates

Using equation (I) we are able to derive an expression for the voltage over
segment m due to the current in segment
n of the length AZ':

Um~=E;*h&*"em

lJ

= j,,

366

In this equation the same integral

types as in (2) can be found. Thus, no
further numerical solutions have to be
developed. The observation point is
the centre of a small segment of length
2*Al pointing in radial direction. The
derivative of the magnetic vector potential with respect to z has been replaced by a finite difference approximation. Applying inverse coordinate
transformations
and summing up all portions we get the H-field of the whole
antenna.

I(z')$(ro)dz'~~n*~m*ALm+

OAzl
-

,,,

dI(z')
--J,
dz'

with

(r_)dz

6(r) =1/4n*exp(-jkr)/r.

In order to simplify the mathematical

effort it is assumed that all the currents, whose influence on other portions of the wire structure shall be
calculated, are z-directed. Therefore,
it is necessary to carry out coordinate
transformations
to treat the general
three-dimensional
case.
The method proceeds by approximating
the current distribution by a linear
combination of elementary expansion
functions with unknown amplitudes. Each
expansion function exists only over one
interval of the structure (method of
subsections). For example, a contiguous set of pulses covering each wire
have
can be chosen. Investigations
shown that triangular functions deliver
more accurate results with fewer functions per wave length. Inserting the
corresponding equations, we obtain a
short form of equation (2)
urn =

Zmn

In.

Zmn has the dimension

Generally, the investigated structures consist of arbitrarily oriented

and partially interconnected wires. In
order to treat wire junctions a special technique has been developed [21.
The method is based on the continuity
equations, which can be written as
K
C Ik=-

jw k",
C A{ X(b')de'

K=l

(7)

For w=O we simply have the Kirchhoff

current law. Using equation (7) it can
be proved that the expansion functions
have to be located in the proximity of
a junction as depicted in Figure 2. To
demonstrate the basic principle, an arrangement of three wires (K=3) meeting
in a common point was adopted.

(3)
of an impedance

and I, is the complex amplitude of the

nth triangular basis function. Furthermore, the resulting voltage at segment
m is a consequence of all N current
elements on the antenna:
urn =

N
c Zmn'In'
n=l
'

(4)

Finally, all mutual couplings are taken into account, giving a set of N
equations, which can be written in matrix form:

[VI

[zl

[II

(5)

The known current distribution, easily

obtained by means of matrix inversion
routines, is the basis of further computations such as electromagnetic
fields at fixed observation points or
voltages at lumped loads.
If we make use of a circular coordinate system, we are able to calculate the cp-component of the magnetic
field from a z-directed current element:
aAz
1
- $1
J I(z')$(r)dz'l M
H/--'-=pO
ap
AZ
F+&[

J I(zN(p+rz,zWz

AZ'

-J
AZ

I(z)q(p_,z,z)dzl

(6)

Fig.

2: Junction
wires

geometry

of connected

Every current portion, which contacts the junction, is split on the

other wires in the shown manner. An advantage of treating the junction problem in this way is that no assumptions
on the amplitudes of the involved currents or other additional constraints
are needed. Thus the method is ideal
for programming purposes.
Up to the present all the considerations were made with regard to the frequency domain. In order to get the desired transient responses in the time
domain, it is necessary to compute all
currents, voltages and fields for a sequence of increasing discrete frequency
values G(w) up to a limiting frequency
UC. All the complex system responses
are multiplied by the corresponding
values of the spectrum of the exciting
voltage H(w). Subsequently, an inverse
Fourier transform is performed by means
of the following equations

f(t)

1 UC
= y Jo (R(u)cosut

F(W)

= H(W)

- G(O)

- X(W).sinot)dw

= R(W)

+jX(w)

361

(8)
(9)

2.2 Application to EMP-simulators

As the intention was to calculate
transients with rise times tr of only
a few nanoseconds frequencies up to 300
MHZ must be considered. On the other
hand one has to choose a certain fundamental frequency, so that all muliple
reflections during one half period
have been damped to zero. The described
relationship between fo and tr is the
reason for the fact that often several
hundreds of system responses have to
be determined. Thus some methods to
reduce the computational effort were
introduced.
First an interpolation scheme to obtain the responses in the frequency domain has been employed with great success. Investigations have shown that
there was no necessity to compute the
values of the fields and currents for
all frequency steps, but only for every
second or third step. The lacking system responses can be calculated subsequently by spline interpolation taking
only a comparatively small amount of
computer time.
Most EMP-simulators consist of rods
or wires, which carry the same current
distribution. Therefore, we can utilize
the symmetry involved in many arrangements to increase the speed of computations. Furthermore, there is no need
to calculate all mutual interactions
with the same degree of accuracy. If
the distance between two subdivisions
increases, comparatively simple and
time-saving formulas can be used.
It is a well known fact that a certain number of current basis functions
per wave length is needed to achieve a
stable numerical solution. As a consequence a frequency-dependent automatic,
computer-controlled segmentation of all
simulator rods was introduced. Usually,
in the lower frequency range the number
of current amplitudes is small compared
with the situation at the highest frequency, which is taken into account.
For every step the matrix [Z] has the
minimum order.
2.3 Determination of transient signals
Measurements were used to verify the
validity of the theory outlined above.
The transient measurements of nanosecond pulses were made by broadband
probes, each of which had an electrically small size. All probes were
mounted on a highly conductive ground
plane made of copper and were connected
to 50Ginstrumentation via low-loss
coaxial cables. For physical reasons
the probes are only able to measure
the time derivative of the fields and
are commonly referred to as D- or Bdot sensors. Due to the mentioned fact

66

L2

it would be a great advantage to compute the sensor output voltages in a

direct way. To reach this aim the geometries of the two mentioned sensor
types were modelled by rods with small
radius. The D-dot sensor only consists
of a short vertical cylindrical monopol. A 50R-resistor located at the basis represents the impedance of a standard 5OR-cable, to which the measuring
device is attached.
The B-dot sensor was formed of 6
rods in the shape of an inner and an
outer loop (see Fig. 8). The outer loop
is a relatively thick rod with a narrow
gap at one upper side. The thick conductors operate as a shield to minimize
the influence of the transient electric
field. For all parts the thin wire assumption is fulfilled.
3. Measurement setup
Fig. 4 shows the configuration of
the measurement setup which was used
for the practical measurements of the
fast transient pulses in the different
simulator arrangements. It consists of
two main components. First the R 7912
Transient Digitizer, capable of capturing fast transients with a minimum
duration of 5 ns with a resolution of
512 by 512 points. Second, a desktop
computer hp 9825 for digital signal
storage and processing. The equipment
was located in a shielded cabin,
approx. 10 m from the simulator.
The measuring signal from the sensors is transmitted to the 7 A 29 amplifier by 15 m of low-damping coaxial
cable. This results in an overall stepresponse time of the system of 730 ps
as shown in Fig. 3. A separate triggering cable from the source enables precise time determination between the

loo+---+-----+&m------

II

4
time (ns)

Fig. 3: Measured step-response of measuring system including 15 m

signal cables
(source: 250 ps)
1: picture of oscilloscope trace
2: presentation after signal
processing

- 368 -

signal-cables

trigger-cable

*----;Source

firing
Shielded
Enclosure
._

.-.-.

Plotter
Time Base
e

7 B 92

7 A 29

hp
7470
1
.

L
l

R 7912 Transient
Controller

Digitizer
z
)
Memory

Display

hp 9825 A

16 Bit
I

DMA

Unit
Interface

Magnetic
Tape
(100

Signals
Floppy

Fig.

4: Configuration of fast transient

pulse measurement setup

different measuring positions. The Memory Display Unit allows repetitive

display of the once captured transient
signal and visual display on an oscilloscope screen. Voltage, pressure and
firing of the impulse voltage source of
the simulator is controlled by a pneumatic control and can thus be handled
from the shielded cabin.
The once captured transients are
transferred to the computer together
with the zero-line of the trace and
processed to get the middle value of
the original trace. The curves can be
plotted as shown in Fig. 3 or stored
for later evaluation. A floppy disk
supplies a variety of programs for presentation, integration, differentiation,
comparison, stretching, and other kinds
of signal processing.
4. Examples of investigated EMP-simulators
A graphical presentation of two investigated arrangements is given in
Fig. 5. Both simulators (further on
called type I and type II respectively)
are pulse excited by means of a pressurized spark gap connec,ted to a
charged coaxial cable (20 kV). The total extension of this source is fitted
to the requirements, outlined in section 2. The diameter of the simulator
rods were 8 mm (type I) and 6 mm (type
II). Simulator II consists of rods
which branch out at one point 12 cm
above the ground plane and slightly
rise until they reach a height of 80 cm.
Then they parallely descend to the
ground plane. At the end, each of the
rods carries a resulting resistance of
600 ohms as depicted in detail in

,*
I
Disk 9885

Fig. 5. The lower resistor may be replaced by a 50 ohm cable in order to

measure the current.
The other simulator is terminated by
only one resistor. The working volume
is bounded at the upper side by 5 horizontal rods of 125 cm length.
At different positions below the antennas, sensors are located to analyze
the transient performance.
-

_I-,---

I----

Fig.

\-

320cmM

5: Dimensions of presented
lator arrangements

simu-

369

5. Comparison of measured and calculated results

5.1 Simulator type I
Some interesting examples of measured and calculated signals are presented in this chapter. Generally one
can say that the bandwidth of the measured signals (500 MHz) is higher than
the maximum frequency used for the calculations, which was up to 300 MHz to
save computation time. To compute the
true risetime of the measuring system
(.7 ns) one would have to use frequencies around 1 GHz for Fourier synthesis. On the other hand, the measured
signals have the disadvantage to show
any noise or crosstalk caused by weak
signal coupling to the simulator and
not by the field signals. So one has
to compare and interpret the curves
carefully to find out the true influences. On the other hand, control of
measurement by computation and vice
versa is a very helpful tool.

66

L2

3
z

"0

lo

Fig.

20

30

40

50 60
time

70 80
(ns)

7: Measured D-dot signal (1) and

integrated electric field
strength (2) at position
x = 425 cm (simulator type I,
source: 20 kV, 2 ns)

Fig. 8 proves the possibility of

modelling and computing the output signal of a B-dot probe consisting of
short cylindrical rods.

Fig.

.-.
a
(2)

time

(ns)

6: Calculated output of D-dot sensor at position x = 425 cm (1)

and principle of sensor modelling (2) (simulator type I,
source: 1 V, 3 ns)

Fig. 6 as a first example shows the

calculated output signal of a simulated
D-dot sensor which was modelled in the
computer program as a short cylindrical
rod terminated by 50 ohms. One can see
the typical reflections of a not terminated simulator and the travelling time
of the wave to the termination and back
to the measuring position.
Fig. 7 shows a pretty good agreement
of the measured signals with small differences that can be noise or the influence of elements 'not considered in
the computation. The D-dot sensors that
were used have the shape of small conical monopoles matched to the cable impedance as described by King [31. In
the considered frequency region no significant difference to a short cylindrical rod could be observed. The integrated curve presents the electric
field strength at the measuring position. The method of numerically integrating the D-dot signal proved to be
much better than using hardware integrators, as the D-dot signal level is
more insensitive to noise and no integrator discharging time constant has to
be considered.

r=50R

150
120
90
time (ns)

180

Fig. 8: Calculated output of B-dot sensor at position x = 200 cm (I)

and principle of sensor modelling (2) (simulator type I,
source: 1 V, 3 ns)
The measurements with this type of
probe and comparison with a commercially available B-dot sensor showed a good
agreement between both types and the
calculation.
5.2 Simulator type II
For this type of simulator some computed signals are selected for presentation which can be derived directly
from the computed electric and magnetic
field or the currents in the used wire
elements. Fig. 9 shows the magnetic and
the electric field strength at a position 438 cm from the source of the
simulator. It is obvious that the choosen termination resistance of the simulator is nearly equal to the intrinsic
impedance of all simulator wires as the
first peak of the field strength has
nearly the same amplitude as the final
value. On the other hand, reflections

- 370 -

do occur from the termination resistors

which are mounted at a distance of 174
cm from the considered point. This results in a length of the first peak of
approx. 10 ns. The conclusion is that
the single wires which are terminated
with equal resistors are not matched
individually in this case. This will be
shown better in Fig. 11. The initial
relation between E- and H-field is the
intrinsic impedance of the free field
but this changes after the first reflection, when the current in the inner rods rises and the voltage drops
respectively. Fig. IO shows the actually measured D-dot and E signals that
are in pretty good agreement with the
computed values and show the same characteristics.

5 5..
:'
5

o 'i

'34

68

102 136 '170

'204,

CI-1

34

68

Fig. 9: Computed
tric (2)
sition x
type II,

102

136
170 204
time (ns)
magnetic (1) and elecfield strength at po= 438 cm (simulator
source: 1 V, 3 ns)

In the next figure the currents in

the individual termination resistors
of the separate rods are shown derived
from computation and measurement. For
the outer rod the value of 600 ohms is
good matching to its individual intrinsic impedance, while the middle and the
inner conductor need a higher value for
correct matching. From the relation between first value and next sten of amnlitude the correct matching resistor _
can easily be determined.

160
2 0
time (ns)
Fig. 11: Computed (A) and measured (B)
currents in termination resistors at outer (I), middle (2)
and inner (3) conductor (simulator type II, source: 1 V,
4 ns (A)/ 50 V, 250 ps (B))
0

20

40 60 80 100120

6. Conclusion
The method of moments combined with
triangular functions of currents and a
new method of wire junctions treatment
was used for the computational analysis
of EMP-simulator arrangements. Two
types of field probes were simulated in
the computer program and manufactured.
Using a fast transient pulse measuring
and processing system, the magnetic and
electric field strength and their time
derivatives and the current in the
termination resistors were determined.
Control of measurements by computation
and vice versa proved to be a helpful
tool for the interpretation of the true
transient behavior of a system under
test. This will ease the design of simulator arrangements, impulse voltage
sources, termination resistor values
and positions as well as the construction of simple field probes.
7. References
111 Harrington, R.F.: Field Computation
by Moment Methods. The Macmillan
Company, New York 1968

-'O

[21 Briins,H.D.: Berechnung der StromII

10 2Ov 30 40 50 6@ 70 80
time
(ns)

90

100

Fig. IO: Measured D-dot signal (1) and

integrated electric field
strength (2) at position
x=438 cm (simulator type II)

belegung auf dreidimensionalen

Stabantennenstrukturen. AEU,
vol. 38, No. 4, 219-226, (1984)
i-31 King, W.P.: The conical Antenna as

a Sensor or Probe. IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat., vol. EMC-25, 8-13,

(1983)

- 371

EMP SIMULATION

67~3

BY PULSE

INJECTION

bY

Torbjijrn Karlsson,

GiSran Und&

and Mats Gylemo

FOA
Box 1165, S-581 11 Linkgping,

Abstract
In order to meet the demand for EMP
,hardness validation, FOA have within a
low
budget program developed a number
of test methods and test facilities.
With relevant analytical support simple
pulse injection technique have proved
to be an effective instrument for validation tests. In the paper a number of
illustrative experiments are presented.
Tests on feed-thru capacitors, filters
and a power plant have been carried out
to demonstrate the applicability of the
pulse injection equipment.
The presentation of each experiment
is concluded by a detailed discussion
of the results.
Introduction
Current injection in order to simulate EMP effects is important as part
of the EMP validation process. While
being the predominant test method during the development phase or the construction period of a system, pulse injection has not been considered useful
for hardening verification tests. However, if it is used in conjunction with
free field simulation and well designed
supporting analyses, pulse injection
techniques promise to emerge as suitable tools for system testing during the
production and the deployment phases as
well.
With the objective of attaining a
useful technique for pulse injection
into buried structures and other large
objects not suited for tests in EMP
simulators, FOA have developed a number
of test methods. It is important to
remember that the assessment of EMP
hardness generically always include
analysis, even if only to scope the
test. We want to show how an integration of simple empirical and analytical
approaches emerges as a really useful
technique for EMP hardness validation.
Test of cable entries
The hardening of electronic equipment is preferably accomplished by the
method of controlled EM topology. Long
lines and cables need penetration

Sweden

treatment at the boundaries in order to

prevent the comparatively
large induced
EMP current from damaging internal
electronic equipment. In order to keep
the EMP hardening costs to a minimum
level the use of standardized hardening
components is desirable. The evaluation
of cable penetrations for approval
requires a reliable test facility which
FOA have accomplished by assembling
ordinary standard components.
The pulse generators used were simple
laboratory models.
Pulse injection using a coaxial line
In order to evaluate the quality of
EMP hardened cable entry vaults, we use
a simple injection line consisting of a
steel tube in the center of which the
injection cable is located. This configuration constitutes a coaxial line
with a characteristic
impedance in the
100 R range, depending on the diameter
of the inner conductor.
At one end of the tube, a pulse is
injected into the cable while at the
other end the tube is circumferentially
connected to the shield around the
cable entry. Experiments show that this
device is useful for testing both hardening design and components used in
the installation.
Steel

cabinet

Steel

cabinet

Fig.1:

Pulse

Measurements

injection

facility.

acquired:

0 pulse generator voltage

o current on the cable close to
the cable entry
o residual voltage inside the
shielded cabinet

"g
I
"r

To avoid parasitic oscillations the

coaxial line is backterminated
at the
generator.
Validation

tests of hardening

components

Simple pulse injection experiments

combined with relevant analysis have
proved to be an effective tool for
validation tests in a low budget program.
FOA have carried out a series of experiments which demonstrate the importance of a topological good hardening
design. In this chapter, we present two
experiments that will illustrate high
performance protection using standard
components. At the same time the versatility of the pulse injection equipment is demonstrated.
Hardening by using coaxial feed-thru
capacitors
Using ordinary feed-thru capacitors
installed in the topological barrier is
an excellent method of controlling low
frequency cable penetrations, particularly power entries. The important feature is the virtually nonexisting high
frequency coupling between the conductors on different sides of the shield,
which is impossible to achieve by using
pigtails.

Boundary--D:

372

In a real EMP hardening situation a

power cable is always connected to three
or four capacitors, one on each conductor. Supposing a balanced cable, the
induced current from an EMP is almost
equally distributed between the different conductors, which means that the
capacitors are coupled essentially in
parallel.
In our case, a total current according to figure 4 was injected into the
cable. All conductors were assembled
together at the cable entry and connected to one capacitor only.

Fig.4:

Incident

current

I.

A comparison between our injected

current and a current in one conductor
induced from an EMP estimated by Vance
[ll
indicates that our injected pulse
is not far from threat level,
The residual voltage calculated from
the theoretical model given by the equivalent circuit (fig.3) has the shape
of a double exponential pulse. As expected, measured values turned out to be
in good agreement with those calculated.
The results are assembled in the figure
below.

Fig.2:

Coaxial

f eed-thru

capacitor.

Two different coaxial capacitors

conformable to the illustration were
tested in the above mentioned pulse injection line.
A lumped element model of the whole
test set up is demonstrated by the
equivalent circuit diagram in figure 3.

X .

Calculated
values

Microseconds
---------7

R.3

Ir---k-T

Fig.3:

r-!---l

Test set up, equivalent

circuit.

Fig.5:

Residual
only).

voltage

V,. (Capacitors

The risetimes of the residual voltage are significantly longer than

those of the incident pulse. Risetimes
measured in the order of microseconds
demonstrate that the feed-thru capacitor has the important quality of being
impervious to the high frequency components that are characteristic
of EMP
spectrum.

In order to avoid isolation break

down in an open-ended capacitor caused
for example by a very long pulse, a diversive element has to be coupled parallel to the capacitor. The effects caused by the diversion of a varistor or a
surge arrestor, respectively,
are shown
as a reduction of the residual voltage
in figure 6.

Fig.6:

Residual voltage
value 0.5 vF).

373

67~3

adapted telephone cable using the pulse

injection facility. After analysis of
the filter was modified
deficiencies,
accordingly.

V, (Capacitor
Eig.7:

The late time behaviour reveals a

noticeable difference between the performance of the two nonlinear components. When using the varistor, the
decay time constant is not significantly changed because of the comparatively
high impedance in the varistor. On the
other hand, an activated surge arrestor
decreases the effective load impedance,
thence decreasing the decay time. Since
this will result in a reduction of the
penetrating energy, the combination of
a feed-thru capacitor and a surge
arrestor appears as a penetration
treatment to be preferred.
An elucidative measurement was
carried out which increased our understanding of the physics behind the activation of the surge arrestor. The
voltage of the capacitor was measured
on both sides of the shield. At early
times, the voltage on the outside could
reach several kilovolts while the voltage at the same time on the inside was
still in the 10 volt range. This high
voltage transient due to inductance in
the bolt caused the surge arrestor to
break down, contributing to the diversion of the current, although the voltage on the inside never reached the
static break down level of the arrestor.
The unique ability pertaining to coaxial feed-thru capacitors of breaking
the high frequency coupling was thus
demonstrated in an illustrative way.
Hardening by using filter modules for
ten telephone pairs
The same protection princinle is
applicable to all kinds-of low frequency penetrations including telephone
cables. In the hardening design,
though, a practical approach implies
the integration of protection devices
in a filter module. A new design of
such a module (fig. 7) was validated
by injecting a surge current into an

Filter module
pairs.

for ten telephone

The EMP protective device is of a

hybrid type construction consisting of
a combination of rare gas tubes and
filters. A design objective was to
achieve a convenient method of installation with several modules stacked together. The module was the object of
two, approximately double exponential
current pulses with different risetimes,
5 ns and 25 ns respectively.
In both
cases, the peak value was 1 kA and the
half time pulse length was 0.5 vs.,
The residual voltage is shown in
figure 8. A remarkable result is the
decrease in amplitude for shorter risetimes of the incident pulse, the reason
being the decrease of energy coupled
into the filter before the striking of
the gas tubes.

Fig.8:

Residual

voltage

V,.

Oscillation frequency is a filter

characteristic
and, consequently,
independent of the pulse risetime.
An iterative procedure of modification alternating with validation tests
has been carried out and further modifications will follow. The most recent
result in the process of development
will be presented at the conference.

- 314 -

Pulse

injection

on a power plant

A pulse injection experiment was

carried out by FOA being the first in a
series of planned tests in order to
discover the EMP vulnerability
of certain power systems. The tests serve several objectives, including support and
validation of the analysis, actually
determining the system response and
providing system response data. The
particular purpose was to examine the
pulse transfer characteristics
of an
ordinary 84/7 kV transformer.
The generator used, delivered a low
level current pulse with a broad frequency spectrum. The current was injected
into three suspended copper wires connected to the aerial power line junction of the power plant. As a reference
plane and return path for the pulse generator, we used a wire netting. Pulse
propagation was studied both inside and
outside the power plant.
Power

Pulse

injection

on a power

plant .

The power switch gear and distribution conduits which in the building run
all the way down to the power transformer have the same effect on the propagated pulse as a low pass filter.
Registrations
of the current on both
sides of the transformer are presented
in figure 10.

Incidentcurrentil

r;~

Transferred
currenti,

~~~

0 12
3 4 s 6 7 8 910
Microseconds

Fig.10:

Conclusions
The integration of analysis and
simple test methods utilizing basic
experimental equipment has turned out
to be a highly valuable resource for
EMP simulation.
Simple laboratory models built up
within a low budget program constitute
the necessary foundation for the test
program. Fairly accurate results have
been obtained using a skilled staff
familiar with the special technique
pertaining to theese non-standarized
procedures which altogether appear as a
Cost effective way of EMP-hardening
validation.

station

Fig.9:

The short incident pulse gives a direct response seen as a spike at the
very beginning of the transferred
current before the low frequency oscillation becomes dominating.
For early times the transformer obviously attenuates the pulse one order of
magnitude which demonstrates the mainly
capacitive, high frequency coupling
thru the transformer.
The dominating current in the response
consists of a natural frequency oscillation built up by energy translated to
the internal distribution
system by several coupling mechanisms.
Being the first one of a series of
tests, this experiment has given valuable insight in the special properties
of large systems. It has also indicated
ways of procedure for analysing the EMP
vulnerability
of power systems.

012345678910
Microseconds

Currents on both sides of the

transformer. Relative measurements.

Reference
[ll Vance, Ed.: Coupling to Shielded
cables, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
1978, ISBN o-471-04107-6

375

68L4

A PORTABLE PROGRAMMABLE PULSER AND

HIGH-SPEED, LOG-WEIGHTED
PEAK-LEVEL
RECORDER
FOR DIRECT-DRIVE
TESTING
M. E. Gruchalla, A. J. Bonham, J. Gibson, P. G. Johnson
EG&G Washington Analytical Services Center, Inc.
Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA

Traditionally,
there have been two major
deterof direct-drive
testing:
applications
mination of damage level and susceptibility
to
in the
majority
of
These
tests,
upset.
have been conducted in a laboratory
programs,
environment on individual
system
modules,
or
In such a test
line
replaceable
units (LRU).
simulate
the
it is necessary
to
environment,
object
at least to the extent that
host
test
the unit under test is effectively
interfaced
This can be
in a proper operational
manner.
and time
a very costly
task both in material
Further,
in
each
LRU is quite unique.
since
many direct-drive
tests,
as
in verification
the
data
required
is
testing
for
example,
Detailed
limited
to the peak signal
levels.
waveform information
provided with traditional
requires
data
acquisition
systems
data
reduction
procedures
to reduce
the
acquired
information
to
that
desired.
This
often
causes a serious
delay in the availability
of
reduced
test data and further
increases
cost.
The application
of the
Portable
Programmable
allows
Pulser
the
direct-drive
source to be
taken to the test
object
where the
various
LRUs may be tested
in-situ
in their ideal
environments.
The
additional
operational
the
application
of
Peak-Level
Recorder
the
provides
immediate
real-time
data
on
waveform
peaks
allowing
rapid assessment of
accurate
response
and
instrumentation
adjustment
to optimum test
and acquisition
parameters.
The Portable

Programmable

Pulser

Traditional
direct-drive
testing
is genand often
reerally
a laboratory
procedure
special
power conditioning,
generation
quires
of very specific
signals
and responses,
total
environmental
control
(cooling,
etc.),
and in
mechanical
environments.
some cases specific
It is quite difficult
to provide these special
requirements
using
conventional
laboratory
test
equipment
for
any but
the
simplest
Test fixtures
are therefore
utilized
devices.
provide
the
critical
elements
of
into
terfacing
to the test unit.
Each unit
of
a
test
object
that is to be tested is
typical
generally
quite unique and requires
its unique
This requires
a special
support environment.
test
fixture
for
each
unit
to
be tested.
Since there can be, and very often is, a large
test
number of units to test
in a typical
the
fabrication
of the required
test
object,

fixtures
can represent
a major expense in the
test program as well as a major time consuming
element in the schedule.
Once the
data
have been successfully
collected
in a typical
laboratory-type
test
environment,
the question
of
correlation
of
the
measured
response to the response
in the
actual
test
object
arises.
test
The
environment
is
obviously
much different
from
that of the actual host environment
in which
the
test
unit
normally
operate.
would
Therefore,
some type of extrapolation
must be
used
to
predict,
from the test results,
the
actual response
to
be expected
in a real
operational
environment.
This is relatively
simple
in some cases,
but
quite
of ten
significant
controversy
arises
as to
the
actual best method of correlation
of the test
data to actual
in-system
response.
Another method of direct-drive
testing
is
the testing
of the various
units
in-situ
in
their
actual
operational
environment.
With
in-situ
testing,
all
the operational
requirements
of
the
individual
units
to be
tested are satisfied
without the need
of
any
special
test
fixtures.
Further,
there is no
question
as to the
correlation
of
the
test
response
of
a unit
to
that
in the actual
operational
environment of
the host
system.
However,
the
question
still
remains
as to
perturbation
caused
by
the
test
system
encroachment
and the overall
validity
of the
test in general.
Those questions
will
always
be present.
It
is
the purpose of the test
system designers
to
develop
instrumentation
that
is
as cost effective
as possible
and as
closely
satisfies
the needs
of
the
various
tests as possible.
The unique
operational
requirements
of
the
individual
elements of a test object
are
perfectly
satisfied
with
in-situ
operation,
but
the
requirements
of the test system must
also be considered.
If the test
system
must
be
significantly
more complex
than that
required
for laboratory
testing,
the overall
impact on the test could be negative.
This is
not
the case in the majority
of applications.
In direct-drive
testing,
it is the
intent
to
effect
testing
by means of
either
direct
injection
of current or direct
application
of
potential
to
the
various
identified
test
points.
Certain special
apparatus,
such
as
break-out
boxes,
are
of ten needed to allow
access to
the
test
points,
but
these
are
relatively
inexpensive
compared to the special

376
test fixtures
needed in laboratory
testing
and
be fabricated
as needed.
can often
Some
method of
driving
the
test points and some
method of data collection
is needed.
A great
many data
collection
systems,
such
as the
Peak-Level
Recorder
presented
below,
are
available.
from various
sources
typically
including
EG&G. The Portable
Programmable
Pulser
(PPP) system was developed by EG&Gto
address the test point driving
problem.
Since
the various drive requirements
are
generally
similar
from one test object
to another,
very
a relatively
universal
drive
system
can be
configured.
The basic limitation
on the drive
its drive capability.
system
is
This sets a
maximum limit
on the
peak current,
peak
potential
and total
output power available.
If the drive system
is
made too
large,
it
to be convenient
and cost effective
to
ceases
convey to the test object.
However, for total
drive
powers
on
the
order
of
several
a reasonably
convenient,
portable
kilowatts,
system can be configured
that
can provi.de
a
very
cost
effective
approach
to
in-situ
direct-drive
test.ing.
The development of
the
Portable
Programmable
Pulser
system at EC&G
was directed
specifically
to
the
needs
of
in-situ
direct-drive
testing.
System _l_Elements
_The EG&GPPP system, model number PPP-2,
consists
of
a Programmable
Pulse Generator
unit,
PPG-1, two 1 kW power amplifier
units,
APA-3A, and an optional
Sequencer,
SCU-2.
The
the system is approximately
total
weight
of
1500 lbs.:
600 lbs.
each
for
the
power
amplifiers,
250 lbs.
for
the
Sequencer.
Protective
covers
are
included
to
provide
adequate
protection
for
shipment via padded
van or other
similar
The basic
carrier.
system is shown in Figure 1.
Portable
Pulse
Generator.
The
Pro---II
-Pulse
Generatorunit,
PPC-1 , congrammable
sists
of a commercial
frequency
synthesizer,

Figure

1.

Portable

a high speed zero crossing

detector,
a damped
computer
for
and a dedicated
sine generator,
This unit
and communication.
control
system
panel
may be controlled
either
by front
unit,
or
by a
Sequencer
controls,
by the
all
functions
remote computer system.
Also,
the power amplifiers,
except for switching
of
from the
PPG
of mains power, are controlled
All programmed parameters are displayed
unit.
Also, all
on convenient
front panel displays.
whether programmed from the
these
parameters,
front
panel
or by remote
means,
may
be
interrogated
by the
Sequencer
or a remote
Other features
such as damped sine
computer.
over run warning as well as various
indicators
The communication
link to
also included.
are
computer
is
a
the
Sequencer
or remote
The use of
the
fiber-optic
RS-232
link.
communication
path reduces
the
fiber-optic
causing upset or
risk
of
unwanted coup1 ing
even damage to
the
test
system
and test
Although
designed
as an integral
object.
element of the PPP-2 system, the PPG-1 may be
as a stand-alone
unit with user-supplied
used
power amplifiers
and sequencing
system.
In
the
power
application,
however,
such
an
by the
amplifier
control
cannot be provided
Major features
of the PPG-1 are shown
PPG- 1 .
in Table 1.

Programmable

Pulse

Table 1
Generator

Major

Features

*Damped sine generation

- 10 kHz to 150 MHz fundamental
frequency
- 100 Hz resolution
- Qs from 1 to 19,999 depending on frequency
- Q accuracy
of +/- 5%
*Burst sine
- 10 kHz to 150 MHz
- 100 Hz resolution
- Interval
on of 2.5 ~3 to 25 seconds
- Duty cycle of 50s

Programmable

Pulser

System

Table

1 (continued)

*Repetition
rate
- 0.02 Hz to 200 kHz
- Accuracy of +/- 2%
*Psuedo random repetition
rate average repetition
rate -0.6 x selected
reoetition
rate
*Pulse count - 1 to 65,536
*Polarity
reversal
*External
trigger
*Pulse delay
*Cain - -60 dB
*Cain control
- -80 dB range
The PPP-2 system
is
Power Amp1if ier .
designed
to support two APA- power amplifier
The APA- power amplifier
Unit
iS a
units.
1 kW unit designed to deliver
1
conservative
The output
impedance,
kW to a 50-ohm load.
is 100 ohms to allow very convenient
however,
parallel
or push-pull
operation
into 50 ohms.
is
designed to drive any VSWR load
The unit
the
full
Also,
without damage to the unit.
of one APA- may be reverse applied
to
output
the output of another without
damage simplifying combined power amplifier
configurations.
The maximum current
available
into a short
circuit
is 7A peak and the maximum potential
available
to an open circuit
is approximately
Either of these values may be roughly
7oov.
parallel
or series
operation
doubled
by
depending on the drive desired.
The push-pull
provides
the
best
distortion
operation
performance
for
a given
output
power and
provides
a total output power of 2 kW into
50
ohms.
The APAmay also
be used as a
stand-alone
unit and may be operated
manually
from
its
front
panel
controls
or,
with
suitable
interfacing,
remotely
from a user
supplied
system.
Sequencer.
The SCU-2 Sequencer
is
a
comme~-computer
repackaged
for portable
use.
It includes
the
general
software
for
basic
system control
and monitoring,
but does
not include any application
software.
This
unit
allows total control
of the entire PPP-2
system, except for
mains
power,
and allows
interrogation
of
the
various programmed parameters for accurate
logging
of
front
panel
entries.
Accessories
Various
accessories
are
generally
required
for the use of the PPP-2 system.
As
mentioned earlier,
such devices
as break-out
boxes
and other similar
units are test object
dependent
and must be identified
for
the
particular
test
object
and test
points
concerned.
Current drivers
are convenient
for
direct
injection
of
current
into
conductors
without
the need of breaking the conductor.
Often, only the harness
restraints
need
be
removed
to install
current drivers.
However,
the physical
size of the driver increases
with
the lower limit
of drive frequency
and maximum
power desired,
and for
frequencies
near
10
kHz ,
the
size
required
may be too great for
convenient
installation.
Other Applications
A general
purpose
system
such
as
the
PPP-2
is
not
limited
to
applications
in
direct-drive
testing.
It can essentially
be
used
in any application
requiring
a versatile
programmable RF source.
One such
application

377

68L4

The high output

is in the area of cw testing.
power coupled with the protection
against
poor
load
matching
results
in an excellent
driver
the
Further,
for the illumination
antenna.
and the
wide range of gain
programmability
convenient
means of
allow
a very
control
tailoring
of the response to specific
needs.
Log-Weighted

Peak-Level
--

Recorder

is
probably
the most
testing
Pulse
popular method of
performing
elecwomametic
the response of various
characterization
of
test objects
and systems.
However, the actual
the desired
information
data collection
of
environments
has always
been a
from these
Countless
data
acquisition
systems
problem.
and data links have been developed - each with
The majority
of
merits and shortcomings.
its
these systems have addressed
the
problem
of
the
desired
data
and
sensing
of
accurate
faithfully
communicating it out of the hostile
In this
respect,
the major
EM environment.
concern
has been with
data quality
and not
particularly
with data throughput.
Obviously
the primary importance.
data
quality
is
of
However, data
throughput
can be a serious
concern
due
to
of
testing,
the
cost
availability
of the test object,
and simulator
scheduling . Further,
in many types of testing
such as
verification
direct-drive
applications,
only
peak information
is needed and
that information
must normally be reduced from
the collected
data.
The Peak-Level
Recorder
was developed
to
provide rapid and accurate
peak-level
information.
In
applications
requiring
only peak data, no further reduction
is
required
for
access
to needed data.
In
conventional
data
acquisition
systems,
the
peak-level
information
allows accurate
setup
of the acquisition
equipment with a minimum of
trials
thereby improving data throughput.
Each data
collection
environment
is
unique
in
its
operation
and associated
problems.
However,
there
are
classically
several
things
that
limit
the overall
data
collection
rate
that
many tests
have
in
common. One major contributing
factor
to test
duration
is
the time required
to reconfigure
the test object
after each test
shot.
There
are
a number of
instrumentation
techniques
which could be applied here that could improve
the data rate.
A typical
example would
be a
single
data
link
with
multiple
multiplexed
inputs such as the EC&GODS optical
data links
which provide eight such inputs.
Since
only
one input at a time can be active,
one pulser
shot (at least)
is
required
for
each
input
instrumented
as for
any single
channel data
link.
The real advantage is in the capability
of instrumenting
a number of data points
with
a single
entry
into
the test object.
This
eliminates
the need to open the
test
object
for each data point that a specific
link is to
access.
This
can be a significant
advantage
with
test
objects
in which
a significant
amount of
time is required
for reconfiguring
the
data
links.
For example,
the ODS-68
system
can access 64 data points in a single
intrusion
into the test object.
The
reconfiguration
time,
although
somewhat equipment
dependent,
is also highly
a function
of test management and the type
of
test
object.
A
generally
more serious
limitation
on the data rate is the number of

each
test
needed
to
acquire
shots
pulser
This not only affects
the
data
rate
point.
site
cost since the pulser is
but al so the
lifetime
device
or at
general ,ly a limited
one with
a capability
of
a limited
least
service
major
between
pulses
number of
the
Reduction
of
procedures
or failures.
each
data
number of pulser shots to acquire
reduces
test
time
and
significantly
point
pulser degradation
during a given test.
There
result
in
are
two
basic
problems
which
shots
being needed for each
multiple
pulser
variability
and limited
pul ser
test point:
of the data collection
system.
dynamic
range
With contemporary pulsers,
the
PUlSer output
variability
is
low enough that it is within
tolerable
limits
for
good
data
collection.
Limited
dynamic
range
of the data system is
The range
almost always a limiting
factor.
which
typical
data
can vary, from the
over
test point least excited
to that most excited,
magnitude
is
generally
several
orders
of
greater
than
the
dynamic range available
in
Therefore,
typical
data collection
systems.
the
signal
level
must be adjusted
to fall
the
data
system.
within the usable range of
This
is
generally
accomplished
with
input
either
manual
or
attenuators,
remote
Some limited
success
has been
controlled.
obtained with logarithmic
amplifiers
but the
and the dynamic range is
stability
is
poor
generally
below the data range so attenuators
are
still
required.
It is not unusual to use
several
pulser
shots
to
get
an attenuator
properly
adjusted,
and if it is necessary
to
collect
several
data points in the
same shot
for
correlation
purposes,
a reasonably
large
number of shots,
perhaps five to ten, could be
used.
It would be ideal
if
the number of
shots
needed
to set the attenuators
could be
reduced to zero.
That would require
that
the
peak value
of
the
data be known reasonably
accurately.
Indeed, if the
data
were known
that
accurately,
many tests need not be done.
Another approach is to use one pulser shot
to
assess
the
data
peak of
each instrumented
point.
That peak information
can then be used
to set the corresponding
attenuators
allowing
good
data
quality
on a second pulser shot.
This
is
possible
due to
the
good
pulseto-pulse
performance
of
modern pulses,
as
mentioned
earlier.
This
then reduces
the
number of
pulser shots required
to acquire a
set of simultaneous
data points
to
two,
and
almost
all
sets
of
data
in a single
instrumentation
session
can be simultaneous.
There
are
of
course
anomalies
which on
occasion
require more than two shots
to
get
all
the
desired
data,
but
this peak level
technique
has proven to
be a very
valuable
tool in improving data throughput.
Peak Level Detecting
-There
are several
methods that
could
be
considered
for peak-level
detection
but first,
a brief
review
of
the actual
performance
needed would be valuable.
A key parameter
is
the
dynamic
range.
A value
of 40 dB is a
reasonable
minimum value since only
the
peak
value
is
of
interest
and not
waveform
structure.
Also,
both
polarities
must be
sensed although the sign generally
need not be
preserved.
Sign
of
a peak, however, is one
additional
piece of information
that may have
some value
and could easily
be obtained
from

378

Speed
is
a
a peak detecting
instrument.
very
and
a
parameter
critical
second
A nominal 100 MHz capability
subjective
one.
adequate
for
the range
Of
generally
is
interest
in the
larger
experimental
Sites.
The resolution
needed
is
a function
of the
A resolution
of 1 dB to
specific
data system.
3 dB will generally
satisfy
most requirements.
Finally,
the question of linear
or logarithmic
Almost without
response should be considered.
exception,
the data system scaling
is in some
way keyed to the dB parameter,
the attenuator
settings
for example, so it seems only logical
done
on
a
that
the
peak detection
be
Some reference
level must
logarithmic
basis.
logarithmic
chosen
for
the
then
be
An initial
value of 10 mV was
measurement.
chosen to compliment the data links with which
These
the prototype
was to
first
be used.
values are certainly
subjective
and subject
to
discussion,
but they do represent
a reasonable
starting
point
for
a peak detection
system.
These parameters are tabulated
in Table 2.

Initial

Table 2
Peak-Level Recorder

Design

*40 dB dynamic range for both positive

negative
polarities,
sign preserved
100 MHz response
*l dB resolution
*Logarithmic
response,
10 mV reference

Goals
and

level

Traditional
means
of
peak
capture
are
generally
based
on some form of analog peak
capture or some type of A/D flash
converter.
The analog
methods
suffer
from
both speed
limitations
and poor
response
flatness
with
frequency.
The conventional
flash converter
is less than desirable
due to its
need
of
a
trigger
to
capture the desired
data.
A high
speed memory could be used to
store
a large
amount of data from some trigger
point and the
peak extracted
after
the
shot.
However, a
reasonably
large memory would be required
as
well
as a high
sample
rate,
perhaps
500
megasamples per second for reasonable
100 MHz
information.
There
is
quite
a bit of work
being done in the industry on such A/D systems
and at
present
they
are
not
available
commercially.
In the development of the PLR system,
we
chose
to
use a variation
of
the
flash
converter.
A conventional
flash
converter
generally
incorporates
a single
comparator for
each
discrete
bit
value
in
its
operating
range,
a 4
bit
converter
requires
16
comparators,
a 12 bit 4096.
The desired
40 dB
dynamic
range
with
1 dB resolution
would
require
512 comparators
for each polarity,
or
a total
of 1024 comparators.
If the divider
were logarithmically
weighted only 80 comparators would be required.
However,
the
ladder
structure
of the conventional
flash converter
is not one consistent
with good high frequency
performance.
A transmission
line
conf iguration
provides
superior
performance.
A better
high
frequency
configuration
of
the
flash
converter
is
the
distribution
of
the
comparators
along
a terminated
transmission
line
separating
each
comparator
from
the
preceding
one with
a
163.
pad.
This
configuration
can provide
very
good
high

379

frequency
performance
as
well
as
good
accuracy.
One problem
encountered
was that
the
input
impedance
of
the
comparators
selected
was poorly
behaved with frequency.
This
required
a
reasonably
complex
compensation
network
and even then the upper
response was somewhat less than
that
desired
Each comparator
but
still
quite functional.
is arranged in a latching
configuration.
This
makes maximum use of the comparator speed
and
minimizes
the
total
number of
high
speed
With this
configuration,
components needed.
comparator
is
tripped,
in order, such
each
that all those below the highest tripped
will
Thus,
only
the
highest
also
be tripped.
determine
comparator tripped need be found to
This configuration
will retain
the
the
peak.
highest
peak applied
since
the last
reset
higher
occur
successively
peaks
whether
nanoseconds
or hours apart.
The 80 comparators are arranged
on four
individual
flash
converter
PC boards
each
containing
10 positive
sensing and 10 negative
An RF amplifier
is
also
sensing devices.
included
to
provide
a convenient
means of
frequency
compensation
on each flash converter
These are then
series
connected
with
card.
lengths
of
coaxial
cable
to form a dual 40
comparator long converter.
signals
from
output
the
80
The
are
applied
to an interface
card
comparators
where a dedicated
microcomputer
is
used
to
format the data to drive a front panel display
and for
transmission
to
a dedicated
host
computer in the system chassis.
The four flask converter
cards
and the
interface
card
are
housed
in a subchassis

Figure

7.

Peak-Level

68~4

which results
in a convenient
complete
flask
converter
module.
Each module
has a front
panel with
displays
for
both
positive
and
negative
peaks and a control
for manual reset.
Eight of the flash converter
modules
a.re
housed
in a chassis
unit, four in a master
chassis,
four in a slave chassis,
to
provide
an
eight
channel
system
capability.
The
individual
module
front
panels
form
the
individual
channel data dispiays.
A dedicated
computer
in
the
master
chassis
handles
communication
protocol
to both a front
panel
display
and
to
external
data
collection
equipment.
Either
RS-232
or
IEEE-488
communications
are
available
for external
data
transfer . The system may be controlled
either
from front panel controls
or remotely via
the
communication channel.
The dedicated
computer
contains
a
software
module which
also
calculates
the
attenuation
needed
in each
channel
for a given channel compression
level
and detected
peak.
That
information
is
provided
at
the
chassis
front panel display
for
immediate
use
and
to
the
remote
communication
link
for
automatic control
or
logging.
The complete PLR system is shown in
Figure 2.

Field Test Results

TheirstR
system
was fielded
and
after
a troubleshooting
and training
period,
it proved to be very
valuable
in
improving
data
throughput.
Data throughput improvement
of as much as a factor
of
five
and in
some
cases
even
higher
were
recorded.
The
completed system
met all
the
design
goals

Recorder

System

380
except
for
speed.
The speed of response is
limited
by the comparators.
A 70 MHz half sine
pulse is detected
3 dB low which
corresponds
to
a. 70 MHz, 3 dB band-pass.
The 70 MHz
limitation
did
not
present
any noticeable
limitations.
the
dynamic
range,
Also,
resolution,
and reference
level proved
to
be
very
good
choices
for
the particular
first
application.
The concept
of
logarithmic
response
interfaced
excellently
with
the
setting
of the attenuators.
In all
respects,
the
concept
of Peak-Level Recording provided
the performance expected and the prototype
was
considered
to be a complete success.
Other Applications
described
here
The PLR system
was
basically
developed as an aid to conventional
data acquisition.
However, in many cases
the
final
quantity
of interest
at the various data
points
is
only the absolute
peak signal.
In
those applications,
a PLR system and data link
would
be the only
data
acquisition
tools
needed
for
complete
peak data
recording.
Further,
in those
applications
where total
waveform
structure
is
desired,
a PLR system
could be used
in a pretest
evaluation
to
prioritize
the
data points in order of their
response peaks.
This information
could
then
be used both to rank the data points in or.der
of importance as well as to set the attenuator
values for the specific
data
points
as they
are instrumented
for test.

Conclusion
A very cost effective
solution
to directin-situ
testing
where the
drive
testing
is
unique operational
requirements
of the various
Further,
system units can easily
be provided.
remains
as to
the
little
or no question
correlation
between
the
test
response of a
response
in
its
actual
unit
and
its
operational
environment
since
the
two
This
environments
are
virtually
the
same.
type
of
a versatile
drive
testing
requires
unit which is both portable
and flexible
in
its
We feel
that
the PPP-2
capabilities.
system as outlined
here
satisfies
these
requirements
and offers
significant
advantages
to direct-drive
testing
in
terms
of
cost,
flexibility,
and test time.
Similar1 y,
a peak-level
recording
instrument
can prove an effective
addition
to a
This type
typical
EM data acquisition
system.
of
instrument,
when effectively
used,
can
provide
the
information
necessary
to collect
high quality
data with the minimum of
pulser
firings.
This improves both data quality
and
throughput reducing test time and subsequently
test cost.
Also, since a minimum of
pulser
firings
are
needed to acquire a given set of
data, pulser lifetime
is
extended.
Furthermore, in applications
where only the peak data
are desired,
a PLR system with a suitable
data
link is all that is required
for complete data
acquisition
further
reducing
test
cost and
complexity.

- 381

69L5

BLACK BOX BOUNDS

Carl E. Baum
Air Force Weapons Laboratory
Albuquerque, New Mexico USA

This paper applies time-domain norm concepts to bound the failure of a black box to
multiport excitation in terms of the failure
responses to single port excitation. Appropriate assumptions concerning the nature of
black
box
response
made
and
the
are
discussed.

1.

Introduction

In characterizing the interaction of electromagnetic fields with complex systems one

can make the problem more tractable if,
instead of trying to obtain the actual signals at various positions in the system, one
settles for something less detailed, in parRecently
ticular, bounds on these signals.
several papers have addressed this approach
[4,5,6,7], from the points of view of both
transmission-line
network theory
and the
scattering equations encountered in (quantitative) electromagnetic topology.
It is becoming clear that the concept of
norms plays a central role in bounding the
electromagnetic response of complex systems
CZJ31. The general interaction questions
[3,4] are conveniently cast in forms involving supermatrices which appropriate norms can
reduce to scalars.
The electromagnetic signals of concern
propagate "down" to the circuit level where
various undesirable effects can occur. These
effects are usually divided into two sets
designated upset and (permanent) damage.
In
this note we take some set of such circuits
which are physically grouped together into
what are often termed "black boxes" which are
in turn typically interconnected by signal
transmission lines (wires, waveguides, etc.).
Characterizing such a black box as an Nport network the N signals (considered independent) are cast in the form of voltages and
currents, or equivalent voltages and currents
for cases that the signals are in the form of
more general electromagnetic waves (modes).
In this form black-box terminals are put in a
form compatible with the equivalent voltages
and currents presented to them by the rest of
the system in the format of transmission-line
network theory or electromagnetic topology.

2.

Black-Box Characteristics

For our purposes the common "black box" is

considered to be a network with N input ports
as indicated in figure 2.1. There are also M
internal "failure ports' Cl].
These are
indexed as
n = 1,2,...,N

(input ports)

m = 1,2,...,M

(failure ports)

(2.1)

The N input ports are assumed to be known a

priori. However, the number of failure ports
(M) may be a priori unknown as may be the
location of any or all of the individual
failure ports.
A failure port is defined as any port
(with two terminals) inside the black box
where some signal at this port can cause
failure. This is interpreted in the sense of
any change in the black box function or
capability to function resulting from some
signal there.
This includes any transient
upset (change of logic state) as well as
permanent damage attributable to the signal
driving the failure port.
Let the input signals be

F,(t) = a,f,(t)

(2.2)

where fn(t) is some appropriately normalized

waveform and a is an arbitrary (real) ampliHere tie F"(t) can be interpreted as
tude.
voltages, currents, or some linear combination of the two (such as combined voltages
C31). Let the response at the mth failure
port be given by

G,(t) =

(2.3)

,5, angm,n(t)

~~li~ee~il+i(t) is the response due to fn(t)

nth input port.
Of course, this
type of response assumes linearity, at least
for times of interest. Stated in vector/
matrix form the input is (F,(t)) giving a
response

(G,(t)) = (g,,,(t))

(a,,)

(2.4)

Now f,(t) might be any kind of waveform,

including a 6 function such as

- 382

input
port

t- 5
1

"1

failure ports
2

1
0
--

I1
t
2

. . . . . .

"2
0
-I2
.
.
.
.

.
I3

"2
-I3

Fig. 2.1.

fnH

Black box representation

= s(t - tn)

(2.5)

If t, is allowed to vary then gY,,(t) may

vary as a function of t, in a camp ex way If
If it is
the system is not time invariant.
time invariant then f,(t - tn) produces
gm Jt
- t,) and the two are related by a
Perhaps we might betcofivolution operator.
ter assume a certain set of piecewise timeinvariant states so that f,(t - tn) produces
gh'A(t - tn) during

system

state

T.

Wave-

fokms are not "allowed" to cross state boundaries (particular times). This can be stated
by (for causal functions)

gl\A(tj
,

(I$) (t))

= T,!,',!,(t)
0 fn(t)
,

(4(1)(t))
m,n
l

(an 1

o E convolution with respect to

time

x(t)

y(t) 3 IL x(t - t')y(t')dt'

-m

Thus far we have not specified whether

f,(t)
and gm ,(t) represent voltages or
currents or so?ne linear combination of the
this
is
purposes
For
present
two.

- 383

Table 2.1.

Terminations at input ports for

different kinds of singlewaveform excitation

Input-Port Waveform
fn(t)

Input-Port Termination for n' f n

voltage V

short circuit

current I

open circuit

combined voltage
V + ZI (incoming
wave) (measure both
V and I at nth input
port)
I__

impedance Z taken
as a frequencyindependent resistance (assures only
outgoing waves)

uGm(t)n

=> failure at mth failure port

(3.1)

L< 'rn=>

II
G (t )II
b

0 otherwise

llG(t)Itl E j-

-cQ

fG(t)\dt

(3.4)

llG(t)
Ila, 5 max G(t)(
t'

More generally the p norm is

Failure Norms
--

Now we need some measure of G (t) to

determine if failure occurs at the m& failure port. Remember Gm(t) could be a voltage,
current, or combined voltage; whichever it is
may not be important for present purposes.
Let us define some failure measure as a
norm 3

' rm

(3.3)
= 0 iff G(t) s or has zero
"measure" per the particular norm

Examples of norms might be

one will
unnecessary. However, for the f,.,(t)
eventually have to choose some form to perform the experiments involving sequential
single-port excitation.
The remaining input
ports will then have to be properly terminated as indicated in table 2.1.

3.

69m

non-fa lure at mth failure

port

Let us take system fa lure as

system failure <=> at least one failureport failure
(3.2)
system nonfailure <=> no failures at any
failure port

It will be further assumed that such a system

failure, whether upset or permanent damage,
will be observable, even if the particular
failure port or ports which fail are not
This observation might take the
observable.
form of a check of system logic states and/or
functional performance after the test of
interest.
Some questions are:
What is an appropriate form?
Do all failure ports have the same
norm?
Fortunately, if there are such a norm or
norms, these answers are not essential since
all norms (vector norms) have certain properties [8]
uuG(t)ll= Ial llG(t)ll
C(: scalar

llG(t)up= [ i_,

)W)lP

1I/P

dt 1

(3.5)

Here integration is actually over times for

which G(t) is significant.
In particular,
integration needs to be limited to times in
the Tth time-invariant
state of the black
box. Note that only real G(t) are considered
since we are dealing with physical timedomain sisnals.
If energy is the failure mechanism then
the 2 norm might be appropriate.
However,
suppose the failure mechanism is peak voltThen the failure mechanism may not be
age.
bipolar,
failure requires +l volt or
e.g.,
-10 volts
This difficulty can be overcome by defining
the experiment so that both G (t) and -G (t)
are produced (different tests7 from (FnTt))
and -(F,(t)) with failure in either polarity
defining failure-port failure.
Such norms
then apply to bipolar experiments.
Of
course, if G,(t) has equal positive and negaThis
tive peaks only one test is needed.
might be the case if the F,(t) were sinusoids
(of a common frequency) making the G,(t)
Practically this would require
sinusoids.
slowly and smoothly turning the exciting
Damped sinusoids are
sinusoids on and off.
more problematical.
Let us define a special kind of norm as a
time-invariant norm iff
iG(t - t,)u f function of tQ

(3.6)

Of course this is only meant to apply within

Note
a time-invariant state of the system.
norms
are
all
time
that
the
above
p
invariant.
The p norms in (3.4) and (3.5) have the
property that if the integration is truncated
one obtains a lesser value for the norm since
the integrands are positive semi-definite.

384

vary an (real) until a failure occurs at some

(perhaps unknown) mth failure port.
Determine the maximum (positive) a,, and minimum
(negative) a, for failure. Define

Stated another way, we can define

tf
IiG(t
)Ii

PJf

1 I__

(G(t))P

dt I
max

Z monotone non-decreasing
function of tf
(3.7)
which also applies to (3.4) by restricting
-w<t<t
If we have a failure at the mth
failure poF'
t we can define a time of failure
by

uGm(Wpt

= rm

(3.8)

fm

since
sGm(t)llp > r,

(3.9)

if failure occurs (from (3.1)).

can
m
be interpreted as a failure time for the mth
failure port.
In section 2 transfer convolution functions were defined relating Gm(t) to the
This
involves fundamentally the
fn(t)*
For our failure
assumption of linearity.
norms to apply it is only necessary for a
failure port (and the signal transport to it)
to be linear for times up to tf . After this
m
time the failure port will have failed, which
by assumption is detected as a box failure.
is irrelevant and
Stated another way t > tf
m
linearity for such times is not needed to
Even more generally
insure the result.
define

tf

Thus tf

min tf
1tmcM
m

Single-Port Tests

Suppose now that we apply F,(t) at the nth

input with all other inputs zero and terminated per table 2.1. Noting that

F,.,(t) = a,f,(t)
(4.1)
F,,(t) cz0

for n' f n

min

(4.2)

> 0 so no failure occurs

without an input
so that
A, = minimum IanI causing failure
anywhere within the black box
(4.3)
Note then that for all Gm(t) under the above
condition
IIGm(t.)lI
= Ia,g,,,(t)I!
= Ia,1 llng,,,(t)ll
< r,
for all m with equality for at least
one failure port (giving the blackbox failure)
(4.4)
with failure norm (and r per (3.1)) being
that appropriate for each &h failure port.
The point is that for all a, individually
with

0 c IanI < A, , n = 1,2,...,N

(4.5)

there is no black-box failure.

each case of

Furthermore

(3.10)

giving the first failure at any failure port,

which of course gives black box failure.
Times greater than this tf are unimportant
and linearity is not required for such times.
Thus we do not need a completely linear
system for our results to hold. Define this
linearity
as
required
kind
of
lesser
linearity to failure.
4.

,-an

IanI < A,

with an, = 0 for all n'fn

(4.6)

gives

IIG,(t)ll
< rm for all m = 1,2,...,Y
which
is
failure.
5.

the

requirement

for

no

system

Bounds on Failure under

Multi-Port Excitation

Now let there be signals on all N input

ports. The failure port signals are

(G,(t)) = (g,,,(t))
with failure norms

(a,)

(5.1)

385

IiGm(t)H=

&$A11

1"4, gm,n(t)anl

also

<

69Ls

I1 IanI g, , (t)l

(5.2)

This last result is interpretable as the 1

norm of a vector whose elements are failure
norms of the signals from each nth input
port, i.e.,

(5.3)
with

(F,(t)) = (a,f,(t))

(5.4)

assures

> rm for any m = l,?,...,M =>

box failure
IlG,(t)~l

< r, for all m = 1,2,...,M =>

box non-failure

(5.5)

Non-failure of the box is then assured if

Il(lanl lig,,(t)ti)lll
< r, for all m =
,
1,2 ,*a*,M
From the single-input-port tests
4) one has

(5.6)
(section

A,,llg,
,(t)s < rm for all m = 1,2,...,M with
,
equality for at least one m
and for all n = 1,2,...,N
(5.7)

non-failure.

component vector ($)

n

Consider

the

Then

an
< 1 => box non-failure
(A;;)1

II I

(5.11)

This is then a bound on multi-port excitation

(the set {a 1 of input-port excitations) to
assure non-fgilure in terms of the results of
single-port excitations (the levels la I = A,
for black-box failure due to sing1 e-port
excitation).
Note that the index m does not
appear in (5.11) so that the location (m) of
a failure in the black box is not needed in
determining

Our task here is to find conditions under

which the black box will not experience a
failure. This is based on -

(5.10)

this

bound.

Note

that i(;

for all A, > 0 is a valid norm for arbitrary

One might call this norm a weighted 1
~~~~m)(Similarly one could define a weighted
.
Note that the above norm is a tight one
since for
all an = 0 except for n = nc

(5.12)

this norm in (5.11) reduces to

Ian-l
-A,,l

(5.13)

which is exactly the result from an experiment concerning non-failure for single-port
excitation at the n'th input port.
A looser but simpler bound can also be
obtained. Write

an

(5 1 = (k ln,mj (a,)
l

(5.14)

A, > 0 for all n = 1,2,...,N

so that
or
rm
119,,(t)e < 7i- for all m = 1,2,...,M
,
n
n = 1,2 ,***,N
Replacing

rg,,,(t)w by

(5.8)

rm/An only increases

the sum (1 norm) in (5.6) so that requiring

(5.9)

or

(a,,) = (Anln,m)

(2)
n

Il(a,)u< ll(A,l,m

(5.15)

(5.16)

Now for diagonal matrices for any associated

matrix norm (see C61)
~(A,l,,,)ll= max IA,.,~
= max A,
n
n

(5.17)

Also we have

fO,)fl
@I <II(k ln,ml[

(5.18)

with

I(k l,rn)I

= m;x k

= [minnAn]-1

(5.19)

Combining these results

an
1( a(a,.,)H( [myA,,] //(:)I
[min
AnI 1(~1
n
(5.20)
This result holds for all norms and all possible sets {a,}.
"n
Replacing U(~)II

the

U(an)lll< min A, =X box non-failure

n

Cl1

Baum, C. E., Extrapolation Techniques

for Interpreting the Result of Tests in
EMP
Simulators
in
Terms
of
EMP
Criteria, Sensor and Simulation Note
222, March 1977.

r-21

Baum, C. E., The PARTES Concept in EMP

Simulation, Sensor and Simulation Note
260, December 1979, and Electromagnetics, Vol. 3, No. 1, January-March
1983.

c31

Baum, C. E., T. K. Liu, and F.M.

Tesche, On the Analysis of General
Multiconductor
Transmission-Line
Networks, Interaction Note 350, November
1978.

[41

Baum, C. E., Electromagnetic Topology:

A Formal Approach to the Analysis and
Uesign of Complex Electronic Systems,
Interaction Note 400, September 1980,
and Proc. EMC Symposium, Zurich, March
1981, pp. 209-214.

[S]

Davis, W. A., and M. K. Sistanizadeh,

Bounding Signal Levels at Terminations
of a Multiconductor Transmission Line
Behind an Aperture, Interaction Note
412, June 1981.

Ccl

Ayrawal, A. K., and C. E. Baum, Bounding of Signal Levels at Terminations of

Transmission-Line
a
Multiconductor
Network, Interaction Note 419, April
1983.

iI71

Yang, F. C., and C. E. Baum, Use of

Matrix Norms of Interaction Supermatrix
Blocks for Specifying Electromagnetic
Performance of Subshields, Interaction
Note 427, April 1983.

C81

Baum, C. E., Norms and Eiyenvector

Norms, Mathematics Note 63, November
1979.

(5.21)

a box failure condition

Note that if
m;x If,(t)] = 1 (normalized waveform)

N
,zl peak signal magnitudes

6.

References

looser

This is then a sufficient condition for box

non-failure. This bound is tight only in the
for at least one n = n' (given by
a A, (with other an = 0) gives

u(an)fll =

are quite arbitrary as indicated by the

fn(t)* These could be damped sinusoid or any
other type of interesting canonical waveforms. It is not even necessary that all the
f,(t) be of the same type for these results
to hold. Furthermore, the f (t) need not all
begin at the same time, tie delay between
them still falling within the bounding procedure of the time-domain norms defined in
time-invariant form.
The bounding results for box non-failure
are expressed in a relatively tight form in
[;.:;\ and in a somewhat looser form in
.
. These are expressed in terms of a 1
norm of the exciting input-port waveform
amplitudes, either normalized to the various
single-port failure levels (as in (5.11))
or
to the smallest single-port failure level (as
in (5.21)).

in (5.11) by the larger

n-11
r(a,)u gives
quantity [min A,]
n
condition

then

386

(5.22)

(5.23)

Summary

By defining appropriate norms (failure

norms)
of
time-domain
signals
we
have
obtained bounds on black-box failure for
multiport drive in terms of the failure
results for single-port drive.
This shows
the potential importance of time-domain norms
for electromagnetic interaction problems.
Linearity is a basic consideration in this
bounding process.
However, in this type of
time-domain problem complete linearity is not
required. This can be replaced by a concept
of
linear
to
whether
failure,
failure
includes upset and/or permanent damage.
The kinds of applicable exciting waveforms

- 387

EMP

RESPONSE

OF AIRCRAFT

STRUCTURES

USING

70

TRANSMISSION-LINE

L6

MODELLING

P. B. Johns
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Nottingham,
Nottingham, NC7 2RD, UK.
and
A. Mallik,
Kimberley Communications Consultants,
Minerva House, Spaniel Row, Nottingham, NC1 6EP, UK.

1. The TLM Method

TLM Modelling
Transmission-line modelling (TLM) is a time
domain numerical technique which has been used
for solving electromagnetic fields [I], diffusion [2], and lumped networks [3]. TLM models
the propagation mechanism of EM waves by filling 3-D snace with a network of transmission
lines. This renders the problem discrete in
both space and time since the exact solution is,
in effect, a stable time stepping numerical
routine. The advantage of the method lies in
the simplicity of the modelling process [4] and
the efficiency in the use of comnuter resources.
The modelling of the geometry of an object
is achieved by placing a 3-D mesh over it and
part of the space surrounding it. The mesh is
then excited by field impulses modelling the
physical situation. Meshes at present are
restricted to graded orthogonal Cartesian and
polar types.
After the initial excitation, interactions
based on the TLM method commence. Thereafter,
E and H field values at any co-ordinate of the
geometry can be outputted in the time domain.
In addition the surface current density at any
internal boundary of the geometry can also be
outputted in the time domain.
Fourier transform
After the time domain output of field values
or surface current densities, a simple Fourier
Transform routine is used to obtain the corresponding output in the frequency domain.
Time Convolution
In the TLM method excitation of a problem is
usually with a unit impulse at time t = 0.
Consequently the output currents show only the
response to this initial impulse. In order to
examine the currents due to an arbitrary
excitation we need to convolve the TLM time
domain output with an excitation waveform.

Diakoptics
Diakoptics is an extension and generalisation
of the TLM procedure which allows a large network structure to be broken down into smaller
and more manageable substructures [5,6]. One
of the additional advantages is that the mesh in
one substructure can be of a different coarseness from the mesh in another. Another
advantage is that problems that change only
part of their geometry from one problem to
another, require a new solution only of the substructure containing that change. The use of
space aaproximation [6] and time approximation
[7] in diakoptics allows the solutions of
substructures to be carried out efficiently.
2. The 3-D TLM Condensed Node
Originally the TLM method used 3 series and
3 shunt modes separated by a distance AR/2 to
provide a complete solution of Maxwell's
equations in 3 dimensions. This expanded node
model (as in finite different methods) has
various disadvantages due to the complicated
topology of the model. For example, accurately
modelling boundaries presents some difficulty
as does the spatial separation of the computed
fields.
The complexities described above may be
overcome by using a 3-D TLM condensed node
model. In such a model the distance AR/2
between series and shunt nodes is reduced to
zero. Hence the 6 field components converge at
the node in the centre of a cube with sides AR.
Such a condensed node was introduced by Amer
[8], but has the disadvantage of being
asymmetric, which results in a slight difference in computed fields for waves travelling
in opposite directions.
Recently Johns has developed a 3-D condensed
node which is symmetrical and the form of this
is shown in Figure 1.
The nodes can be considered as the junction
of 12 two-wire transmission-lines which are
imagined to be on the faces of the box-like
structure shown in Figure 1. The scattering
matrix for the node is

4. Results

100001000-101
10010001000-1
001010-100010
0001010-10100
01001010-1000
000-101010100
0010-10100010
10000-1000101
0-10010101
-10
010
01-1000001

(a) EMP response of the Flll aircraft when

illuminated with an E-field along the fuselage

0 0 0
0
01
010
I

010

and th TLM algorithm consists of the repeat:ed

iterations of the equations
Vr
-.
V1

0110000010-10

-s=;

388

=
=

svl
-cvr
--

The results for this are well known and

comparisons of predictions by Holland [9]
using a finite difference program THREDE, with
actual measurement are documented. Similar
predictions using TLM have been made using a
slightly coarser description of the PI11
geometry. There is a good agreement between
TLN predictions and Holland's numerical and
measured results and a typical waveform
obtained by TLM is shown in Figure 3.

whereV1 and Vr are the incident and reflected

pulses and g-and 2 are the scattering and
connection matrices.

Y2
v,

5
Fig.1: The 3-D symmetric condensed TLM
scattering node
3. Pre-processor for the 3-D TLM solver
Before the introduction of the 3-D TLM
condensed node, data input to the TLM solver
was difficult, as in the case of finite difference and finite element methods. However with
the introduction of the condensed TLM node,
data preparation consists mainly of defining
2-D planes, midway between nodes, to describe a
3-D geometry. This ease of data preparation is
particularly important in the diakoptic
solution of structures. The input data graphics
for a helicopter with a plane of symmetry is
shown in Figure 2.

I-

rJ
L.-.-.-.-.-.-

-------_-_._.__-__.-._~~_.~

L7

-.---.---.-._._.4

/./

Fig.2: Discretisation of helicopter geometry

(with a plane of symmetry) as used in
the 3-D TLM solver

Fig.3: TLM prediction of EMP response of the

Flll when illuminated with E along
fuselage
(b) Use of diakoptics in the EMP response of
an aircraft with store and crutches
The TLM method has been used to predict
surface current densities on an aircraft with
store and crutches combination due to an EMP
below the aircraft. The use of diakoptics is
essential in order to model the relatively
small dimensions of the crutches and store.
Figure 4 shows an aircraft with store combination measurement model on a mesh acceptable
for the 'aircraft' but not for the store and
crutches assembly. The diakoptic method allows
solution of the geometry in Figure 4 by separating the geometry into 2 substructures; one
containing only the store and crutches, and
the other containing the remainder.

:.,
l_l.i
-

389

70

L6

5. Acknowledgements

.1

Ii j1I.
;

This work was supported by U.K. Ministry of

Defence (Procurement Executive).
The authors wish to thank Dr. J. M. Thompson
of the Royal Aircraft Establishment, Farnborough, for guidance on this work.
6. References

__--_

[II

Akhtarzad, S. and Johns, P. B. : 'The

solution of Maxwell's equations in three
space dimensions and time by the TLM
method of numerical analysis', Proceedings
IEE 122, 12, p.1344-1348, December 1975.

r21 Johns, P. B. : 'A simple explicit and

unconditionally stable numerical routine
for the solution of the diffusion
equation', Int. Journal Num. Meth. in Eng.,
vol.11, p.1307-1328, 1977.
Fig.4: Scale drawing of aircraft, store and
3 crutches illuminated with E below
the store (1 unit = 1 m)
The separate solutions produced by each substructure are then joined to give the solution
for the complete geometry. The advantage of
the diakoptic method is that if we now want to
change the geometry of the store and crutches
assembly, it is only necessary to solve the
new geometry. The store and crutch assembly
take a relatively short time for solution, and
so thereis clearly an advantage.
The results of the EMP response of the aircraft with a store and crutch assembly using
diakoptics is shown in Figure 5.

t31 Johns, P. B. and O'Brien, M. : 'Use of the

transmission-line modelling (TLM) method
to solve nonlinear lumped networks', The
Radio and Electronic Engineer, V01.50,
No.112, p.59-70, January
1980.
141 Johns, P. B. : 'The art of modelling',
Electronics and Power, IEE, 25, 8, p.565569, August 1979.
I.51Brewitt-Taylor, C. R. and Johns, P. B. :
'On the construction and numerical
solution of transmission-line and lumped
network models of Maxwell's equipments',
Int. J. Num. Meth. in Eng. 15, p.13-30,
1980.

t6

Johns, P. B. and Akhtarzad, K. : 'The use

of time domain diakoptics in time discrete
models of fields', Int. Journal Num. Meth.
in Eng., Vo1.17, p.l-14, 1981.
Johns, P. B. and Akhtarzad, K. : 'Time
domain approximations in the solution of
fields by time domain diakoptics', Int.
Journal Num. Meth. in Eng., Vo1.18,
p.1361-1373, 1982.
Amer, A. : 'The condensed node TLM method
and its application to transmission in
power systems', Ph.D. Thesis, University
of Nottingham, May 1980.

[91 Holland, R. : 'THREDE : A free-field EMP

coupling and scattering code', Mission
Research Corporation, Albuquerque.

Fig.5: TLM predictions of surface current

densities on an aircraft/store model
illuminated with E below the store

RADIATION
_(

391

DAMPING

71

IN FINITE

L7

CYLINDERS

ILGALUJN
AJmE,

ALDERWASTON,

Singularity
the
version
of
simplified
A
Expansion
Method is applied to cylinders
in free
the
the
parameters
of
to
determine
space
The
theory
is
principal
complex
resonance.
extended
to take account
of finite conductivity
and the results
are compared
with
a full SEM
an
analytical
WOM
calculations,
calculation,
approximation
and experiment.

ENGLAND

We now eiiG.iIate
al3

2-i

= C*VyA

Alternatively
space

Q and

t CV x

obtain

v x

it can be shown

3%

ati

that

. . (4)

in free

(5)
Introduction
Currents
induced
within
infinite
cylinders
in
free
space
by
electromagnetic
waves
can
be
calculated
by the approach
developed
in (1) and
the process
can be
modified
to apply to finite
cylinders
for the early
time behaviour.
The
method
does
not extend
to late times
because
energy losses due to radiation
clamping have not
account.
This
paper
is
taken
into
been
concerned
with applying
a simplified
version
of
the
Singularity
Expansion
Wethod
(2).
The
the
time
process
is
ignored,
interaction
history
being
taken
to be that appropriate
to
complex
The
the
principal
resonance.
parameters
of the resonance
are then determined
by requiring
them to be consistent
with Waxwells
Equations.
The
results
both
numerical
and
are
compared
with
a
full
SEW
analytical
calculation
(3,
5),
a
MOW
calculation,
an
analytical
approximation
with
(4)
and
experiments
in a bounded wave simulator,
The Problem
The Vector
An arbitrary
the form

Potential

field

expressed

The

Vector

in

a*

6E z-v

--

at

at

a*

this

Inteqral

t-D/c)

r6n

DZ = (z-z

ds'

. .. (2)

at2

. . . (8)

.,,

)' t ax
of
the
surface,

expression

There is a certain degree of arbitrariness

the definitions
of A and 9, which can be
removed by imposing
a relationship
between
them, and we choose the Lorentz Gauge,

Potential

-Q

. . . (1)

now differentiate

(6)

We
can
express the vector
potential
as
an
integral
over the current
distribution
and at
the surface
of a thin cylinder
it assumes
the
form

where
at

.**

The vector potential

ia tie-tomined by an
integration
over the current distribution
and for finite, though hi@,
conductivity
materials
the change in distribution
will
be small an8 accordingly
we assume (6) in
the neighbourhood
of finite conductivity
mterials.
Observing
thatA
and E are
predominantly
parallel
to the 2 axis, we
ultimately
obtain

A.=
.*
can be

field 1s
near the

vxvxA=o

Equation

electric

@=_%yqJ_@A

and we may

Close to a perfect
conductor
the
iGentical.ly zero, and so we have
cyli.nBer
surface

z being
the
z coordinate
observation
on the cylinder
radius of the cylinder.
The observed
late time spatio-temporal
excited
shock
..distributions
in
approximates
closely to

(9)

point
of
and a the
current
antennas

in
I = IO sinwt

equt

cos

"

*.. (10)

2Q
and

so we consider

a current

**. (3)
I = IO e(i*c)t

.*. (11)
2Q

and this gives rise to a vector potential

the cylinder
surface,
of magnitude

392

at

lTC2

-(iw-a)DoQ/c

Do'

A = ll~Io e(i~-a)t

f g(io-o)D/c)

4n

I _.Q

CO19

dz'

A Differentio-Integral
-_
*

that

and

--

et i*a)t

. . . (21)

wDoQ
COB _--

Do

Do

. . . (22)

i-Q
G,

by parts

twice

lrz
aDo
aDo/c
~0s __ ,__co9 _
e

dz

2P

. . . (15)

kI0
-

dz'

. . . (24)

Do

we ultimately

obtain

Qiw-a)t

llzt

Q
co9

G, =

._-

+ 2@@,

WD
sin _ o eeDo/C

I
-jj

dz'

28

. . . (25)

-I
Do

4rr

DoQ

. . . (16)

Eliminating

the

in a', we can write

terms

where DoQ is the value of D for z = o, z' = Q.

Combining
these results the differential
equation
becomes,
for z = 0
aE =

IGO

at

48

_-

. . .

X
while

nc2

eliminating
a2

@Z = ,,,o~+

the

terms

2woc

F&i

in a
-.

GA2 t

An initial approximation
assuming
that

F&2

Gz2

. . .

may be obtained

to

determine

(a,

w)

to

satisfy

?Tc
-

2Q

the

(29)

estimates

a, = c

we consider
a perfect
conductor
and so
that the electric
field at the antenna
is
identically
zero.
Taking
the
to be open ended we put

and we obtain

. . .

have

Solution

Conductivity

=wo

. . . (28)

w-w,

and we then
The

by

..* (17)
The problem
is
this equation.

(27)

:Q < 1

Intially
we have
surface
cylinder

(26)

(if+-a)t

Infinite

(20)

6.. (23)

,, e-(iw-a)DoQ/c

Ez2

. . .

pm2

and

introduced

e@oQ/c

of D

. . . (14)

-_(iw-a)D/c
TTZ' a2
e
cos IQ
2a
az12

we have

PC =

function

4~

Integrating

writs

lroI0

az2

a2A

= (wo2--w2ta2)GI

2'%cFc

az'2

so we may
@A

for an arbitrary

= azf(D)
_-

azz

21

Separatinq
this
equation
into
its
real
imaginary-parts
we find that we can write

where

note

. ..(19)

*.. (13)

ata

aaf(D)
-

nz'
_
dz'

Do

If&,cFs = (~2-wz+a2)G2

aaA
= (io-a)LA
-

now

I
-E

COs

Equation

we now substitute
eq (12) into the differential
equation
for
the
vector
potential.
Differentiating
with respect to time -

We

0
e-(iw-a)Do/c
--

21
. . . (12)

= (eo2-ozta2-2iea)x

. . . (18)

0%2=

where

wo2 1

..* (30)

4 fc*G,*

i fs*G,*

ff Gle2

+ al2

we have put
fc,s = Q Fc,s

G2*2
1
6.. (31)
. . . (32)

and
the
starred
functions
are
obtained
by
setting
a
=
0.
w
=
w,
in
the
function
definitions.
A simple
numerical
integration
routine then allows a rapid determination
of
we can make an immediate
improvement
in
a,, wl.
this
estimate
in
the
following
way.
Diferentiating
G, with respect to a and to w we
obtain.

393

71 L7

ace)

= 0

a(l)

woB,(O,wo)

aG, = aG2 = 2
_

aa

aw

-_-

aa

a% ~-

COB

cos -UDOe*O

2Q

I0

aw

IlZ

COB

ADO ecDdcdx
sin _-

.*.
(34)
the approxi-

-l-1--I
*_
l-1I 1
aG,

aa

aw

a% *_-

aG,

,.I (35)

2%

SOme

w,

. . .

(44)

a/f

. . . (36)
ANALYTIGAL,APPRDXINATIONS

for the Gi as

_ _a1

under

Approximation

1 t

W,

a,
+ -n -.-

terminated

are more often concerned

with closed
rather
than open cylinders.
The effect of the end caps
is to move the position
at which the current
is
identically
zero from the rim of the cylinder
to
the centre of the end face.
The current
flow in
this region
will
not contribute
significantly
to the vector potential,
but the increased
path
length
will
modify
the
resonant
frequency
according
to the replacement,
in appropriate
places,

approximations

~0

Approximation

. . . (37)

Writing

of the

G,"

G, * =

. . . (36)

Internals

explicity,

w,

*I+"%-""

Gz - Gz *+

Cylinder

%I

as

- G, *

closed

2%

-.

aa

the
iteration
being
suitable
criterion.

j+l)W( j

We

2P

obtain

Y j+i ) = Wa(

The

a% *_

thus

= P(a,,q,)
*.. (43)

dx

*.. (33)

Setting a = 0. w = w, and making

mation Do - z', we have

We

ylf

lr %I
nz

Q
=2

-3

i-f

e
.-

w,

W(O) =

COB

%2%

we have

lm
_

COB

zQ

es%
dz

--

. . . (45)

Do

-B.

and these may

modified
Fc,s

be substituted,
into equations

together
with
(30) and (31).

the

introducing

. . . (46)

u=_ "'P=?
An

Iterative

Scheme
-

We
can
improve
further
on
the
solving
for a and w iteratively.
We rewrite (26) as

a = f

accuracy

_!Y!?
fh(a,u)

lr

...

by

the

integral

G,'

= 2

For

p not too

v'uz+flz] du

IGGF
large

we

.** (47)

write

5 (a e) = fs(at~)Gl(anu)
r

....

GIZ(at~)

G,

fc(a,w)G,(a,~)
I

*"2

rrfi
--

cosr

du

. . . (48)

fluatp=

+ G,'(a,w)

*.. (90)
and

becomes

(39)

where
1

I!

Expanding

the

cosine

term

(27)

w2 = wz

B,(u,w)

B,(u,w: 1 t a2 = P(a,w)

1-z

f&r

G12

...

(49)

1
. . . (41)

fs%

We then

make

the

further

approximation

. . . (50)

.., (42)

t Gz2

we may set
Which

becomes,

on evaluating

the

integrals

394

Further
G,

Xo(rr~) +

which

f0r
G,

*=

For

ln

1/p

+
d

G,*
2

G2

redUCeS

<<

Writing

In

t0

. . . (52)

0.452

explicity,

G,

a - 4f ea/4f
GA2

dfi
,.,'ua+pa

. . . (53)

which

combined

becomes

2 In l/p
a"4f

s=n=u flu= Si(lr)

with

= 1.85

(58)

. . . (64)

+ G,'
and

(52)

gives

d 1.
x,

Wore accurate
though still manageable
aPProxiAs an example we
mations
may be obtained.
determine
a further approximation
for a.
From (26) we can obtain

we have

sin rIlu2+pr
2

co9 "
2

P << 1, this

G2

Approximations

. . . (51)

l/2

- 0.452

e
2 In l/p - 0.452

. . . (54)

(2 In I/p
We note

. . . (65)

-1

. . . (55)

pS*
a

* FC
A simple

. . . (56)

Approximation

We observe

that

so we obtain

(55),

2f

a"
,.. (57)

from

(30)

making

. . . (66)

In I/P

use of
FINITE

(56)
a,

. . .

(58)

QG,*
which

The numerical
results show that a very good
approximatiion
for fat cylinders
that is Only
a few percent
in error for thin cylinders
is
obtained
by combining
(58) with (52) modified
by dropping
the constant,
ie

for S << 1

G, * >> G,*
and

- 0.452)2t1.852

in passing

we may write

as

C
a," _

0.5

Q -1nS

We now attempt to extend these results to nonperfect

conductors.
Such an extension
requires
that we approximate
the field at the surface
of the conductor,
and we write
I

J=uE-

. . . (67)

.*. (59)

2na6

- 0.168
where

which compares
directly
with and is more
accurate
than the result of Lee and Leung

the

skin

depth

[4].

We can virtually
recover the result of Lee and
Leung by ignoring the logarithmic
term in (61),
when the estimate
for a becomes

by

/- (+o=
We then

have

0.5

that

)I=

. . . (60)
Q -1np

is given

6=

a-"

CONDUCTIVITY

the

I0

field

at z = 0 is

e(i*a)t

. . . (69)

2naSu

- 1.03

Lee and Leungs formula having 0.46 in place of

0.5.
An approximation
for the frequency
can
be obtained
from (31) but the correction
to w,
appear0
to be insufficient.
We can obtain a
more accurate
first approximation
by noting
that the non-zero
value of p is the source of
a and 00-w and that G,* is insensitive
to 6.
Accordingly
we elrpect G, - G,"r and this
implies

Differentiating
with respect to time and
introducing
the result into (17) we obtain
after cancelling
colmaon factors
iw-a
-_

= u.

2na6u

;(i@-a)Do'/c

4~

"0'

I
[[;]2t

_ n q-J-&l
_002%
a

vc2

(i*a)2]i';'i~)Do~ccosv~

dn'

. . . (61)

or

-R
(70)
Introducing
f/fo"l-

This

compares

with

Or
vafo
Lee and

. . . (62)
.*. (71)
a6uh

Leung's result

rewritten in this form 2~s

i/fo - 1 - "

Separating
into real and imaginary
Parts and
approximating
as before we have the estimate

... (63)

Sfo
Both these results can be converted
cylinder
approximationeby dividing

to closed
by (1 + 0)

a16 C

*G+
*b%

Fc*G2*

*' + G2"2
IG,

+ s/Zc

GI*
I

+ 9/2w

G,*
I

. . . (72)

Writing
e explicity
and noting that
region where the correction
becomes

395

71

L7

in the
significant
*.. (77)

we

G,

>>G,

find

that

. . . (73)
we can write
_EXPERIWEWTAL

oI6"+

This approximation
will cease
the skin depth approaches
the
ie when

to be valid when
cylinder
radius,

lX&-$l
a > __
aa

. . . (75)

4
when

this

obtains,
J=

we write

I
. . . (76)

rraL

and

PRGGRAWME

[1+2+&l

the estimate

for al6 becomes

The
experimental
procedure
was
to illuminate
2 m dipoles
in a bounded wave IMP simulator
and
monitor
the
centre
current
using
broad-band
current
probes.
The signals
were
led into a
microwave
transmitter
coupled
into a wave guide
with a dielectric
break and thence to a remote
screened
recording
room.
The current
pulses
were recorded
on film and analyaed
graphically
to obtain
the attenuation
constant
and w was
determinea
directly
from
the
late-time
response.
Two conductors,
copper
and nichrome
were
used,
the
nichrome
to
enhance
the
resistance
effect and so make it observable
with
the
short
lengths
of
antenna
used
in
the
experiment.

1-o
EXPERIMENT
0.9

(NICHROME

?
:

SSEM

0.8

MOM

(ROBERTS)

SEM

ITESCHE

MOM

0.7
---

APPROXIMATION

(771

USING

166)

O-6
0.5
u = 1~1.1065/m

0.L
o-3

(T = 6.25.107
-

0.2

*
o=oo

0.1

0.8

EXPERIMENT
SSEM

0.7
0.6

MOM

MOM

(ROBERTS 1

Fig

l/3 -----e

slm
r\

396

CONCLUSIONS

Fig 3
4-.-

G/f

been
singularity
expansion
method
has
The
applied
to the determination
of the resonance
cylinder.
The
parameters
of
a
resistive
estimates
refines
reproduces
and
approach
obtained
by other
techniques
leading
to close
agreement
with the results
obtained
by a more
sophisticated
application
of numerical
methods
together
with
an
encouraging
agreement
with
results.
The
analytical
experimental
approximations
are useful
for aspect
ratios
as
low as 5 where the geometric
assumptions
become
questionable
out
to values
beyond
lo5 where
resistivity
dominates
even for good conductors.
Combining
these
results
with
the
early
time
enable
presented
in
predictions
Cl1 will
accurate
predictions
of antenna
currents
over
the entire time scale.
extreme
simplicity
of
The
adequate
approximations
indicates
their
utility
in
threat assessments
of larger scale systems.

WoM

PREDICTIONS

An existing Method of Moments programme

was used
to
predict
the
impulse
response
of
2
m
cylinders,
the
resonant
frequency
being
determined
b y Fourier
analysis
of the results
while
the attenuation
constant
was determined
graphically.
The
progrannne
allows
for
the
finite conductivity
of the cylinder.
RESULTS
The results of the various
computations
for the
decay constant,
together
with the experimental
data
are
presented
in
Fig
1
while
the
correponding
curves
for the resonant
frequency
appear
in Fig. 2.
The close agreement
of the
various
computations
is to be noted,
together
with the acceptable
agreement
with experiment,
particularly
with
regard
to
the
effect
of
resistivity.
The resulting
pole trajectory
is
presented
in Fig.3.

Cl1 EWP Coupling

I L Gallon

to Long Cables
EMC'79

c21 On the Singularity

Expansion
Method
the solution
of Electromagnetic
Interaction
Problems
CE
Baum
IN 98 AFWL.

for

Expansion
Method as
c31 On the Singularity
applied to Electromagnetic
Scattering
from thin wires
IN 102 AFWL.
F M Tesche
Frequency
of a
c41 The Natural Resonance
thin Cylinder
and its Application
to
EMI7 Studies.
SWLeeandBLeung
IN96AFWL.
[S]f&,&ularity
scattering

Expansion
from thin

of Electromagnetic
and thick closed

cylinders.
J L Roberts

L W Pearson

IN 431 AFWL

V&l_II)&TION
USING
THE

OF
EMP
RESPONSE
LXGHTNING

397

72

CALCUL&TION
6JN
CIEFtIf%L
OF
STROKE

METHODG
CABLE

TO

ricr emr7
of
t.he
14 pairs
The
that tishield
of
the
two
buried
connrcted
at
each
end
to
r-resi~.tivc;
ground.

L8

FI

cable
cablfzli
a 30

and
are
ohms

On the!
14
pairs
overhead
cable,
the
the
di+fcrential
modes
arm
c*mmo17
and
600
matched
at
the
far
end
through
a
a
120
ohms
resistances,
ohms
and
Resi st i vE3
val tag!2
rccspmcti
vrl y*
arc
conn~~tad
at
the
near
end
dividers
in
order
to
match
the
and
the
common
dif+crrsn.tial
circuits
and
give

398

WREGISTREMENT
DU 23mva3
StPRIVOT
MESURE HF
-Voie: 6
-Amplitude: 250
Seuil: 300 Gamma -Pente: 2500 Gamma/ms
Date seuil: 3 h. 30 mn. 19 sec. 365 ms.

U(P) = J$",(P,x)us(x)dx

/eG (P,x)Ie(x)dx
0 v2
.(P) = fiII(P,x)Us(x)dx

P G12(P,x)Is(x)dx
0

399

72

The

f 01 :I.owi ng

(fig.

is

-* The height
is
neglicJibIc
length.

pcrfextly
of

the

c:abIs

i(t-F/c)

+ 7

the

the

(35)

di(t-r/c)
dt

whmre
c:urrcnt

(6)

is

l.(t)

, c:

the
df kstanco

thr

measured

speed

of

1 ightning

t hI

light,

be?tw~en
the
1 ightning
fal 1 point
and
the
dititt-ibutsd
on
the gable,
and h the height
return
stt-ok@
channel.

stroke
source
af thr

both

ground
dipole

above;?

to

1
;5 Jti(t-r/c)dt

2h
= 4nEo
3

One
of

made

were

c:onductivE).

compared

H(t)

on9

4).

I*. T h w ciai1

E(t)

a3sumpti

L8

problem
is
h
R Thi%

to

can
1.n j exted

the

dextermine
br

done+ by
cxrrent

the
value
mcasuriny
and

the

magnetic
field
at a particular
point
af
the
the
line.
If
mceasur- i ng
point
is
near
rnuugh
from the
injection
paint,
the
field
icsr
al most
magnetic
proportioncirl
find

h z 2nr

to

the

2 H(t)
i(t)

currtz+nt

and

one

can

(7)

(5)
and
(6)
we
tranepaserd
in
frequency
domain
and
ueed
to
czompute
the
va3 tage
and
current
distributed
swurC:es
CEil
whi rh
are
nfwded
for
the
integrals
(3)
and
(4).
Equations
the

E(w) = &

H(U)

= g

(8)
0

1
[ F2

+ $]W)

(9)

-10

measurement
-20/

CHARACTERISTICS

401

OF UNUSUAL

73Ml

POWER

MAIN

TRANSIENTS

William T. Rhoades
Xerox Corporation
El Segundo, California
90245

INTRODUCTION
For nearly thirty years, researchers
in the field
of Electromagnetic
Compatibility
(EMC) have been
puzzling
over a multipartite
question
about power
main
susceptibility:
what
amplitude
value,
waveshape or frequency
spectrum
and time duration
must
equipment
be designed
for? The propagation
modes,
classes
and stress
levels
for transients
have been
defined
(1).
A large number
of common
occurring
transients
have been characterized
for each class of
transient
( 2 ). These transients
include
the classical
contact
arc having an inductive
load, lightning
and
the inrush current
from tungsten
lamps and motors.
However,
in order to have error free operation
and
avoid
any serious
detrimental
effects,
the manufacturer
must design and test products
for all, not
just the common,
power main transients,
This paper
will describe
the characteristics
and measurement
techniques
for three of the many unusual power main
transients.

with no AC/DC/AC
conversions.
The load is connected
to the secondary
winding of the CVT.
With a
power
failure,
a battery
supplied
AC waveform
is
applied
to a primary
winding of the CVT.
This low
power UPS design is called an off-line
UPS whereas
the UPS in Figure 1 is called an on-line UPS.) Manufacturers
of UPS have defined
the output tran-sient,
output
harmonic
distortion
and,
sometimes,
the
Electra-Magnetic
Interference
conduction
output
(EMI). Unlike
many power main transients
( 2)) online UPS transients
are continuous
and vary in characteristics.
These power main transients
are a strong
function
of the design of the UPS and the load on the
UPS.

UPS
The
main
use
of
an Uninterruptible
Power
System (UPS) is for protection
against power failures
lasting
more
than a few power
main cycles
up to
When protection
is needed
for
outages
minutes.
approaching
a half hour or longer, usually an auxiliary
power source
is used or the computer/office
equipment is placed in a non-operating,
low-power
standby
mode.
Because
more
and more
computers/office
equipments
are being used in critical
or real-time
applications,
the use of UPS equipment
is steadily
growing.
It has been estimated
that 5% of business
sites
have
UPS and 30%
of all large
mainframe
computer
sites have UPS back-up
equipment.
The use
of UPS is a function
of the application,
not the
quantity
of power used.
Nearly
all UPS designs
work on the principle
shown in Figure 1. In the normal
continuous
operation, the AC voltage
is converted
to a DC voltage
which supplies the necessary
battery
charging
current
and the inverter
current
as shown in Figure la. The
inverter
converts
the DC voltage
back
to an AC
source.
When a power
outage
occurs,
the battery
supplies
the inverter
as depicted
in Figure lb.
If an
overload
occurs or the UPS fails, an automatic
transfer switch
(like thyristors
or FETs at low power
levels)
usually
phase synchronized
to the input AC
mains; connects
the load directly
to the AC mains as
illustrated
in Figure lc.
(Another
UPS design
conthe
utility
power
to
the
primary
of
a
nects
ferroresonant
Constant
Voltage
Transformer
(CVT)

(b)

Figure

1:

BANK

The three operating modes of an ON-LINE

UPS - a) with AC power present, b) during
an outage, and c) with an overload on the
UPS.

Synopsis of UPS hverter

Designs

How the DC to AC inverter

is designed
has a
major
effect
on the input and output
harmonics;
therefore,
a short review will be given.

The simplest DC to AC inverter drives a bipolar

square wave into a transformer. The bipolar (positive
and negative) square wave is created by using four
thyristors in a bridge. This rarely used method produces an unregulated square wave output voltage
with very limited overload protection.
By using a
CVT, the fixed voltage output is quasi-sinusoidal (up
to 8% distortion) at a frequency which is determined
by the resonance of the transformer leakage inductance and an external capacitor. The CVT method is
automatically current-limiting
and voltage regulating
at a constant square wave drive frequency.
However,
due to the low efficiency of CVT, the design becomes
uneconomical
above 10 kVA per phase. The most
serious problem of the CVT method is that an output
transient is created with load changes. Most CVTs
have a 100% overvoltage transient with a 50% load
reduction. This overvoltage transient can last for 20
to 30 cycles of the output frequency.
Due to the
self-limiting CVT characteristics,
the applications of
a full load creates a droop in excess of 25% lasting 2
to 3 cycles. Thus, the CVT method cannot be used
with large motors or switching power supplies having
no inrush control (2 ) .
To improve the output regulation with DC input
voltaee changes, a quasi-square wave could be used.
At e&h end-of. the-primary winding, a power stage
(like a 4 thvristor bridge) creates a square wave. The
two square waves buck each other and,can create a
dead time in the pulse drive to the CVT between the
change of polarity. Maximum voltage at the CV$
output occurs when the two square waves are 180
out of phase and vice versa. Regulation is achieved
by changing the effective pulse width and amplitude,
however, the dual drive CVT method still suffers
from
load transients,
efficiency,
non-adjustable
output voltage and output harmonic distortions.
To overcome the CVT disadvantages, the transformer is made normal and electronic
feedback
(voltage and current) from the load is used.
The
undesirable output harmonics from the quasi-square
wave drive are filtered
by large
tuned tank
series/parallel
filters.
the
transformer
Since
the efficiency
becomes
resonance
is removed,
insensitive
to inverter
control
frequency.
With
electronic control, the short term overload capability
for
inrush
loads
can
be
achieved.
Transient
performance due to load changes is usually 240% due
to a major trade-off:
the greater the number of
output filters - the better the harmonic reduction but
the poorer the transient response.
To maintain good transient response and still
reduce the output harmonic at the desired output
frequency, the quasi-square wave is replaced with a
high frequency pulse train which is modulated at the
That is, a series of
desired output frequency.
positive pulses of varying duration followed by a
series of negative pulses of varying duration are
applied to the transformer. The desired output frequency is the frequency of change from positive to
negative pulses. By making the duration of the high
frequency pulse proportional to the amplitude of the
desired output waveform
(like 50 or 60 Hz), an
integrated
output waveform
is created.
At zero
crossing of the output waveform (50 or 60 Hz), the
pulse duration is made as small as possible.
At the
crest of the output waveform, the pulse duration is
the maximum. Although the amplitude of each high
frequency pulse to the primary winding is constant,
as the duration of each pulse is increased,
more
energy is applied to the transformer.
As the pulse
train frequency is increased, the transient control is

402

better and the harmonic distortion at the desired

output frequency becomes lower. The main advantage
of this pulse width modulation method is that the
output filter need only remove the carrier and the
For example, if the pulse
sideband fre-quencies.
train frequency is 1200 Hz, filtering need only to be
from 800 to 1600 Hz, not 120 to 1600 Hz. The upper
frequency limit is the thyristor component limitation
and hence the upper power limit is about 100 kVA per
phase.
Above 10 kVA per phase and nearly always for
very large three phase inverters,
the synthesized
stepped converter is used. The output waveform is
broken up into either six or 12 portions or steps. The
higher the number of portions, the better the tranand the lower the harmonic
sient performance
distortion becomes. Thus, the 12 steg inverter has
Each step
each step spaced at 360/12
or 30 .
employs a thyristor bridge feeding power to a portion
of the output transformer from the DC input voltage.
Each step is a square wave at the desired output
frequency that is phase shifted away from the normal
30 (en) position to regulate the ultimate output
voltage. Since this method inherently reduces the
harmonics below the 12th, the output filter is usually
a simple low pass filter.
Power Main Transients From An UPS
The maximum distortion of the input current is
sometimes specified rather than voltage distortion to
avoid the changes of input power line impedance.
Typical distortion values- are 10% of the maximum
input current for 3 phase and 15% for single phase.
Note that this specification
is % RMS distortion, not
peak voltage or current, pulse duration or the value
of any harmonic.
The power main transients are not controlled by
the power utility, by safety requirements
(NEMA,
NEC, OSHA, UL, IEC, etc.), by EM1 regulations
(FCC, FTZ, BSI, etc.), or by industry standards (IEEE,
etc.). Therefore, an understanding of these transients
and protection
against these transients
must be
provided by the manufacturers
of equipment that
shares the power mains.
UPS Transient Example
The larger the load on the UPS, the larger the
main transient
as the transient
source
power
impedance is reduced. Unfortunately, the lighter (or
smaller power) the load sharing the power mains with
the UPS, the larger the UPS transient will be applied
to the light load.
Consider a full load on a three
phase 208 V on-line synthesized 12 step 80 kW UPS.
The measured transients on a shared 120 V line are
shown in Figure 2. One should not conclude that this
type of UPS is the worst case transient penerator,
rather it is a typical UPS design. A 100 V spike at
400 US width is shown in Fieure 2. As nointed out in
the UPS synopsis, the UPS- steps are hot at 30 or
1.39 ms apart since the UPS is under full load. The
point to be made is that the power main transient can
be at any phase position on the shared power main
waveform. Since transients have a Fourier spectrum,
we can analyze the transient by the harmonic
content. The harmonic amplitudes up to the 13th
harmonic are shown in Figure 3 for a 50% load on this
UPS. The 11th harmonic is about 4 V peak with the
others ranging from 1.4 to 2.6 V (fifth harmonic).
The amplitudes of the harmonics are not reduced at
higher frequencies.
There is a define
band of
harmonics that repeat and last until 35 kHz as shown

in Figure 4. The sum of all these harmonics creates a

transient of 50 V amplitude and 120 ps duration on
the shared power mains.

403

73Ml

Effects

of UPS Transients

Nearly all power main monitors will not detect

UPS transients, yet circuits in commercial
digital
equipment are susceptible to these transients.
The
EM1 filters commonly used to meet EM1 regulations
(10 kHz and up) give no protection.
Although it is
known that the addition of inductors and tuned
circuits at the inputs to the UPS rectifier reduces the
feedback of these transients to the input AC mains,
rarely can the shared power main commercial manufacturer request this added feature due to cost and
efficiency.
The best UPS transient protection is by
internal equipment cost effective
designs because
tracking power main filters or CVTs have limitations
and most peak voltage limiting surge suppressors such
as MOVs semiconductor clamps, etc., give no protection against these low amplitude disturbances.
CVT TRANSIENTS

Figure

Input power main transients from a 12step UPS at full load. Note that the steps
are not exactly 30 apart.

2:

10 DBIDIV

It was pointed out before that CVT transformers

are used in the design of UPS, for the control of UPS
transients and are excellent suppressor surges ( 3).
As in all transformers having loads (4 ), there is an
inrush current with CVT that can be up to 30 times
the normal peak current with rise times the range of
microseconds. Observe in Figure 5 that the maximum
inrush current (10 times normal) did not occur at the
peak of the input waveform, but rather near zero
volts. In fact, the inrush current is only limited by
the impedance of the service and the DC resistance
of the CVT primary winding if the inrush current adds
flux to the CVT. Thus, if there are power outages
lasting for only a few cycles, one should be very
careful when using CTVs. Power outages exceeding
minutes do not create such transients as the trapped
flux in the CVT is removed.

t
AC MAINS
CURRENT
I

I I I

Figure

3:

HARMONIC
NUMBER

Input power main spectrum

from a 12step UPS at 50% load.
Of the odd harmonics, the 11th is the largest.

AC MAINS
VOLTAGE

IZOV (RMS)

Figure

5:

Inrush current of a CVT.

tbe large current transient
zero volt crossing.

Observe
occurred

that
near

10 DSlDlV

CRT FLASHOVER
5 KHZ/W!
i-

Figure 4:

The 12-step UPS has spectrum to 35 lcHz

with the harmonics
shown in Figure
3
repeating every 720 hertz.

Many products
need high voltage
for their
operation: copiers, illuminators, Cathode Ray Tubes
(CRT) in TV sets and monitors, etc. One theory that
explains the CRT internal flashover is that the high
potential on the inside of the neckglass creates field
emissions
from the metal structure of the CRT
gun (5 ). Then there is an electron avalanche along
the neckglass that makes gas accumulated
on the
glass surfaces due to electron stimulated desorption.

The ionization
in the desorbed
gas and ion feedback
causes a run away condition.
This condition
forms a
plasma that creates
breakdown,
followed
by a cleanup that restores
normal conditions.
The occurrence
of high voltage
flashovers
in CRT has been known for
despite
rigid
quality
control
many
years
yet,
procedures
and new inventive
designs,
the flashover
has a finite
probability.
The flashovers
occur
at
random intervals
well separated
in time.
Because
the
intervals
between
flashovers
become
larger
as the
life of the CRT increases,
the flashovers
are rarely
noticed
by the viewer
until the repeated
flashovers
create
a failure.
With almost a billion of CRT equipservice
with
other
sharing
the
power
ments
electronic
equipment,
a major concern
is the power
mains transients
induced by CRT flashover
which can
There
can also be
be as high as 2500 volts (1).
radiated
and conducted
interference
to equipment
interfacing
with the CRT
circuitry,
for example,
computers
interfacing
with CRT monitors.
Even with
arc protection
in the CRT circuitry,
there can be
castastrophic
failures in the interfacing
equipment.
Model of Main Arc Current

Path

The positive
high voltage
is connected
by the
picture
tube ultar or anode button
to the internal
coating as shown in Figure 6. The high voltage
return
is connected
to an external
tube
coating
called
AQUADAG.
The capacitance
(Cl)
formed
between
the internal
and external
coatings
on the funnel with
the glass serving
as the dielectric,
is about
1 to
2.5 mF.
The
distributed
capacitance
between
the
yoke
mounted
on the tube neck
and the internal
coating
(C,)
is about
10% of Cl.
With the yoke
return common
to the AQUADAG,
the total capacitance increases
with the size of the CRT.
The high
voltage
(15 to 20 kV for monochrome
and 25 to 35 kV
for color)
creates
a charge
Q=CV between
20 to
63 PC and an energy (J = l/2 CQ) as high as 65 joules.
The distributed
resistance
of the internal
coating
is
about
20 ohms over the entire
length
so one can
assume
the effective
resistance
in the arc model is
10 ohms. Many newer designs
add a 400 ohm series
resistance
(discrete
or distributed
in the coating)
to
limit the peak and rate of the rise of the current
in
the arc.

404

When an arc occurs

in the CRT,
the current
flows through
the elements
of the CRT gun to the
pins of the CRT. Then arc current
leaves
the pins
hunting a return path to the AQUADAG.
The inductance of the path inside the CRT is about 0.4/.1H. The
inductance
of the arc from
the CRT pins to the
AQUADAG
con-nection
depends
upon the length of
the arc return path which is longer than the length of
the neck of the CRT.
A typical
inductance
for the
external
path is about 0.3 PH. The arc loop area will
determine
the radiation
but the unavoidable
external
arc return will create a major conduction
source.
The main arc path can be modeled
as a series
RLC
circuit
with
the
primary
sparkgap G.
The
primary
sparkgap
voltage
drop becomes
a low value
after
breakdown
and has little
effect
on the arc
current.
As the energy
stored
in the capacitor
CT
(the sum of Cl and C2) is dissipated
in the loop series
resistance,
a large
current
flows
as
shown
in
Figure 7. This arc current
(100 to 800 A), as in all
sparkgaps,
will continue
to flow until the current
is
below
the extinction
value.
By the time extinction
occurs,
the original
stored energy in capacitor
C
is
reduced
to almost
zero. With no high voltage
on 3 he
CRT,
the CRT becomes
blank and acts like a CRT
during initial power turn on. With a large arc current
having
a nanosecond
rise time
(50 ns in Figure 7),
large voltages
are developed
across
portions
of the
loop inductance.
With large voltages
being developed
around
the
arc
loop,
secondary
sparkgaps
are
encountered.
If these secondary
sparkgaps
are incidental, equipment
failure with repe.ited
discharges
is
most
likely.
Thus,
controlled
secondary
sparkgaps
having standoff
voltages
\rmsh less than the CRT high
voltage
are used for predicable
performance.
These
secondary
sparkgaps
must handle large currents.
For
example,
with
a cathode
arc,
the beam
current
normally
60 mA peak,
jumps
to 480 A for about
200 ns and decays to the normal value in about 15 c(s.
This effect
creates
CRT
Bower
supply
transients

60 AMPSlDlV

Figure

7:

The CRT arc current begins to ring

240 A peak with a 50 ns rise time.

at

YOKE

ANODE

ANODE

BUTTON

H.V.
SOURCE

Figure

6:

Dispersion

BUTTON

ELECTRON
GUN
R

Circuit
model of the
during CRT flashover.

main

current

path

of The Arc Current

With the controller

video,
sync and other low
level signals referenced
to logic ground, normal CRT
connections
tie the controller
ground
to the CRT
drive ground. With high bandwidth
requirements
for
the video
signal,
CRT
cathode
drive
as shown in
Figure 8 is the commonly
used connection.
We see
that
a suppressor
for secondary
arcs
is used
to
protect
the cathode
drive circuit
when the main arc
current
(I ) returns
to the AQUADAG
connection.
The differynce
in voltage
between
point A and point
B even with a wire or briad having very low inductance, during the flow of the main arc current
flow is
about 800 V. This voltage
allows
about 10% of the

405

400 A main arc current to escape.

There are many
paths for this escape current (I,& to get back to the
AQUADAG. Normally, shielde
cables are used to
control radiated emissions and the cable shield is
connected to the enclosure of the CRT or frame. If
the reference
or ground of the CRT circuitry is
connected to the CRT frame, then some arc current
(ISH) flows through the shields of the cable.
The
stray capacitance of the cable to the CRT frame or
controller frame creates another current path (ICl or
IC2). With well filtered
controller
voltages,
all
controller voltage lines are a path for the escaped
arc current. Often an EM1 filter on the DC power
lines is used to control emission and this filter is a
major path for the arc current. Stray or leakage
capacitance creates another arc current path through
the AC mains. This arc current (IS) can return
through the AC safety wire as shown m Figure 8 or
through the DC power return if the power supply of
the CRT is not part of the circuitry.
These multiple
current paths create problems as escape current
divides. In a typical case somewhere between 10 to
100 V is developed across a critical part which is
upsetted and sometimes
fails. Downstream current
blocks are needed to control the escape current to
less than l/Z% of the main arc current.

Reducing

The Escaping

Current

Since the main problem is flow of current, rerouting or the placement of cables has little effect.
Furthermore, a single point system ground does not
block the multiple shared arc current loops.
The
escape path impedance is complex with typical values
between 20 to 100 ohms at the ringing period near

AQUADAG

73Ml

300 ns. Low capacitance

diode clamps and series
resistance can be used to block the current in the
signal lines in the interconnect
cables leaving the
cable shields, DC power leads and logic grounds to be
controlled.
One begins to reduce the escape current by
noting that the inductance of the cables between the
CRT circuitry and the CRT interface
(like a controller) has a major influence.
The larger this
inductance is, the smaller is the escaping current.
Hence, baluns and ferrite beads for the cables are
very helpful as any series inductance in the ground or
the shield degrades the system performance.
To be
an effective
block, the series impedance must be
near 500 ohms, not the typical 1 to 5 ohm impedance
of the cable shield inductance at the ringing frequency.
As the escaped arc current leaves the logic
ground, shields or DC power leads, the path can be
modeled
as a current divider with the complex
impedances in each branch, The DC power and AC
safety leads can be blocked with a series inductance
in each branch which does not resonate below 25
MHz. Large inductors
like 500 PH having stray
capacitance
of 20 to 50 pF convert the arc current
ringing in the low MHz frequencies to problems at 5
to 15 MHz frequencies. Long leads on the inductors
or poor placement of the inductors allow the escaping
arc current to radiate to the critical
interface
circuitry. As each low impedance path is blocked, a
side effect takes place - the escape path impedance
is being raised in the current dividers.
This means
that more applied voltage will be presented to the
impedance
paths and hence more arc
medium

AC FRpME

CONNECTION

FILTER

/
\

~,-j+-
B
ISH f

I,@

f-1'""'""";"

CRT

STRAY CAPACITANCE
IN POWER SUPPLY

+---

4-v

RF, FILTER IF USED

i
I

SPARK GAP,

DRIVE
CIRCUITS

IEX

*
I

I lls
(

--

LOGIC GROUND
*
1

CRT MONITOR

AC SAFETY WIRE IF USED )

Figure

8:

f-DC

The complex
arc current
escape path.
Blockage of each path requires different
solutions.

CONTROLLER

BYPASS

current.
Changing
the
layout
by
impedance
between
the arc current
critical
circuitry
is very helpful.

creating
more
path
and the

406

REFERENCES
W.T. Rhoades,
mercial
Power
Standard,
pp.
posium.

2.

W.T. Rhoades,
Development
of
Power
Main
Transient
Protection
for
Commercial
Equipment, pp. 235-244,
1980 IEEE EMC Symposium.

3.

The Propagation
and AttenuaF.D. Martzoff,
tion of Surge Voltages
and Surge Currents
in Low
Voltage
AC Circuits,
pp. 1163-1170,
May 1983
IEEE
Transactions
on Power
Apparatus
and
Systems,
Vol PAS-102,
No. 5.

4.

A.C. Franklin
and D.P. Franklin,
The
Book,
pp.
Transformer
548-562,
Butterworth,
Boston, Mass.

CONCLUSIONS
The characteristics
of three unusual power main
transients
have been given.
On-line
UPS transients
are continous;
can occur
at any phase angle of the
power
main waveform,
have up to 100 V amplitude,
last up to 600~s
and have spectrum
up to 35 kHz.
The inrush current
of CVTs is only limited
by the
power service;
and has /,& rise/fall
times at 10 to 100
times
the
normal
current.
The
final
transient
described
was the CRT flashover;
not only can a 2500
volt transient
be injected
in the power mains, there
can be major
transients
from the arc in the CRT
How
the
arc
current
is
interfacing
equipment.
dispersed
and some
unique
ways
to
reduce
the
escaping
arc current are given.

The
Ratiocination
of a ComMain
Conducted
Susceptibility
269-276,
1981 IEEE EMC Sym-

1.

5.

J and

1983,

K.G. Hernquist,
Studies
of Flashovers
and Preventive
Measures
for Kinescope
Guns, pp.
117128, IEEE Transactions
on Consumer
Electronics,
May 1981, Vol. CE-27, No. 2.

407

7h2

THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN IEEE GUIDE ON SURGE TESTING

FOR EQUIPMENT CONNECTED TO LOW-VOLTAGE
AC POWER CIRCUITS

Fraqois D. Martzloff
Corporate Research and Development
General Electric Company
Schenectady, NY 12345

INTRODUCTION

IEEE Std 587-1980, Guide on Surge Voltages in LowVoltage AC Power Circuits, now designated ANSI/IEEE
Std C62.41-1980, was published after several years of
preparation by a Working Group of the Surge Protective Devices Committee of the IEEE [1,2]. The same
Working Group is now preparing a new Guide on Surge
Testing. This document has been refined and is now
close to achieving consensus; only a few items remain
to be finalized. However, final approval and publication
by IEEE are not expected for some time.
Since the Guide on Surge Testing is based on
information contained in IEEE Std 587-1980 and IEC
Report 664-1980 131, familiarity with these two documents is almost a prerequisite to complete appreciation
of the issues discussed in this paper. However, the
overview of the issues presented here will be useful to
individuals concerned with the various aspects of surge
protection and surge testing.
BACKGROUND
Standards published before IEEE Std 587-1980 were
generally influenced by traditional dielectric test concepts or special equipment requirements.
For instance,
some military standards [4,5] required voltage tests
without specifying source impedance; the widely overused SWC test [61 specified realistic test conditions and
procedures, but only for the limited field of solid-state
relays in high-voltage substations; IEC Report 664-1980
addressed only the voltage aspects of surge occurrences
because it is primarily concerned
with insulation
coordination.
The publication of IEEE Std 587-1980 introduced
several new concepts in the field of surge occurrences
in low-voltage ac power circuits. The development and
wide acceptance of silicon avalanche diodes and metal
oxide varistors as low-voltage surge protective devices
had made the surge current an important new factor in
the design of surge protection schemes. Their increasing use motivated the writers of IEEE Std 587-1980 to
describe in a systematic way current surges in the
environment
of ac power systems. Hence, two circuit
conditions were defined in IEEE Std 587-1980: for lowimpedance circuits, a current surge is the relevant
parameter; for high-impedance circuits, a voltage surge
is the relevant parameter. Furthermore,
IEEE Std 5871980 introduced
the definition
of three location

categories. In these categories, the amplitudes of current surges decrease from the outdoor environment
toward the interior points of the wiring system within a
building, in contrast to the amplitudes
of voltage
surges, which do not decrease in the case of a low load
on the system.
The primary purpose of IEEE Std 587-1980 is to
provide a description of the environment,
including the
statistical and exposure-dependent
nature of surge
occurrences. Warnings are provided on the pitfalls of
worst case approaches in defining the environment.
Furthermore,
a specification for any required level of
withstand capability of hardware is carefully avoided.
Nevertheless, equipment specifications are appearing in
the trade, where such statements are made as . . .
meets the requirements of IEEE Std 587 (italics added).
Such misuse of IEEE Std 587-1980 was one of the factors that motivated the writing of a guide on surge testing, in anticipation
of publication
by IEEE of a
comprehensive
document on low-voltage surge protective devices and their application, in the late 1980s.
CONTROVERSIAL

ISSUES

While the general approach and contents .of the

Guide on Surge Testing were readily accepted by
committee members and reviewers, three issues were
somewhat controversial during the process of writing
the text:
uncontrolled
1. The concept of the unprotected,
environment
given in IEEE Std 587-1980 and the
concept of the orderly voltage staircase of IEC 6641980 cannot be interchanged or used concurrently;
however, reconciliation
can be accomplished by
coordinated expansion and clarification of the texts
in the two documents. The Guide on Surge Testing can be a vehicle for such reconciliation.
In contrast with conventional high-voltage practice,
where separate tests are conducted for voltage
impulses and current impulses, electronic equipment is best evaluated with a surge test system
inherently capable of delivering either a voltage
wave or a current wave, or both in succession (but
the
upon
depending
simultaneously),
not
impedance of the test piece.
Guidance on how to select appropriate withstand
levels for generic types of equipment was difficult

,.

THE ANS,,,EEE

STD C62.41-1960

CONCEPT

OF LOCATION

CATEGORIES

.
.
LOCATlON CATEGORY
C
Ou,s,de and Service Entrance

:
: wa,or Feeders and Short Branch Clrouits .

IN UNPROTECTED

:
.
.

LOCATlON;ATEGORY

408

CIRCUITS

LOCATION CATEGORY
A
Outlets Bd Lang Branch Cl,CIW

:
VOLTAGES

3 kA

CURRENTS

2.

TYPICAL

B kV lmplS* 0, fling
10 kA 0, more

EXAMPLES

OF INDUSTRIAL

Impulse500 A Ring

OR RESIDENTIAL

6 k Ring

CIRCUITS

Alternate:
dergraund
cable S*riC*

LEGEND:

t&v: Arc welding supply

M: Watt-ho, mete,

FA: Fixedappliance

PI: aurge B,,BS,B,

P2

IO:
fv:
MB:
t?
SE:

(secondary rating)
surge a,,es,8,
(secondary rating,

Wl3,:

3. THE

IEC REPORT

664-1960

CONCEPT

industrial
drive system
D,iB motor
Main breaker
Transbent p,otec.to,
Service entrance (may take many forms
depending on specific ca2.B Of syste?)
VW receptacle WithoUt atteatio

OF CONTROLLED

CA: Co,d.coected appliance

+
COMP:computerWithbufferedinput
KS: industrial control system
Lc: Line power conditioner
P3: surge ponector
WI32 wall ,eceptkx
With
attenuation
provided
by: Z-swies
impedance
C-shunt
impedance

Hi=:Cosme,&C1,0iC9
P4. surge p,otector
PC: PerSOnal compute,
TV: T,asfo,me,-isolated
&%t,OiCS

VOLT+GES

Ilnmntmlld

Independently from the location of a device or equipment in the above figure, it should remain safe (no fires, no personnel hazard) over the full range of available surges at any point within the installation.
It may also be desirable, under particular circumstances and for specific devices, to proscribe damage as a result of testing at higher levels than might be suggested by its
typical location.
Notes:
(1)The Controlled Voltage Situation of IEC Report 664 requires the presence of interfaces; these can be surge protective devices
such as PI, P2, P3 or P4, or the existence of well-defined impedance networks such as Z and C shown in the circuit diagram
upstream of WR2.
(2)Voltage levels following the designation of Installation Category (IV, III, II or I) are shown in parentheses for a system with
300 V phase-to-ground
voltage, and next for 150 V phase-to-ground
voltage. The voltages shown are implied as 1.2/50 p.s
impulses.
(3)This diagram makes no allowance for the possibility of surges associated with ground potential differences that may occur, for
instance, with a sensor connection to the KS control system, a cable TV connection to the line-isolated TV set, etc., or the flow
of ground current in the impedance of the grounding conductors.

Figure 1.

Similarities
C62.41-1980

and differences
and Installation

between the concepts of Location

Categories in IEC Report 664-1980

Categories

in ANSI/IEEE

to define. The controversy was as much the question of whether or not guidance is desirable at all
as the question of what format would discourage
such guidance from being lifted out of context and
considered to be specifications. In the final draft, a
table showing examples of withstand levels was
deleted because of the concern for misapplication
of the table. Concern was also expressed that
specific reference to ANSI/IEEE C62.41 (formerly
IEEE Std 587) and IEC 664 documents
might
imply a restriction of the Guides applicability to
a limited set of surge waveforms. The final version
of the Guide
is expected to include sufficient
information to avoid this limitation. The first two
of these issues are discussed below in more detail.
1. IEEE 587-1980 and IEC 664-1980
IEEE Std 587-1980 defines Location Categories to
acknowledge different current, voltage, and energy levels in a low-voltage system, while IEC 664-1980 defines
Installation
Categories*
to acknowledge
different
voltage levels in such a system, since its prime concern
is insulation coordination.
There are both similarities and differences between
the IEEE Std 587-1980 concept and the IEC 664-1980
concept. Both recognize the decreasing severity of the
surge environment
from outdoors to the inner recesses
of a building. The differences originate from the fact
that IEEE Std 587-1980 describes a condition where
existing, uncoordinated
clearances and solid insulation
determine the maximum overvoltages that can occur
but where the voltage breakdown levels of these clearances and solid insulation are unknown and uncontrolled. IEC Report 664-1980 addresses primarily a
coordinated insulation system where the voltage breakdown levels of clearances and solid insulation
are
known and controlled. Figure 1, excerpted from the
Guide on Surge Testing, provides a graphic illustration of the similarities and differences.
2. Current/Voltage

Testing Versus Separate Tests

The separation of surge tests has long been used in

the utility industry, where the need for surge testing
was first identified.
For instance, evaluation of the
dielectric strength of transformer insulation can be performed satisfactorily with tests involving only voltage
impulses.
Valve-type arresters, on the other hand,
require two tests, a voltage test to characterize the
front-of-wave sparkover and a current test to characterize the discharge voltage. These two tests are performed separately, and two distinct surge generators
can be used to apply the test waveform. The situation
is different when tests are performed on electronic
equipment where the outcome of the test is not merely
pass or fail, as in the case of insulation test of a
transformer or a simple description of the two characteristics of a surge arrester.

409

74~2

is unknown, two separate tests might seem appropriate

and sufficient: first, a voltage surge, then a current
surge. However, the separation of the two tests could
yield misleading results.
If, for example, tests are conducted on equipment
whose behavior is not completely defined, the outcome
of the test can depend on changes of impedance occurring during the test, so that a prior commitment to performing either a voltage or a current test has the risk of
missing the actual outcome. Two examples are given
below, and the literature [7,81 provides further insight
into this pitfall.
As a first example, consider the testing of a protection scheme that uses a spark gap combined with a
varistor. If the test plan is to apply a separate voltage
surge - quite possibly from a high-impedance
surge
generator - then the gap sparkover will be observed
and the test operator might be satisfied that he has
characterized the gap behavior. However, the effect of
the gaps abrupt switching to high current upon sparkover will not have been observed. Moreover, a highimpedance generator will produce a low rate of current
rise following gap sparkover.
The preferred
lowimpedance generator, on the other hand, will produce a
high rate of current rise. Such a high rate of current
rise can induce additional
voltages that will be
impressed on the downstream circuit. Only a test conducted with a generator inherently capable of delivering
a high current as soon as the test piece changes from
high to low impedance will disclose this subtle behavior.
As another example, consider the case of a test
where the failure mode and effect are the desired test
criteria. If insulation breakdown occurs during a voltage test applied from a high-impedance surge generator,
the subsequent current will be too low to produce the
effect that would result from an actual lightning surge
impinging on the equipment.
Thus,
generators
ing either
test rather

there is a need to perform surge testing with

that have the inherent capability of delivervoltage or current during the surge, in one
than in separate tests.
MAJOR TOPICS DISCUSSED

Planning of Surge Testing

Surge testing is generally performed to determine
the surge withstand capability of specific equipment.
In
such a case, the first decision to be made is to reach
agreement on the nature of the surge environment
for
this equipment.
The major concerns in the Guide
are switching surges and lightning-induced
surges.
Surges associated with nuclear electromagnetic
pulse
and high-frequency noise are the subject of other documents.

IEEE Std 587-1980 points out the duality of current

versus voltage surge testing because of dependency on
the impedance exhibited by the equipment connected to
the power circuit. Consequently, when a test is to be
performed in the laboratory with a surge generator, one
might think of selecting either a voltage surge or a current surge, depending on prior knowledge of the equipment to be tested; or, where the equipment impedance

It is important to differentiate between design tests

and diagnostic tests, on the one hand, and production
and qualification tests, on the other hand. In the first,
the limits of withstand are sought and tests are conducted until failure; in the latter, a specified level is
applied with the expectation that no failure will occur.
Thus, experience has shown that the expected results
or consequences of a test need to be defined before the
test is performed.

* The term Installation Categories used in the 1980 issue

of Report 664 will be supplanted by Overvoltage
Categories in later IEC publications.

Figure 2 illustrates the considerations leading to the

selection of the appropriate surge generator and monitoring instrumentation.

410

r
Purpose of Test

Nature of EUT

l
l
l

,
l
l
l
l

Surge AC Interface
Surge Other Points
Surge Component Terminals

Environment Selected

Failure Criterion

(6) Possible Outcomes

Powered

Unknown EUT Impedance

High EUT Impedance
Low EUT Impedance
EUT With Impedance that
Changes Duiing the Test

I
/I

Figure 2.

I
I

Type of

Surge Generator

Monitoring the EUT

Relationships between the Equipment Under Test (EUT) requirements and the selection
of the test equipment

Powered Versus Unpowered Testing

In powered testing the surge is applied to the test
piece while the test piece is connected to its normal
industrial-frequency
power supply. This powered testing is more complicated than unpowered testing, where
the test piece is subjected only to the surge, as an isolated component.
However, in some cases useful measurements cannot be gained without full simulation of
the actual power conditions with the test surges superimposed:
1. If the testing goal is to evaluate the effect of the
surge on the normal operation of the equipment.
For instance, a disturbance caused by a surge test on
data processing equipment can only be ascertained if
this equipment is in fact engaged in data processing at
the time of surge testing (connection to its normal
power supply is implied).
2. If the testing goal is to evaluate the effects of powerfollow current.
Power-follow current is the current flowing in the test
piece from the industrial-frequency
power source, after
the test surge has initiated a low-impedance path in the
test piece. Examples are the intended sparkover of a
gap valve arrester or the failure of a component.
A
power-follow current equal to that which would occur in
an actual application can only be obtained if the test
piece is powered by an industrial-frequency
source capable of delivering that current.
3. If the testing goal is to evaluate the effect of energy
being deposited in the device.

For instance, a surge of large amplitude and long duration might deposit enough energy in a varistor to heat it
up to the point of initiating thermal runaway if the
steady-state voltage rating of the varistor had been
selected too low. An unpowered test cannot disclose
that condition.
Back Filters
Superimposition
of the test surge to the normal
power supply can be accomplished by a series connection or a shunt connection of the surge generator (Figure 3). Because the design of the transformer used in
series coupling limits flexibility in specifying the test
surges, the shunt connection is generally preferred.
However, in a typical laboratory application, two limitations are imposed on the application of a surge in shunt
to the power system:
1. The surge must not affect other equipment connected to the same power supply.
Decoupling is required between the test circuit and the
industrial-frequency
power source.
2. The generator cannot be connected directly in shunt
across the power supply.
Because the industrial-frequency
power source has a
low impedance, this low impedance would load the
surge generator to the point that it could not deliver the
specified voltage at the terminals of the test piece.
Both of these conditions can be achieved by the insertion of a filter between the industrial-frequency
power
source and the test circuit. This filter is referred to as

411

74~2

Its presence in the test circuit has

back filter.
definite effects on the overall behavior of the circuit
and on the waveforms that can be obtained in feasible
test circuits 191.

-T

Monitoring the Equipment Under Test

:yi=JEuT
T = Surge Coupling
BP = Bypass Filter
(A)

Monitoring the input surge is required to verify the

characteristics of the applied surge. Monitoring within
the equipment
during surge application can clarify
failure mechanisms.
Finally, monitoring at the output,
if applicable, can provide data on the risks of passing on
a surge to downstream equipment.
At the minimum,
voltages should be monitored.
Monitoring for current
is an effective method of detecting sparkovers, clamping effects, or other circuit behaviors which might not
be obvious from an inspection limited to recordings of
voltages. Figure 4 shows one example of the monitoring method discussed in the Guide.

Transformer

Series Coupling

Example

Coupling the Surge

C = Surge Coupling
BF = Back Filter
(B)

Figure 3.

Capacitor

Shunt Coupling Example

Series coupling and shunt coupling

of the surge generator to the
Equipment Under Test (EUT)

For power supply lines which typically involve more

than two conductors (line, neutral, and grounding conductor on single-phase
circuits, for instance),
two
different coupling modes are defined. Those where the
grounding inductor is connected to the surge generator
are referred to as common mode; those where it is
not, as normal mode. Depending on the nature of
the equipment, one may be a greater threat than the
other, so that testing for both is a prudent approach.
Table 1 shows an example of the variety of possible
coupling
modes
for a single-phase
circuit.
The
Guide also addresses polyphase circuits.
Safety
Because the voltage and energy levels involved in
surge testing are inherently hazardous, the Guide
places considerable emphasis on the safety aspects of
test procedures.

Minimize area cross-hatched

in order
to avoid contaminating
measurement by
voltage induced in probe loop

CR0 frame should not

touch any other frames
Line
AC Power
Neutral
Equipment
Grounding
Conductor

Grounding
conductor
of generator

Figure 4.

Isolate or
disconnect All
other connections
to EUT

of oscilloscope

*Or suitable

differential

probe/amplifier

Monitoring within surged equipment with voltage probes in differential connection

412

Table 1
SELECTED COUPLING MODES FOR SINGLE-PHASE
(One line and neutral with grounding conductor)

Test

( Connection

Type

Ground

of Generator

Normal

L
HG
HN
HH

=
=
=
=

Common

Common

Common

HG

Common

HG

Common

connection
connection
connection
connection

to
to
to
to

surge
surge
surge
surge

generator
generator
generator
generator

Diagram

for Normal Coupling

Mode

Basic

Diagnostic

Example of Connection

Coupling

Line

Mode

.n/

low (Lo)
high (Hi) by coupling capacitor CG
high (Hi) by coupling capacitor CN
high (Hi) by coupling capacitor CL

For each test type shown horizontally in the table, the surge generator is to be connected as indicated in the
three Connection
of Generator
columns. The connection diagram in the table shows as an example the
jumpers required to obtain the normal coupling mode.
When several Hs appear on one horizontal row of the table, the coupling requires several coupling capacitors,
shown as CG, CN, CL, between each of the conductors indicated and the surge generator high, in order to apply the surge simultaneously
to the conductors shown.

CONCLUSION

When published, the Guide will provide valuable

guidance for performing surge tests on a technically
sound basis, with repeatable results, and in a manner
reflecting the actual exposure of equipment to surges
occurring in service. The advanced information
and
perspective provided here should be helpful for application of the guidance compiled in the forthcoming
Guide on Surge Testing. If a one-liner may be used
to summarize the goals of the Guide, it is: Dont kid
youme&

dont kill yourself!

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The concepts presented in this paper result from a

3-year effort of the IEEE Working Group on Surge
Characterization,
composed of over 30 members who
contributed their technical and practical experience in
planning, performing and evaluating surge tests. C.L.
Fisher provided advice in clarifying and unifying the
presentation of the concepts, in the Guide as well as
in this paper.
REFERENCES

1. Martzloff, F.D., Guideline on Surge Voltages in

AC Power Circuits Rated up to 600 V, Proceedings
of the Third Symposium on EMC, Rotterdam, 1979,
pp. 449-454.

Std C62.41-1980, Guide on Surge Voltages in Low- Voltage AC Power Circuits.

2. ANSI/IEEE

Report
664-1980,
Insulation
Coordination
Within Low- Voltage Systems, Including Clearances
and Creepage Distances for Equipment.

3. IEC

4. MIL STD 461B, Electromagnetic

ceptibility Requirements
netic Znterference.

Emission and Susfor the Control of Electromag-

5. MIL STD 1399, Interface

Systems, Section 103.
6. ANSI/IEEE

Standard

C37.90a-1974,

stand Capability

@WC)

Guide for

for

Shipboard

Surge

With-

Tests.

Voltage and Current

7. Richman, P., Single-Output
Generation
for Testing
Electronic
Systems,
Proceedings of the ZqEE EMC Symposium, August
1983, pp. 47-51.
ftir die Isolation8. Wiesinger, J., Hybrid-Generator
ET2 104 (21), 1983, pp. 1102skoordination,
1105.
9. Richman,
P., Changes
to Classic Surge Test
Waves Required by Back-Filters and for Testing
Powered Equipment, Proceedings of the Sixth Symposium on EMC, Zurich, 1985.

- 413

75 M3

CHANGES TO CLASSIC SURGE-TEST WAVES

REQUIRED BY BACK-FILTERS USED FOR
TESTING POWERED EQUIPMENT
P. Richman
KeyTek Instrument Corporation
Burlington, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

Realistic surge testing of modern electronic equipment supplied from the ac

power mains requires two significant
departures from prior surge test tradition. The first, already described
elsewhere (1, 2, 3), is the change to
a Combination Voltage/Current impulse
to replace separate voltage and current
impulse-wave testing.
The second change results from the
back-filter required when doing powered testing, both with normal equipment
power-line current, and with the high,
so-called follow current that flows
from the power line following either
flashover, or equally likely, the crowbarring action of a protector. In
either case, the back-filter can bring
about changes in the character of the
classic, 1.2/50 and 8/20 waves used for
surge testing powered equipment. These
changes have been accepted for some
years on a de facto, yet not fully
quantified basis, in laboratories doing
such tests. Results of surge testing
can,therefore vary.
Modified surge test waves are pi?OPOSed,
based on the same logic that underlies
the derivation of the Combination V/I
wave. That is, the new waves are designed to fully meet the needs of modern, powered surge testing, while remaining as faithful as possible to
traditional waves for test Situations
not requiring line power. Results of
testing with the newer waves on unpowered circuits should be comparable
with results obtained using traditional
waves. The crucial point is that this
should hold true for all relevant loads
including even the newest, most complex protectors; incorporating as they
may, crowbar devices, clamps, and most
recently, inductors and/or capacitors.
Introduction
It has already been shown to be far
preferable to perform modern surge
tests on electronic equipment using a
Combination Voltage/Current surge test

impulse wave, with the inherent capability to deliver a 1.2/50 voltage

wave across a high-impedance test
piece, and an 8/20 current wave into a
low-impedance test piece (1, 2, 3).
The input impedance of the Equipment
Under Test (EUT) is generally unknown;
it may include one or more simple or
complex, clamping and/or crowbarring
surge arresters, and it may or may not
incorporate auxiliary L-C filters. In
addition, there is always the everpresent possibility of flashover. The
complexity of this input impedance has
been the justification for changing
from separate V and I testing to the
new, Combination V/I wave. Of greatest importance is the wave's inherent
capability to simulate nature. It does
so by changing automatically and instantaneously from 1.2/50 voltage to
B/20 current and even, if necessary,
back again, as required by the instantaneous input impedance found by the
test wave at the input ofthe equipment being surged.
In addition to the change from separate
V and I tests to use of the Combination
V/I wave as described above, modern
surge testing has introduced the need
for a second major departure from the
tradition of the last half century.
The new problem which traditional surge
test waves cannot adequately address
without alteration, is the need to
surge equipment powered by the ac line.
The Surge Back-Filter
The requirement for powered surge testing leads in turn to the need for a
surge back-filter between the power
line and the EUT, One purpose of the
back-filter is to isolate the test
surge from other equipment that may be
powered by the same line. Another is
to provide the surge generator an impedance to drive. Without the filter,
the test generator would have to develop a surge across the extremely low
impedance of the unfiltered line. Note
that even if such a powerful surge

414 -

generator were available, one capable

of surging an isolated power source
like an MG set without a back-filter,
for example, it would still not be
satisfactory. The reason is that such
a super generator would inevitably
supply tens of KA in short-circuit
mode; far greater than the hundreds or
just a few thousands of amperes of
short-circuit surge current required by
modern Guides and Standards (1).
The back-filter usually consists of, or
at least includes, inductors in series
with two or more of the input power
lines. Fig. 1 shows the basic configuration. The inductors are difficult
loads across which to develop the
exact, classic, unidirectional l.Z/5O
open-circuit voltage impulse, with or
without surge coupling capacitors. The
primary reason is that the inductors
must pass normal ac line current to
operate the EUT, with minimum voltage
drop. In some cases, they must pass
current due to power follow as well.
These requirements imply low inductance
values.
However, while it is possible to deliver long, high-energy, essentially unidirectional impulse waves across lowvalue inductors, it is difficult to do
so and still deliver some of the lowervalued (3kA, IkA, etc.) 8/20 short-circuit currents. The powerful, low-impedance circuits necessary to supply
long-duration voltage impulse waves to
low-value inductors, will tend to furnish short-circuit currents that are
far too large and too long. This paradox and a proposed solution are dealt
with later.
The need to do powered testing has followed closely the recent
recognition
already referenced, that a Combination
V/I wave is necessary for testing mod-

ern protectors. That recognition is

based on the sensitivity of protectors,
unpremeditated flashover, and surge
remnant or coupling that reaches downstream equipment, to:
1. dV/dt of the leading edge of the
open-circuit voltage surge, and
2. energy and general waveshape of
the short-circuit current surge.
Fig. 2 shows the open-circuit voltage
(Fig. 2a) and short-circuit current
(Fig. 2b) supplied by an ideal test
surge generator which delivers the
Combination V/I Wave (2), for un-powered testing.

Fig. 2a: Classic 1.2/50 Open-Circuit

Voltage, lkV/.5cm, lOus/.5cm

Fig. 2b: Classic 8/20 Open-C rcuit

Current, 500A/.5cm, 5ps/.5cm

SIMPLIFIED
POWER-LINE
SURGE BACK-FILTER
I

HIGH

LF

AC
LINE

nci
CF

Fig. 1:

TYPICAL SURGECOUPLING
CAPACITOR

CF-

I
BACK-FILTER
INDUCTORS

1
1

EUT
SURGE
GENERATOR

Typical Surge-Generator Connection to an EUT Driven by an AC

Power Line

75

415 -

M3

Open-Circuit Voltage (OCV)

It is worth noting that "open-circuit
voltage", as the expression is conventionally used in surge testing, refers
to the fact that the surge generator
is unloaded, i.e. its output is opencircuited. In other words, the EUT
(Equipment Under Test) is disconnected.
The back-filter needed for powered
surge testing, however, cannot be disconnected from the surge generator.
From the standpoint --Lof the EUT the
back-filter --_is part of the surge generator; so it must remain connectedwhen
discussing the "open-circuit" surge
voltage waves.
Figs. 3a and 3b show a typical "opencircuit" voltage wave obtained when
using a back-filter, when surging powered equipment. The open-circuit voltage wave duration happens to be somewhat longer than 50 us. More important,
it exhibits significant "undershoot"
also termed "ringback" or "backswing ?I;
i.e., it starts to ring below the baseline. The wave is, in effect, underdamped. It can be referred to as a
differentiated impulse, using nomenclature already introduced elsewhere (4).
Fig. 3c shows a typical short-circuit
current wave that results from the same
test configuration. It is the same as
the classic 8/20 impulse, except for a
decrease in duration due to the coupling capacitor, and a small undershoot
due both to the coupling capacitor and
to added inductance in the cable required to reach the filter.
Realistic test waves in laboratory
surging of powered equipment have for
years looked far more like the waves
of Fig. 3 than those of Fig. 2. The
key question is whether such waves are
satisfactory for testing complex modern protectors and the electronic
equipment they are designed to protect.
In this connection, it is particularly
important to note that for such protectors, the back-filters will seldom be
completely shorted, as they are in
short-circuit current mode.
Before proceeding, it is first necessary to recognize that for any backfilter application, the open-circuit
voltage impulse must undershoot after
return to the zero baseline. This follows from the fact that capacitance
can't couple dc -- and inductance can't
support dc. The total area of the wave
above the zero baseline must therefore
be equalled by the total area below the
zero baseline, in order for the average
to be zero. The only remaining question is the character of the undershoot.
The two possible extremes are low amplitude/long duration, and high amplitude/short duration.

Fig. 3a:
---

Typical Open-Circuit Voltage

Wave When Using Back-Filter;
Approximately 1.2/5O;n-+30%
Undershoot. oCv=6kv
lkV/,5cm, lOus/.5cm

Fig. 3b: Same Wave as Fig. 3a Except

on Different Time Scale to
Show- 30% Undershoot Caused
by the Back-Filter. OCV=6kV
lkV/.5cm, 50us/.5cm

Fig. 3c:

Short-Circuit Current Resulting From the Wave of Fig. 3a.

oCV=6kv
500A/.5cm, 5ps/.5cm
Clamp-Voltage and
Clamp-Circuit Current

With suitably-rated single clamps -metal-oxide varistors (MOV's) or appropriate strings of avalanche devices for
example -- there may be no problem with
even fairly large undershoots in opencircuit voltage. Coupler/filters 0r
the kind shown in Fig. 1 yield acceptable short-circuit currents.
The Combination V/I wave test surge
generator that supplied the open-circuit voltage wave of Figs. 3a and 3b,
and the short-circuit current wave of
Fig. 3c, was used to test a 13OV MOV
clamping arrester's performance with
undershoots. The resulting approxi-

- 416

mately 460V MOV clamping voltage wave

is shown in Pig. 4a, while the resulting MOV current wave appears in Fig. 4b.
Fig. 4c shows the same MOV current wave
on a different time scale, to more
fully exhibit the backswing. Note that
the MOV voltage re-engages
the clamp,
in Fig. 4a, for a time that is much
longer than duration of forward-current
conduction. But current magnitude during this reverse-clamping interval is
extremely small, as shown in Fig. 4c.
Fig. 4d displays the same current wave
as Fig. 4c, but enlarged to show how
small the ring'back current actually is.
As a result of the low amplitude of the
ringback current, in spite of its duration the reverse energy, or current
integral, is only a fraction of forward
energy or current integral. Parenthetically, the total MOV clamp current
wave is termed "clamp-circuit current",
or CCI, to distinguish it from shortcircuit current, or SCI. It differs
from the no-undershoot current that the
ideal surge generator's waves of Fig.
2 would apply into a clamping arrester,
because of the surge coupler-filter.
For testing these simple arresters then,
conventional surge coupler/filter designs are satisfactory. Problems can
arise, however, when surge protectors
or other circuits being surge tested
involve the combination of one or more
crowbars or clamps with one or more
components that store energy: i.e.,
capacitors or inductors. For these
more sophisticated combinations (and
also for simple surge arresters that
don't have on the order of 50% energy
safety factor versus the "pure" test
impulses of Figs. 2a and 2b), a coupler/
filter that can be used successfully to
surge a single clamp, can supply significant and even destructive undershoot
energy into the test piece. This can be
particularly true for an arrester "buried" within a sophisticated, combination protector network. For testing
such a protector network, the only tolerable voltage undershoot may be one
whose peak is less than the minimum
protector clamping voltage -- i.e.,
only slightly greater than peak ac line
voltage, to insure small relative current undershoot energy.

Fig. 4a:

Voltage Wave Across a Clamping

Protector Clamping at 460~,
for the Open-Circuit Voltage
Wave of Fig. 3a and Short-Circuit Current Wave of Fig. 3c.
oCv=6kV
200V/.5cm, 200 us/.5cm

Fig. 4b: Current wave into the Protector of Fig. 4a. OCV=6kV
500A/.5cm, 5 ys/.5cm

Fig. 4~: Current Wave into the Protector of Fig. 4a. OCV=6kV
500A/.5cm, 50 us/.5cm

Thus for a 6kV surge, as required for

high exposure areas (l), acceptable
undershoot for a single 300V to 500V
clamp may be as great as 1.5 to 2kV.
However for more sophisticated, combination arresters, it may be only 200V or
so, for a 120V rms line application.
The principal issue is current undershoot into a possibly "buried" arrester, within the protector assembly's
circuits.
Forward and reverse surge energies for
the clamp in Figs. 4a, 4b and 4d, integrate to about 17 and 5 joules respectively. Reverse/forward ratio is ~30%.

Fig. 4d: Current Wave of Fig. 4c (partially offscreen). OCV=6kV

50A/.5cm, 50Fts/.5cm

- 417

75M3

Protectors and Undershoots

Figs. 5a and 5b show the input and output voltage waves, respectively, for a
more complex, four-terminal, combination protector, surge tested with the
same surge generator-coupler/filter
combination used to surge the MOV of
Figs. 4a through 4d. Note the undershoots. It was necessary to run this
test at significantly-reduced surge
voltage (1.5 kV instead of 6kV) to
avoid destroying an internal surge arrester. Note re-engaging of the output
clamp in the reverse direction. Duration of the re-engagement is already
several times the duration of clamp
engagement in the forward direction,
even at the 1.5 kV open-circuit setting
that was employed.
More important, conduction of the internal, shunt output clamp in the reverse direction is almost certainly at
a high current level, unlike the MOV
reverse conduction shown in Figs. 4b,
4c and 4d. This output clamp current
can't be directly measured, since the
clamp is "buried" within the protector
assembly. However, the fact that the
internal clamp fails when the input
surge is raised to 6kV,which it doesn't
do when surged on a generator without
coupler/filter and therefore without
backswing, would seem to imply that the
reverse conduction current is indeed
high with the coupler/filter in place.

Fig. 5a: Input Voltage Across a Specific Four-Terminal Protector,

Surged Using a Conventional
Surge Coupler/Filter. OpenCiXUit
Set
Voltage=1.5kV
lOOV/.5cm, 50us/.5cm

Fig. 5b: Output Voltage from the FourTerminal Protector of Fig. 5a,
Using the same Conventional
Surge Coupler/Filter. OpenCircuit Set Voltage=1.5kV
lOOV/.5cm, 50us/.5cm

A New Coupler/Filter Design

A new coupler/filter has been designed
to significantly reduce undershoot. It
is intended to be used with the same
basic surge generator employed in all
tests reported in the foregoing sections.
Fig. 6a and 6b show the results of
using the original surge generator and
new coupler/filter combination to surge
the same MOV whose waveforms using the
original coupler/filter appear in Figs.
4a, 4b, 4c, and 4d. Fig. 6a, for voltage, is to be compared with Fig. 4a.
Undershoot is negligible. Of even
greater interest, the current undershoot displayed in Fig. 6b, to be compared with Fig. 4c, is negligible as
well.
Figs. 7a and 7b show input and output
voltages, respectively, for the same
complex protector whose performance was
shown in Figs. 5a and 5b. However for
Figs. 7a and 7b, the original surge
generator was also combined with the
new coupler/filter. This time, full
6kV/3kA stress application presented no
problems; even at this level, the output clamp is not re-engaged in the reverse direction. In addition, even
when testing with a positive-going
surge
at 270 degrees on the ac line, or

Fig. 6a: Voltage Wave Across a Clamping Protector Clamping at

460~, for the Open-Circuit
Voltage Wave of Fig. 3a and
Short-Circuit Current Wave of
Fig. 3c. NOTE: USES NEW COUPLER/FILTER DESIGN. oCv=6kV
200V/.5cm, 50us/.5cm

Fig. 6b: Current Wave into the Protector of Fig. 6a. NOTE: USES
NEW COUPLER/FILTER DESIGN. OCV
=6kV
500V/.5cm, 50ps/.5cm

418 a negative-going surge at 90 degrees,

the output clamp still didn't re-engage
in the reverse direction. Thus it is
possible, at least at the 3kA level, to
suppress undershoot into even complex,
combination protectors.
Modern Surge Waves for
Testing Powered Equipment
Two major alternatives exist for applying traditional surge test techniques
to the requirements for surging linepowered ac systems. The first involves
refining, as far as possible, surge
generator and coupler/filter design, so
as to facilitate delivering Combination
V/I waves with absolutely minimum voltage and current wave undershoots. For
voltage in particular, backswing should
surely be less than several hundred
volts, even with 6kV peak impulses.
This approach is exemplified in Fig. 6
and Fig. 7, at least for 3kA short-circuit current.
The second alternative for powered
surging is based on recognizing that
both for surge currents that are less
than a few kA, and also for power follow currents over one or two hundred
amperes, super-low-undershoot open-circuit voltage waves are difficult if not
impossible to deliver. For this reason
it may be desirable to consider lowerfrequency (5kHz to 20kHz, for example)
damped cosine waves for open-circuit
voltages for higher energy, as well as

for the lower-energy applications in

which they are already specified (1).
Such waves are widely found in actual
on-site surge measurements (5). Front
time can be maintained at 1.2us, to
provide correspondence with present
test waves. Short-circuit, clamp-circuit and protector-circuit currents can
all be specified as damped oscillatory
waves as well. Waves can be defined -frequencies, Q'S, etc. -- so that total
delivered energy can be the same as,
or carefully related to, energy transferred by the more conventional 1.2/50
and/or 8120 impulse waves.
Conclusions
Traditional impulses have already been
replaced by Combination V/I waves for
surging powered equipment. Requirements for doing powered surge testing
over a range of short-circuit currents,
with more sophisticated protectors and
with medium and high follow currents,
now lead to consideration of undershoot
clamping energy versus forward clamping
energy.
These factors seem to be pointing in
turn to the increased desirability of
using damped cosine waves for newer
surge standards. These oscillatory
waves appear to offer not only greater
correspondence with real-world surges,
but more practicable test configurations as well. Undershoot energy into
clamping protectors for such waves can
be part of total wave energy as specified, instead of representing unspecified additional stress.
Acknowledgement

Fig. 7a: Input Voltage Across a FourTerminal Protector, for the

Open-Circuit Voltage Wave of
Fig. 3a and Short-Circuit Current Wave of Fig. 3c.
NOTE:
USES NEW COUPLER/FILTER DESIGN
oCV=6kV
lOOV/.5cm, 50us/.5cm

Fig. 7b: Output Voltage from the Protector of Fig. 7a. NOTE: USES
NEW COUPLER/FILTER DESIGN
oCv=GkV
lOOV/.5cm, 50us/.5cm

Gregory J. Senko made important design

contributions to the low-undershoot
coupler/filter, and also performed a
thorough technical review of the manuscript. His inputs are gratefully acknowledged.
References

Cl1 ANSI/IEEE Std C62.41-1980,

Guidean
Surge Voltages in Low-Voltage AC
Power Circuits, p. 23.

c21

Richman, P., "Single-Output, Voltage and Current Generation for

Testing Electronic Systems", Proceedings of the IEEE EMC Symposium,
August 1983, pp. 47-51.

c31

Wiesinger, J., "Hybrid-Generator

fur die Isolations-koordination,"
ETZ 104 (21), pp. 1102-1105 (1983).

c41

SAE AE4L-81-2, Test Waveforms and

Techniques for Assessing the
Effects of Lightning-Induced Transients, 15 December 1981.

c51

Ref. (11, pp. 17-19.

- 419

76~4

PERFORMANCE DETERIORATION OF METAL OXIDE

VARISTORS BY CURRENT SURGES

V. Scuka
Institute of High Voltage Research
Uppsala, Sweden

Summary
The conduction mechanisms of MOvs are
Still not fully understood. A new mechanism (I) may be responsible for formation of potential barriers in ZnO grain
interfase. This, if so, may influence
future composition of additives in MOV
and give an improved aging characteristics. The experimental results obtained
by the present author suggest a modified
physical design of varistor discs for
high duty performance applications. Referring to the experimental results it
is also stressed the importance of adoption of varistor parameters to the
actual operational and environmental
conditions.
Introduction
The surge limiting efficience of MOV
is superiortothe efficienceofthe conventional gap arrestors primarily due
to a well defined threshold level, high
power dissipation ability and fast surge
pulse response. These characteristics
of the MOV are well known and make MOV
very suitable for applications in sensitive electronic systems which may be exposed to sub microsecond surges (which
may be) generated in the system itself
or those entering the system through
its power supply network.
Often it is not stressed enough that
the surge limiting performance of MOV
is in some extent a matter of their exposure to electric surges, working temperature, physical construction and the
bulk material microstructure and a matter of some other environmental conditions. It is therefore of primary importance to select carefully the elements to obtain an optimized performance
in a particular application. In this
paper are discussed some characteristical features and parameters which influence electrical characteristics of
MOV and their useful life time. The intention of this discussion is to make
everybody aware of the performance limits of MOV and to help the engineer to
avoid unproper design of surge protective circuits. To understand the complex mutual relationsofdifferent phys-

ical and electrical parameters, it is

useful to review briefly the main features in the electric conduction mechanisms and the main steps in the manufacturing process of MOV.
The bulk conduction in ZnO - varistors
The bulk conduction in the low current density region, the leaka e current
region of approximately 10 A/m9 or less,
is partly due to the conduction through
the high resistive intergranular material, filling the space between the ZnOgrains, and partly to the conduction
through the randomly distributed thin
junction barriers between the individual ZnO-grains which lie in touch to
each other. Bi203, diffused into the
surface of ZnO-grains, is believed to
be primarily responsible for the formation of the intergranular barriers in
the bulk material of the varistor (6).
These barriers create a complex network
of current paths with randomly distributed cross-section areas of varying
current transmission abilities. The resistivity of ZnO is low (0.01 ohm.m), so
the interface areas between the touching ZnO-grains are at higher field
strengths surely the predominating contributors to the electric properties of
the bulk material. At low field strength,
however, the electric properties of MOV
are influenced even by the electric
propertiesofthe intergranular material.
In general the leakage current is temperature dependent and is nonlinear with
applied electric field.
It has been found experimentally (3)
that varistors obey in the surge limiting current region the follwoing current
density "j " - electric field "E" relation:
... (I)
J = jo exp tcE]
The electron potential energy configuration of the intergranular ZnOboundary region and the current breakdown mechanism in MOV may be as follows.
Free electron from ZnO are trapped in
an about10011 thick trapping layer, thereby forming positive space charge donor
layers which extend into thegreins of ZnO
on either sideof the trapping region.

- 420 -

Because of the small and negative

temperature coefficient of the breakedown, which has been experimentally
videnced, it is reasonable to assume
that tunneling through the forward biased space charge barrier occurs at the
breakdown current. To explain for the
high values of the unlinearity coefficient a voltage dependent tunnel length
was considered
(3). The space charge
density in the grain barrier may be influenced by the metal oxide additives
(2) and is assumed to be in the range of
lO24 mm3 (6). SO, the voltage drop across a single interface junction between two grains is in the breakdown
current region nearly constant - about
3 V and does not vary for grains of
different sizes.
The conduction through these space
charge regions is responsible for the
strong nonlinear current-voltage
characteristic of the MOV:
i=

kua

Observations
An ideal component should consist of
grains of equal shape and size with uniform intergranular space. This is, however, in practice not the case. The
grain size may vary throughout the bulk
and the grain size distribution may be
inhomogeneous. The same is valid for
the intergranular space. In some materials the cavity formation in the intergranular space or/and the porosity of
the grains may be observed. Measuring
the size of the grains the following
general observations have been made:

. ..(2)

where the nonlinearity exponent a is in

the range of 20 to 70. However, it should
be remembered, that this valuedropsdramatically at current densitiesofthe
order of 1 MA/m2. So, it should be avoided
ith current surges
to load MOV-discs
exceeding 0.1 MA/m Y if the surge limiting efficiencehastobe
fully preserved.
A new approach in explaining the conduction mechanisms in MOV has been reported by Einzinger (1). The formation
of the potential barrier at the ZnOgrainsinterphaseis
explained by the
effects of the oxygen deficienceof ZnO,
creating so temperature dependent concentrations of oxygen and Zn vacances.
Referring to this model Bi203 is not an
unavoidable composite additive in MOV
for the creation of varistor function.
Even more, Bi203 has been pointed out
as responsible for the aging of the
varistors. This due to a presumed uncontrolled phase transformation of Bi203
from a high resistive
fior y -phase to a
low resistive
b-phase. Permutations may
be initiated locally in the microstructure of the varistor bulk material by
high current densities. This could well
explain the pulse aging characteristics
reported by Scuka (7) and later in this
paper.
Varistor

and the way of controlling the cavity

and flow formations in the grains and
the intergranular space.
In general, the nominal voltage of a
MOV-disc is given by the thickness of
the disc and the maximum power rating
by the diameter of the disc.

fabrication

and construction

The starting material is a powdercom

position of ZnO (90.0 v.%), Bi203 (4.0
v.%), Sb203 (3.0 v.%) and other additive oxides. The composition is dispersed in a liquid, mixed and milled,
dried, pressed into discs of predetermined thickness and diameter. After
pressing the discs are sintered above
1200 OC. The Bi203 is molten above
825 OC, at higher temperatures grain
growth occurs forming a structure with
controlled grain size. The process of
grain growth and the intergranular
space material formation is strongly influenced by the raw material, the rate
of temperaturechange,
pressure change

Fig.

1: Electron micrograph of a broken

surface of a 220 V MOV disc.
Nonuniform size of ZnO grains
may easily be recognized

The grains in the middle of a disc

have larger mean effective diameter
withahigher
standard deviation as
the grains at the upper and lower
disc surface.
- This observation is very pronounced
for discs with a nominal voltage below 60 V and is not so pronounced in
discs for higher nominal voltages.
- The porosity of\the grains has been
observed only in some discs for low
nominal voltages;
- The cavities in the intergranular
space are more often observed in the
low voltage discs than in the discs
for higher voltages.
After sintering the varistor discs
are equipped with a metallized electrode
layer.
The electrode layer, the electrode
termination and the rest of the mechanical assembly of the MOV are very important parts in a component. They have
to be considered in each specific kind
of application where the demands of high
duty performance are of importance.

Fig. 2:

Electron micrograph of a broken

surface low voltage MOV disc.
The grain porosity may be observed

The points of consideration are:

the electrode layer thickness and
its interface to the MOV-disc
the mechanical and electrical characteristics of the terminal connections
the electrode symmetry
the mechanical assembly.

Some observations
Microcracks and flaws below the metallized electrode layer may cause irregular current density loading of the
disc. Similar effects may develop at irregular current outlines of the electrode surface or at centric displacement of electrode surfaces. The resistance of the electrodes must be low and
the thickness of the electrode layers
must be large to prevent radial current
tracking on the electrode layers caused
by high current pulse loading. The interface area between the terminal and
,the electrode surface must be as large
as possible, without any flaws. The
mechanical assembly of the component
must fit the environmental conditions
and the physical circuit layout. The
mechanical assembly is in large extent
responsible for the failure mode when
the component is overloaded.
A non-destructive mechanical inspection of a component may be done by sonic waves at about 5 MHz. During this
procedure the components are dopped into the water. A flaw of about 1 mm size
in the bulk may be discovered by this
method.
The effect of elevated
working temperature
The useful life of MOV is strongly
influenced by the working temperature.
This is due to the electrochemical processes in the varistor bulk, the'atomic
migration of additives and the positive
electric temperature coefficient of the
component. Higher temperature causes
resistance decrease and higher power

421

76 M4

dissipation. This may result under

certain loading circumstances in thermal runaway of the component.
So, for example, when the working
temperature for a certain varistor
with a characteristic constant D =
13130K and MTBF (25OC) = 5 . 108 hours
(5.7 104 g ears) is increased from
25OC to 130 C, the mean time between
failure will be reduced according to the
Arrhenius law (ref. 1 equation 2) to
about 7 months.
The rate at which the component is
aging is given by the expression
sP(t)/Gt = -K exp C-D/T]
...(3)
and the reliability of satisfactoral
operation during the time period of 7
months will consequently decrease at the
elevated temp. from the expected value
of 99.999 % to 37 % as it may be proved
by the following expression:
H(tlT2) = [H(t,T,)I
exp [(D/T,) * (a-1)/a-J

...(4)

High energy pulses

It has been established experimentally that each component can withstand
only a certain number N(j)max of current suxges j at certain pulse shape,
e.g. 8/20 us.
If we assume N(j)max to be 10 we
found that j is varying between the
average values of 10 MA/m2 and 40 MA/m2.
The lower value is applicable to the
varistors below 60 V nominal voltage
and the higher value to the varistors
for higher nominal voltages.
This observation supportsthegeneral
physical model of MOV asitwas discussed
in the previous sections. Ifweassume
the creationofhot spots onthe critical
intergranular barrierswemay calculate
by theuseof thermal analysisof Carslaw
and Jaeger the critical density:

. ..(5)
JHs = TX/ [UBDfHS
with parameters as follows:
the thermal conductivity of the
x
Zn-grain ,-I W/mK
the melting temperature of the
T
Bi203 intergranular layer z 820C
UBD the breakdown voltage of the intergranular barrier M 3 V
rHS the equivalent radius of a hot
Spot rHSL 1 I.lm.
A contact area of an equivalent radius Of 'HS = 1 urnwill cause melting
at a junction current density of 270
MA/m2 which is about 10 times higher
than the average maximum allowed impulse
current loading of the component, when
a 10 pulses life of the component is assumed. It should also be remembe ed that
at a current density of 200 MA/m 5 electromigration of metalls in semiconductors is very pronounced.

High power pulses

When MOV are exposedtocurrentpulses
of nanosecond rise time, however of a
relatively low total energy, no simple

- 422 between the pulse energy and

the deterioration of the component has
been observed. The deterioration is also poorly related to the number of applied pulses. A stepwise deterioration
of the electric characteristic of the
components has, however, been observed,
the deterioration being related to the
increased crest value of the current at
the preserved current shape. Similar
results, however at the current shape
8/20 us, have also been observed by
other authors (4).
At a rate of rise of current density
in the range of lOI A/m2s, only a very
limited volume of the MOV disc is initially loaded by the current pulse.
Consequently, the current density in
this region of the bulk material is extremely high. Intergranular barriers
of successively larger equivalent cross
sections (rHS) will burn out according
to equation (5) when the pulse current
amplitude at the preserved current shape
is successively increased. The most exposed region with highest current density is the outermost part of the MOV-disc.
It is therefore of vital importance that
the outer boundary of the electrode lies
well inside both the disc areas and that
the length of the electrode circumference is large enough to prevent critical
current density at sub-microsecond current pulses.
Unfortunately these aspects have until now not influenced the construction
technology of varistor discs. It would
therefore be of great value if further
experimental investigations could be
performed with MOV-discs of the construction shown in Fig. 3.
relation

terminals
varistor disc

+
electrodes

Fig.3:

Varistor disc design which might

resist high sub-microsecond
current surges

Functional reliability of MOV

The functional reliability of MOV may
be expressed in a general way as
R(t) = exp[ -idt/MTBF(T)]

...(6)

and may be simplified for small failure

rates as follows:
R(t) M 1 =

ti/MTBF(Ti)

...

i=l

Index i in the equation (7) is related to the time intervals with particular working temperature or time intervals with particular type with an other
environmental condition, e.g. environment with high energy current surges.
By loading the component with current surges the MTBF(T) is shortened by

a factor
Nmaxmn
Nmax
where n is the number of applied pulses
and Nmax is the maximum number of specified pulses of a certain magnitude
which can be applied during the useful
life of the component:
N
-n
(8)
MTBF(t, Tn) = MTBF(t, T) F...
max
Selecting a suitable MOV-disc
When selecting a MOV-disc the recommendations given by the manufacturer
have to be followed.
In addition to what is stated above,
the following has to be carefully considered:
The disc diameter has to fitthetechnical design requirements related to
the maximum expected surge currents of
8/20 1~spulse shape. Itiswell known
that the nonlinearity exponent a decreases dramaticallyathigher current
densities. To preserve the surge limiting efficience of the component, the
maximum surge current loading should
not exceed 0.1 MA/m2. The disc diameter
and physical design has also to fit the
requirements related to the unhomogeneous
loading of the bulk material during
sub-microsecond current surges.
References
(I)

Einzinger, Richard: Evolution of

Physical Models for ZnO-Varistors
- A Review, Proc. of Int. School
of Mat. Sci. and Technology, July
1984, Springer Series in Sol. St.
Sci.
(2) Kazno, Eda: Transient conduction
phenomena in non-Ohmic Zinc Oxide
ceramics, J. Appl. Phys. 50(6),
p 4436-4442, 1979.
(3) Karner, Hermann: Alterungsvorgange
bei Zinkoxid-Uberspannungsableitern,
Institut fttrHochspannungstechnik,
Technischer Universitat Braunschweig.
(4) Levine, Jules D.: Theory of varistor electronic properties, CRC Critical Reviews in Solid State, Sciences, p 597-608, November 1975.
(5) Mahan, G.D., Lionel M. Levinson,
and H.R. Philipp: Theory of conduction in ZnO varistors, J. Appl.
Phys. 50(4), pp 2799-2812, April
1979.
(6) Morris, G. William: Physical properties of the electrical barriers
in varistors, J. Vat. Sci. Technol.,
Vol. 13, No. 4, p 926-931, July/
Aug. 1976.
(7) Scuka, V.: Lasting effects of transients on equipment performance,
UURIE:147-83, Uppsala University,
1983.

423 -

77 M5

CHARACTERIZATION
OF DISTURBING TRANSIENT WAVEFORMS
ON COMPUTER DATA COMMUNICATION
LINES

Maurice Tetreault
Digital Equipent Corporation
Stow, Massachusetts
c)1775

Franc;ois D. Martzloff
General Electric Company
Schenectady, New York 12345

SUMMARY

CIRCUITIYPES

As parat of a systematic effor*t aimed at

char*acter*ization of disturbances on data
cormmlnication lines, measur*ementswerae
per*formed at a distr*ibuted computer* site durding
lightning storms.
The recordings
are analyzed
for* statistical
par*ameter*sIn or*der*to obtain
generaic data.
The jnformation Is presented as
an invitation
to share data on the subject.

CWcuits and cabling methods used In LANand

DCS systems are an extension of standard
pr*actlce In room-size systems.
However., they
do not involve the much longer, lines
encountered In telephone cirdcults.
The RS-232
inter-connecting
standard Is the most commonly
used technique at the present time; with the
demand for* faster, tr+ansmisslon reates, RS-423,
RS-422, haseband, and hroa.dband ciracuits are
becoming m0r.e prdevalent .

IMJKXXJCTION
Increasing use of computer corrmunication
techniques for J,ocal Area Networgks (LAN) and
Distrelbuted Computer*Systems (DCS) requlr,es
rAelIable er*r*or-fr*ee data transmission in
hostile enviraonments. Many such systems have
experaienced damage f r*omenvir*onmentally induced
In addition to the cost
voltage transients.
aspects, this prIoblem also diminishes the va.lue
of the J,ANand JXX installation.
Inter*fer#ence irmnunity of these systems may be
achieved by the application
of praotective
devices at the data cable point of entry, by
the propera install.ation
of cable shielding,
by
utilization
of inherently lrtmune pr*otocols - 01
by application
of all of these remedies.
Hardware pr*otectlon against major threats can
only be achieved by diver%ing the unwanted
energy away from sensitive
components/devices.
In or*der*to apply pr*otection devices or*
techniques cordrectly and economically,
more
knowledge about the char*acter*lstlcs of the
distur%ances is required.
The present paper*
reporats the results of mea.surements and
analyses frlom a distr*ibuted computing site In
The
centrsal Floral da dur*lng l.ightnlng storms.
data is offeraed her*e as a contr+bution to
establishing
a better. charaacter,lzatlon of the
environment and as an invitation
to other*
wor*ker+sIn this field to come forward and shar*e
Information. *
fi The Sur*ge Pr*otective Devices Comnlttee of the
Im
is curerently sponsor*lng such an effore at
character*lzlng the envlr*onment . Additional
inputs to the data base are invited;
contact
the pr*lncipal author* of this paper, M.
Tetr-ault,
Digital Fqulpment Corpor*atlon, 40
Old Bolton Road, Stow, Massachusetts 01775.

I?ach of these cir*cult types has differ*ent

sour*ce and load impedance char*acterlstics,
and
the line dr*iver*s and receIverIs have differ*ent
overvoltage withstand capabllltles.
Cables
used in these systems may be of the
twisted-pair4 (shi.el ded 01 unshl elded) type, or*
The RS-232, 423, and 422 links
coaxial..
normally use twisted pairs, while baseband and
brdoadband links typically
use coaxial cables.
Cable shielding methods r%nge fr*om nonexlstent
to single 01 multiple shields.
%ounding of
the shield Is var*iously found at one end OL*
both ends, scmetlmes with deliber*ate 01.
accidental gr*oundlng at multiple intermediate
points.
Tunis diver*sity of clr*cuj t types might, at fir*st
glance, make sny measurement that uses a single
example for4 character*lzlng a complex situation
What is rvporated here Is
seem to be smbltious.
Indeed only one example: the Intent Is to
descr*lbe a measurement prQcedur4e and the method
applied to reduce the raw data to useful
However,, we believe
engineering parameters.
that the same methods can be applied to other*
types of installations
(LAN or ES)
impacted by
overvoltage sour*ces other, than lightning,
such
as Induced disturebances from adjacent power
cir*cults or* electrQstatlc
dlscharage.
SITE FACILITY
The site facility
consisted of one centraal
computer camnvllcating via RS-232 with various
distrolbuted video display and hardcopy
terminals (Fig.
1).
The cable on which the
measurements were made was 650 m long,
containing 32 twisted palr*s of #20 AWTr
wire,
ea.& pair* having an individual shield of thin
aluminum foil tied to grvxlnd at one end.
Routing of the cable Included dir-ct bur*lal fat*

424 conductor* of its power cored. With these pr,obes

connected to the 1 M ohm input impedance of the
oscilloscope,
an effective
impedance of 10 M
ohm was thus connected between the points beine:
monitored and local ground - negl,igihle
compared to the circuit
impedance. The
oscillograms
were t*ecot*ded with the
oscilloscope
operating at a sampling rate of
20 MHZ- that is, 50 nanoseconds per point.
The tseceptacle for the oscilloscope
power. cord
was about 1 m from the building service
entt*ance, so that the voltage measured by the
oscilloscope
was essentially
the potential with
respect to the building ground potential.
Fig. 3 shows a.n example of the recor*dings
obtained during the measurement pt*oject .
Oscillogtam 3A contains two waveforms
syncht*onously and simultaneously t*ecorded by
Channel
channel 1 and channel 2, respective1.y.
1 monitored a transmit line (pin 2) and
channel 2, the associated signal refetaence line
(pin 7) - r*efet* to fig. 4. Oscillogt~sm 3R
shows the al.gebtaic difference
pt*ocessed fkom
the simultaneous taecor*dings of the two
channe1.s.

L
Fig.

Site plan indicating cable routing

(Measurements performed at cable
entrance to building containiny
computer)

_ .
46 m at a depth of about 1 m, aluminum conduit
for 380 m al.ong va.t*ious metallic racks, and
pipes 2 to 5 m above graound, the taest of the
ca.ble being strung overhead on utility
poles.
3 shows a si.mpl.ifi ed l_ogic drawing of a.n
Fig.
RS-232 cormunieation circuit.
The line dt*lvets
ate 1488 devices: the receivers are 1489
that is, they
devkes . !They arae single-ended;
operate in t*efet~ence to signal common rather
than in a dlfferaential
mode. These signal
commons are then bonded to the chassis of each
equipment cabinet, which in turn are bonded to
their respective ac power grounding conductor.
This type of arrangement may result in a
dlfferdence In the potential
of the signal
In an
conmon at the two ends of the cable.
attempt to tdemedythis situation by equalizing
the potential,
signal refetdence wires (pin 7,
EIA RS-232 Standard) are run along and twisted
with the respective tt*ansmi.t and receive signal
of equalizing the
wi tss . The effectiveness
potential of two chassis, each bonded to a
local. ac gt*ounding conductor,, can be expected
to decraease as the ohysical dktance and/or the
difference
between the two chassis
p.otential
i: ncrease.

Fig.
200

3A example of field

recorded waveform

160

120

s
--T_-J

I__-

--

2
6

80

40

>

Fig.

Simplified
circuit

logic

drawing of a RS-232

I~WlJHJMF~ATION
AhID RECORDING
MFTHCECJ~~Y
A Nicolet Model 2090 digital
oscilloscope
was
used for monitoring and recording tra.nsi.ent
voltage waveforms appearaing on the the data
Compensated pt*obes with 1.0:1
cable.
attenuation wet&eused; the shl.elds of these
pteohes we1.e not grounded to the c-lrcuit signal
common, but only to the oscl lloscope chass-i s,
the latter* being t?.eA to the ac grmmtllng

ii
g

40

;1
E 80
::
2120

160

200

3R exist@

normal mode voltage

77M5

42.5 -

!The waveform shown in Oscillogram

3P
illustr*ates that a norinal. mode voltage can
exist between between the conductors of a
twisted pair,. This normal mode voltage is in
fact the vol.tage that till
he 1mpraessedacross
the output pins of the line dr*iver*/r*eceiver*
circuits
and their, rdespectlve signal commons.
Note the offset exceeding -12 V and the
transient voltage exceedj.ng -4o V, with a
dur*atlon extending beyond the tj.me window of
the recording (102.4 JW). The diffenence
tn
voltage between simultaneous traansients
occur*rlng on the twisted pair. consisting of the
signal and r*eferance conductor*s is due to the
differdent terminating impedances of the
conductors, as illustr.ated
in Fig.
4.

RFmT,Ts

The raw field data were trgeated by numer*ica1

methods which ar*e descr+bed in the Appendix.
Table 1 shows the r#ange of frequencies
contained in the transients,
their, r*ise times
and their* dureations. Fig.
5 shows a
r#epr*esentative waveform that may be cited as
typical of what a near*by lightning stroke
produced In the cable at this site.
It must be
understood that the author*s are pr*esenting
figur*e 5 as r*epr*esentative of only the data
obtained at the patWcular+ site descr*ibed in
this paper. It is not possible to extrapolate
a universal r*epresentative waveform given the
small size of this sample. As stated the
intention is to pr*esent a method of measur*ing,
r*ecordlng and reducing the data to useful
engineering parsmeteras.

1BOVOLTS
250KHz

Fig.
Fig.

Partial schematic of driver

receiver
(1489) pair

(1488) and

Representative waveform derived

statistical
study

from

TABLE1
4 is a partial circuit
schematic of a
Fig.
RS-232 dr*iver*/r*eceiver~ pair*. Note that the
draiverahas a 300 ohm output impedance and the
r*ecelver* has a 4000 ohm input Impedance. !IWS
differaence in terminating impedance means th.at
a balanced syrrmetr~ical transient tr*aveling
along the twisted pair* (signal and reefer*ence
wirees) will cr*eate a diffenent voltage dr*op
across the diffenent terminating impedances, in
other, words a difference
of potential between
the signal and common pl.ns of the terminating
That differaence, which is only caused
devices.
by the unbalanced devices input/output
Impedances, converts an Impinging commonmode
tr*ansj.ent into a normal mode traansient at the
termlrmting devices.
Over* the period of observation at this site,
r*ecordings such as that of Fig. 3 were
These r*awdata were subsequently
obtained.
analyzed by statistical
methods in order to
obtain a typical
descr*iption of the effect
the envkonment on the cable.

64

of

To place these r*esults Into perspective,

test
rdesults on the withstand voltage of commonly
used m-232 dr+iver*and receiver. integraated
circuits
indicate that fai1ur.e occurs in the
rdange of 40 V to 90 V, wl.th times to failune
ranging fr*om 3 ,us to 35 JB . Failune of the
1488 dralver+is gener*al.ly due to burnout of the
300 ohm output r#esistor,, an enetegy-dependent
mechanism wher*e duration of the transient
Failurae of the 1489 recelver. is
dominates.
genersally by Internal arolng, a voltage
level-dependent
mechanism where dur*ation of the
transient has minimal effect.

DURATION
(note 3)

total events
4.8 ).s to
graeater than
102.4 us
single events
0.1 ns to 75 E.ls

52.6 pa

4.5 ps

Note 1

Upper, frequency
instrzunentatlon
appendix.

ll.mlt Is 7 MHz due to

limitations.
Refer+ to

Note 2
Lower* limit of Cl.1 ,us was arhitr*ar4ily imposed
due to Instrumentation limits.
Refer, to
append1x .
Note 3
Two ranges are pr,esentad since natuna.1
transient events tend to occur in bursts of
related voltage excursions (fig. 3).
Values
listed as total event raeprdesentthe duration
of the entir*e event as rdecorded. Values listed
as %ingle event represent the dunatlons of
the individual voltage excursions occur*r*lng
durWg the entir*e event.

- 426 -

INSTALI,ATION
EF'JXCTS
ON TRANSIFW CRARAcTeRISTICS
The field raecorded
waveformsIn this study
repreesent
the effectsof transientsgenereated
by lightningdischangeson a specificcable
plantand its terminating
impedances.That Is
the electricalchar*acteristlcs
of the complex
circuitmade up of the data cable,CPU,
terminals,the variousac power*
feeds,and the
earth r*eferaences
for*both power and cable
shields,etc., will determinethe responseto
a given transientstimulus. The specific
re;ponseto a hypothetical
impingingtransient
of knownDatameterswould not likelybe the
same for,any two LlANand/or*
DCS Installations.
To further.
complicatethe effortto
char*acterize
the electricalenvir*onment
of LAN
and DCS installations
thereare a varietyof
possiblesourcesfrom which the initial
transientsimpingingupon the systemsmay be
generated.
The transientgener*atlng
sourcesto whichL#AN
and DCS systemsar'eexposedincludeFSD,
lightning,trdansients
enteringthe systemsvia
the power'
mains,transientscoupledover*from
near*by
conductorssuch as power OL* contrIo
lines (evenstnmturs.1steel),and transients
gener*ated
due to likelyearthpotential
differ*ences
momentarily
existingbetweenthe
variousearth referaences
of the system. The
char*acteristlcs
of the Initialimpinging
transientsonto thesesystemswill of course
exhibita varietyof waveformsexisting
individually
and in combination,
consistingof
both oscillatory
wavesvaryingover,a wide
r*ange
of possiblefrequencies
and
unidinectional
impulseshavinga wide
rangeof possibleratesof rise and dunations.
The Snhenentcircuitchar~acteristlcs
of the
particular*
installation
on which r*ecor*ding
ar*e
beingmade will have a gneat effecton the
electricalchar*acteristics
of any transient
tnavelingalong the installation.The
existenceof voltageand cunrentstandingwaves
and reflections
can be expected,whichwill
certainlycontributeto the char+acter*istics
of
any observedtrsnsientwaveformson the cable.
The physicallengthand the velocityof.
pr*opagation
of any cablewill Influencethe
r*ates
of rise that can be expected.
Typicalwith&and levelsof data cable
Insulation
are in the rangeof 5 kV. Any
transientinducedon the cableabove that value
would be limitedby insulationfailur*e,
so that
an upper*
limitcan be expected. Damaging
levelsof the terminating
equipmentis nnuch
lower*,
so that the rangeof interestincludes
all voltagesbetweenthe withstandlevelof
terminalequlpm&t and the upper'limit,should
it be reached,set by the cable insulation.
The highestvoltagemagnitudesrecor*ded
during
the measurement
peniodexceeded200 V. The
peak magnitudesof this eventwas estimated,
basedon the observableportionof .ltswaveform
char+acter&rtics
of dunation,rise and fall
times,to have been in the neighborhood
of
3oov.

l- BernardRicker,,
PrincipalFngineer',
Corporaate
ComponentEvaluation
Laboratory,
DigitalFquipment
Corpor*ation,
Northbor*o,
MA.
2- DonaldGauss, PrMiuctSupportRngineer*,
DistrictField ServiceSupport,nfgital
EquipmentCorporation,
Onlando,FL.

APPENDIX- NUMERICALMFTRODS
All data were analyzedusing DigitalFqUipment
Corponationsoftwarae.
The pr*lmary
pr*ogrems
used are containedin Y'he Laboratory
SubroutinePackage"r11,
other,
utilitypr*ograms
were writtenas requir*ed.
The specific
subroutines
used were the Fast Fourier
Transform@!?I?)
and the PowerSpectrum
on the Nicolet
(PCWRSP).Each waveformstoraed
disk was changedto ASCII formatand storedas
an individual.
file on a VAX 11/780.
Since the fielddata were digitizedcertain
limitations
in pr*ecision
will occur'
duningthe
necor*ding
pr*ocess.The Nicolet2090 stonesthe
r*ecor$ed
data in a digitizedformatof up to
4096points,sampledat up to a 20 MHZ rate
with 8 bit precision.Each of the waveformsin
this studywas recordedusing 2048 sampling
pointsat a 20 MHz samplingr*ate(50
nanoseconds
per+point).
Voltagemeasunementaccuraacy
is a functionof
verticalamplifier@
linearityand bit
0.4%
resolution.8 bit nesolutionpr*ovldes
That is, the value of the Least
rdesolution.
Significant
Bit as a functionof the total
numberof bits determinesthe smallestpossible
subdivision
of the measunement
unit. So for,a
8 bit r*esolution
devicethe ISR Is l/256of the
unit of measunement.
Resolutioncapability
combinedwith the amplifierslineanlyaccuracy
rendersa statedspecification
forathe Nicolet
2090 r2i of 0.5% full scaleaccunacy.
'Ihefrequencyrecor*ding
limitIs determinedby
both the samplingraate
and ampl.lfier~
bandwidth.
Samplingat 20 MHz can accunatelyrecord
frequencies
up to slightlyless than 10 MHz.
Samplingtheoryindicatesthat a given
fr*equency
(F) must be sampledat more than 2F
in order*
to be accurgtelyreconded,any
frequencyequalor'greeaten
than l/2 the
samplingrate will not be accuratelyrecorded.
The amplifier1
bandwidthimposesan overall7
MHz limit. Any frequencyinputto the device
above 7 MHz will be recordedwith enrotsin
amplitude.
FlguneAl is an exampleof the outputof the
analysisprogrem,usinga 100 kHz sine wave.
AlA Is simplya graaphic
of the waveformbeing
analyzed. AlB 1s the outputof the power*
spectrumroutine. !l'his
describesthe
proportional
relationship
of power.
magnitudes
betweenthe varies frequencycomponentsof the
waveformbeinganalyzed.

77M5

- 421 -

..,

I-

12.

Data pertainingto transientraates

of nise and
dunationswere not gr*aphlcally
depicted,since
statistical
data adequatelypr*ovide
the
Information
required.

?d 4.
;r
d
>

-4.

-12.

_*o.;: : j

i
I

44

88

132

MICRO

: ::

176

220

SECONDS

Fig. AlA 100 kH.zwaveforminputto

La.bor*atory
Subr*outine
Package.

The remainingfiguresare examplesof the

transientsr*ecor+ded
durl.ng
the pr,oject.There
is
a tendencyof the transienteventsto occur*
in burst of nelatedvoltageexcursions.Figur*e
A3A and A3B are examples. The entireeventhad
a dur*ation
of gr*eater+
than 102.4us -the limit
of the Nicoletrecor*dlng
windowusing a 20 MHz
sampling[*ate
and storaing
2048 points (50
nanoseconds
X 2048). Containedwithinthe
eventwer*enumer*ous
voltageexcursionsof
varyingamplitudesand dur*ations.
There is no
way to pnacticallydescr*ibe
such eventsusing
one set of statistical
InformatIon.So the
decisionwas made to determinetwo sets of
parsmeters.One descniblngthe eventsas an
entiretyand the other+
descr*lbing
significant
voltageexcursionsoccur*r*ing
withinthe events.
20.

:001

.Ol

.l

FREQUENCY

100

IO

,I

: :

ii

: :

: :

8 :

12.

(MHz)

AlB Outputof power*

spectrumr,outine.

4.

2
d
>

-4.
Figurde
A2 Is pr*ovided
for*compar*ison,
it
depictsthe resultsof the analysisusinga 100
-12.
is a
kHz squar'e
wave input. As expectedther*e
significant
differencebetweenthe pr*opor*tional.m
power.
magnitudesof the fundamental.
and the
0
the
subsequentharmonics. Fig. A3 lllustrlates
rdesults
of the analysisroutineon one of the
field r*ecorded
waveforms. 'Phlsexample
1
indicatesthe gneatestpower'contentin the
raange
of 30 kHz to 80 kHz;. Then two other,
pr4cxninent
peaks occur*
at appnoximately
110 kHz
to 180 kHz and the other.
at appr*oximately
240
kHz to 260 kHz.
_.

_20,;,

i4:

j i8

:,A2:

:,&

72

MICRO

:001

Pig.

48

24

: ,:,

.Ol

l:,

96

120

SECONDS

.l
FREQUENCY

:>t,

1
(MHzl

10

::

100

A3A and Fig. A3B ar'eexamplesof

transientwaveformanalysisr*esults.

220
MICRO

A2A

Fig.

1 ,,

SECONDS

100

kHz squarewave inputto

LaboratorySubr80utine
Package.
:

: :

: :_,

Fig. A4

Typicalrecordingsof normaland
c0mMlr-r
mode voltages.
( FOLLOWING

PAGE )

.8 +

.S ._

5
I!

::
4:

.2 f
o

:,

,001

.Ol

.i,

/
.l

FREQUECNY

.,:,:.,

:
1

,/
10

ir
100

(MHzl

A2B Outputof power'

spectrumroutine.

Suh*outinePr*ogrammer*'s
1. Labor*atory
ReferenceManual,DigitalFquipment
Corpor*ation,
Manlboro,Massachusetts,
1980.
2090 Digital
2. ServiceManualforeSerlies
Oscilloscopes,
NicoletInstrument
CorporAatlon,
Madison,Wisconsin,1981.

-MICiiO

10

20

30M.&O

428

MICRO SECONDS

SECONDS

!&O~DS

70

80

YU

10

20

30

MI$O

80

90

100

S%O;DSz

200

160

120

10

20

30

M&l

!&O~D

10

20

3Mlci?0

&Q&t

70

80

90

100

78

- 429 -

THRESHOLD

SIGNAL AND PARAMETER

IN NON-GAUSSIAN

Nl

ESTIMATION

EMC ENVIRONMENTS*

David Middleton**
New York, N.Y.,

Abstract
Based on the author's recently developed results for canonical optimum
and suboptimum threshold detection
theory in nongaussian noise and interference [ll-[3], the present paper provides a concise summary of the extension of these concepts and methods to
the parallel problem of the canonical
threshold estimation of signal waveforms and parameters in nonqaussian
electromagnetic
interference
(EMI)
environments.
The critical problem of terminating
properly the resultant (weak-signal)
series approximations
for the canonical
estimator algorithms is solved, preserving the required locally optimum
Bayes estimator (LOBE) structure and
insuring asymptotic optimality
(AO) of
performance.
As in the corresponding
detection situations [l]-141, it is essential to include a proper bias term
in the estimator.
It is shown that the
desired LOBE's are linear or nonlinear
func,tionals of an associated locally
optimum Bayes detector (LOBD) and A0
structure, with proper bias.
A sufficient condition for this LOB and A0
property is that the associated LOBD's
are asymptotically
normal, with appropriate means and variances under the
particular hypothesis states involved.
General examples are based on: (i)
the "simple cost function (SCF)," [5],
[61, from which are generated unconditional maximum likelihood estimators
(UMLE's), which, in turn, are simple
linear (i.e., derivative) functionals
of the associated LOBD's; (ii) the

*This paper is based on current studies

done in part for the Institute
ill-[31,
of Telecommunication
Sciences (ITS) of
the National Telecommunications
and
Information Administration
(NTIA), U.S.
Department of Commerce, Boulder, Colorado
80303.
**The author is at 127 E. 91 St., New
York, N.Y. 10128,
USA.

USA

quadratic cost function (QCF), for

which the corresponding LOBE's are
found to be nonlinear (i.e., integralexponential) functionals of the associated LOBD's in this case.
Explicit
classes of (threshold) estimator are
obtained for the SCF and QCF, corresponding to the (1) coherent, (2) incoherent, and (3) composite modes of observation [ll, II+&, for both optimum
and suboptimum algorithms.
The principal types of nongaussian EM1 here are
described by the author's canonical
Class A and B noise mechanisms
[7], developed during the last decade.
The
general results are illustrated by a
specific example.
1. Introduction
As is well-known, in the Bayes the[6]
estimation is the "twin"
ory [51,
of detection: the former aims to determine the particular characteristics
of
a desired signal, e.g., amplitude,
waveform, phase, frequency, etc., once
the signal has been detected, while the
latter is concerned with the basic
question of the desired signal's presence or absence.
In a very broad
sense "estimation" can be regarded as
an extension of detection: both subsume
appropriate cost functions for the derivation of optimal algorithms and for
the measures and comparisons of performance.
In fact, in a more general
Bayesian sense detection and estimation
are the two, coupled component elements
of the composite process of signal extraction: detection and estimation
joined together by a suitable cost
function, reflecting the frequent situation where it is not completely certain, for the estimation process, that
the desired signal is present, which,
in turn, results in biased estimators
[81. Here, however, we shall assume
that the desired signal is known a
priori to be present, and that certain
waveform and parameter features of the
signal are to be estimated, when the
accompanying EM1 is highly nongaussian
(the "classical" situation of gaussian
EM1 is a,special case of our general
model).
Now the estimators are un-

- 430 biased. In any case, we may expect the

estimation process, particularly optimum estimation (in the Bayes theory 151I
[6]),
to be closely related to the detection process, since both are derived
from appropriate likelihood functions.
This will be seen explicitly in the
canonical* threshold theory outlined
below (cf. Sec. 3).
From the practical EMC viewpoint,
signal estimation is a common communication requirement: signal amplitude
(or level), waveform, frequency, epoch,
modulation are each important elements
of the reception process, whether it be
telecommunications, radar, television
(and their analogues in acoustical and
optical regimes). Threshold reception
(here estimation) plays a critical r81e
in EMC applications, because it permits
one to help maximize performance under
the constraints of limited spectrum OCcupancy, against competing signals in
the presence of non-intelligent EM1 and
noise backgrounds. Designing receivers
for effective threshold performance
usually ensures better (but not necessarily optimum) performance at strongsignal levels. As in the detection
cases 111, an optimal theory provides
limiting estimation algorithms and performance, which are models to be approximated in practice. Also, as in
detection, a canonical theory is possible in the weak-signal cases (as long
as reasonably large time-bandwidth
products are permitted, of course: the
desired signal must be "extractable"
under the observational constraints).
Such a canonical theory also provides
standards against which practical, suboptimum (i.e., approximate) algorithms
can be evaluated and compared 111, 121.
From the EM1 scenario, namely, the
set of quantitative conditions on the
interfering signal sources (e.g.,
source distribution in space and time,
propagation conditions, waveform structures, etc.) which permit the a priori
calculation of the parameters of the
probability distributions of the interference [3], [7], we can determine the
quantitative analytic form of these
distributions, and consequently, the
explicit structure of the desired estimation algorithms and their expected
performance. These interference parameters are also directly obtainable from
empirical data [73, and are physically
meaningful elements of the basic statistical physical models of the dominating nongaussian interference here.
*BY "canonical" is meant an analytic
structure where the form of the processing algorithms and their performance is independent of the particular
waveform of the signal and statistics
of the noise and interference, i.e., of
the specific physics of the problem in
question.

As in threshold detection theory t11

a fundamental problem now in developing
effective threshold estimation algorithms is to obtain expressions of limited complexity, which retain their optimum nature when sample size (n) becomes increasingly large. The latter
is the case, of course, when the signal
is weak, since large effective data
samples are required for small expected
errors in the resulting estimates-analogous to small probabilities of decision error in optimum (threshold) detection. However, just as in detection
[l], without a suitable "bias" term in
the extraction algorithm this algorithm
demands progressively more terms in its
approximative form. This rapidly defeats the key requirement of processing
feasibility, particularly for signals
and interference of practical use, and
destroys analytic tractability, as
well. Again as in (threshold) detection theory, a major difficulty with
much of the earlier work (cf. discussions in [3], [4]) has been the lack
of correct "bias" component in the LOBE
forms, so that they in turn can be very
suboptimum at all (small) signal levels
and sample sizes.
Accordingly, from the viewpoint of
the above, and consistent with the
severe limitations on space, we present here a concise summary of optimum
and suboptimum threshold signal estimation, for the three qeneric
modes
nf
reception: (1) coherent estimation, 72)
incoherent estimation, and (3) composite estimation, where a linear combination of the coherent and incoherent
algorithms is employed. Because of
spatial limitations we shall confine
our explicit illustrations to the simplest situation of amplitude (or
scale) estimation, where signal waveform is otherwise known at the receiver.
However, the effects of fading, doppler,
and other propagation conditions can be
included. [The general formalism outlined here, nevertheless, is quite capable of providing explicit algorithms
in the more complex situations involving waveform, frequency, phase estimation, etc.] The EM1 is additive, generally nongaussian, and is either Class
A or Class B interference (i.e., respectively coherently or incoherently
received in the (linear) front-end
stages of a typical narrow band receiver, accompanied by (additive) external
and internal gaussian noise [13-[4],
[71) * These interference models account for most of the EM1 encountered
in practice.
Among the new results cited here are:
(1) LOB and A0 estimator structures for
threshold signals; (2) composite estimator algorithms; (3) useful suboptimum
algorithms; (4) estimator variances;
and (5) explicit functional relations
between the LOBE's and their associated
LOBDs, with the accompanying A0 condi-

- 431

tions emphasizing the critical rale of

the "bias" term. This overview is accomplished in Sections 2-5: Section 2
gives a short summary of the relevant
results of estimator theory; Section 3
is devoted to the associated LOBDs and
their resultant optimum estimators,
while Section 4 considers an illustrative example of amplitude estimation.
Section 5 concludes the presentation
with a brief discussion of the results
and their EMC implications.
2. Analytical Background:

Summary

Here we briefly summarize the needed

main elements of the decision-theoretic
formulation of signal estimation theory
[21,

[51,

[61.

For an estimator we write

(2.1)

2 = &($j&I,X)= g&),

where J&=(81,...,e,) is a set of signal

parameters (or waveform samples, etc.)
to be estimated; &=(Xl,...,Xn) is the
set of received data samples in which
the estimate is to be based; the "decisions," or estimates made are denoted
by ~,=(y~,...,yM), and u in Y0 indicates
the a priori probability (density) governing the parameters $, e.g., a=~@),
or J+ in 0(h). [We note that xc is an
estimator for all permitted 5, while
for a particular set X=X', yc becomes
an estimate.] The de"cizion rule 6
is here .&(Y(X)=$,(y-x0(&(;)),which is
an (M-dime&Tonal7 delta function.
When xc(=gE) is given, i.e., the estimating receiver gE($) is specified, the
average error (or risk) is determined
from
R(a,6)

or

e=

I, a@_
or

lJ, ~,(~(~:(g..W($j_or

Q)&

(or

i,-yo)dz

a)

(2.2)

where C is an appropriately chosen cost

function, naturally proportional to the
measure of error selected. The estimator y. is a point estimate, and F is
the conditional pdf of 3, given S($$.
Another useful type of estimation
procedure is interval estimation, defined by the probability P that a particular point estimate, Yc (for given
E) falls within (l+h) 100% of the true
value of the quantity [g=waveform, or
@parameters in s(i)] being estimated,
v1z.:
~{(l-h) ES or Ql Q Y,(a or SIX_)Q
8 < h < 1 (2.3)
(1+X)[k or a>,
where h is a measure of the prechosen
confidence interval selected, -X8 to
+hg for example. In the case of a single parameter 8, for instance, we can
write
PI (1-A)e 6y,(e\z)
(l+h)

(1-A)

; Wl(y,

G (l+h)el
(8) )dy,,

=
(2.4)

78

Nl

where Wl(Yc(8)=p(Yle) is the conditional pdf of the estimator y, conditional

on 6, formed here from p(Y]e)=
I r Fn(~l~(8)s(yel~)d~, with obvious
formal extensions to the multidimensional cases, cf. 111, [51, [61. The
unconditional pdfs of the estimators
themselves are obtained from p(l)=
<p(ylgor Q,)>gor 8'
We emphasize thatr, is a point estimator, embodying the specific structure, gE, (2.1), of the receiver performing the estimation. On the other
hand, interval estimators, as expressed
by P, (2.31, (2.4), yield a probability which is a measure of the efficiency of the point estimator for any particular application (i.e., choice of &).
The average error (or risk) (2.2) measures the expected cost or average error in using x0, considered over all
possible ($1 received.
For optimum, or Bayes estimation we
seek estimators YX which minimize the
average error or?isk R(o,6), (2.2).
The general form of the resulting y*
depends, of course, on the choice o B
"Cost or error function C&_ or Q,y,).
For example, for the quadratic cost
function (QCF)
c(~,&J)=colo-$J12 =
?
(2.5)
0 ,i, (em-Y$m)
Lf
the associated optimum estimator is
found to be (cf. Chapter 3, [51, Chap-

(2.6)
with A$, o(Q)+cr(s),a-+@ in the case
of estimating signal waveforms. Note
that 1% is generally a nonlinear operator on the received data, 8.
Another cost function of considerable interest is the simple (or rectangular) cost function (SCF) given by
M"
(2.7)
C(~,~c)=Co mil [Am'G(Ym-em)l
with appropriate choices of Co, Am to
ensure meaningful results (e.g., positive errors, etc.). Minimization of
average risk here leads directly to
(cf. Sec. 21.2-1 of [6]) the following
relations determining yg SCF:
I

log

ae

c4

0,)

w, (4 I.e,) 1

em=eg=y*

all m=l,...,M,
where WJ&l

0,

m
(2.8)

~,=e,)"

, and
)>p,=,_,_ sn /a(v,=e,)
a(Y,=f3,)=<a(Y,,Q_')>,, with Q'=all Q
except 8
The con& ition (2.8) deter92.
mining x={y&]
is precisely that determining the unconditional maximum like<Fn(~l~(~mt$)

- 432 -

lihood estimates (UMLE'S) of 8={8,),

[If ~(0,) is omitted in
viz. r& here.
(2.8) one has the corresponding
conditional maximum likelihood estimates
(CMLE'S) of the {em]. [The extension of
(2.8) to waveform estimation is formally immediate: one replaces Brn by S,,
~(8,) by a(Sm) r wn(xIem)
by Wn(&ISm) I
etc., with m=l,...,E now.]
In summary, we remark that:
I. The maximum (conditional) likelihood estimator (CMLE) maximizes
the probability of a Correct decislon, without regard to incorrect decisions and their costs;
likeliII. The maximum unconditional
hood estimator (UMLE) maximizes
the probability of a correct estimate, when all possible (signal or
parameter) values are taken into
account, again without specific
regard for incorrect decisions and
their errors;
III. The optimum quadratic estimator
&&I
(2.6)r is an unconditional
least mean-square error (LMSE) estimator, which accounts on the
average for incorrect decisions
and errors.

with

now the (logarithms of the) generalized

likelihood ratio representing the test
states Hl(SetN) vs.Ho(N), which is the
familiar "on-off" or "signal and noise"
vs. "noise alonell situation in detection theory.
In a similar way we see that the
rule (2.6) for obtaining the Bayes estimators for the QCF (2.5) can be equivalently expressed in terms of another
likelihood ratio by
lv*)
=
ti QCF(i.i km)QCF
0,~ ( emI e
de&2)
@rn

g;21)

{hi

where

now

This likelihood ratio, l(21)

sents the binary-signal %%Z~i~~P~~tu-

3. Canonical Optimum Threshold

Estimator Structures; AO/LOBE Forms
As noted above (Sec. l), the critical problem in developing explicit optimum threshold estimators
(LOBE'S)
from the general (all signal level)
forms (2.6), (2.8) is to terminate the
desired series approximation properly,
i.e., without an excessive number of
terms and in such a way that these estimators are asymptotically
optimum
This situation pre(AO), as well.
cisely parallels that for optimum
threshold detection, already treated by
the author in 111, 131.
In fact, the
approach here is to convert the various
likelihood functions oF,, aW, above,
from which the LOBE's are determined,
cf. (2.6), (2.8), into likelihood ratios, equivalent now to a suitable stamica1
test among two distinguishable
hypotheses
(Hl, H2), etc.
Then LeCam's
results [91 as applied by Levin, r101
are used to obtain at least a sufficient condition of A0 for the "LOBD"
form from which the resulting AC LOBE
is then constructed, according to the
error function (QCP, SCF, etc.) chosen.

Having cast these estimators in

likelihood ratio form, we can now proceed directly as in the previously developed optimum threshold detection
theory ([ll, [3],Appendix A-3; [2],
Appendix) to obtain the needed approximate forms for Rn=g*(~,Om)+tn&Om)~g;:,
where it is shown &at
as n+m, t,+O
prob. 1 on Hl vs. Ho (or H2 vs. H1),
i A * IS A0 as n+m.
Because of
~h~';un~t?%al
relations (3.1), (3.2)
&* iS likewise then AO, as well as LOBE,
i.e., is AOBE (asymptotically Bayes estimator).
Now specifically
(3.1),
(3.2) become
a log'1
SCF:UMLE

(m)+ag&_ScF
0;
aem a0m1em=r;=
all m

QCF:LMSE
3.1 Equivalent LOBE's for LOBD's
We consider first the SCF case, cf.
(2.7), with the optimizing rule (2.8)
for generating the UMLE's, 2.
Since
the (linear) operation of differentiation in (2.8) is unaffected if we subtract log Fn(&lO), we see that (2.8)
becomes
+

(log U(0m) +
m

!$l) (2 10,)

SCF

18

{y;I =(jn

l(3.3).

O,al(Bm)e ':-QCFdOmI,
em
..

(3.4?
where the g* are given explicitly in
the next se&ion.
A sufficient condition that g$ is A0 is that gA be asymptotically normal, with means
T[vargg~_SCF~Varlg$-QCFl,

THOtH1;

or

=y*=o

and variances var8gj,?jjZfC,

respectively.
, also,
Varlgg_QCFI
that because we have assumed the desired signal is a priori known to be[8]
present, logu=log(p/q) of the detection

(3.1)

f~r~~~c:b!~,~lo~foE1~~~~~,P~~~~e~b~~~']

mm
m=l,...M

Hlr

H2r

78

- 433 -

3.2 A0 Forms of the g;2

From Sec. 3.2 of [2], and from rll
suitably adapted, we have specifically
the needed structures of g& required in
(3.3) I (3.4) for determining the associated A0 LOBE's.
Specializing to the
practically useful cases of independent
data (i.e., noise) samples and locally
stationary noise processes, which we
shall henceforth assume in the remainder of our treatment, we have
(1). Coherent

Reception

2
g;-coh=- Lo*
2 on-cob
(2). Incoherent

++-

cf. (3.7). Here (An)ijE<a,ia,*s.~.>

<aoiaojsisj>&,,and
the proper r3iisdsti
for A0 behavior are
0(21)*
B(21)*,_
n;coh
n-cob
L(2)
n
=-2
C [<a
2 -<aojsj>a
oj'j>&
(3.11)
(21):
B(21)*_ On-inc
n-inc--2

(SCF)
=- $

- y <a
i

Reception

gi_inc=-+'gi-inc

ojSj>$_lRj
I

(SCF)

F (aiRj+R:Gij)<a oiaoj ss>i j

3.3 Suboptimum Estimators

We parallel the treatment in [l],
131, where g: is replaced by the suboptimum g,, now appropriately adapted
to the estimation structures (i.e.,
hypothesis test) required by the SCF,
QCF, etc.
We illustrate the procedure
with the case of SCF and the use of
simple (cross- and auto-) correlation
receivers, well-known to be threshold
NOW
optimum in gauss interference.
(3.5)-(3.7) reduce to this case direct&i=-xi (:.R:=-l), and
ly on settin
Similarly, for
=l, L 8 &iss=2.
"L&&s
the QCF cases (3.9), (3.10), we make
the same substitutions,
in both the
bias and data portions of giCF.

8,
(3.6)

Reception

(SCF)

g*n-camp =g*n-cob +g;2_inc'

(3.7)

where, as before [l], a .=a (ti) is a

(normalized) signal amp??tuSie, s.=
s(ti, 0,$') is a normalized signa i waveform, such that <s2>=1, and Ri=
d logwi(xi)/dxi,
R!=dR'/dXi, where
wl(xi)=lst order p&f ot the interference (nongauss+gauss) above, in the
The proper bias terms,
usual way.
for weak-signal AO, are speci+0*2,
ficg?ly here (all SCF):
B;_coh?~c~~_co&L(2)

fCaojsj>i

=B*
B*
n-cob +"A-inc;
n-camp
2
B;: inc:- 1,*
2 on-inc=-8
l

f l(L(4)-2L(2)2)
6ij+2L(2)2iARij,
:-:
'J
(3.12)

2
2
where AR..-<a .a
-<a .a
01 oj'i'j'g
01 ojsisj'&
(#('~)ij~'

(3.5)

ij

(3). Composite

Nl

2
<a .a
. . 01 ojsisj)g_l

[(L(4)-2L(2)2t;ij+2L(2)2]
(3.8)

In the important cases of clippercorrelators, which are optimum in

Laplace noise and which are well-known
to be effective against nongaussian
noise, cf. 131, we replace Ri by sgn xi
(and omit R!), with appropriate modifications o# the bias terms, cf. Sec.
The basic
3.3 of [2] for details.
pdf's for which these various correlation detector-forms
(and hence estimator forms via (3.1), (3.3)) are Optimum, are respectively
-x2/2
(gauss);
Wl (xl correlator = -J"-i_
e-lXI fi
w,(x) clip-carrel=
(x=0;

between the various averaged signal

parameters
(&P) and the unaveraged ones
18,1, which are to be estimated.1
Similarly,
ted gl*;needed
I(1). Coherent

for the QCF the associain (3.4) are

Reception

(2). Incoherent

Reception

(QCF)

(QCF)

JZ
;"=l).

(Laplace);
(3.13)

Finally, it is important to note

that these LOBE's [obtained from (3.1),
(3.3)] are only practically A0 and LOB
when e2(=G2>)
is suffic$ently small,
thereOexists an <a >,,,(<<l) t
such ?hat for q >
max the threshold optimal character
of gfi breaks down and becomes suboptimum.
At larger input signals gfi (+gn
now) and hence Y&-V,, etc., may or may
not be monotonically
better, in absousulute terms, than gf, qIq_,,x.
for
sufficiently
strong
signals,
ally,
gg (now g,) is absolutely better, unless the information-bearing
portion of
the signal is destroyed by the algorithm itself, e.g., clipping destroys

- 434 -

waveform detection/estimation,
but not
phase parameter extraction, for example.
_ 4. An Example: Amplitude
with the SCF: Coherent

Estimation
Reception

The simplest useful example is that

of estimating the scale (or amplitude)
of an otherwise fully known signal
-0
waveform received in (generally) nonThis is also
gaussian interference.
the pEoblem of estimating signal intensity 1;=&;2.
Here we have em=0 =ao, with 2' all
With
other relevant signa 1 parameters.
coherent reception, signal epoch E is
precisely known, e.g., E=E~, and we se=a,
with independent
lect <S*>,=Sj_max
Accordingly we write
noise s2 mples,
Physically, our
<si> a=smax=
/2 here.
present example can represent slow fading, whose changes are negligible over
the data acquisition period.
Accordingly,
to

(3.5) reduces

j=l

this to

o1
laoI

i('4.1)

gives

R(xi)

: (5)

= - i 9,j/nfiL(2), z<<l
j
(4.3)
1
The optimum threshold estimate of signal
intensitv is accordinulv
2
z;=($;)2=(C !?,j)2/2n2L(2) .
(4.4)

cob

SCF
uniform
I

2
Here $* and .*-g*
are UMLE for the assumed ELiform paf of a
and simultaneously CMLE for an
(me%ingful)
pdf of
Moreover, 7%a* &:a, because <R>H
aO*
1
(=<fi>l)=-JZTL(2P,1an8
we can show
that

G&l)

(4.5)
(ifj); &R2+7Lw)
0

from <R R > g2a2L(2)2

ijl
0
(i=j). Thus a* is vnconditionally
unbiased, e.g.,fr~~a:t:=9 (=Aa,/2) and
$fz a;+ao,

(>O).

-(4.6)
Here, from al(a )=l/Aa, we have a$
(Aao)2/%in
(4.5) to establish an-upper
bound (a )max( <<l) for which q<(az)max
As a
and a.*(~? is then LOBE and AC.
numerPc21 example, consider a Class A
noise for which r'=10-4, AA=O.5, so
that x,=1.7*10 -4 Sf rom Fig. (5.6) of
[3])::.xodB=37.7dB,
with the result
that 3<<&-38dB
or (Aa0)2<<-37.7+4.8=
Typically, we might choose
-32.9dB.
(q)max=-43
or -48dB here.
This means
that sample size n should be -farge
enough to ensure (4.5), n=0(102 Or more)
appears sufficient here.
5. Concluding

Remarks

First, let us note that our illustrative example is readily extended to

the estimation of waveform itself g=
{Sj): Om+Sm, and we get a serhes of relations

(4.2)
whose solution yields the desired estiTo proceed further, we
mator i&(E).
need to know the a priori pdf of el(=a,),
Let us assume, then, that
e.g.,
0 (a,).
al(a,)= i /Aa,, a uniform pdf on (0-<aoG
ConsequentAa,+), and zero elsewhere.
lY# Ui(a,)=O, O<a,<Aa, (the contribution of the &-functions at 0, Aa,, proSolving
duce no meaningful solutions).
(4.2) gives
I
4

L(2),[L(2~2)_2L(2)2]=,o;

L(2r2)Z<(Wi/Wl)4>2

7 1a
0=&*
0=o,

(3.3), 8m=81=ao,

- L(2)ain-aoJzz

2
a <<_1 varOR
_=
0
2
2
varOR

directly

(s*n-coh)SCF=-L (2)azn-aoJZ y R(x )

Applying
al(

The "smallness" condition on a iS

(from Sec. 6.4, Eq. (6.71) of [31?

like

(4.2), if a(~)=m&lul(6m);

otherwise one has M-coupled equations

to be solved for Bm=Sm.
Also, if the
QCF is used, the structure of the optimum estimator is generally much more
complex, due to the nonlinear functional relation between g& and ~8, cf. (3.2).
If the parameters to be estimated ap-,
pear functionally in the waveform S(t,i)
then one obtains functional solutions
for the estimators.

The important general result here

(for all signal levels) is the explicit
functional relation between the (optimum) detection algorithms and the resultant optimum estimators, cf. (3.1),
(3.2): detector structure provides the
initial analytic relation, from which
the estimator is the appropriate functional relation, the form of which depends on the choice of cost function.
Another result of importance is the COLL
responding threshold approximation,
which when carried out properly in the
associated detector is then A0 as well
for the LOBE.
Thus, to carry out the
derivation of the desired estimator, we
must start with the appropriate detector algorithm [l]. The evaluation of
estimator performance
's provided, by
'(
*) , in the exusing the estimator, Y,
pressions for the average error (or
risk), cf. (2.2).
Finally, we remark that our presentation here is basically a detailed
summary of methodologies,
which need
further development in the form of
specific algorithms and various numerical examples involving real-world
Class A and B environments,
including

- 435 -

the extension to the important situations (mentioned in Sec. 1) of joint

detection and estimation
(i.e., extraction), when it is not known precisely
that the desired signal is present [8].
The fundamental importance of these
procedures for EMC is explicit in the
requirement for weak-signal capabilities in reception: the weaker the extractable signal, the greater the effectiveness of the telecommunication
process generally.
References
D. Middleton, "Threshold Detection
in Non-Gaussian
Interference Environments: Exposition and Interpretation of New Results for EMC Applications," IEEE Trans. on Electormagnetic Compatability, Vol. EMC
26, Feb. 1984, p. 19-28.
A somewhat more compressed version of
this paper was presented orisinallv
in the Proceedings of the 5th Electromagnetic Compatability Symposium
and Exhibition, Zurich (Switz.),
March 8-10, 1983.
, "Threshold Signal Reception
[21 ,
in Electromagnetic
Interference Environment: Part III. An Introduction to Canonical Threshold Signal
and Parameter Estimation," Report
NTIA-83-21, Jan. 1983, U.S. Dept.
of Commerce, Washington, D.C.
[3] D. Middleton and A.D. Spaulding,
"Optimum Reception in Non-Gaussian
Electromagnetic
Interference EnviOptimum and Suboptironments, II.
mum Threshold Signal Detection in
Class A and B Noise," Report NTIA83-120, May 1983, U.S. Dept. of
commerce, Washington, D.C.
Ill

78

Nl

A.D. Spaulding, "Locally Optimum

and Suboptimum Detector Performance
in a Non-Gaussian
Interference Environment," NTIA Report 84-142,
Jan. 1984, U.S. Dept. of Commerce,
Washington, D.C.
r51 D. Middleton, Topics in Communication Theory, McGraw-Hill
(New York),
1965; Chapter 3.
Introduction to Statistical
161
-ication
Theory, McGraw-Hill
(New York), 1960, Chapter 21.
"Canonical Non-Gaussian
[71
-Models:
Their Implication for
Measurement and for Prediction of
Receiver Performance,"
IEEE Trans.
on Electromagn. Compat., Vol. EMC21, no. 3, p. 209-220, Aug. 1979.
Also in Proc. 3d Symposium on EMC
(Rotterdam, Holland), May l-3,
1977, paper 71-L3.
t81 D. Middleton and R. Esposito,
"Simultaneous Optimum Detection and
Estimation of Signals in Noise,"
IEEE Trans. on Information Theory,
Vol. IT-14, No. 3, May 1968, p.
434-444.
[91 L. LeCam, "On the Asymptotic
Theory of Estimatation and Testing
Hypotheses," Proc. 3d Berkeley
Symposium in Mathematical Statistics, Univ. of California Press,
Berkeley, 1956, and "Locally Asymptotically Normal Families of Distributions," Univ. of California
Press, 1960, Vol. 3, No. 1, p. 3798, Publications
in Statistics.
[lo] B.R. Levin, Theoretical Principles of Statistical Radio Engineering, Vol. 3, "Soviet Radio,"
(TransMoscow, cf. Chapter 3.
lation)
Ii41

- 431

79N2

Locally Optimumand Sub-Optimum

DetectorPerformancein
Non-Gaussian
"Broadband"
and "Narrowband"
Interference
Environments
A. D. Spaulding
National Telecommunications and Information Administration
Institute for Telecommunication Sciences
Boulder, Colorado 80303, U.S.A.

Since the normally assumed white Gaussian

interference is the most destructive in terms
of minimizing channel capacity, substantial involvement in system performance can usually be
obtained if the real-world interference environment (non-Gaussian) is properly taken into
account. In this paper, the performance of
the locally optimum Bayes detector (LOBD) for
CPSK signaling is compared with the performance
of various ad-hoc nonlinear detection schemes.
Monte Carlo simulation results are given for
both broadband and narrowband "impulsive"
noise. The simulation results are compared
with the LOBD theoretical performance results
(which are valid only for sufficiently small
signal level and for the number of independent
samples N increasing without limit). It is
demonstrated that these theoretical results
can be misleading in actual operational use
(large signal level, small N) of LOBD detectors.
Introduction
The real-world noise environment is almost never Gaussian in character, yet receiving systems in general use are those that are
optimum for white Gaussian noise (i.e., linear
matched filter or correlation detectors).
It is well-known that Gaussian noise is
the worst kind of noise in terms of minimizing
channel capacity or in its information destroying capability. This means that very large
improvements in the performance of systems can
be achieved if the actual statistical characteristics of the noise and interference are
properly taken into account, and there have
been various significant efforts in the last
few years in this area [1,2].
When confronted with real-world noise, the
earlier and usual approach was to precede the
"Gaussian receiver" by various ad hoc nonlinearities (e.g., clipper, hole punchers, hard
limiters, etc.) in order to make the noise
look "more Gaussian" to the given receiver.
Later, optimum systems were derived using
models of the actual noise (e.g., [1,3]).
These systems are adaptive in nature and usually very difficult to realize physically. If,
however, the following two assumptions are made:

1.

the desired signal becomes "sufficiently"

small ('sufficiently" small is precisely
defined in [Z]) and

2.

the time-bandwidth product is large, so

that a large number, N, of independent
samples from the interfering noise process
can be used in the detection decision
process,

then a "locally optimum" detector, generally

termed a "locally optimum Bayes detector" or
LOBD, can be obtained. Under some rather strict
conditions, these LOBD detectors approach true
optimality (asymptotically) as the above two
assumptions are met, and usually take the form
of the "normal" Gaussian receiver preceded by
one or more particular nonlinearities.
In actual use, the desired signal may not
be always "sufficiently small" and the time
bandwidth product may not be particularly large.
It is the purpose of this paper to present
Monte Carlo computer simulations results of the
LOBD and various sub-optimum detector performance and to compare these results with the
previously derived theoretical results (based
on the above two assumptions). Results for
both Class A (narrowband) and Class B (broadband) interference for the CPSK system will be
presented. Note that developing these results
involves the actual implementation (via software) of the LOBD (and other) detectors heretofore treated only theoretically for realistic
interference environments.
LOCALLY OPTIMUM DETECTION
The techniques for deriving the locally
optimum detector for various signaling situations are well known and covered in detail in
[1,2]. Here, we simply review some of the
results for binary CPSK that we need to refer
to later. The problem for binary CPSK is to
decide optimally between the two hypotheses:
Hl
H2

: X(t) = Sl(t) + Z(t)

o$T

: X(t) = S2(t) + Z(t)

oct<T .

.
(1)

In (l), X(t) is our received waveform in detection time T and this waveform contains either
the completely known signal S (t) plus Z(t) or
the complete known, equi probable, signal S2(t)
plus Z(t)'. The LOBD procedure uses sampled data

- 438

forms of the waveforms and, when Z(t) in nonGaussian, we operate so as to generate independent noise samples, zi, i = 1, N in time T, so
that only first order pdf's are required.
For binary symmetric CPSK, and independent
noise samples, the well-known LOBD receiver
structure shown in Fig.1 is obtained. This receiver is the standard memoryless Gaussian
(i.e., degenerate matched filter) linear receiver preceded by the particular nonlinearity
given by

a(x) = -

&

kn p,(x)

where p (x) is the pdf of the interfering noise.

The recgiver in Fig.1 becomes asvmototicallv
optimum as our signal S(t) becomes'sufficiently
small and NW [2].

i=l,

Figure

LOBD for binary symmetric

coherent
signals.

1.

p;(z)dz 3

(6)
pZ(z)dz .

For the hard-limiter nonlinearity, use of (5)

and (6) gives
L

"1

eff

= 4P$O)

(7)

where p,(z) is the actual interference. The

reviews the LOBD results we will refer
above
to later. Note that the LOBD results are
canonical in that we have not specified (yet)
any particular interference model or signal
structure. We do this next.

&?=o

xi

also gives us a means of determining the limiting performance of any ad-hoc nonlinearity when
used in place of the LOBD nonlinearity. The
result for all of this is that L is replaced
[in (3), for example] by the parameter Leff,
for "L effective" where Leff=L;/L2,

(2)

S,i -S2i

&
purely

NOISE MODELS
Since s(t) is small and N is large, the
limiting performance of the receiver (Fig.1)
can be obtained via the Central Limit Theorem.
This means that only the mean and variance of
the detection variable 6 needs to be computed.
The result is the probability of bit error P,
is given by
P, = 3 erfc

erfc (JSNLIE) (3)

{$$$$I$:

where S is the signal-to-noise ratio and the

parameter L is dependent on the noise process
and is given by

Cm cPpH2

L=

5
em

-q-r-

dz -

(4)

The parameter L is an "improvement factor" and

tells us (in the limit) how much better the
optimum receiver (nonlinear) for any non-Gaussian noise will perform when compared to the
corresponding optimum receiver for Gaussian
noise.
Suppose now that we have an LOBD detector
based on the assumption that our interference
is B,(z) and the actual interference is p,(z).
The LOBD analysis can be carried using
p,(z) where appropriate to determine the effects
of "mismatching" the interference, or we can
use this to determine the sensitivity of the
LOBD to changing the interference. This
approach, by solving the differential equation
of the nonlinearity,

a(x) = - g

fin P,(X)

(5)

Up to this point, we haven't specified any

"model for the real world non-Gaussian noise
and interference environment. Recent work by
Middleton has led to the development of a
physical-statistical model for radio noise
[4,5,6]. These models have been used to
develop optimum detection algorithms for a
wide range of communication situations [1,2,7,
for example]. It is these theoretical performance results with which we want to compare
actual performance results (based on simulation). The Middleton model treats two kinds
of interference: Class A, which is appropriate for "narrowband" interference such as that
caused by collections of intentionally-radiated signals (e.g., as in the crowded HF band)
and for various acoustical (e.g., sonar) interferers; and Class B, which treats broadband
impulsive noise processes such as atmospheric
noise, automotive ignition noise, etc. For
our received noise process Z(t), the probability density function (pdf) for the received
instantaneous amplitude, z, for Class B, is:

,-z2/n
P,(Z) = -

m
c
m=D

rr&

(8)
XIF1

+;

) -m<z<m
--

where F is a confluent hypergeometric function. The model has three parameters:

a, Aa, and s2. The parameter a and A, are intimately involved in the physical processes
causing the interference and fi is a normalizing
parameter. The corresponding expression for
the envelope cumulative distribution (APD) is:

-E,2/,
P(E>Eo) = e

l-

(9)
XI'lt~
(

> 1
OiE<
-

03,

For Class A narrowband "impulsive" noise:

439

79N2

For actual implementation of the required

nonlinearity R(x) (2), or for generation of
random samples from the interference process,
the models (8) and (IO) are much too complex,
and much simpler, approximate models must be
used. Some time ago Hall (3) developed an
ad-hoc mathematically simple model for atmospheric noise (Class B), and Middleton has
shown (5) that his Class B model reduces, approximately, for special parameter values, to
expressions of the Hall type. The Hall model
has two parameters, e and Y, and is given by
r

Am

co

P,(z) = e-A

e-z2/2oi

c
m=O

m!

P,(Z) =

(10)

F(.!$)j

L2

+ Y"]

e'2

(13)

2~ru~
and

where
P[E>E,] =
m/A t I"
ltr'

(1)

The closest match between the Middleton model

(8) and the Hall model (13) are for the Middleton parameters o=l, A,=l, and n=4~10-~ with the

and, for the envelope,

00
P(E'Eo) = esA

c
m=O

Am
fie

corresponding Hall parameters 0=2 and

-E2/02
om

(12)

The Class A model has two parameters: A and r'.

A is termed the overlap index, and as A becomes
large (%lO), the noise approaches Gaussian
(still narrowband) and r' is the ratio of the
energy in the Gaussian portion of the noise to
the energy in the non-Gaussian component.
An example of the theoretical performance
results that we want to check by measuring
(via computer simulation) the performance of
actual LOBD detectors is that for Class B
noise, the LOBD detector is always better than
the hard-limiter detector, but the performance
of the hard limiter is always within 2 dB of
the LOBD performance [8]. The corresponding
results for Class A are shown on Fig.2. The
"degradation" is the difference between the
LOBD performance (asymptotically optimum) and
the hard-limiter performance.

ForA=l,I-'=K)-?
L=3299

Figure 2.

(14)

Comparison of the LOBD nonlinearity

for Class A noise with the
hard-limiter.

y= J&10-".
For both the Middleton model (cl=l)
and the Hall model (f3=2)the 2nd moment does
not exist, so the normalizing parameters R and
y and set to match measured data. For f3=4,
however, the first 3 moments exist. For the
Hall model, the required nonlinearity is simply
given by (Fig.l),
BXi

(15)

yi=r.

xi + Y2

In actual systems, the various nonlinearities

operate on the magnitude of the complex
received waveform sample; that is, the phasor
sum of the signal vector and the noise vector.
For the noise (Hall) random samples from the
envelope pdf are efficiently obtained from

E =Y

-2

UT=_,

l/2

(6)

where U is uniformly distributed on [O,l]; and

the noise phase angle is uniformly distributed
on [0,271]. Fi .3 shows the two examples of
Class B noise 9 Hall) for which we will present
simulation results. The case 8=2 results can
be compared against the theoretical results for
the Middleton model, a=1 and Ao=l. While we
can use the Hall model for Class B noise, the
only model developed to date for Class A interference is the Middleton model (13,14). Some
time ago Spaulding and Middleton [9,Appendix]
developed directly from the characteristic
function for the Class A model a simple approximation to the pdf of the instantaneous amplitude. This approximation was given by the sum
of two exponentials and the corresponding
envelope pdf is cumbersome and not suitable
for random sample generation. The following
approximation, based on the above, however,

440

can be used. Without going into detail, it

turns out that the Class A APD can be closely
approximated by

PIE>Eo] = -&
l+A
where

where,
2 2
2 2
-EB/oo + A e-EBIol

-E;/of + A e-Ez/";
(17)

o: = r'/ltr' ,

The parameter EB must be determined "experimentally." For our Class A case above

and

-3 A=0.35)(A=0.4) E =O.l. Fig.4

(r=.5xlo
shows the A;0 for our Midd!e&on Class A
example and the corresponding APD (17)
along with points generated via 10,000
random samples using (18).
20

ProbCE > EmI =

I
t\

HALL. B = 4

-Ll

uF

-20

0 - SIMULATION
10,000 POINTS

-40

-60

.,

10-l

(37 dB)

Figure 4.

_40LliI
I IIll
10-6 10-4 .Ol
.1

.2

.4
P&[E

Figure 3.

.6

.8

.9

.95

I,
.98

.2

.4

.6

II

.a

.9

.95

.9G

.99

ProbEE > Eel

An example of Middleton's Class A

distribution and corresponding simple
approximation along with values
obtained via computer simulation
using the simple approximation.

.99

> EJ

The Hall Class B noise model for 8=2

and 8=4, the APD is normlized to the
rms envelope level.

Extensive use has been made of the particular

Middleton Class A example, r'=.5~lO-~,A=O.35.
To match this with (17), the appropriate
parameters are r'=.5x10m3 and A=O.40. Using
(17), random samples for the pdf of the
'Class A envelope are obtained from:

The above gives the Class A approximation

for the envelope. We also need the corresponding result for the pdf of the instantaneous
amplitude in order to implement the LOBD nonlinearity, K(x). Since the phase angle is
uniformly distributed, this pdf can be obtained
from
co

P,(X) =

71 d+

p(E)dE

(19)

I
E=
owl1
--

(18)

(-o:,,

The

and

E =

where p(E) is the pdf of the envelope.

result is

[$

(l-U)l)l/2S

U1<U<l ,

-x2/u2
0

tLe

-X2/U2

< Tru1

I
(20)

- 441

The result (23) now is used to implement the

LOBD nonlinearity. Fig.5 shows the LOBD nonlinearities for the two Hall model (Class B)
cases and also for the Class A example, both
the approximation (20) and the Middleton model.
Also, numerical integration, using (4), gives
L=34 dB for the Middleton Class A examples and
the above (20) approximation.
103 ,,,,,,,,j

I,,,

,,(,

,,,,(

,,,

/(,,

/,/,

,,

79 N2

result that nonlinearities give improvement

only for "large" N (37 dB, here for N=lOO).
The results for Hall, 8=4 (Fig.7) also show
this. For N=lO (Fig.6) note the important
.
result that the bandpass limiter outperforms
the "optimum" LOBD detector for large enough
signal level. This has also been indicated
analytically [IO]. For N=lOO, the simulation
results match the analytical results (3) and (7).
Note the limiting result that the bandpass
limiter is only approximately 1.5 dB inferior
to the LOBD nonlinearity.

loz

Figure 7 shows simulation results for the

Hall model, 0=4. First note that as before, use
of nonlinearities for N=l gives no improvement
over the linear receiver, but, of course, does
give improvement for N=lO and 100. For N=lOO,
the improvement is only 6 dB as predicted by L.
Note that the LOBD nonlinearity here also is
only slightly superior to the bandpass limiter.
For 8=4, the moments (first three) exist (i.e.,
finite energy) and we obtain "normal" results
for the linear receiver for N=l, 10, 100. On
Fig.7, a SNR of approximately -20 dB is required

10

for Pe of low3 (N=lOO), whereas from Fig.6, a

Figure

5.

The LOBD

nonlinearities.

MONTE CARLO SIMULATION RESULTS

AND DISCUSSION
The receiver of Fig.1 has been implemented
on a large scale computer. Monte Carlo simulation results for the linear receiver, the bandpass limiter receiver, and the LOBD (bandpass)
receiver are given here. By "bandpass" we mean
that the nonlinearity acts on the received
complex (magnitude and phase) sample of the
received waveform. For example, the bandpass
limiter nonlinearity is Xi/lXi
1, where Xi is
the waveform sample (Fig.1). The first simulation results are given in Fig.6 for the Hall
model (6=2) normalized to represent Middleton's model. First note the interesting results for the linear receiver. Identical
results were obtained for N=l, 10, and 100.
This is, of course, not physically meaningful
and is the result of using a model for which
the moments to not exist. This "infinite
power" problem does not exist whenever a nonlinearity is employed, as with the other
results of Fig.6. For a linear receiver, for
N=lO, say, detection is based on a "noise
sample" that is the sum of the ten noise
samples from the basic underlying distribution.
Except for Gaussian noise, the distribution of
the "sum sample" is different from the distribution of each individual sample, and
approaches Gauss via the Central Limit Theorem.
This makes it difficult to analytically determine the performance of linear systems in
non-Gaussian noise for time bandwidth products
other than 1. On Fig.6, the performance of a
linear receiver for N=lOO is estimated. This
is based on the parameter L (37 dB) and the simulation results for N=lOO for the LOBD receiver.
The linear receiver simulation results for N=l
match the analytical results (which for N=l
are shown by the dashed curve). The next point
to note is that for N=l, the same results are
obtained for the various nonlinearities as for
the linear receiver demonstrating the known

SNR of approximately -53 dB is required for P,

-3
of10
. This difference was indicated by the
two L values. Figure 3 shows that both distributions (0=2 and 4) "look" highly non-Gaussian.
This shows that we cannot arbitrarily say, by
inspection, that a noise process that is "tremendously" non-Gaussian can result in "tremendous" improvement over the corresponding Gaussian or linear receiver situation.
We now turn to Fig.8 and Class A simulation
results. First, for the linear receiver, we
obtain "normal" results for N=l, 10, 100, with
the N=l results matching analytical results
(indicated by the solid curve). Next, consider
the N=lO results for the LOBD and bandpass
limiter nonlinearities. Figure 2 indicates that
in the limit the limiter should be 3 dB inferior
to the LOBD and on Fig.8, N=lO, things start out
this way, but the limiter becomes much more
inferior as SNR increases. Also, the N=lO
results are approximately 34 dB better than the
linear receiver results as predicted by L, -but
as the SNR increases past approximately -27 dB,
the LOBD performance degrades very rapidly and
becomes inferior to even the linear receiver.

Figure

6.

Simulation
8=2, CPSK

results with Hall noise,

and constant
Signal.

- ,442

This dramatically illustrates that the "small

enough" signal requirement that gives the LOBD
must be met, at least for some cases, before any
kind of "good" performance can be expected.
Simulation results for N=lOO have not yet been
completed.

c21

Middleton, D., and A. D. Spaulding:

Optimum reception in non-Gaussian electromagnetic interference environments: II.
Optimum and suboptimum threshold signal
detection in Class A and Class B noise.
National Telecommunications and Information Administration Report 83-120
(May 1983) (NTIS Acces. No. PB83-24141)

[31

Hall, H. M.: A new model for "impulsive"

phenomena: Application to atmospheric
noise communications channels. Stanford
Univ. Electronics Laboratories Technical
Report No. 3412-8 and No. 7050-7,
SU-SEL-66 (April 1966)

c41

Spaulding, A. D.: Stochastic modeling of

the electromagnetic interference environment. Conference Record--International
Communications Conference, ICC'77
(Chicago, Illinois) 42.2-114-123 (IEEE
Catalog No. 77CHl209-6C SCB)
Canonical and quasi-canonical probability models for Class A interference. IEEE Trans. Electromagnetic
Compatibility EMC-25 No. 2, 76-106
(May 1983)

r_51 Middleton, D.:

Figure 7.

Simulation results with Hall noise,

8=4, CPSK and constant signals.

L-61Middleton,

D.: Statistical-physical
models of electromagnetic interference.
IEEE Trans. EMC-19, 106-127 (Aug. 1977)

c71

Ingram, R. F.: Performance of the

locally optimum threshold receiver and
several suboptimum nonlinear receivers
for ELF noise. IEEE Journal of Ocean
Engineering, Vol. OE-9, No. 3, 202-208
(July 1984)

C81 Spaulding,

A. D.: The robustness of the

locally optimum detectors for non-Gaussian noise. Proceedings of the Fifth International Wroclaw Symposium of EMC,
143-152 (September 17-19, 1980)

'Figure 8.

Simulation results with Class A

noise, CPSK and constant signals.

REFERENCES

Cl1

Spaulding, A. D., and D. Middleton:

Optimum reception in an impulsive environment-Part 1: Coherent detection; Part II:
Incoherent reception. IEEE Trans. Comm.
COM-25, 910-934 (September 1977)

cg1

Spaulding, A. D., and D. Middleton:

Optimum reception in an impulsive interference environment. Office of Telecommunications. Report 75-67 (NTIS Acces.
No. COM75-11097/ASU) (June 1975)

DOI Spaulding, A. D.:

Locally optimum and

suboptimum detector performance in
non-Gaussian noise. Conference Record,
IEEE International Conference on Communications (Philadelphia, Penn.)
2H.2.1-2H.2.7 (June 13-17, 1982)

443

80~3

ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT CONTROL ON THE BASIS OF SYSTEM

MODELS WITH RANDOM STRUCTURE
N.N.Buga, V.Y.Kontorovich,Y.V.Polozok
The USSR Ministry of Telecommunications
Moscow, USSR

A possibility is described of control of characteristics of electromagnetic environment (or of its model)

in those cases when it is described
by solutions of stochastic differential equations. Optimization of control is effected according to a quadratic criterion of a minimum of a
variance of interference, and in each
of the states a control is a relay
control. This enables to use extensively the means of a theory of optimum control for solution of the problem being concerned.
Construction of electromagnetic
environment (EME) models on the basis of methods of theory of state variables conforms with current trends
of development of EMC theory and practice, which are characterized by
extensive use of microprocessor equipment and large and small electronic
computers.
It is known that a description of
real
processes in the form of models,
.
in the form of solutions of sto$$$t3c differential equations (SDE)
forms the basis of a theory of state'
variables. These SDEs are partial inhomogeneous differential equations
which are nonlinear in a general case
and which contain, in its right-hand
part, a standard test stimulus (a standard influence). The latter is white
noise or a Poissonian succession of
g -pulses with random "amplitudes**.
In the first case it is a model
of a continuous random field in the
second case - a model of a discreteand-continuous random field.
From a physial point of view a solution of an SDE is a response of
spatially distributed nonlinear-andinertial dynamic system to the abovementioned standard test stimulus.
A real EME is a substantially unsteady-state and inhomogeneous process
whose parameters depend both on time
and on a vector of s atial coordinates, g I [r
When the coorr3 9
in*space are fidinates of':, E?&nt
xed, the partial SDEs change into
common SDEs which describe electro-

magnetic interference (1.2~1).

The unsteady-stateness and inhomogeneity of an EME process can be taken into account in a number of cases within the framework of a localand-steady-state model. In such models, a countable set of such states
is introduced, being in which the EME
process is steady and (or) homogeneous but the "life time" of every
state is random and the process of
change of the states is also random.
Methods of a theory of systems
with random structure are a mathematical apparatus for description of
the above-mentioned models.
It is shown in cl] that for each
l-th state an SDE has the following
form in a correlation approximation:

where

(1> is a coefficient which

takes accou&of dimensioality; ec i,M
% P ia a procesa'in the 1-th
state;
f(l)(z) i0 a vector function
which meets Lipshits's
conditions;
T

X=

X,)...

x,

T is a.eymbol of transposition.
(t,r)
A standard test stimulus
% uted
has a form of normally diertri
white noise with a(Bfffe;tf+8matrix
of
g-pulses with a flux intensity 3
and pulse-Vamplitudefq
distribution
P(A). When fixation of spatial coordinates is effected, it follows form
(1) that
(2)

444

The EMIs are described by equation

(*)It'z! Shown in [I] that SDEs (1)
and (2) are equivalent from the point
iew of one-dimensional densities
$0 (&) of their solutions. Therefore, being interested only in onedimensional statistical characteristics of the EMB, a "concentrated" analog of an SDE (1) in the form of an
SDE (2) should be used.
It is ehown in [I] and [2] how
one can construct models of EME and
EM1 on the basis of systems with random structure in the form of SDES (1)
and (2), when one prescribes one-dimensional density of EME components
and their correlation functions in
each of 1 states, the number of these states M and the intensity of conversions from the state 1 to the state r and vice versa, An example of
of these models for construction of
a program-controlled complex for modeling of interference is described
in 131 .
In the present Report the main results of [I 21 are deveio ed in the
direction o? EM'Scontrol. guch problems arise in control of the modeling devices described in
well as in operational
EME with predetermined statistical
characteristics such as a variance
of interference or spectral-and-corf-elation properties. Solution of the
latter problems can be useful in, organizing a frequency-dispatcherservice, controlling the spectrum and
radiation power in a system of radio
facilities, and the like.
Let us confine ourselves to a search for control of models in the
form of concentrated SDEs of type (2):

because a theory of control of spatially distributed stochastic systems is developed insufficiently [4] .
Here u(t) is a,dsterminate controlVo, i.e. a control is
vector and u
limited. While directinally varying
the EXE, a control u(t) should be selected on the basis of optimization
according to some criterion.
Let us establish criteria, accordfng to which a control in SDE (3)
should be optimized.
When solving the EMC problems, it
seems expedient to prescrib.e
the following criteria for optimality
of control:
- a minimum of a variance of interference for all the statest

1, = m2

62&J,g,u,t)

(4a)

- a minimum of difference of the

interference spectrum in all
the states from the required
one:

a minimum of a mean frequency

(probability) of exceeding of
some predetermined level C by
an interference &[5] :

P (t(),lL,t
,x XJ
I, =fkn
u

(4c)

Here G(w) and G

(w) are a real radiation energy-@&ctrum and a required one, respectively; teQ?:tt; P(e)
is a probability of the pact that-x
exceeds a level&
It can be shown that an optimization according to criterion (4a) provides for optimization cording to
8 Thus, opcriteria (4b) and (413).
timization of control can be performed according to a quadratic criterion of type (Ya), which enables to
use extensively the main results of
a theory of optimum control [4, 61.
As it is shown in [4, 63
order to find a control veotk in(l)
U
(t) it is necessary to solve a Bellman's equatfon of the following form:

X)With G
(w)wO; if this is not the
case th@ eatisfying the criterion
(4a) means only evaluation from be[4, 6] and majorises'criterion I in
contrast to criterion I which 2s
not quadratic in a genei:
al case.

80~3
Here
Sign Z I

1 when Z>O
-1 when Z,LO
i
In order to obtain simple analytical results let us confine ourselves to a case when nml because taking a multidimensional case will
not change anythQng in principle
but will require more complicated
calculations and designatieyq.
) in
Let us search for S(t,x
the form

,...x )
S(t A'))
Here x(l)
ctionnwh!.chs&ves
is a BelTman*;
for determination of a vector of optimum control 14 6)
Equations (5a) and*(gb) should be
solved with a pre@)ermined finite
condition S(t , &
>.
From now 0k we shall assume that
the control is'terminal [4,6] and,
just as in [1,2], we shall accept
that 'tf&t, &ccI. From a phys cal
point of view, the latter assuJtion
means that a change of states occurs
relatively seldom in comparison with
a "life time" of each EME state.
In order to solve the Bellman's
equations constructively it is expedient to use a method of statistical
linearization 163 or a solution procedure which was described for the
first time in [7] . In so doing it
should be taken into account that it
is sufficient to confine oneself to
solution of (5a) because a vector of
optimum control practtfqlly depends
only on the type of f
(z, u1,i.e.
depend on the character
can be shown that a minimization of the right-hand part of (5a)
leads to obtaining an expression for
optimum control, which has the following form:

Let us use a statistical linearization of nonlinearities F(x) and

S&gn(*) 2nd set the coefficients for
X and X e ual to each other. As a
result, it ss easy to show that in
steady-state conditions )(it should
be reminaded that ++$.~,$~%I) we have
u P - u. Sign x .
(8)
Thus, an optimum control is a relay
control and is invaria under a
stimulus of the form @)(t)
In order to apply
technique described in [7] let ue take into account that the Bellman*s
is nonlinear relative to
In order to linearize
use approximation by replacing
as& x(&
stochastic process U,Si8n.w
by a random tele raph signal.
Then equation (7'5will take on the
following form

Substituting (6) into C3a) we have:

x> Index "1"

ie omitted for simplicity.

xx)Here only equation (7) is linearized, not the initial SBE (3)
and equation (7) as it was done
in the previous case.

- 446 -

Then, using a technique described in

it can be shown that the first
[71
appr&imation of solution of equation (9) in stead -state conditions
.
coincides with (8;Y
Taking account of a sufficiently
rapid convergence of a procedure of
sequential approximations described
in [7] it can be accepted that in
each of ICI3
states an optimum
control is (with practically sufficient precision) a relay control.
As it was stated before, this conclusion can be broadened to cover
a case of more complicated EMl2models for n31. Here one should especially single out a control of narrowband stochastic processes which
can be used as models of radiation
from a number of radio facilities.
These models are described by secondorder SDEs of the following form:

By resentin..a solution of the SDE

( 0 in the Porm of oscillations
x1p
t =A (t) cosq)(t) - where A(t) and
q(t) are slowly varying random functions, we obtain a relay control of
the form (8) but this time for the
case of an envelope A(t).
Thus, from the above-stated, the
following important conclusion
should be drawn: independent of a
character of interference which are
EME components, an optimum control
of these interferences is a relay
control in most of the problems of
EMC guaranteeing. In practical realization of a relay pgrjtrol,an evaluation of a state x
(t) is necessary but algorithms of obtaining
such evaluations are known [4, 61
and, in principle, change nothing in
beyond the
this conclusion. It
framework of the preXlt Report to
present the principles of realization
of such algorithms of evaluations of
EME components, by means of electronic computers.
A question has remained not discussed substantially, which concerns
an o timum control of an EME when
G
PW) L 0 (criterion (4b)). It is
o%%ous that a criterion of o timality of control is not quadra!ic in
this case, which essentially complicates a theoretical investigation
of this question. However, the possibilities of control of interference
spectrum are very great. The following example may convince one that
this is really so.

Suppose we have that the 1-th component is a normally distributed lowfrequency process which is described
by an SDE of type (3) when n-1

d,

0)

&l,then
U(t), cos c,+,t
and &
that a correlation
::n:~;o~eo$F!) (t) will have a form
eosO$,i.e. close to a
close to &-.({)
correlation function of a sinusoid
with a random phase. This example
demonstrates great possibilities of
changing an interference spectrum
by means of control and indicates
that it is expedient to continue to
work at solution of problems of an
optimum control according to a criterion (4b).
If

References
1.

N.Buga, V.Kontorovich,Y.Polozok
"A theory of systems with random
structure as a constructive method
of description of electromagnetic
environmental models.-International Symposium on EMC, Tokyo, October 16-18, 1984.
H,H.Eiyra,~.ii.~onTopoBTnu,~.~.~~0~030K
2.
&'sviCtWls 3lIeKTpOMarHvlTHHX
BOM3X
Ha OCHO30 TQOKMM CMCT(SBdCJ'fYYatiHoa

3. A.~,~p~ce~~o3,~,H.~oHTopoaMY,B.3.
~~HJJpeC,3.~,~OJIO3OK
npOrpaMMHOMO 3JIMpOBaHvlfi
yI'IpaBJIf@MHR
KOMlXI0KC
pyJiH HMM
ClHAyCT kll&JIbHHX
nOMdX.- 5!

Pqao,!982,

W5,c.37-41
4. I'.E.I~OJIOCOBCMHTe3 OnTMMaJIbHHX
aBTOMTMWcKMX
CMCTBM npM CJIqaf4HHX
803 BWCTBMAX. -M. ,HayKa, 1954,

5.

c.2 8 5.
3.~.~onosoa,~.~.~asec~~~,~.~.~o~-

TO~OBMY ic sdopy napatdeTpoB '61~~ycTpi4aJIbHHXnOM%X,Onp~A0JI~D~X MX

wuawe)% ~qemc~scleHa annapaTypy
waJioro3Hx in ~W$possdx ClrlcTe~
napeAWL-iYiUiCJyHap0 Hfir@CklMno3M M no

3MC BpounaB 1978 c 2&S-29$

On&MM3a6. ~.Elaaa~o3,if,M.Ap~~~b~B
UMR. AklHaldWR9CKMXCMCTBM CnyYafiHoa
8~ y~yp~.-M. HFyFa,19t30,c.d81.
I o!i ~o~%HKo,~.~.~oHTo~oB~Y
Me~08
akiwm3a MapKoBcKux ~0Aeaeti ~enaH&iHHX IIMHtlMWEJCKklXcwc~e~.-l/la~.Aii
CCCP T~~xH~W~CK~~~IKwSepHeTMKa,
1975: N.5, c.5558

441

8101

SPREAD SPECTRUM COMMUNICATIONS - INTERFERENCE CONSIDERATIONS

A Tutorial Overview

Phillip M. Hopkins and Donald N. Cravey

Lockheed Engineering and Management Services Company,
Houston, Texas

Overview Of Spread Spectrum Techniques

Spread spectrum (SS) communication systems
utilize the wideband, noise-like properties of
pseudorandom binary code sequences to provide
several useful properties. These include reduction of power spectral density, multiple access to the channel, and a degree of immunity
from interference. The two most widely used SS
techniques are Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS) and Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum (FHSS).
Figure 1 shows the basic configuration of a

pgigq.J

Lpjijq

Fig. 1: Functional diagram - DSSS

DSSS system. A pseudorandom sequence (code) of
keying rate (chip rate) much higher than the
modulated bandwidth of the data signal is used
to directly modulate the data carrier. The
resulting signal occupies a radio-frequency
bandwidth proportional to the code keying
rate, hence the name "spread spectrum." The
process of removing the pseudorandom code
(despreading) is accomplished in the DSSS
receiver by mixing the received signal with a
synchronized replica of the code.
The FHSS system, as depicted in figure 2,
uses the pseudorandom code to select the frequency of a frequency synthesizer, which is

Fig. 2: Functional diagram - FHSS

then used to translate the data signal to its
radio frequency (rf). The rf carrier then hops
about in a seemingly random manner. At the
NOTICE:

Inc.

receiver, another synthesizer, driven by a

synchronized version of the pseudorandom code,
translates the FHSS signal to a fixed intermediate frequency where demodulation of the
data signal can be accomplished. The rf bandwidth of the FHSS signal is determined by the
minimum and maximum frequency selections Of
the synthesizer, and the distribution of the
signal power over that bandwidth is determined
by the number of hops, the frequency spacing
between hops, the properties of the pseudorandom code, and (to a lesser extent) the modulation process of the signal before spreading.

In both cases, the SS process results in an

rf signal with spectral properties determined
primarily by the pseudorandom code rather than
by the original modulation signal. Therefore,
the convenient properties of the code can be
exploited by the system designer to achieve a
desired systematic result without placing
unnecessary constraints on the design of the
information-bearing signal.
Pseudorandom codes for SS systems are usually linear feedback shift register sequences.
The most well-known of these sequences fall in
two families, the maximum-length sequences
cl,21 and the Gold codes [31. Maximum-length
sequences are useful in single-access communication systems wherein interference between
authorized channel users is not a major concern. The sequences are less desirable for
multiple access systems because of the fact
that in a set of maximum-length sequences of a
given length there is a limited subset among
which the crosscorrelation properties will
permit separation of multiple signals competing for the same channel. Most practical SS
systems, particularly multiple-access communication systems, use Gold codes for the pseudorandom spreading codes.
A Gold code is formed by the linear combination of two maximum-length sequences. It has
approximately the same properties as the
maximum-length sequence, but has the added
advantage that a large set of Gold codes of a
given length can be formed with good crosscorrelation properties. These properties are
summarized in figure 3. The autocorrelation
function of a pseudorandom code determines the
system's ability to accomplish synchronization

TECHNICAL DATA AUTHORIZED FOR EXPORT UNDER LICENSE TO ALL DESTINATIONS

- 440

(a) Typical autocorrelation function

(b) Typical power spectrum

Fig. 3: Characteristics of the Gold codes
in the despreader; a desirable autocorrelation
function has a single large correlation peak
at each multiple of the code period and only
small (ideally zero) minor correlation peaks
at other delays. The Gold codes have minor
peaks, called correlation sidelobes, which
have been proven to be of small enough magnitude to be of relatively negligible importance. The power spectrum of the code is significant in that the rf power spectrum of a
OSSS signal is determined by the power spectrum of the code. Figure 3 shows that most of
the power of the Gold code is distributed over
a bandwidth of twice the code keying rate, RC
(called the chip rate). As a point of reference, the sinc() function shown in figure 3b
represents the envelope of the power spectrum
of a maximum-length sequence.
SS Susceptibility To Interference
An SS communication system is resistant to
interference because the SS receiver is very
nearly optimized for a wideband signal with
particular pseudorandom properties. In order
to determine the degree of resistance to
interference that an SS system will exhibit,
analysis is most often performed by modeling
the interference source as either broadband
noise or a single-tone signal. Performance
analyses for both modeling techniques are
provided in references [4] and [Sl for DSSS
systems and in references [61 and [7] for FHSS
systems.
The effects of the despreading (SS detection) process are illustrated in figure 4 for

the DSSS case. The desired signal, spread to

appears at the receiver input
bandwidth 28
accompanied 8'
y an interfering signal of bandwidth much less than B . This example includes
the familiar case of ti;
e single-tone jammer,
which represents an unmodulated carrier Within
the SS bandwidth. The despreading process
restores the desired signal to a bandwidth
proportional to the information data rate Bd,
and the same process spreads the interfering
signal to a bandwidth 28 (the SS bandwidth).
Consequently, the demodu 7 ator in the receiver,
which accepts only the information signal
bandwidth, receives only a portion of the
interfering power. If the signal power is P,,
the interthe information bandwidth is 25
andwidth is
fering power is Pi, and the SS E'
then the signal-to-interference ratio
B
(%R) is approximately given by this equation:
SIR = (Ps/Pi)

(Bs/Bd)

(1)

In equation (l), the factor B /Bd is known

as the processing gain (P.G.) ana is a parameter of key importance in the design and
evaluation of SS communication systems.
P.G. = Rs/Bi
and

SIR = (Ps/Pi)

(2)
P.G.

(3)

P.G. is a measure of the resistance of an

SS system (in this example, a DSSS system) to
narrowband interference.

In the case of an FHSS signal, the end

effect of a narrowband interferer is much the
same as for a DSSS signal. As shown in figure 5a, the power spectrum of the desired
signal at the receiver input is spread to a
bandwidth of i_B, about f . The instantaneous
bandwidth, of course, on?y occupies the data
bandwidth, B
for binary frequency shift keying (FSK) mo !'
ulation, which is much less than
B
Thus, the hopping of the carrier within B,
p&ides
the greatly increased effective bandwidth and the interference rejection property
of FHSS systems. Figure 5b reveals this property by showing the effective power spectrum

0-~iu~Yk-0s

0 s

(a) Power spectrum at receiver input

,NTEiVERENCC
POWER
P,B&
clPSiP,llRSisDi
lNTERFER,NGSlGNIL SIR
(a) Power spectrum at receiver input

I s

(b) Power spectrum a;tir despreading

Fig. 5: Narrowband interference to FHSS system

(b) Power spectrum after despreading

Fig. 4: Narrowband interference to DSSS system

of the demodulator input of an FHSS system.

The receiver has translated the pseudorandomly
hopped carrier to the center frequency at f,
while translating the interferer to many frequencies in the range +B, about fi. Due to

449

this translation, the total power of the interfering signal within the data bandwidth about
f is reduced to approximately Pi(Bd/Bs).
TRus, equations (1) and (3) again apply.
The effect of interference on OSSS system
performance using coherent binary phase shift
keying (BPSK) modulation is shown in figure 6.

8101

power becomes much greater than the desired

signal power, then (even for unlimited SNR)
the P approaches 1/2N. An increase in K will
natureally increase this asymptotic value for
This leads to the conclusion that wideband
P
o:'multitone jamming does cause degradation of
the FHSS system, but the degradation is
limited by the total available power of the
jammer since the effect of each tone is a
function of SIR.
These conclusions .are illustrated in figure 7, which shows the effect of wideband

fig. 6: Performance of binary DSSS channel

with interference
The P, is plotted versus Eb/N,, for several
different cases of P.G., for a fixed SIR of
-20 dB. The equation governing these curves is:
P, = Q((2/(1/SNR

+ l/SIR))**0.5)

(4)

where Q() is the normal complementary error

function; i.e., the noise is assumed to be
additive, white, and Gaussian noise (AWGN). It
is further assumed that the interference to
the demodulator is also Gaussian, because of
the filtering effect of the demodulator filter.
For an FHSS system using binary FSK modulation and noncoherent detection at the receiver,
there are several cases of interest with multitone jamming. If there are K jamming tones
transmitted and N total hopping slots used by
the system, then the probabilities of "hitting"
the binary MARK, the binary SPACE, both, or
neither can easily be derived. Furthermore,
the probability of bit error can be calculated,
given the various possible "hit" conditions,
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), and the SIR, as
has been shown in references [Sl and [9] to be
given by:

P, = ((N-K)(N-K-I)/~~N(N-~)~)
EXP~-SNR/ZI
+

IK(N-K)/IN(N-~)II
ExpI-(z/sNR+l/sIR)-'I

+ [K(K-~)/[zN(N-~)~~
Ex~~-(Z/SNR+Z/SIR)-~]
(5)

In equation (5), if K = 0, P, is determined

by the first term. If K = 1, P, is determined
by the first two terms. The first term is the
P over the unjammed frequencies as a funct?on of the SNR. The second term'introduces
the effect of interference on the P, at the
jammed frequency (K = 1). If the interference

Fig. 7: Ferformance of binary FHSS channel

-with interference
interference on FHSS system performance, assuming binary FSK modulation. For multitone jamming, the greatest degradation occurs when the
interference bandwidth is such that the interference power per slot is just slightly
greater than the signal power. This power condition is assumed for the cases in figure 7,
which shows P versus E /N for various ratios
of jammed slo!?
s to tota !? s ots in the FHSS systern. These performance curves suggest the need
in FHSS systems for some form of error correction coding, which most FHSS systems employ.
SS Interference To Other Systems
SS signals, being wideband, may cause rf
interference to conventional systems which
operate in the spectral vicinity of the SS
system. Scenarios for this type of interference include the cases of SS interference to
conventional systems and SS interference to
other SS systems. These scenarios include the
familiar problems of Code-Division Multiple
Access (COMA) interference and "splatter."
Interference To Conventional Systems
Interference to conventional systems by SS
systems includes two cases of particular
interest. First is the case of a conventional
communication system of bandwidth much narrower than the SS signal, falling within the
SS bandwidth. Figure 8 depicts the power spectrum of such a situation. The conventional
signal in figure 8 is shown to be centered at
frequency f,, which is approximately midway

450

approximately 10 times the chip rate, the

magnitude of the SS is approximately 30 dB
less than the maximum in-band power density.

Fig. 8: SS interference to conventional channel

between the center of the spread spectrum
bandwidth and the first spectral null. The
ratio of bandwidths (conventional-to-spread)
is 1:20, and the power ratio is PC/P,.
When the conventional signal is demodulated, the bandwidth of the demodulator is
typically constrained to include only the
primary lobe of the power spectrum which is
approximately equal to twice the data rate. In
this example, the ratio of the demodulator
bandwidth to the bandwidth of the interfering
signal (SS) is Bd/B,. Using the simplifying
assumption that the SS power, P,, is uniformly
spread over a bandwidth 5, of twice the chip
rate, then the interfering power in the conventional demodulator is:
Pi,d = (Ps/Bs)

Bd = Ps/P.G.

(6)

and the SIR is:

SIR = Pc/Pi,d

= (Pc/Ps)

P-G.

(7)

where P.G. is the P.G. defined in part 2,

equation (2). It is interesting to note that
the P.G. is of mutual benefit to both the
narrowband user and the SS user.

In the second case of interest. the user

experiencing interference from the SS signal
is not located within the orimarv bandwidth of
the SS signal. This interference-is often
referred to as "splatter." The term is descriptive of the splatter of power from the SS
signal outside its intended bandwidth due to
the high keying rates typical of SS signals.
Splatter is particularly prevalent in fast-hop
FHSS systems. Figure 9 shows the magnitude of

Fig. 9: Out-of-channel power (splatter) from

an SS signal
the envelope of splatter as a function of frequency separation from the center frequency of
the SS signal. This plot is the magnitude of
the relative maxima of the (SIN x/x)
function
for large values of x. Figure 9 shows, for
example, that for a frequency separation of

Thus, a conventional communications channel, separated from the center of the SS channel by 10 times the chip rate will experience
interference (splatter) from the SS channel at
a level of -30 dB relative to the center of
the band. The resulting SIR depends on the
relati,vepower levels of the desired and
interfering signals at the receiver experiencing the interference. One scenario which is
affected by splatter is shown in figure 10

Fig. 10: The near-far problem

which depicts what is known as the near-far
problem, discussed in more detail in the
context of interference between SS users.
Interference Between SS Systems
SS communication systems operating in a
shared range of frequencies also interfere
with each other to varying degrees. Indeed,
one of the most common applications of SS is
to provide multiple access to a common
communications channel.
Code Division Multiple Access. When several
users OCCUDY a CDMA communications channel
simultaneously, they experience interference
from each other, the degree of which is determined by the parameters of the particular CDMA
scheme and by the relative powers of the various users. When all users have equal power
(e.g., when they all receive from the same
satellite, are separated far enough to eliminate a near-far problem, and occupy the same
bandwidth) then the interference can be
analyzed conveniently.
For the case of a digital data transmission
system using CDMA (DSSS) with up to 502 users,
the probability of error for the signal experiencing the interference is shown in figure 11.
The figure shows the effect of "graceful degradation"; i.e., as the number of users of a
DSSS CDMA system increases beyond design limits, the performance of the channel for each
user degrades incrementally rather than
catastrophically.

In figure 12, a similar situation is shown

for an FHSS CDMA system, using binary FSK as
the basic data modulation scheme. This figure
shows more pronounced degradation with an increasing number of CDMA users than in the case
of DSSS, in addition to the generally wurs(?
performance due to noncoherent FSK modulation

_ ~~- 451

81 OI

If the interfering transmitter is nearer to

the receiver than is the desired transmitter,
then the P.G. is diminished. As an example, if
the interfering signal is at center frequency,
which is common in CDMA systems, and if SIR >
10 is required for reliable communications,
then it is required that:

If this power ratio cannot be achieved,

then the interfering transmitter will jam the
receiver.
Self-Interference In SS Systems

Fig. 11: ,P;;P;;;1ance

of a binary DSSS CDMA

In the preceding sections of this paper,

emphasis has been on the interference between
an SS communications channel and other user
channels. There are also interference effects
that involve only the SS receiver; these are
self-interference effects. The most significant of these effects is the self-noise due to
partial correlation of the pseudonoise code.
Partial Correlation
Partial correlation of the pseudonoise code
occurs in the despreader when one or both of
the following occur:
1. The correlation operation is over
less than a full period of the code
2. The correlation process is nonlinear,
as when a square-law detector is used.
Figure 13 shows an example of partial correlation. In this example, the autocorrelation

Fig. 12: Performance of a binary FHSS CDMA

channel
and demodulation. In each case shown in figure 12, the probability of error approaches an
asymptote defined by the following equation:
'e = K/2L

(8)

where K is the number of interfering users and

L is the length of the spreading code in chips.
The Near-Far Problem. When the receiver
(location-1 in figure 10) is nearer to the
interfering transmitter (location 2) than to
the desired signal transmitter (location 3),
then the interfering signal has a natural
power advantage over the desired signal. In
such a situation, the SIR is:

SIR = CP3/P2(fd)l(d12/d,3)2

x P.G.

(9)

where P2(fd) iS the power density of the

interfering signal at location 1 at a frequency separation fd from the center frequency
of the interfering signal.

Fig. 13: ,PiP;ial correlation of a pseudonoise

function contains a relative maximum at a
phase (tau) delay of jTc, of amplitude k. If
the despreader synchronizes to the partial correlation peak rather than to the true (zerodelay) peak, then the despreading operation
will be degraded by a factor of k2.
Synchronization
The analyses in the preceding sections of
this paper have all been for steady-state conditions; i.e., under the assumption that the
despreader in the SS receiver is synchronized
to the incoming pseudonoise code. In fact,
synchronization of the despreader in the presence of interference is no small problem.
Obviously, if proper synchronization cannot be
achieved, then the P.G. of the SS system can-not be realized.

- 452

A particular case of interest is the case

of false synchronization due to partial
correlation at high SNR's. When the partial
correlation peak of figure 13 is of sufficient
magnitude that it is detectable in the correlation detector, then the despreader may
synchronize to the partial correlation peak.
This can occur if:
k*(SNR) > SNRmin

(II)

where SNRmin is the SNR at the threshold of

acquisition.
Figure 14 is an example of acquisition teSt
data from the Electronic Systems Test Laboratory at the National Aeronautics and Space

P.G. of the system. A significant example is

the case of the nearby transmitter, either SS
or narrowband, which overcomes the SS P.G. by
sheer power. Similarly, SS channels cause
interference with conventional channels near
the frequency of the SS channel, but the
inherently low power spectral density of the
SS signal mitigates the problem. Again, the
near-far problem represents a significant
example of interference.
Acknowledgements
Portions of the work on which this paper is
based were performed for the NASA Lyndon B.
Johnson Space Center on contract NAS 9-15800.
In particular, the authors wish to acknowledge
the cooperation of NASA in providing the test
data presented in this paper.
References

Cl1 Hopkins, P. M.: A Unified Analysis of

Pseudonoise Synchronization by Envelope

Correlation. IEEE Trans. Commun.,
vol. COM-25, Aug. 1977, pp. 770-777.

r.21Pickholz,

R. L.; Schilling, 0. L.; and

Milstein, L. B.: Theory of SpreadSpectrum Communications - A Tutorial.
IEEE Trans. Commun., vol. COM-30,
May 1982, pp. 855-884.

c31 Gold, R.: Optimal Binary Sequences for

Spread Spectrum Multiplexing. IEEE Trans.

Inform. Theory, vol. IT-13, 1967,
pp. 619-621.

Fig. 14: Typical test results showing false

synchronization effect
Administration (NASA) Johnson Space Center in
Houston, Texas. The curves show acquisition
time versus SNR in the despreader bandwidth
for the S-band transponder receiver of the
Space Shuttle. It is clear in this figure that
at very low SNR (noise limited region), acquisition time increases dramatically as SNR
decreases. This is an expected result because
the detector is operating below its noise
threshold. In the region of 0 to 10 dB SNR,
the synchronization time is well-behaved and
conforms to predictions. The interesting
effect in figure 14 is that for SNR > 10 dB,
the acquisition time increases rapidly because
of false locks during the acquisition search
mode. This result was predictable from an examination of the partial correlation properties
of the despreader.
Summary and Conclusions
SS communication systems, although inherently resistant to most types of interference,
are susceptible to interference if the interfering power is sufficient to overcome the

c41 Simon, M. K.: The Performance of M-ary

FH-DPSK in the Presence of Partial-Band

Multitone Jamming, IEEE Trans. Commun.,
vol. COM-30, May 1982, pp. 953-958.

c51 Smith, I. R.: Trade off Between Proc-

essing Gain and Interference Immunity in

Co-Site Multichannel Spread-Spectrum
Communications. IEEE Trans. Commun.,
vol. COM-30, May 1982, pp. 959-965.

C61 Solomon, G.: Optimal Frequency Hopping

Sequences for Multiple Access. AD915892,

Proc. 1973 Symp. Spread Commun., vol. 1,
pp. 33-35.

r.71 Spellman, M.: A Comparison Between Frequency Hopping and Direct Spread PN>as
Antijam Techniques. IEEE Commun. Mag.,
vol. 21, no. 3, Mar. 1983.

C81 Torrieri, 0. J.: Principles of Military

Communication Systems. Artech House
(Dedham, Massachusetts), 1981.

c93 Viterbi, A. J.: Spread Spectrum Communications - Myths and Realities. IEEE
Commun. Mag., May 1979, pp. 11-18.

453

8202

EMC PROBLEMS IN DATA TRANSMISSION

OVER INDOOR POWER

LINES USING SPREAD SPECTRUM TECHNIQUES

Lehrstuhl
Postfach

K.Dostert,

Member

Universitat

Kaiserslautern

fi.ir Grundlagen

3049, D-6750

Summary
Practicallv
every building contains
an electrical- power distribution
network,
which
can
additionally
be a valuable communications
medium for data and control
signals.
AS indoor
power lines are heavily stressed
with electrocommunications
special
interference,
magnetic
techniques
will be needed to provide secure information
transmission.
Furthermore
electromagnetic compatibility
with equal or similar communications
systems operating
at the same network is paramount.
The use of spread spectrum
techniques,
which are generally applied in the range of high
frequencies,
can help to meet the mentioned
requirements
/I/. With spread spectrum
techniques
some interesting
features
become
additionally
available,
such as multiple
access and selective
calling /3,4/. This paper shows, that EMC prowhich are involved by application
of
blems,
spread spectrum techniques
for data transmission
over indoor power lines, can be overcome
by
careful system design. Especially
using the line
voltage as
global reference
will help to solve
EMC problems and at the same time significantly reduces
receiver
costs. Measurements
with
an experimental
set-up show negligible
synchronization errors and confirm the feasibility
of the
global reference
concept.
Introduction
Numerous measurement,
control and supervision tasks in private and commercial
buildings
can advantageously
be performed
autamatically,
e.g. by a personal computer or a microcomputer
installed anywhere:
Control and supervision of central
heating,
or remote
and illumination
air conditioning
control and supervision of various consumers
of
proelectrical
energy, e.g. by clock-controlled
grams or supervision
of fire and burglar
alarm
systems.
For performing
those tasks,
it will be
necessary to transmit
and receive control signals,
time information
as well as temperature
and
consumer data to and from many different
places. So realizing such systems will first of all
call for large scale wiring to connect
the devices which are involved. In existing buildings additional wiring is almost impracticable.
A data
network
which
was
planned
communications
during the construction
phase of a building often
turns out to be inflexible
afterwards.
The electrical
power
distribution
network
however

IEEE

der Elektrotechnik

Kaiserslautern,

W.Germany

reaches almost
every place in a building
and
existing
thus
represents
a val uabl e, already
medium for communication
purposes.
The power

line channel

The power distribution

network of a building may be heavily stressed
with electromagnetic interference
from various sources. Narrowband and broadband
continuous
wave interferers
may appear as well as spikes or hazards caused
by switching,
e.g. through
devices
such
as
thyristors
and triacs.
Measurements
revealed,
that this inherent
interference
power density is
especially
high in the frequency
range up to
about 40 kHz. So it will be advisable to fix the
lower limit of the frequency
range for data
transmission
at 40 kHz to keep most of the
inherent interference
off. Some interferers,
such
as dimmers,
incorporating
triacs
or thyristors,
may cause a 30dB enhancement
of interference
power density
in a frequency
range up to several hundred
kHz. Furthermore
interference
power density significantly
differs in one-family
houses and industrial buildings or laboratories.
The upper limit of the transmission
band is
given at 146 kHz, determined
by the start
of
the longwave broadcast band.
The transmission
signal amplitude
must not
exceed I.1 V (peak to peak) in the frequency
range 30...15OkHz, according to the rules of the
Deutsche
Bundesposttt. Above 150 kHz the rules
VDE 087516.77
apply, allowing
amplitudes
of
only some millivolts. This means, that the spectrum of a data transmission
signal must be cut
off at 150 kHz sharp.
Fig.1 shows four spectra
for comparison.
The records 1, 2 and 3 were made in a onefamily house; record 4 was made in a factory
building. Trace 1 belongs to a transmitted
signal
with an amplitude
of 1.1 V
which is swept
from 40 kHz to 180 kHz. TRg lower trace (2)
shows the interference
power density spectrum
in a one-family
house. It can be seen, that the
interference
is especially
strong below 35 kHz.
In the range of the transmitted
signal the interference power density is generally more than 50
dB below the power density of the transmitted
signal.
So data transmission
over power lines
would be no problem, if this performance
could
always be expected.
Trace 3 in Fig.1 shows the interference
power density
spectrum
caused
by a dimmer
with a load of 100 W. At 45 kHz the inter-

lO_OkHz

Horiz.scale:

Fig. 1: FnFstra

20kHz

recorded

Vrqt. scale: IOdB

at mdoor power

ference power density is now only about 15 dB

below the power
density
of the transmitted
signal and less than 30 dB up to 150 kHz. If the
transmitted
signal is attenuated
on the way to
the receiver
more than lOdB, severe detection
problems may occur. In a factory building
the
situation
may be even worse, as trace 4 indicates.
In one-family
houses measurements
show
attenuation
values of less than 1OdB in the frequency range from 40 kHz to 150 kHz even with
cable lengths
close to 100m. In factory
and
laboratory
buildings
however attenuation
values
of 20dB and more can be measured
at cable
lengths below 20 m. This is due to large capacitors installed for reactive power compensation.
In connection
with attenuation,
the impedance of indoor power lines in the frequency
range from 40 kHz to 150 kHz is of importance.
Measurements
revealed,
that an approximative
value of 33 Ohms, which is given e.g. in /S/,
does not apply in most cases. The measured
impedance
values varied from 15 Ohms to 60
Ohms, and significant
amplitude
and frequency
dependent
nonlinearities
could
be
registered.
Furthermore
considerable
impedance
variations
occurred
with time. The impedance
variations
make proper matching
of the transmitter
output
to the power line network impossible;
so varying
attenuation
will be the consequence.
Amplitude
and
frequency
dependent
nonlinearities
can
distort the transmitted
signal severely.
In the following the application
of spread
spectrum
techniques
to the hostile environment
of indoor power lines is examined
with respect
to EMC, interference
immunity,
synchronization
problems and bandwidth
efficiency.
Dealing with
spread spectrum
systems will first of all call
for careful
consideration
of the receiver
synchronization.
Synchronization

concepts

Receiver
synchronization
in spread spectrum
systems
generally
causes
high
effort
/2,3,4/.
As
in
the
proposed
applications
numerous receivers will be needed, many of the
known synchrornzation
concepts /4/ are ruled out
by their costs. Merely concepts with transmitted
reference
promise
acceptable
solutions:
A reference signal could be fed into the power distribution
network being globally present at each

454

receiver and transmitter,

delivering all necessary
Such an
clock
and synchronization
impulses.
additional
signal however cannot be recommended for the following reasons: An extra channel
within the transmission
bandwidth would have to
be reserved for the reference.
Selective attenuation may separate
some receivers
and transmitters from the reference
temporarily
or completely.
Similar
spread spectrum
systems
with
such a synchronization
concept are not generally
electromagnetically
compatible.
Therefore
careful blocking
of the reference
signal
towards
neighbor buildings
is necessary,
whereas spread
spectrum signals normally must not be blocked,
due to their low spectral power density.
In this paper the power line voltage is
proposed as reference
signal. This reference
is
of course
available
everywhere
in a power
distribution
network,
practically
unaffected
by
interference
and with high stability of frequency
and its use causes no EMC problems.
The power line frequency can be multiplied
appropriately
by phase-locked
loop (PLL) circuits to generate
carrier and clock frequencies.
Initial synchronization
may be performed at each
transmitter
and receiver
periodically
at the
zero-crossing
instants of the line voltage.
The proposed synchronization
concept
involves two difficulties:
During
power
failure
communication
will be interrupted,
and a phase
shift of the power line voltage
due to cable
inductance
and
load
causes
synchronization
errors.
The second point is especially
severe,
because the phase shift between
the line voltages at two different
places is multiplied
by a
factor, which gives the ratio of spread spectrum
clock frequency to power line frequency.
Let us for example consider a direct sequencing system with a PN clock frequency
of
40 kHz, requiring a multiplication
factor of 800.
For proper receiver operation
the synchronization
error must be kept below l/10 of the PN clock
p
period /2/. So the maximum
phase shift
an !I
between
the line voltages
at transmitter
receiver is given by
YL&

&

= 40450

The result of eq.(l)

may initiate
some doubts,
whether
the proposed concept
is realizable
in
practice,
but experiments
which are discussed
later in this paper have shown that it will function satisfactorily.
System

concepts

This paragraph
gives a short review of
basic spread spectrum
system
concepts,
which
are applicable
to data transmission
over indoor
power lines. The concepts will not be discussed
in detail, but only some characteristic
features,
which concern
the topics
of this paper
are
pointed out.
Phase hopping systems
Phase hopping direct
sequencing
spread
spectrum
systems
are easy to construct
when
using the power line voltage as global reference.
Some expense however is necessary
to fulfil the
the
longwave
EMC requirements
concerning
broadcast band: A low pass filter must be provided at the transmitter
output
to achieve a
sharp cut-off
of the transmitted
spectrum
at

150 kHz. Furthermore

phase
not optimally
exploit
the
tran&ission
channel.

455

8202

hopping systems do
bandwidth
of the

Frequency hopping systems

Frequency
hopping systems are more COmplex than phase hopping systems, because appropriate frequency
synthesizers
are needed.
Frequency
hopping
systems
have excellent
EMC
because the transmitted
signal specproperties,
trum is precisely
defined with sharp cut-offs.
efficiency
is high,
Furthermore
the spectral
because each spectral line has equal weight.
Chirp systems
Chirp systems with e.g. linear chirp can
optimally exploit the transmission
bandwidth and
offer excellent
EMC properties
due to a welldefined spectrum
with sharp cut-offs.
Multiple
calling and synchronization
as
access, selective
we11 as despreading
are
more
difficult
to
achieve
as for phase hopping
and frequency
hopping systems.

REtElm

Fig. 2:

Experiments
An experimental
phase hopping spread
spectrum
system was built and tested
in onefamily houses. In Table 1 the salient features
of
the system are given.
:

102.4 kHz = 2048.5OHz

spread spectrum
modulation

O/180 pseudonoise
phase
shift
keying
(PN-PSK)

PN-code

carrier

frequency

length

PN clock
frequency

PN-code

selectable
according to
PN-code
length:
(8)
400 Hz, ( 16) 800 Hz,
(32) 1.6 kHz, (64) 3.2
kHz, (128)
6.4 kHz,
(256) 12.8 kHz
period

20 ms

power line voltage

(50 Hz)

sync.

reference

sync.

intervals

Tab.

1: Salient features
tal set-up

System

selectable:
8, 16, 32,
64, 128, 256 chips

20 ms

of the experimen-

of the experimental

chronization
is performed.
If synchronism
has
already existed, the set-impulses
have no effect.
The PN-generators
in transmitter
and receiver
are equal and constructed
with programmable
memories
(PROM)
and settabfe
read
only
address
counters,
according
to the principle
described in 161. Up to this point the functional
blocks of the transmitter
and the receiver
are
equal; the following
blocks will perform
different tasks. In the transmitter
the carrier
frequency is fed to a biphase modulator
performing
the spread spectrum modulation
corresponding
to
the PN-code.
The spread transmission
signal is
now appropriately
amplified
and fed to the
power line by means of a coupler.
At the receiver the spread spectrum signal
from the power line passes a coupler
and a
bandpass filter and is fed to a biphase modulator, which is supplied with a synchronized
version of the PN-code contained
in the received
spread spectrum
signal. At the output
of the
biphase modulator
we have the despread
signal
which is now filtered
by the interference
suppression bandpass. At the output of this bandpass a power meter is provided for the measurements which are discussed now.
Measurements
Measurements
were made in three different one-family
houses with a PN-code length
of 256 chips and a PN clock frequency
of 12.8
kHz, giving a chip duration of about 78 us. The
measured quantities
were:
The synchronization
error without load at
the receiver wall-plug
and with a load of
2 kW

description

In Fig.2 a block diagramm of the experimental set-up is shown. The transmitter

and the
receiver both contain a zero-crossing
switch to
which the power line voltage is fed. The switches output
proper rectangular
pulses for the
following
phase-locked
loop synthesizers
which
generate
the carrier frequency
(transmitter>
and
the PN clock
frequencies.
With each leading
edge of the zero-crossing
switch outputs set-impulses are generated
in the transmitter
and receiver, setting
the PN-generators
to the same
well-defined
state.
So every 20ms initial
syn-

Block diagram
set-up

signal attenuation
due to cable
without load and with 2 kW load
receiver wall-plug
interference
switched off.
ments
within

power

with

length
at the

transmitter

Synchronization
error. During all measurethe synchronization
time
error
stayed
the limits of 2 2.5us. There was no signi-

456

ficant change to be noticed, when a 2 kW load

was switched on at the receiver wall-plug,
even
with cable
lengths
close
to 1OOm between
transmitter
and receiver.
So a negligible
degradation
due to synchronization
errors
can
be
expected
when using the proposed synchronization concept,
because
the maximum
error
is
only 3.2% of a chip. At a PN clock frequency of
50 kWz, which is the maximum
value for the
transmission
bandwidth
considered
here,
the
maximum
error
would be 12.5%. This
error
would lead to a worst-case
degradation
of about
10% - see e.g. 121.
Signal attenuation.
Fig.3 shows a plot of
the attenuation
as a function
of the cable
length in one-family
houses. The solid line holds
for no load at the receiver wall-plug
and the
dotted line was measured with a 2 kW load at
the
receiver
wall-plug.
The
slightly
higher
attenuation
for the dotted line however is not
due to increased
synchronization
error, but due
to the decrease of power line impedance
caused
by the load.

Conclusion
Applying spread spectrum
techniques
for
communication
purposes over indoor power lines
can be effective
against
electromagnetic
interference, which heavily stresses that transmission
channel.
So a new promising
access
to using
power distribution
networks
as communications
media is opened.
This paper shows that using the power line
voltage as a global reference
for synchronization
of spread spectrum transmitters
and receivers is
a feasible approach to solve EMC problems
and
significantly
reduces system costs. Measurements
with an experimental
set-up
have shown, that
attenuation
and interference
problems
can be
overcome, and that the global reference
concept
using the power line voltage exhibits
excellent
synchronization
performance.
For further
applications
to data
transmission,
frequency hopping systems can be recommended,
especially
because of their excellent
EMC properties, together
with the proposed synchronization concept.
References

0,
0

Fig.

10

20

CABLELENjTH

Ill

T. Dvo%k,
H. Ochsner,
Low Tension
Power Line as a Fast Digital Data Transmission Channel,
Proc. of the 4th EMC
Symposium, Zirich (1981)

/2/

Spread
Spectrum
Communications,
edited by CE. Cook, F.W. Ellersick,
L.B.
Milstein,
D.L. Schilling,
IEEE Press and
John Wiley & Sons (1983)

131

P.W. Baier, M. Pandit, Spread Spectrum

Communication
Systems,
in: Advances in
Electronics
and Electron
Physics,
VOL.
53, Academic Press (1980)

141

R.C. Dixon, Spread-Spectrum

John Wiley & Sons (1976)

151

J. Gabel,
Elektro-1nstallationsnetz
Informationsnetztt,
etz
Bd.104,
(1983)

30 me

3: Attenuation
of a PN-PSK spread
spectrum signal transmitted
over
indoor power lines

Interference
power. The interference
power,
measured
at the output
of the interference
suppression
bandpass
with
the
transmitter
switched off, is generally
39dB below the power
measured
with the transmitter
on. A dimmer
decreases
the ratio to 38dB.

/6/

Systems,

Heft

wird
1

P.W. Baier, K. Dostert,

M. Pandit, West
German Patents:
DE 3020463 C2 and DE
3020481 C2 ( 1982)

457

83

03

THE EFFICIENCYOF TRE CELLULARSPREADSPECTRUMRADIOTELEPHORE

L.E.Varekin
All-UnionTelecommunioation
Instituteby oorrespondenae
Moscow,USSR

The efficienoyof the use of Prequenoy spectrumin cellularmobileradiotelephonesystemsis discussed.It is

shown that the efficiency of oellular
spreadspectrumradiotelephone
is bigher with pseudo-noisesignalsand pulse-time modulation rather than with
frequenoy modulation.

use of a matchedfilterend a post-deteotorintegratorwhich resultsin the

increasedSSRT effioienoy.The effioienoy of SSRT is shown to be muoh higher then that of Fb%T.
2.Cellularradiotelephone
effioienox

When oellularprinoipleof oonstruction of rad&ot$.ephoneand digital

mobile oommunioationsystemsis used
1. Introduotion
[I] a big city territory is divided
into a large number of oells (sones)
Cellularprinoiple of eonstruotion in the form of hexagons.Base stationa
of radiotelephone
systemsmakes itpos(BS) are situated in the centreof
sible to increasetheir effioienoyand
each cell and provide oommunioation
capaoity h,2]. There appeareda great
with mobile subaoriberstations(MS).
number of reviewsand surveysdisaus- Suppose, radiusof a serviue 5one is
sing oellularradiotelephone
(see,for
Ro, radiusof a oell is R. The number
example,[3.08-j 1. In this paper the
of BSs is
efficienoyof the use of speotrumin
L =1,21(Ro/R)2.
(1)
cellularmobileradiotelephone
systems
With Ro=30 km, R='lkm the numberof
under oonditionsof UBF multipathtransmissionis disouseed.The effioienoy BSs is L*lO89. Proteotive distanoe
betweencells using the same frequency
here means the number of aotiveusers
(or ahannels) per a ? NR5 frequenoy channelsis D. A minimum numberof
frequenoy ohannela is C = (D/R)'/S.
band. The results of comparisonof
oommuoellularfrequently
modulationradiote- Assume,one BS ia establishing
and
lephone (FMRT) with that of oellular niaationwith 1HSs simultaneously
the
total
speotrum
width,
used
by
the
radiotelephone
(SSRT)
spreadspectrum
BS, Is FBS. The number of aotiveusers
with pseudo-noisesignals (PBS) are
(ohannels)is
given.Suoh a oomparisonis being oarried out for the first time. In SSRT
M = Ll = 1,21(~~/~)~1,
(2)
telephoneinformation is transmitted
band
with the aid of pulse-time modulation the totel transmission(reoeption)
(PTR)and PM. In SSRT optimumreoepF=CF BS
(3)
tion of PNS is obtainedthroughthe

and the efficiency

'6= M/F = Ll/CFRS .

458

(4)

Since with FM CMCS uses the principle % singlechannelto a singleuser:'

the tidth of the ape&rum FBS=lFo,where F, - the bandwidthof the frequency
channel.

The less the cell radiusR,the greater L and henoe the higher the efficiency of the oellularmobile communioationsystem (CMCS). As the minimum
Hence, the efficiencyof FMRT is
number of frequenoychannels c grows
(9)
+ FM = L/CF, .
(i.e. as the tolerable interference
decreases)or as BBS grows the effioiNumerous experiments showed that
ency deoreaaee. Since the dependence
of q on R is,quadratioit is reaeona- UHF attenuationindex within large cities is approximately
n =3,5 with Vs 9
ble to use small radius cells of the
Let
F,=25
kH5,
Roe30 km, R=l
[9, lOI*
order of R~0,5..~1 km for CMCS with a
km. Table 1 shows the valuesof the
large numberof users,
minimumnumber of frequencychannelsC
When the principle "a signalchanand the efficiencyr FM for different
nel to a s9gnal user" is used, mutual
qualityof informationreceptionwhich
interference
in CMGS is determinedby
is characterized
by signal-to-interfethe signal-to-interference
ratio for
rence ratio q&.
powerc9, IO, 111
Table 1. FMRT efficiency
-1
,
(5)
= (D/a)9* =Ps/Px
where PS, PI - signaland interferenoe
power at the-BS (or MS)receiverinput*
13.
- UEF attenuationindex, V=V(Q,n)radiationfunctionof the web network
of interferingstations, Q=R,/D- the
number of ahords.
Aaoordingly, the minimumnumber of
frequencychannelsis
c = (s2V)*'n/3 .

(6)

Henoe, the effioiencryof a cellular

radiotelephone
is
'6= 3Ll/(J'2V>2'n
PBS .

(7)

It is to be noted that V dependson n

and Q, i.e. on the R, and D values.

It shouldbe noted for comparisonthat

the efficiency of centrelized
mobile
communicationsystemswith FM is 40
activeusers/MUz.Therefore
with q&=20
dJ3the efficienoyof the cellularsystem is 68 as high even with multipathing.
The last crolumn
in Table 1 shows
the valuesof the total number of a@tive users (channels) in FORT, with
the total frequenoybandwidthbeing 16
MHZ.

3. CellularFM radiotelenhone
Under conditionsof UHF multipath
trensmiseionFM has no advantagein
interference
immunity. Thereforesignal-to-interference
ratio q& at the
outputof PM receiveris approximately
equal to signal-to-interference
ratio
9* at its input [I], i.e.
(8)

4. Cellularspreadspectrum
radiotelephone
Since PNSs allow to providecode
division of signals overlapping in
spectrum,it is not neoessaryto use
the princriple"a singleohannelto a
singleuse+ in SSRT when spreadspeotrum PNSs are used. Thereforewe asaume PRS speotrumwidth to be equal to

459

BS spectrum width, i.e, Fc=FBS.

In the BS frequency band interference occurs among simultaneous users.
When PNSs are used separation of user&
is possible only at the expenoe of separation of PNSs acoording to PNS
structure, i.e. to establish oommunication wfth 1 users BS uses 1 different PNSs. This separation is also
known as aode division (CD)p,12]. Interference is especially dangerous
when there is no automatio COntrOl Of
levels (ACL) of signals arriving from
mobile units situated at different distances. Without ACL the dynamio range
of signal levels can reaoh very high
values whioh results in signifioantly
deoreased efficiency of CD with PNS.
Therefore we assume that ev8ry MS has
an ACL system which is working in aocordence with oontrol signal from BS
and which is normalizing signal power
at the BS input making it equal to signal power from MS situated at the boader of th8 working cell, i.e.

*s- aPt,/Rn

Where a- normalising coefficient, Per

- transmitter power. Acoordfngly, interference power is

-4
Pt

*xl-Rn

l-l )+1(3c)

01)

where the first summand is stipulated

by interference in the working cell
and the seoond aummand - by interference in the adjaoent cells of the web
network. Assuming l>>l signal-to-interference ratio at the input of the optimum SSRT receiver is found from (lo),
(11)
92=Ps/Pnx21"[1+(3C)-42V

-11.

(12)

With PNS it is to have C=4. For n=3,5, V=9 the second term in (12) is
signifioently less than the first one.
Therefore, approtimately
g2 = 2/l .

033

Numeral 2 in the numerators of (12),

83

03

(13) is the consequence of the use of

PNSs, the duration of whioh T is twioe
less than the inter@& of discretization equalling l/2W, where Cam4kH% ia
the upper frequenoy of the telephone
information spectrum.
b

Rultipathing and PNS reception

UHF spreading within large c&ties

is multipathing due to RFs reflection
from different objects in the oitiessrr
Under conditions of UHP multipath transmission and when PNSs are used it is
possible to separate the beams and then
to integrate (store) them p3].In this
case the optimum receiver (Fig?) consists of a matched filter (IQ?),an en-'
velope deteotor (D), an integrator(I),
a solver (S) and a demodulator (DM).

Fig,lo Optimum PNS receiver with

post-detector integrator

Fig.2a shows multipath signal at

the envelope deteotor output. A means
a beam delay time interval (pulse pack
duration). Beams are shown idealized
and with equal amplitudes and durations h/S, where S - the number of possib18 beams. The number of real beams
is r. For Fig.2a 6~20, rell, To separate beams it is neoeasarg that
A/Shl/P,.
If the beams are separated, their
noncoherent store becomes possible&et
integrator memory be A and its pulse
characteristic is of the form presented in Fig.2b. Fig.2o shows a pulse at
the integrator output. Its leading end
trailing adges are the result of oomposition of a random number of beams
falling into na frame" of duration A .
Therefore, in the general case leading
and trailing edges of a pulse at the
integrator output are nonsymmetric.But
on an average this pulse fn its form is
close to triangle with a base equal to
When information is transmitted
2A.

460

with the aid of PTM an important factor is unshifted beginn3ng of trailing

edge which in the absence of noise always begins at the moment t= A. Therefore, the solver must find the peak's
maximum at the integrator output and
then to determine the moment of the
beginning of its trailing edge, i.e.
the beginning of fall time.

Law but at other momentatwhen there is

no beam)obeys the Rayleigh Law. Therefore, at the moment t= A (Fig.2~) voltage at the integrator output is the
SUUI

where the first summand in the 35.&t

part is the sum of "signal plus nOiSe"
voltages for r beams and the second
sutnmand is the sum of the remaining
S-r noiae components. The mean value
of a random variable p is f =ml{y] =
and its dispersion
=rcc+(S-x)&/26,
is G g2=rG2+(s-r)(4-rr)62/2.
For those values of voltage at the
integrator output contribution into
which is made only by noise components
we have the sum
'=$Yjn*
3:
Its mean value %
and dispersion

0
I ?ig.2. Time

diagram in a circuit
with post-detector integrator

Let us find statistioal characteristics of a signal at the integrator

output. To do this let us firstly determine characteristics of random process at the output of the matched filter.At the moment of arrival of a certain beam the voltage at the output of
the matched filter contains signal oomponent d and noise component with
dispersion@*.At the beam moment Signal-to-noise ratio is
q~=~2/G2=2Ef'Ro=2PsT/?Jo
,

(14)

where E=P,T - PNS energy, Ps and T ita power and duration, W. - noise
power spectral density. Distribution
of voltage at the output of the envelope detector obeys the Rayleigh-Rice

=m-,(~}=&'2G,
@%2 - s(4--3~) G*/*.

In the process of making a decision

the quantity 7 = p-q is formed. Its
mean value with an accuracy to small
values of higher order with &/@>I
is
approximately t 2 rd, and dispersion
@Iz X SCY2 *Thus, signal-to-noise ratio
at the integrator output is
q2 .@g

22
q, ;

05)

i.e. when I increases signal-to-noise

ratio at the integrator output inorea88s according to square low.With r>fi
signal-to-noise ratio at the integrator output q2 is greater than the initial signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the matched filter q:, i.e. onlY ff ryfithe
integrator is expendient.
6. The efficiency of
cellular
radiotelephone with PIVSand PTM
Signal-to-interference ratio at the

- 461

output of the matched filter

2 =2Bp2,

c131

40

(16)

where PIG base

With

(131,

B * FBs/4W

(161,

we @;et

2
40

(17)
Q&w

83

(17)

(18)

%sx qz r2/J?-8WaS

with r Ss indepen;ent of FBS and 1.

Having values of q, it is possible to
find q sS. It is to be noted that the
applioation of (19) is possible provided that qz zf, otherwise the quality
of reception will be poor*

(22)

From (22) it follows that the gxeater q: and r, the higher the quality
of the reception of telephone messages.
Substituting (18) into (223, caloulating FBS and substituting PBS into
(4),we find the efficiency of the cellular radiotelephone with PNS and PTM:
.

Tss = Lr2/fi 8qSs m2AS

According to(4) the SSRT efficiency is

(19)

03

(23)

Table 2 shows the efficiency values

yss for different q: values and different numbers of real beams r, other
parameters being LB1089 for R,=30 km,
R=l km; A=5 mks, s=20; w=4 wz; c=4.
It has to be noted that with
the requirement
FRS = F/C = 4MHz
is fulfilled.
A /S s l/Fss
Table 2. SSRT efficiency

The quality of transmission of telephone information with the e3d of

PTM is characterized by signal-tonoise ratio at the-.autputof the-PTM
demodulator. As it was pointed out PES
duration is equal to half an interval
of disoretization,i.e~ T=l/4W. The amplitude of the useful component at the
output of the PTM demodulator is proportional to half PNS duration, i.e,
Atmx=1/8W.
Let CfJT stand for RMS van
lue ,ofshifting of a trailing edge of
a pUlSe at the integrator output at the
moment
t-A
(Fig.203. Signal-to-noise
ratio for voltage
at the output of the
PTM demodulator is
1/8W .
RES value of
14 is
Cl

trailing edge

6,~ tiA/q'

2 I 21 I 33 I 40 I
1 4 1 271 39 1 46

34000

544000

17000

272000 1

8 1 331 45 1 52 1

8500

136000

It can be seen from Table 1 and

Table 2 that SSRT efficiency is significantly higher than that of FMRT. It
is accounted for by, firstly, FRRT efficiency decreasing due to multipathing and, seoondly, by SSRT efficiency
increasing with the increase of the
number of beams.

(20)
References

shifting

(21)

11 1 Microwave

where q2 - signal-to-noise ratio at

the integrator output.
With (151, (20),(21) we get signalto-noise ratio at the output of the
PTM demodulator:

PI

Mobile

Communications.
Ed. by W.C.Jakes
Jr., A Wiley-Interscience Publication. Tr. from
Eg. Ed. by M,S.Jarlykov,M,V.Tcherniakhov. M., Sviaz, (1979).
Varakin L.E. Rural radiocommunioation and code division of chennels.
- Electroaviaz. No 10, (1973).

462

Cellular. Speoial Report. - "Comcxl munioation

News", No 2, (1984).

[I4

[I5

communi.cation systems with pseudo-noise signals. - "Electromagnetic Compatibility 1983", 5th

Simposium and TeclhnioalExhibition on Electromagnetio Compatibility, Zurioh, (March 8-10, 1983),

Williamson J, Cellular radio: a

market on the move. - "Telephony",

No 7, (1984).

Stoffels B. Cellular - Up and Running. - "Telephone engineer and

managment", No 8, (1984).
Nelson M. Cellular Mobile Radio
Systems Bring New Service FlexLbflity for Users. - "Communioation
News", No 8, (1984).
7 Take your telephone with you. "Financial Times",(August20,1984).
8 Cellular radio takes to the road.L-3
'*CommunioationSystems Worldwide",
No 5, (1984).
Varakin I.E. Interferenoe Lmmunity
[I9
of digital cellular spread-speotrum mobile oommunioations systems'
- "Electrosviaz", No 12, (1982).
10 Varekin L.E. Electromagnetic oompatibility of cellular mobile

6
Cl

Cl

c3

p. 537-542.

IllVarakin L.E.
II

[I21
c131

043

Spread-spectrum digital cellular mobile communicatfon system. - "4 World Telecommunication Forum", p. 2; Geneva,
(1983).
Varakin L,E. Theory of signal
systems. - M.: "Sovetskoje radio';
(1978).
Turin G,L.Introduotion of SpreadSpectrum Antimultipath Techniques
and Their Applioation to Urban
Digital Radio. - "Proceedings of
IEEE", No 3, (1980).
Tikhonov V.I. Statistical radioteohnology. - lH.t"Sovetskoje radie", (19663.

8404

- 463 -

Comparison of Spectrum Efficiency of

CDMA and FDMA Mobile Radio Systems
Heinz Ochsner
Federal Institute of Technology
Institute for CommunicationTechnology
Zurich, Switzerland

It is a general belief that mobile radio

systems using spread-spectrumtechniqueswaste
precious bandwidth because of their moderate
spectrum efficiency. The goal of this paper
I_is
to demonstrate where Spread-Spectrum coae
Division Multiple Access (SS-cDMA) Systems are
as effective as their Frequency Division
Multiple Access (FDMA) competitorsand under
which circumstancesthe former are inferior.
Most of the figures presented stem from various
authors, in this paper, however, they are
adapted to the CCIR definition of spectrum
efficiencyand consider the spatial organisation of a radio telephone network, as well as
network
the
traffic behaviour of
the
subscribers.

INTRODUCTION
In a multiple access communication system,
the subscribers use signals that are elements
of a signal space. If W is the bandwidth that
all signals have to share, and T is the
duration of one signalling element, e.g.
one
bit, then the number of dimensions of the
signal space is
D = 2-W-T

whole signalling interval T. Nevertheless, in

a signal space many such signals exist and can
be found. A suitable set of codes has the
is
additional property that each code
orthogonal, or quasi-orthogonal to its own
time-shiftedversion.
In reality, the signals of any of these
multiple access schemes occupy more than one
dimension. Especially practical codes are not
completely orthogonal. Therefore, each active
user using a particular code interferes with
every other, such that the number of active
users is limited by the cross-correlation
interferencebetween individual codes.
Now, spectrum efficiency is a measure of how
many active users a communicationsystem can
accomodate compared with
the number of
available dimensions. This measure, however,
must also take into account that the interference produced by a signal using the same
dimensions as the desired one is negligible if
the interferer's power is small enough. This
fact is considered in frequency reuse schemes
like cellular radio [lo].

THE EFFICIENCYMEASURE

(1)
The number of dimensions is the number of
orthogonal, i.e. perfectly distinguishable
signals that exist in the signal space. Thus,
in an ideal multiple access system, the signals
of each subscriber occupy exactly one single
dimension.
There are many ways to divide the signal
space among the users. Two common schemes are
Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA),
where each signal occupies the whole signalling
interval T, but just one slot of the available
bandwidth W, and Time Division Multiple Access,
where one signal occupies the whole bandwidth,
but just a narrow slot of the signalling interval.
A third technique is called Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA). It uses special
signals, so-called codes, which occupy the
total available bandwidth W, as well as the

The efficiency measure used in this paper

has been proposed in CCIR Report 662 [I].
Although it dates from 1978, it is used very
rarely, even in recent publications. In this
Report, spectrum efficiency is the ratio of the
communication achieved to
the amount of
spectrum space used. The measure of spectrum
utilization is defined to be the product of
frequency bandwidth, the geometric (geographic)
space (usually area), and the time denied to
other potential users:
Communication
Efficiency = ____________________---- .
(Time)(Randwidth)(Space)
(2)
Obviously, this definition is well suited for
multiple access communication systems which
divide the spectrum space either in frequency
(FDMA), in time (TDMA), or in space (sDMA).
Hence, for CDMA systems a
general
more

464

definition called "Throughput" is used by some

authors [4,6]:
Number of active users
Troughput = -____________-______-Number of dimensions

(3)
The throughput, however, can easily be
to the CCIR efficiency measure.

To guarantee such a blocking

hour.
busy
probability Pg the mean number w of users the
network can accomodate is about 70 $ of the
number of channels. It is the.^mean , number of
active users which is relevant for the spectrum
efficiency. The exact relationship between the
number of channels, the mean number of users,
and the blocking probability is given by the
Erlang B equation [q]:

adapted
P

?
-.=_I_ ml

(4)

CONSIDERING "COMMUNICATION"
The communication achieved may either be the
mean information quantity (in bits) or the mean
traffic quantity (in Callseconds), carried by
the whole communication system. Combining it
with the time (one dimension of the spectrum
space), one gets either the mean information
rate (in bits per second) or the mean traffic
(in Erlangs) which is conveyed by the whole
network.
Any potential subscriber of the network
expects to find a communication channel with
certain properties, e.g
-

A minimum bandwidth of the channel, since he

wants the communication to be achieved in a
certain time,

A minimum quality of the channel,

expects a reliable communication,

A minimum probability that he will find a

usable channel at any time, i.e. a channel
offering at least this minimum bandwidth, and
minimum quality.

since

A CDMA network can be assumed to have

virtually infinitely many channels, because,
the
interference,
due to crosscorrelation
maximum number of active users usually is much
smaller than the number of dimensions. It thus
As
constitutes
a
M/M/W queueing system.
mentioned above, the channel quality becomes
the number of channels in use
worse
as
The case in which the channel
increases.
below the required minimum
quality
drops
quality is called congestion. As in previous
instance, this should happen only with a small
probability, say 2 $. The relationship between
the number of active users Nmax which cause the
congestion, the mean number of active users N,
and the congestion probability P of a M/M/a
Poisson
&e
queueing system is given by
equation:

he

The minimum required bandwidth

of
one
channel is usually determined by the service
requirements. A digital telephone system using
adaptive delta modulation (ADM) needs at least
16000 bits per second [2].
Channel quality in a FDMA radio network
depends
mainly
on
the
characteristics
(distortion) of the particular frequency band
in use, and the signal-to-noise ratio at the
receiver input. However, in a spread spectrum
environment each active user produces crosstalk
in the receiver of any other user, due to the
imperfect crosscorrelation properties of the
code sequences used in practice.
Therefore,
the quality of the particular channel is a
function of the number of active users, while
the spectrum efficiency depends on the mean
quality. Thus, efficiency may be increased by
decreasing
the
communication quality.
To
assure a minimum intelligibility of speech, the
error probability of ADM at 16 kbps should be
better than 0.005, a mean error probability of
0.001 is desirable [2].
If a potential subscriber of a communication
network with a fixed number of channels m - a
FDMA system is such a network - fails to find a
usable channel, the network is said to be
blocked. The network must be designed in such
a way that this happens with a relatively low
probability. A common figure is 2 $ during the

Note, that the use of the Poisson equation

implies
independence
of the calling
the
behaviour of the subscribers on the network
state.
In practice, however, most of the
active users probably would hang up their phone
immediately if the radio network seems congested.

CONSIDERING "SPACE" IN A CELLULAR SYSTEM

In a cellular mobile radio network [IO] the
service area is divided into hexagonal cells.
Rather than communicating with other mobiles
directly, the mobile units communicate with the
The frebase station of the attached cell.
channels
that
are assigned to a
quency
particular cell may be reused in a distant cell
This
at a certain protective distance D.
protective distance depends on the propagation
characteristics within the service area. Fig.
1 shows the channel assignment of a cellular
network using a twelve-frequency plan.

For such a channel assignment a cell using

for example the frequency bundle A prohibits
the use of these channels at eleven other
cells.
Thus, the total space denied to other
users turns out to be K, = 12 cells. K, is the
frequency reuse factor.
Unfortunately, the frequency reuse factor of

- 465

8404

Fig. 1. A twelvefrequency-set plan

Twelve frequencies
are labeled
A through L

a cellular CDMA network cannot be determined by

One must calculate
such a simple reasoning.
the efficiencies for networks with and without
Usually
cellular assignment and compare them.
all interfering codes can be assumed quasireuse
The resulting frequency
orthogonal.
factor then becomes K, = 1.5 to 2.5, depending
characteristics
13971.
on the propagation
Thus, on the average, the number of cells
affected by the activity of one cell is just in
the order of two !
Note, that a base station receives signals
from mobiles from its own cell, as well as from
its neighborhood. Assuming that the average
number m of active mobiles circulating in one
particular cell-is the same for all cells, the
total number Ni of mobiles whose signals the
base receives becomes

propagation
concerning
specified
must be
characteri.stics, required communication bandwidth and quality, channel availability, as
The necessary
well as the user's profile.
overall bandwidth and receiver sensitivity can
then be calculated.

PROPAGATION CHARACTERISTICS - In order to

consider the propagation characteristics, an
expression which relates the error probability,
the number of active users, the overall bandwidth (in terms of the number of code symbols,
or
chips, per data bit), and eventually the
thermal noise in the receiver is needed.
A
formula for DS-SS in a non-cellular environment
can be found in [6].

(6)
(7)
For a specific link, all
users are interferers.

but

one

of

the

pi

The reason why narrowband signals "contaminate" such a large area compared with
broadband codes is due to the fact that two
narrowband signals of the same frequency are
highly correlated, whereas broadband codes in
same
frequency
the
band are practically
uncorrelated. Hence, the protection distance
is much smaller for broadband codes than for
narrowband signals.

N:

Total number of active users,

M: Number of chips per data bit,
PM: Error probability,
Energy per data bit,
Thermal noise density.
Equal signal strength of all interferers at the
receiver inputs is assumed, as well as no
fading and purely random code sequences.
A value of Kr = 2 is taken for the frequency
factor.

reuse

THE DESIGN OF A SPECTRUM EFFICIENT CDMA NETWORK

The following example traces the various
steps in the design of a spectrum efficient
CDMA network using Direct-Sequence
SpreadSpectrum (DS-SS) modulation. The signals used
by this technique are binary codes consisting
of M so-called chips per data bit. The number
M is closely related to the processing gain of
the DS-SS system [8].
In a
certain

preparatory phase of system design

network parameters and requirements

COMMUNICATION REQUIREMENTS - Adaptive delta

modulation with a rate R = 16000 bps is used.
The maximum tolerable error probability PE, =
0.005 shall be attained with a maximum congestion probability P = 0.02. The mean error
probability q shall 6e better than 0.001.

USERS PROFILE - One cell must accomodate

Npet = 200 potential users, each offering AM =
0.06 Erlangs of traffic during the busy hour.

- 466

This results in
users per cell.

an

average of x = 12 active

MAXIMUM NUMBER OF INTERFERING USERS - Using

equation 6, the total average number q of
interferers - including the desired signal The use of the Poisson equation
becomes 24.
yields a maximum of N,ax = 35 users such that
the congestion probability is less than the
required value.

REQUIRED NUMBER OF CHIPS AND MINIMUM SIGNALTO-NOISE RATIO - Equation 7 can now be used to
combine the mean number of interfering users K
with the mean error probability rj-,-on
the one
side, and the maximum number of interfering
users N,ax with the maximum tolerable error
probability P,, denoting congestion on the
Solving these two expressions
other side.
yields the result

of active users per cell not exceeding z, and

the maximum tolerable error probability PEc is
obtained. In this case it is found

na=$--&--{~(h+)-l + ;}

(10)
Note that in many cases the second term is
much smaller then the first. This leads to the
efficiency
available
the
conclusion that
depends only slight?3 on the number of chips
and M = 127 it becomes
per bit. For ";E = IO
1

= 3.89 Erl/MHz/Cell

Table I also shows a system which makes full

use of the available efficiency.

M = 131 Chips per data bit,

E!4N0 = 13.6 dB.

EFFICIENCY OF A FDMA NETWORK

EFFICIENCY - The total signal bandwidth can

be defined in several ways [ll]. As a consequence the result may vary from less than to
more than twenty times the chip rate.
A
reasonable and widely used definition on the
DS-SS bandwidth is the null-to-null bandwidth
being twice the chip rate:
W = 2.M.R

Assuming the same offered mean traffic per

cell as with the CDMA systems, i.e. m = 12,
the number of necessary channels to guarantee a
blocking probability of less than 2 $ turns out
to be m = 19.
Assuming further (optimistically) that the
required channel spacing is equal to the bit
rate R, the total spectral efficiency may be
calculated to
QZ-------

m
mRK

(8)
The resulting spectral efficiency is
then
defined as the average number of active users
per cell divided by the bandwidth
m
n=2.M.R

(11)

With a frequency reuse factor of K, = 12 the

efficiency becomes n = 3.29 Erl/MHz/Cell.

CONCLUSION
(9)

and becomes
n = 2.86 Erl/MHz/Cell.

In equation 9, the frequency reuse factor

must not be considered because it has already
been taken into account when evaluating the
total number of interferers (eq. 6).
An alternative approach is to prescribe a
practical code length of M = 127 or M = 255,
and a maximum tolerable error probability PEc.
This
procedure
yields
the
mean
error
probability and the required signal-to-noise
ratio. Table I shows the results.

AVAILABLE EFFICIENCY - If
enough
transmitting
power is available such that the
thermal noise may be disregarded, an available
maximum efficiency may be determined. Starting
with a given number of chips per bit and the
mean error probability (and implicating an
infinite signal-to-noise ratio) the mean number

Table II gives an overview of the results of

various authors for different cases, including
fading and error correcting coding, of CDMA and
FDMA networks. The figures are adapted to the
CCIR definition.
The comparison shows that
the efficiency of CDMA is much worse than of
FDMA in a non-cellular environment. This is
related to the well-known "10 to 20 $
exploitation of spectrum" one can often read
about in the literature,
channel coding reduces the efficiency of
FDMA systems because an increased symbol
rate is necessary, whereas the efficiency of
CDMA is enhanced,
the efficiencies of CDMA and FDMA are
the same in cellular radio networks.

about

This last conclusion seems natural, because

it cannot be understood why one modulation
scheme should be much more efficient than
another as long as the system makes use of all

- 467

8404

1 System Using
1 Av. Effiency
I
I

Suboptimal System

Optimal
System

m=
PPE

specified
Parameters

12
I m= 12
-3
= 1.0~10_3
= 5.0.10
j PEC = 5.0.10-3

m = 12
P

Resulting
Parameter.5

I
-*

R=16000bps,K

dB

= 2.5.10~~

/ iT = 16.31
/
-3
P
= 5.7.10
EC

( IJ= 3.89
I

/ q = 1.47
I

Chips/Bit

dB
Chips/Bit
Erl/MHz/Cell

-t

=2.0

CDMA (FH-1
3)

CDS-CLS )

[41

[cl
7.87

/ ~~z.~~~

/ 6.88

3.29

Cellular
With Fading

::::

I
CDMA

FDMA

[31
9.90

10.9

3. 13.10-2
i ... 1.37

3.89

advantages offered by a particular technique.

One advantage of using spread spectrum systems
is that the area "contaminated" by radio energy
is much smaller for CDMA than for FDMA. Noncellular radio networks do not enjoy this
benefit.
It is, therefore , possible to conclude that
cellular
mobile radio using code division
multiple access offers all advantages of spread
spectrum systems, including a good spectral
efficiency.

[71

1
+
Sel.
Areas
July 84.

Table II.
Spectral efficiencies
in Erl/MHz/Cell.

CCIR Report 662, "Definition of Spectrum

Use and Efficiency," Documents of the
XIVth Plenary Assembly, Kyoto; 1978.

G.R. Cooper, R.W.Nettleton, "A SpreadSpectrum

Technique
for High-Capacity
Mobile Communications," IEEE Trans.
on
Vehicular Technology, vol.
VT-27, pp.
264-74; November 1978.
for
the
on

SAC-2,

pp.

482-6;

R.N.
Lane,
"Spectral
and
Economic
Efficiencies
of
Land
Mobile
Radio
Systems," IEEE Trans.
on Comm., vol.
COM-21, pp. 1177-87;
November 1973.

[61:

G.L. Turin, "The Effects of Multipath

and Fading on the Performance of Direct
Sequence CDMA," IEEE J. on Sel.
Areas
Comm., SAC-2, pp. 597-603; July 84.

r71:

P.S. Henry, "Spectrum Efficiency of a

Frequency-Hopped-DPSK
Spread-Spectrum
Mobile Radio System," IEEE Trans.
on
Vehicular Technology, vol.
VT-28, pp.
November 1979.
327-32;

[81:

R.C. Dixon, "Spread Spectrum Sys terns,"

John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York; 1976.

[91:

L. Kleinrock, "Queueing Systems, Volume

I:
Theory," John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New
York; 1975.

[lo]:

J.
Oetting,
Cellular
Mobile Radio - An
Emerging
Technology,
IEEE
Comm.
Magazine, vol.
21, No.
8,
pp.
to-5;
November 1983.

[II]:

F. Amoroso, "The Bandwidth of Digital

Signals," IEEE Comm. Magazine, vol. 18,
No. 6, PP. 13-24; November 1980.

c21: J.L.

Flanagan, et.al., "Speech Coding,"

IEEE
Trans.
on Communications, Vol.
COM-27, pp. 710-37; April 1974.

Comm.,

[53:

REFERENCES

J.Y.N.
Hui, "Throughput Analysis
Code Division Multiple Access of
Spread Spectrum Channel," IEEE J.

I
+

1.56
. . . 3.13 /

[41:

/ Eb/No + m

] M = 131

131:

Design of different CDMA systems

[II:

1 M = 255

I Eb'No = 14*1
/ II= 2.95
I

Table I.

-3

Eb/No = 8.9

Eb/NO = 13.6
M = 131
17= 2.86
General Specifications:

= 5.0.10

1 M = 127

9.4-10

-3
= 1.0~10

EC

EC

INTERFERENCE

ANALYSIS

469

85 05

OF A LAND MOBILE

CELLULAR RADIO

SYSTEM

G. K. Chan
Department
of Communications
Canada
Ottawa,

the
A detailed
analysis
of
and
transmitter
channel,
adjacent
receiver
intermodulation
interference
in a cellular
system
is conducted.
The
inter-cell
and
considers
analysis
situations
for
interference
intra-cell
on both
the
uplink
voice
transmissions
and downlink
channels.
Results
of the
show
that
inter-cell
adjacent
analysis
channel
and intermodulation
interference
may be ignored
but not
the
intraWorst
situations.
cell
interference
case
assumptions
are
used
such
as the
allocation
of consecutive
channels
to a
location
cell
site
in some
situations,
of desired
mobile
station
being
on the
edge of the cell
coverage
area,
etc.
moduction
Land
Mobile
Cellular
Radio
Systems
have
been
proposed
in a number
of countries
over
the past
few
years.
These
systems
are
generally
recognized
spectrum-efficient
for
radio
comas
munications
mainly
because
of
their
frequency
reuse
capability.
Similar
to
other
land
mobile
radio
systems,
cellular
radio
systems
are
affected
by
the
three
most
common
types
of
interference:
co-channel,
adjacent
channel
and intermodulation
interference.
In this
paper,
the
effects
of
adjacent
channel
and intermodulation
interference
on a cellular
system
are
discussed.
The
intra-cell
and
inter-cell
interference
situations
for
both
types
of
interference
are
analysed.
In the
first
situation,
the
base
station
at
the
centre
of
the
cell
is
assigned
n
consecutive
channels
for
communications
with
the mobile
stations.
In the second
situation,
the
base
stations
in
under
the blocked-calls-cleared
situation
(i.e.
Erlang
B) with
the appropriate
number
of channels,
U, allocated
to any
one cell.

Adjacent

Channel

Interference

Analysis

Intra-cell
Adjacent
Channel
Interference
Analysis
Adjacent
channel
interference
in
the
intra-cell
situation
arises
from
the possibility
that
the desired
signal
path may be longer
than
the interfering
signal
path.
Adjacent
channel
interference
would
occur
if:
P adj

pd

. ..(l)

the
adjacent
channel
P,dj
is
where
interfering
signal
power
level,
Fd is
the
desired
signal
power
level,
Q is
the
protection
ratio
and
J is
the
amount
of attenuation
that
the
interfering
adjacent
channel
signal
would
suffer
at the
carrier
frequency
of
the
desired
signal.
All
parameters
are
in
dBs.
On the downlink
channels,
same as Pd and adjacent
channel
ference
would
occur
if:

Q,J

Pad
is
in t!er(2)

. . .

The value
of
J varies
from
one
transmitter
to another.
If J is chosen
to be equal
to 26 dB [ll
and Q to be 20
dB, (2) will
not be satisfied
even with
both
adjacent
channel
signals
on at the
same
time.
It
can therefore
be deduced
that
adjacent
channel
interference
would
not
occur
on the downlink
channel.
On the
uplink
channels,
assuming
that
received
power
is
inversely
proportional
to
the
4th
power
of
distance,
the desired
mobile
is on the
edge
of
the
cell
at a distance
r from
the
base
station
and
the
interfering
mobile
is at a distance
d smaller
than
r from
the base
station,
d

padj

401og

d -

401og

For
adjacent
occur,

channel

P adj
d

or

interference

pd

to

.1O(Q-J)/40

IE

total

traffic

in

total

number

of

interference

area

available

values
different
Table
increases

With
for
1.

Q = 20 dB and J = 26 dB, the

P D may be calculated
for
va Pues of Vt and are shown
in
It
can
be
seen
that
PAD
as the
cell
radius
increases.

(3)

. . .

Given
that
the
desired
mobile
is
the probability,
Pa, that
transmitting,
one of the (n-l)
remaining
channels
is
area
within
the
interference
active
with
radius
d may be found
and is given
by:
Pa
=

470

channels

Inter-cell
Adjacent
Channel
Interference
Analysis
The worst
case
situation
is
for
the mobile
station
to be located
at the
intersection
of
three
cell
sites,
point
M in Fig.
1. Since
the
namely,
signal
paths
from
D to M, 11 to M and
I2 to M and vice
versa
are
about
the
channe
1 interference
same,
adjacent
would
not occur
on both
the downlink
as
well
as the uplink
channel.
Intermodulation

77d*Vt/(n-1)

. . .

where
V is
the
number
of
mobiles
per
sq.
km.,
t is
the
traffic
in
Erlangs
generated
by a mobile
station
and the
mobiles
are
uniformly
distributed
in
Note
that
Pa would
the cell.
not exceed
unity
under
a grade
of service
of
0.02.
Considering
that
the desired
mobile
may
be operating
in any one of the n consethe
probability
of
cutive
channels,
PAD, is:
adjacent
channel
interference,
AD

* 1 (n-*)(*-P,)

pa

+ 2

I/n

. . .

(5)

It should
be pointed
out that
the
value
of
d obtained
is
based
on the
assumption
that
only
one
adjacent
channel
is
on.
With
both
adjacent
channels
on,
the value
of d is slightly
larger.
Hence
PAD should
be slightly
higher
than
the value
predicted
in (5).

Analysis

In this
section,
only
two-signal
third-order
transmitter
intermodulation
and
receiver
intermodulation
(TIM)
(RIM)
interference
is
considered.
Three-signal
third-order
intermodulation
is
less
likely
to occur
since
all
three
signals
have
to
be
on
simultaneously
before
it
would
cause
a
Higher-order
problem.
intermodulations
are
of less
significance
due to their
lower
power
levels
of interference.
Intra-Cell
TIM
Interference
-The
Bownlink
Channel
Referring
to Fig.
2, transmitter
emits
a
signal
at
frequency
fA
TX4
which
mixes
in transmitter
TX
with
its
The tntermodusignal
st
frequency
fglation
product
is a signal
at frequency
2fg
- f
equal
to
frequency,
fC,
emitted
6 y transmitter
TXC. The output
power
Pti
of
the
TIM product
at 2fB fA is
then
given
by:
Pti

Interference

(4)

Pt

B -

C + Ct

. . .

*AD

(km)

~~
0.16
0.36
0.49
0.56
0.60

0.2

0.4

0.36

10

0.49

14

0.59

26

0.68

0.53

IS

0.61

24

0.66

TABLE
PRoaABILItY

or

1NTERFERENCE

INTRA-CELL
ON

THE

FIGURE
*nJ*.CENT

eLINix

CHbNNEL

CHANNEL

Inter-cellAdjacent

Chance!

Interference

(6)

- 471

fA

TXA:

A:

Pt I

The probability
of TIM interfermay
be
calculated
as
follows:
ence
Assuming
that
the
amount
of
traffic
generated
by the
base
station
on the
that
same
as
downlink
channel
is
generated
by the
mobile
station
on the
then
given
that
the
channel,
uplink
the
transmission
is
on,
desired
probability
that
both
the
interfering
and victim
transmitters
are
on is:

(_

Ce

85 05

P ti

fA

vt.

3 fi
X

r2/2(n-1)
3 JY . r2/2(n-21

Vt:

Vt.3fi.r2

.ri

(n-l)(n-2)
. ..(9)

Since
there
is an average
of Tav
IM products
per
channel
in the
given
frequency
band of n channels,
where
Tav
= (n-2)/2
when
n is even
and T,,
= (n1j2/2n
when n is odd as derived
in [41,
one or more IM products
in considering
the
to
be
on
at
the
same
time,
interference
=
probability
of TIM

'ti

FIGURE

Ptim

FORMATION OF TX IM PRODUCT

the
transmitter
antenna
where
Gt is
gain
in excess
of the circuit
losses
in
C is
the
conversion
loss
in
dB,
dB,
defined
as the
difference
between
the
levels
of
the
interfering
signal
power
from
an external
source
and the
intermodulation
product,
both
measured
at
the output
of the transmitter
and B is
the coupling
loss
in dB from
the output
of TXA to the output
of TXB. The value
of C is estimated
in [21 to be about
11
dB for
a frequency
separation
of 30 to
500 kllz between
fA and
fB*
According
to [31,
if
the antenna
gain
is 12 dB, carrier
frequency
is 460
MHz and
the
distance
of
separation
between
the
antennae
is
0.5 metre,
B
ranges
from
0.2 dB to 7.5 dB depending
on the orientation
of the
two antennae.
Hence,
=
B+C
(Pt + Gt) -Pti
= 11.2
dB
. ..(7)
if
the
separated,

antennae

are

= 1 -

(1

Pti)

Tav

It should
be noted
that
this
expression
since
some
is
only
an approximation
frequencies
are
shared
between
a number
of
IM
products,
hence
the
actual
probability
of interference
is higher
than
that
predicted
in (10).
The values
of
Ptim
for
various
values
of
r are
graphically
depicted
in
Fig.
3.

o-

I-

horizontally

TIM interference
occurs
when
the
interfering
TIM product
power
level
exceeds
the
desired
signal
power
level
less
the
protection
ratio.
Since
the
transmission
characteristics
from
the
co-located
transmitters
to the
mobile
station
are
the
same,
interference
occur0
when
B+C

. . .

(8)

dB to
reception,
be ignored.

be

If
we
consider
required
for
TIM interference

Q of
good
quality
must
not

20

CELL

FIGWE

RADIUS

PRCWBlLfTY
THE taMLINK

,N

I
KM

OF INIRA-CELL
CWWEL
VS

TIM INIERFERENCE
CELL RADIUS

ON

- 472

Intra-Cell
TIM Interference
-- The
Uplink
Channel
In the intra-cell
uplink
channel
the coupling
loss B from one
situation,
another
is
transmitter
to
mobile
Therefore,
for
all
usually
high.
practical
purposes,
the probability
of
TIM interference
on the uplink
channel
is not considered
to be significant.
Jnter-Cell
TIM Interference
the
On
the
downlink
channel,
interfering
and victim
transmitters
are
separated
by a distance
almost
equal to
the
coupling
twice
the cell
radius,
is high
enough
to dismiss
any
loss
possibility
of TIM interference.
On the uplink
channel,
similar
to
uplink
channel
intra
-cell
the
the interfering
mobiles
from
situation,
different
cells
have
to
stay
close
together
before
any TIM
interference
would
occur.
No TIM interference
would
be encountered
here as well.
Intra-Cell
RIM Interference
-- The
Uplink
Channel
In the intra-cell
uplink
channel
situation,
the desired
mobile
station
is assumed
to be located
on the edge of
the cell.
The two
interfering
mobile
stations
are referred
to as the near
transmitter
(with frequency
fN) and the
far
transmitter
(with
frequency
fF)
closer
to
the
victim
since
fN
is
receiver
frequency
fV than fF in the IM
product:
2fN - fP = fV.
The interfering
received
level Pri is given in [5j

power
P ri

2PN

PF

- K

signal
by:

dF .dN2

. . . (14)

KSim

RIM
interference
Kim
is the
where
criterion
and is equal to:

40
where
CT is the
10 log
Pf and
'fd"
standard
deviation
of the power
level
of the received
signal.
This means
that RIM
interference
occur
if
mobile
with
the
would
frequency
fN transmits
at distance
d
from
the
base
station
and
a secon !
mobile
with
frequency
fF
transmits
within
distance
dp
from
the
base
station.
Assuming
that the desired
is transmitting
on the
edge
Cell,
the
probability
that
product
is on is,

. Vt

* ndP

. d(dP)
XnVt

mobile
of
the
a RIM

/ (n-l)

* Kim

dF.(n-2)

Figure 4 shows
the relationship
between
dN and
dF. Note
that
both
dP and
d
would
not exceed
the cell radius
r an 9
that dP = Kim / r2 when dN = r.
For
probability

(7TVt)2

2
P

rl

Kim/r2
<
dF
of interTerence

(
r:, the
rs:

. Kim

E
(n-l)(n-2)

. . . (11)

PN and PF are the

power
levels
where
of received
signals
from transmitters
N
and
F respectively,
K is
the
RIM
conversion
loss
factor
in dB and
is
given by [21 to be:
K

60

where df is the
MHz between
the
er frequencies.
occur
if:
Pd
where
power

- pri

Pd is the
level.

log

...

df

(12)

frequency
separation
in
near and far transmittRIM interference
would

_i

. . . (13)

desired

signal

received

Using
the
transmitter
output
power
model
outlined
in
I41
which
predicts
the
amount
of
transmitter
output power required
in order
that the
received
signal
power
level
is above a
certain
threshold
power
level
Xtd (dR)
for
Pf
percent
of
the
time
under
Rayleigh
fading and lognormal
shadowing
conditions,
it can be derived
as shown
in /41 and 161 that for RIM
interference to occur,

FIGURE

RfLATlONSHfP
BETWEEN

dN AND

dF

dF

For

<

probability

of

dF

( 1T Vt)2
Pr2

~~~~~

inter?erence

473

85 05

the

is:

Kim2

. r2

(n-l)(n-2)

Hence
for
0 (
of interference
Pri(S)

dP

(
is,

r,

0.1

the

0.04

probability
0.2

Prl

pr2
0.4

(nvt)2

(n-l)(n-2)

2 Kim*

K.im 2
r2

0.1

where
S is
the
frequency
separation
in
channel
spacings
between
f
and fP in
Hence
an IM product.
Pri Y S)
is
the
probability
of RIM interference
due to
one IM product
and
df = S x fs where
fs
is
the
channel
bandwidth.
For
a
there
are
on
given
S,
the
average
P(Sl/n
IM products
falling
on
the
desired
channel
where
P(S)
= (2n - 4s)
according
to
[41.
The probability
of
Pi,(S),
for
a given
S
RIM interference,
is
therefore,

Pim(S)

1 -

1 -

P(S)/n
Pri(S)

1
. . . (16)

and

if

Pim(S)

Pim(S)

i.S

Small

P(S)

P,i(S)/n

.a.

(17)

This
probability
takes
into
account
the
possibility
that
more
than
one RIM product
may be active
at one
time.
However,
as in the TIM interference
analysis,
this
is only
an approximation
since
some
frequencies
are
shared
between
a number
of IM products
and the actual
probability
of interference
is higher
than
that
predicted
in
(17).
The
interference,

total

probability
is then,
Prims

of

rim

Pim(S)

(18)

S=l
where
Smax
is
the
maximum
frequency
separation
in channel
spacings
between
fN and fP in any P-signal
third
order
IM product
formed
in
the
band
of
n
frequencies.
According
to
[41,
S,,,
=
(n-1)/2
for
odd
n,
and
= (n-2112
for
even
n.
and

The values
tabulated

of
in

P .
THk?e

are
obtained
2.
In
the

u -

,.0004

0.0017

).0018

0.0016

0.0035

0.0146

0.005,

0.0121

o.oo*s

0.00?9

O.OOSL

o.o*?.o

0.0080

0.0344

O.OOS5

O.OISl

0.0071

0.0305

0.0100

0.0417

0.0009

o.oo,*

0.0040

0.0169

0.0017

Cl.0351

O.OLL9

0.0507

O.OO4L

0.0176

O.OLL5

0.0490

0.0180

0.0769

0.0079

0.0337

0.0159

0.0671

0.0122

0.0955

0.4

IZ

calculation,
it
is assumed
that
f,
=
0.03
MHz,
Ktd = - 132 dBN,
Q = 20 dR
and
Pf
= 0.1
and
0.02
separately.
It
can be seen
that
the probability
of RIM
interference
increases
when
the
cell
radi.us
increases
or when
Q
increases.
But
in general,
RIM interference
is
insignificant
in
almost
all
of
the
situations.
Intra-Cell
RIM Interference
-The
Downlink
Channel
In
this
situation,
different
signals
from
the
base
station
are
received
at a mobile
station
in which
an IM product
may be formed.
However,
since
the
interfering
signals
travel
the same distance
as the desired
signal
from
the
base
station
to
the
mobile
receiver,

Hence,

..a

0.04

0.2

RIM

S max

r-6

km . 1

l9.

Prim

Yt

.?.r,. per

PN
Pd -

zri

for
all
practical
and d . So no
occur.

pF

RIM

>>

pd

values
of K,
interference

Xtd
:oUf%

Inter-Cell
RIM Interference
Referring
to
Fig.
1
on both
the
uplink
and downlink
cha)nnels
the
worst
situation
would
be for
the i6terfering
mobiles
from
I1 and
I2
to be
located
at M, the
intersection
of the
three
cells.
However,
since
the
interfering
mobiles
are at approximately
the
same
distance
from
base
station
D as
the
desired
mobile
no RIM
station,
interference
would
occur.

Cone lusion
In
adjacent
this
the
paper,
channel,
transmitter
receiver
and
intermodulation
interference
situations
in a cellular
system
are analysed.
The
intra-cell
and
inter-cell
cases
are
considered
with
the downlink
and uplink
channel
operations
discussed
separateThe results
of
the
analysis
show
ly.
that
inter-cell
interference
situations
may be ignored
but
not
the
intra-cell
interference
situation.
Even though
the
RIM and TIM interference
analysis
is
performed
for
the
low UHF band
due to
the lack
of empirical
data
for
equipment
in the upper
UHF band,
the interference
characteristics
are expected
to
show
similar
behaviour
at the 800 MHz
band.
consecutive
Normally,
channels
are not assigned
to the same cell.
This
is partly
because
of the difficulties
and
limitations
in
coupling
the
equipment
and also
because
of the fact
that
interference
normally
be
can
reduced
using
frequency
larger
In practice,
separations.
filtering,
isolation
techniques
and
variable
mobile
power
features
have been
used
to
minimize
interference
problems.
The
assumptions
used
in
this
analysis
represent

the

worst

case

474

The effect
of this
on our
analysis
is
that
the
uplink
interference
situation
may be
slightly
worse
than
what
the
results
have
indicated
as the
desired
and
interfering
signals
not
be
may
fully
correlated.
References

[ll

Department
of
Communications,
Canada.
Radio
Standards
Specification
RSS-118,
Issue
1, Oct.
1983.

[21

McMahon,
J.H. Interference
and
Propagation
Formulas
and Tables
Used
in the
Federal
Communications
Commission
Spectrum
Management
Task
Force
Land Mobile
Frequency
Assignment
Model.
IEEE Transactions
on Vehicular
Technology,
Vol.
VT-23,
No.
4,
pp 129-134,
November
1974.

[31

International
Committee
524-1,
pp
I.

[41

Chan,
G.K. Design
and Analysis
of a Land Mobile
Cellular
Radio
System
Under
the
Effects
of
Interference.
Ph.D.
Dissertation,
Carleton
University,
Ottawa,
Canada,
Department
of
Systems
and Computer
Engineer1984.
ing,

[51

International
Committee
pp 217-224,

[61

Approach
Chan,
G., A Practical
to
Determine
Culling
the
Mechanism
in Electromagnetic
Interference
Analysis
Models.
Fifth
Symposium
and Exhibition
on Electromagnetic
Compatibility
pp 503-507,
March
1983.

situations.

It should
also
be noted
that
our
analysis
has
considered
only
long
term
median
power
levels
and the
effects
of
fading
and shadowing
on the desired
and
interfering
signals
are not
differentiated.
In other
words,
the desired
and
interfering
signals
are
assumed
to be
fully
correlated
and suffer
the
fading
and
shadowing
losses
in
exactly
the
same fashion.
This
is not usually
true
for
transmissions
on
the
uplink
channels
since
the
mobile
stations
transmit
signals
from
different
locations
in the cell.
But for
downlink
transmissions
from
the base
to a mobile
station,
this
assumption
is
correct.

Radio
(CCIR)
118-131,

Consultative
Report
No.
Study
Group

Radio
Consultative
(CCIR)
Report
No. 522,
Study
Group
I.

PLANNING OF TlMDJ&ZIm PMlD

K
Department

86.06

475 -

III FOB USE n IdOmLI:S=VIC8iS

Fisher

oi Trade and Industry

London UK

f. NTROIXJCTION
In ths United Kingdom the demand for land mobile
radio is growing at an annual rate of 5-l&
and
this increase
has continued
right through a
period of recession
and shows no immediate Signs
of abating.
In 198~ a study was made of the spectrum
requirements
and availability
of the land
mobile radio service
to the end of the century.
The report noted that 730 dual-frequency
channels were then available
for 17,000 private
users having in excess of 20,000 base stations
The report also
6nd more than m,OOO mobiles.
calculated
that by 1~85 conventional
land mobile
services
would require
a total of 1142 dualfrequency channels,
and by 1990 a total of 1784
would be needed.
Additional
spectrum would also
be required
for other land mobile needs such as
radiotelephones,cordless
telephones
and services
in operational
support of broadcasting.
The
report recommended, inter alia,
that negotiations
designed to clarify
the amount of spectrum that
could become available
for land mobile radio
should be pressed to a conclusion
as quickly
as
possible.
The Government responded to this recommendation
by setting
up an Independent Review of the Radio
Spectrum (jo-96~
MHz),
with this task as part of
its work.
The Review reported
in two stages.
In September 1~82 it reported on the future use
of television
Bands I and III and recommended
that these bands be withdrawn from broadcasting
use and re-used
for a combination
of land
mobile services
and services
in operation61
support of broadcasting;
with priority
where
It further
necessary for land mobile cervices.
recommended that the obsolete
405-line
television
system be closed down by the end of 1984.
These recommendations
were subsequently
In July 1983 the
accepted by the Government.
Review presented
its final report in which it
noted that while. the situation
in the land
mobile bands is likely
to be manageable until
the late 198Os, the problems thereafter
are
likely
to become acute unless significant
use
can be made of other bands and/or new technaIt noted also
that there was no prospect
logy.
of any significant
reservea of unused or underused spectrum being identified
in the 30-960
URz range and xc-allocated,
and that long timcscales w6re involved
in bringing
about major
change6 in the pattern of use.

Sharing

with Broadcasting

At the World Administrative

Radio Conference
in
1979 the International
Frequency Allocation
Table
wa6 amended by footnotes
to enable the land
mobile service
to operate in a number of J!bropcan
countries
in TV Bands I and III.
Although the United Kingdom ha8 decided to USC
Band III exclusively
for mobile 8erviccs,
neighbouring
Administration6
are continuing
with
television
broadcasting,
at least
for the tima
The new land mobile service
thus ha6 to
being.
ahare with the broadcasting
service
and this has
led to a requirement
for new sharing criteria.
Television
services
typically
operate with
considerably
larger radiated
poware than mobile
sarviccs
(typically
40 dB more) and mobile
services
operate with considerably
smaller usable
field
strength8
than television
(typically
30 dB
le66).
This total
difference
of 70 dB between
the planning criteria
of the two services
suggests initially
that sharing will have very
limited
application.
Bowavar, in practice
the
following
features
assist
the mobile services:
-

the signal
to interference
protection
ratio
required
by the mobile services
is much less
than that for tha talcvision
service
(typically
10 dB a8 opposed to !50 dB);

the sarvice
areas in the mobile service
are
smaller;
antenna height6 ara lower th6.n
broadcasting
antenna height8 and the height
gain corre6pondingJ.y
less;

the television
service
amploys a much wider
bandwidth than the mobile service
(typically
d MHz against
IL.5 kHz) se the full power of
the television
signal will not bc present in
any one mobile channel;

the telavision
pslarisation.

Land Mobile

servica

may employ horizontal

Protaction

Figure 1 chows the limit of the power spectral

density of a television
signal when measured in
a 7 kHz bandwidth (appropriate
to a 12.5 kHz
Thi6 maek is
channelled
mobile radio receivar).
for the SECAMsystem used in France and is for
normal picture
6cenc8.
The frequency separation
between the varioue carrier6
is different
for
PAL systems, but the aaek otherwise
does net

- 476 -

Fig 1: Power spectral density of

a television signal measured
in a 7 klizbandwidth

greatly change. It can be seen that most of the

power in th,esignal.is concentratedin the visia
and sound carriers and that for a wide band of
frequenciesbetween these carriers the power is
at least 5C dB below the vision carrier power,
and for much of the television channel it is at
least 40 dB below.
Figure 2 shows the contour of the acceptable
interferenceto the mobile services for the
parts of the television channel where the power
is 30 dB below the carrier power. It can be
seen that this contour olears the coastline of
Great Britain with the exceptien sf part of
Wales. A kJ dB contour also clears the coastline of Wales. It can be concluded that mobile
service operation will be possible all over
Great Britain as long as the television carrier
frequenciesare avoided.
The level ef acceptable interferencewas calculated as followa. The minimum median usable
field strength was dervived from CCIR Report
358 :
Emin = - 41 + d + 20 lsg f dB(uV/m)

0
0

HI

100

200

sxl.C

Table 1 shows the calculation for the case of a

wanted FM signal and an interferingAH signal.
TABJE 1 - Calculationof the maximum interfering
fisld strength
Base

The maximum interfering field strength was

calculated fraa:
(9)

where a is the signal to interference

protect&en ratio
hg is a height gain factsr to convert
the field strength to that at a
height of 10m above the ground
b is the discriminationfactor of the
receiving antenna taking account of the
azimuth and polarization.

Mobile
Station

Station
VP

Taking a value af d for a high quality signal

(Rrade 4) aives an average minimum median
field strength (Emin) fa; Band III of
22 dB(uV/m).

dB(uV/m)

),

Fig 2: Contours of acceptable interference

-3C dB relative to visxon carraer
power

(1)

d is a degradatien factor which takes into

account fading due to multipath propagatien,
and man-made noise.

hg + b

,TALY

BORmwX

where f is the frequency in Mie

E
.=E
-amax
min

Ii

.LIONS

JIMOFES

BP

VP

BP

22

22

Emin dB (uV/m)

22

22

dB

10

IU

hg

dB

dB

18

dB (uV/m)

24

16.5

24.5

%lax

10

10

- 4.5 - 4.5

It can be seen from Table 1 that appropriate

values for the maximum interfering field strength
(E
J are 6 dB (uV/m> for vertically polarized
(Vfkvtelevisiontransmissionsand 24 dB (uV/m>
for horizontallypolarised (BP). Centours of
these field strengths are shown in Figure1 for
the cast ef 3% locations, yC% time by using
CCIR Recommendation570.
The Land Mobile plan
The use made sf Band III in North Vest Europe is
shewn an Figure 3.
On the Continent there are the Western European
systems, as used in Belgium and Holland, which
have channels spaced at 7 MBz, and in Ireland a
aystem with channels spaced at o MBz. In France

477

86.06

..-.
.

SYSTEM

,.,& ,F

,p

,M) ,q2 ,(,, ,u

FREQUENCY (MHZ 1
,y ,y ,p ,p 199 200 zoz

204 206 201

2Jo 2!2

214, 2!6,2?9 .'2;o.2?2.2?.226.2?a.2?o.

U. K.
405 lines

IRELAND
625 lines

IBaseTxlIlMobilefxlIIMobileTx2jI

Fig 3:

Use of

Band III

in North West Europe

the obsolete
819-line
system has been closed dovn
but a new system has been introduced.
This
employs 6 MHz channel spacing,
as does the Irish
system, but has the vi&en
carriers
offset
from
the Irish carriers
by 0.75 MHz. In fact in
France there is aleo mobile operatien
and the
sharing is being achieved by restricting
the
mobile service
to the main mctrepolitan
areas,
i.c Parish and Lyon, and to no more than four
of the available
six television
channels.
interference
contour from television
carriexm
are shown on Figure 4 from which it can be seen
that the potential
interference
is now very
severe and mobile operation
ipi impractical
over
meat of the country.
No area ef the country is
however affected
by more than two e&s of
carriere
and there is a small corridor
around
The

London which is affected

by only one set - the
French carriers.
This is fortuitous
as the
London area has the highest demand for mobile
radio.
It is possible
ta maximise the number
of paired two-frequency
channels in London by
aligning
the mobile channels with the French
vision carriers
aa shown on Figure 3. The plan
gives 3 sub-bands
for mobile use each of 7 + 7
MUa with a transmit/receive
spacing of 0 MHZ and
1 MHz guardband between transmit and receive.
This plan net only optimises
the uee for the
United Kingdom, but is also identical
to the
mobile plan uaed in France and therefore
ha6
potential
to become a European standard.
Outside of London less spectrum is available
due tn other carriers,
but there is at least
5 + 5 MHz,er 400 paired channels available
in
each of the 3 sub-bands of hand III.

*WlltS

FRANCE

Fig 4:

Centourls of acceptable
from vision
carriers

SWKER
/LAN@

interference

478

Television Protection
The minimum median usable field strength for
which protection may be sought in planning
televisionservices is given by CCIR Recommendation 417 as 55 dB (uV/n) Band III. The
percentage of time for which protection should
be sought is recommendedto lie between m
A figure of 95% is often used if a
and!@.
sea path is involved between the interfering
station and the television service area.
The signal to interferencepratection ratio
for television is given in CCIR Report 306
and Recommendation418. For the case of
narrow band interferenceunder fading conditions, the protection ratio has a maximum
value of 50 dB but is less in some parts of
the television channel. Figure 5 shows the
protection ratio curve for the L/gECAM system
used in France. The pratection ratio curves
for the PAL systems used elsewhere on the
Continent and in Ireland are similar, but the
frequencyspacings between the vari4us carriers
are different.

where i is the number of transmitterson the

site
a. is the protection ratio associated with
1
the i-th transmitter
bi

is the receiving antenna discrimination

factor

e. is the field strength at the edge of the

1
television service area from the i-th
transmitter.
For the case of a television receive antenna
15 dB is an appropriatevalue allowable for the
case of orthogonal polariaation. The usable
field strength E, is then calculated by way of
iteration from:
PC =

l-l-

L Eu - Esj)

(4)

where p, is the coverage probability (50%

locations)
L is the probability integral for a
normal distribution
Eu is in dB (uV/m)
E

is
the nuisance field associated with
sj the j-th base station site in dB
(uV/m), as given by e uV/m calculated
from equation (3).

This methed laads to a lengthy computationbut

has the advantage ever a direct power summation
of taking into account the statistical tin
locations) nature of the pr4blem.

Fig 5: Protection Ratia for L/BECAH

television

The curve given in Figure :,assumes a single

source of interferencebut due to the large
difference in bandwidth used by the mobile
and broadcastingservices there could be 300
or 400 mobile service channels in use in a
televisionchannel. A new considerationthus
arises of the effect on the television signal
of multiple interferingsources. A method
called tho simplified multiplicationmethad
(CCIR Report 945) has been used over the last
30 years for dealing with small numbers of
interfering sourcea and it is proposed to adopt
a method baaed canthis for Band III planning.
The method first calculatesa "nuisance fiel.d"
(e) from each base station site given by:
e=Jw

uV/m

(3)

In the case of mobile stations the calculation

becomes complex as the interfering field strength
4. is not constant but various with the location
03 the mobiles. From measurements conducted in
the United Kingdom it has been found that, on
average the interfering field strength from a
mobile station is at least ;rOdB below the
correspondingfield strength from its associated
base station. Calculationscan therefore be made
for the base stations and reduced by 20 dB for
the mobile stations.
Potential Use by the mobile services
To obtain greatest USC of Band III for the
mobile services the nuisance fields given by
equation (3) must be minimimed. This can be
achieved by minimising the interfering field
strengths, i.4 by restrictingantenna heights
and radiated power using techniques such as
directionaltransmittingantennas, and by using
the smallest values of protection ratios. Bowever, from Figure 3 it can be seen that low
protection ratios are confined to a limited band
-width around the sound carrier, and this part of
the spectrum must thus be reserved for base
station sites which Produce large field strength
i.e high sites and coastal sites. Other sites
can
use
frequenciesnearer to the vision carrier
When these nuisance fields are accumulated in
equation (4) the difficultywill be in not
exceeding the CCIR recommend4dtelevisionusable
field strength of 55 dB (uV/m) which will then
determine the ultimate use of the band. This

479

will be a particular
problem in the Boulogne arca
of France which is both nearest to the United
Kingdom coast and opposite
the area of densest
Negotiations
with the
mobile use in Britain.
French Administration
have, however, resulted
in an agreement to plan to a value of 70 dB
(uV/m) at Boulogne and 65 dB (uV/m) in other

sensitive areas of the coast.

To test the scale of possible use of Band III a
computer model was constructedusing the details
of existing VHF base stations from licensing
records. This calculated equations (3) and (4).
It was found that all transmitters
within 3OOkm
of a test point
could contribute
to the
accumulated nuisance
field
but that with @U

channels in operation the agreed usable field

strengths on the foreign coasts would not be
Therefore,
the &Xl channels per subexceeded.
band found previously
to be available
which are
free of interference
from television
will all be
usable without causing interferences
to tclevision
- the assumption being that the geographical
distribution
of the new Band III
stations
will be the same as the existing
VHF
stations.
It will be necessary
however to exercise
care in
assigning
frequencies
to mobile users in Band III
and a new computer algorithm
has been developed
for automatic assignment.
This calculates
the
nuisance fields
to the relevant
test points on
foreign
coasts
from a proposed new base station
site and adjusts
the protection
ratio until
the
nuisance field
is about fl dB less than the
usable field.
In this way each base station
wiIl
contribute
equal1.y to the interfering
effect
and
it will be possible
to operate around 10~0 trane_
mitters
in each JO0 km sector.

Equipment

Standards

in Band III

There is a need to adopt new technology

to make
better use of the available
mobile spectrum in
order to cater for growth in the demand for
mobile services
until
the end of the century.
Against this,
however, is the need to develop
Band III equipment rapidly so that services
can commence in 1.985. Accordingly
a new
performance
specification,
MBT 1323, has been
issued for the initial
implementation
of Band
III which is based on existing
performance
specifications
but has some new features.
Band
III equipment is required
to be FM only with
12.5 kHz channelling.
The mobile equipment must

be synthesisedand have a switching range of at

least 5 MHz as users are likely to be assigned
different
channels in different
parts of the
country.
The intermodulation
performance
demanded of transmitters
and receivers
have
been improved and permitted
levels
of spurious
emissions
have been reduced to allow for the
greater density of radio use. in the future.
Finally,
the USC of 1200 bit/s
FFSK modulation

has been made a requirement for signalling

systems to allow for the developmentof
sophisticatedcontrol systems using techniques
such as trunking.
1

The opportunityhas also been taken to align

the new specificationas closely as possible
with CEPT Recommendations.

8606

It is the intention
to introduce
new technology into Band III as soon as it becomes
To this end at least one of the
practical.
three mobile sub-bands will be resrved for the
A possible
new technology
is
time being.
amplitude compounded single
sideband in which
there has been much interest
in recent years.
This shows the promise of at least doubling
the number of available
channels within the
constraints
of the sharing criteria.
In order to make best use of the band with
the FM equipment it is the intention
that the
majority
of the mobile services
in Band III
This gives better
will employ trunking.
spectrum efficiency,allowing
more users on a
system, or alternatively
gives users a better
This leads to the approach
grade of service.

of %ervice prsviders" who will set up

community repeaters of between 5 and x)
channels offering attractive communication
packages to smaller users. A common
signalling standard is under consideration
for use by service providers. This is
intended to give users the flexibilityto
switch from one source of supply to another if
they wish to do so, and to permit a user to
access a service
providers
system when he
travels
service

to an area
provider.

Other Mobile

not covered

by his

own

Services

In addition
to the @XJ paired channels in each
sub-band which are suitable
for conventional
mobile radio,
there is additional
spectrum
suitable
for other uses.
There is a requirement for wideband radio microphones
for use in
support of broadcasting
and 0.7 MHz of each
sub-band will be reserved
for thtir use.
The
actual allocation will be the lower 0.7 MHz of
each sub-band a6 this is the part of the subband for which the television
channel has the
highest protectisn
ratio and thus is least
usable by conventional
mobile services.
Radio
microphones being low power devices
operated
close to the ground will create little
disturbance
te television
reception.
There is also a requirement
for cordless
telephones
and consideration
is being given
to the use of leaky feeder systems operating
on the television
carrier
frequencies.
Conventional
mobile operation
is net possible
on the carriers
but leaky feeder systems are
found to have a goad performance when operating
in interference
fields
from distant
transmitters.
This development will allow very high
densities
of cerdlcss
telephones
to be employed
and may make possible
the wireless
PA0P
where
all telephone
extensions
in a large building
arc cordless.

- 480

CONCLUSIONS
A channellingplan for the new land mobile
service in Band III has been developed to make
available the greatest number of paired frequency channels in London. This plan provides
three mobile sub-bands,with a transmit/
receive spacing of 8 MI%. The plan has also
been agreed with the French Administrationfor
use in France and has the potential to become a
European standard as televisionbroadcasting in
Band III gradually declines in Europe.
By using current CCIR planning criteria1 highquality land mobile systems can be introduced
over the whole of Great Britain free from
interferencefrom foreign television broadcasting. Foreign broadcastingcan also be

protected using current CCIR criteria to make

available in Sand III at least as many paired
mobile channels as currently exist in all the
mobile bands. A new computer algorithm has
been developed to automaticallyassign
frequencieswhilst protecting broadcasting.
There is then additional spectrum in Band III
to meet other land mobile needs such as cordless telephones and services in operational
support of broadcasting.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is published by kind permission OX
the Director of Radio Technology, Department
of Trade and Industry.

COMPARISON

OF FIELD

COMPUTER

481

STRENGHT

PREDICTION

8707

MEASUREMENTS

IN LAND MOBILE

AND

SERVICE

BBeriC
Federal Radiocommunication

Direction

Beograd, Yugoslavia

ABSTRACT:
Relief digital model has been used for computer-aided field strenght predictions in mobile radiocommunications.
ln order to find the objectivity of this method, detailed ,,on-site
(terrain) measurements have been performed using the special
measurement vehicle of the Federal Radiocommunication Dik?CtiOn
Of
the
SFR of Yugoslavia. The route on which the mentioned
meawrements have occured was more than 1500 km long. For
field Jtrenght recording the whole route have been devided to 302
path incriments of 1 km langht and the vehicle speed was 36 km/h
and also 16 km/h. Field strenght measurements resultscompared to
the results obtained by computer aided field strenght prediction
using relief digital model are showned in this paper.
1. INTRODUCTION
High-grade and fast determination of mediane electric field
value is undoubtly the greatest difficulty in mobile radiocommunication planning. Field strenght data am the barnstones for
determination of the receiving zone of base radio station as well
as for determination of interfering signal zone and interfering zone
of two base stations operating the same frequency. The phenomena
in electromagnetic wave propagations, such as reflection, difraction,
refraction and scatter, as well as all terrain profile elements are to
be constantly changed due to vehicle motion and to the fact that
the receiving antenna is low, being installed on the vehicle (often
aprox. at 1.5 m above ground). Therefore, it is obvious that one of
statistical method should be used for field strenght predictions.
The application of any statistical methodes requires numerious
arithmetical operations, as more as higher accuracy is wanted.
Namlly, for incontestable statistical picture it is necessary to
performs high-scale cakxdation, and this could be done only by
the aid of a computer.
Field strenght predictions by computer-aided techniques
are possible using the digital relief model.
One of the most important questions is the accuracy of
computer-aided
method using digital relief model. In order to
compare the results of mentioned computer-aided method to real
situation,
a detailed and sophisticated measurements have been
undertaken.
These measurements could be considered also as
confirmation of digital relief model accuracy for application for
field strenght predictions in mobile radiocommunications.
The method of computer-aided field strenght predictions is
showned in this paper, following the comparison to results
obtained by measurements.
2. SELECTION OF THE METHOD FOR
COMPUTER-AIDED
FIELD STRENGHT PREDICTION
Several statistical methods for field strenght median value
are known. To mentioned some: Langley-Rice method, CCIR
methode, cleamnce angle methode, methode proposed by the
Polish Administration, Bullingtons method end Okumuras method.
By
comparison
of
measured and calculated
values
performed on the basis of mean error, mean squem error and standard
deviation, carried out insofar examinations at the Faculty of
Electrical Engineering at Belgrade University
[4,5]
it was found
that the ,,clearance angle is to be considered as the most
appropriate methode.

By the CCIR Recommendations

[ 1 ]
, the geometric
configuration of the terrain over which the propagation is performed
is to be determined by only two parameters: the effective transmitting antenna height (that is, by average terrain height in transmitter
surrounding) end by the terrain irregularity. The average terrain
height in the surrounding of the transmitter is to be considered as
terrain height mean value at the distance from 3 km to 15 km from
the transmitter in the direction of receiving point. The effective
height of transmitting antenna isequall to difference of transmitting
antenna ground to top height and average terrain height.
The terrain irregularity is determined by the difference of
terrain heighs exceeded in 16% or 99% cases respectively, considering
the part of path between 10 km end 50 km from transmitter,
taking the direction to receiving point.
As stated above, a better prediction of field stmnght could
be achived by introduction of another parameter into the path
model, in order to define the quality of selected receiving point
[ 6 ] . This quality could ba represented by clearance angle [21Figure 2.1. The clearance angle is determined as an angle between

26
6
9
%
Z
0
f
0

10

O
A: VHF

*lo

5:
-26
-30-W
-6.

-4.

-3

-T

-1.

Crq5

Clearance anc$e

Fig. 2.1

UHF

482

the horizontal line from the receiving point towards the transmitter
and the first streight line exceeding all the obstacles up to the
distance of 16 km from the receiving point and in the direction of
transmitter. In depandence of terrains clearance angle, one can find
the correction factor to ba added (or subtracted) to the values
readable at the CCIR diagrams.
The method used in this work for the field strenght
predictions is based on clearance angle methoda based on CCIR
diagrams (having as results median values of field strenght [I ] 1,
A h = 50 m and clearance angle
for terrain irregularity factor
correction factor (detarmened taking the terrains configuration in
the surrounding of transmitter
[ 2 ] ). Following this way, the
simplicity of the method was retained and the personnal approuch
in the estimation of correction is avoid.
The CCIR curves and the correction due to clearance angle
are converted to computer readable form and permanently stored at
disc-package magnetic medium with semidirect computer approuch.
It should ba emphasized that digital data describing relief and
stored on one disc-package are used for the purposa of this work.
Calculation of the effective transmitting antenna height
and clearance angle in selected receiving points are to be performed
by the aid of the existing communicating programme modules and
computer readable relief model, immidiately in the moment of
naed[6].

Fig. 3.1

3. DESCRIPTION
OF TERRAIN CONFIGURATION
WHERE THE MEASUREMENTS
WERE PERFORMED
The measurements described under section 4 where performed on
the road of more than 1500 km lenght during the month of May
1664. The transmitter under testing has been located at aprox.
1200 m height above see level. There wera some mountains in the
vicinity of the transmitter site having heights between 700 and
1000 m. There were also higher mountains (up to 1500 m heigh)
in the wider surrounding of the transmitter site. Therefore, it is
obvious that the terrain was mountainous, that is very unfavorable
for the use of present non-sophisticated methods without use of
digital relief model and computer of field strenght predictions.
Measuring points (from Table 4.1) am shown by numbers in Figure
3.1.
4. FIELD STRENGHT

MEASUREMENTS

At the very begining, it should be considered to which extent

computer-aided field strenght prediction using digital mleif model
coresponds to real practical results. To find this, particular
measurements have bean undertaken being not only the confirmation
of clearance angle methode but also the confirmation of accuracy
of digital relief model for field strenght prediction in mobile radio-

communications.
The measurements have been carried by special measuring
vehicle owned by Federal radiocommunication direction of SFR
of Yugoslavia equipped by non-directional calibrated rod antenna
(having centre 2 m above ground), measuring receiver connected to
the antenna and automatic signal level recorder.
The measurements of median field strenght was taken in the
vicinity of each measuring point along to 1 km of path. The 1 km
long incriment has been choosen by two reasons: a) the differences
between all points belonging to the path part of 1 km and the
transmitters site are almost the same compering each other. Following this, the defined median value could be compared directly
by field strenght values obtained as the results of calculating
.methodas
.._ .._ and b) the lenght of 1 km coresponds aprox. to the lenght
passed by the vehicle during one usual conversation:
Typical diagram of field strenght values (In dB releting to
pV/m) vs. the lenght of the road passed is showned at Fig.4.1.
1
As stated above, the field strenght has been registrated along
the 1 km segment of the path. The vehicle speed was 36 km/h
(IO m/s) and on some segments 18 km/h. The recording tape speed
Table 4.1.
Measu- Ep
rement(dB/u)
point
II
::
80
81
:3
8:
86

13g
9:os
9,41

3%
26:35

%58
14180

22,03
23,50
43,85
45,07

:s50
-2128
-3,96
z;,g
-5:56
-2;;
212

;:

4:61
7,58
18,81
14,66
-1,43
-0,91
-3,Ol
-9,63
8,90

:z

j3;95
32,88
24,19
X!
2s:15
x
38:38
24,85
35,79

31,66
25,61
26,21
27,08
::,3;
21180
28,54
27,20
%8
30:41

39,85
35,89

zx
21160
20.70
zo;90
18.12

x
39122

22h8

;;;;;

5,32
:3;:
11:os

6,32
2,12
2,44
14,64

::,;;
-9:14
los,$
16:67
:%
9:92
12;;
$33
6,21
16,71
x
11:n
;t::
17104

152
153
:5:

;:s(:
2329
26:94
40,84
40,53
39,78

:Lz
102
103

5648:
11104
9,83
10,lO
10,45

-3,37

39,87

;;

:%
$55

%f
38:47
39,32
39,29

4x:
40196
40,.55

Maasu- Ep
rement(dB /u) Cd%0
paint

!Z

;.!
9.5
96

x
9:51
4,651
$51

if%::
37:64
17,94

41,15
41,76
42,20

42,85

&!I

:%
8:12
8,78
1.11
8,86

x4
39121
39,20

33x
39188

(d%

%
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
:::
118
119
:;:
122
:
123
124
12;

42,21
41,44
42,19
48,79
29,66
19,21
$17
:%

12,54
13,82
13,63
11,49
x0
10:31
12,12
25:
5:Sl
7,46
I,23
f%
16:49
18,06
x:
35:13
35,54

:%
17106

17,46
14,12

12,00
12,80
12,70

Table 4.1.

E -Em
?dB,

-0,OS
-5,96

12,00
13,61 r,,g
13,20 -5174
15,50 -I,11
24,70 -13,24
27,90 -12,33
$;,;g
-11,ll

37,15
31,23
35,83

:6:
161

15,91
12;;

f%
232

5104
8,14

z:

5,51
5,38

235
236
231

7%
6161
%
4:21

:z
166
167

49,61
32,12
21,56

242

:z;
:,:

3%
35153

112
173
174
175

x
8145
9,88
9,04

17,SO
12,98
13,80
14,28

176
111
178
179
:tt:

9,14
9,08
9,19
36,67
42,90

:%
18:50

182
183
184
185
186
187

%dj
43:61
d%
42:21
41,36

43,40
39,84
38,33
28.43

30,06
E 4op49
;3z
E
;98$:
38154 21165
192

200
201

Z18

2:;

41121
41,87

%
8:97

;z
206
207
208
209
210
211
212

42,SO
42J5
41,92
41,25
40,49
39,44
38,34
31,42
36,86

gs;

37,65

g,;y

6,24
6,97
-6,08
11,45

;::
215

36,31
35,64
33,92

:9:
142
:1:

38,89
38,s
1
37,88
38,66
z:o
42:42
44,41
48,62

4,12
3,Ol
11,21
6,14

216
211
218
219

145
146
147
148

34:39
34,87
21,45
33,44

:;,2!
2111
9,08
1;;;

%
it;:
224
225
226
221

-4,s3
-3,92
-S,24
-5,09

3,87
I,69
0,17
3,37
3,94
12,93
10,43
:x:.
16:89

%
26129

193

139

:z:
36:28

29,16
33,21
26,88

228
229

238
239
%

36,20

lo,36

rement(dBP
/u)

32,99
34,53

%%
;,:;;

19,70
19,oo
22,86
23,92
21,71
25,20

Measu- E

:z:

126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138

34116
35,06
35,ll
35,56
35,34
35,21

12,74

156
157
159

%
196
191
198
199

27198 -1%
30,72 -17:ll
29,Ol
zl:
x
24;92
10,74
8160

E -Em
?dB)

a:21

%
15132
16,32
1954
20,13
19,67
44,37
29,89
24,38
29,53
%5:
$0
;;:8;

10:70
9,44
8,63

2::
248

XIl
$2

;:o
251
;:;

6182
6,91
10,04

254
25s
2.56
251
258

9%
11:57
11.00
8,72
2,40

2,48
2,66

261
262

%
;:;;

;:4
265
266
261
268
269

8:90
9,80
10.65
1135
16,90
%%

20,68
-6,69

z;:
275

39:30
;;:g
40,14

x
17;43

216
211

:%

41,84
41:69

$R
282
283
284
285

BASE
40:99
41,16
41,65
lo,26

9:11
14,24

3::
9184
27:02
36,38 -0,07
-1;,;;
%:
35:25 -1167
26,91 -16,75
16,20 -14,09
23,26 -14,18
18,92 -9,36
16,21 -6,34
16,3-i -8,14
17,so
19,00 1::;
17,50
-2:y
18,OO -4,36
24,33 -lo,69

2288;
;:9
%

E -Em
IdB)

12:::
-636
-7:26

%!

z:
245

!f

;x
11:11
12,91
1;;;

(df%lu)

9,80
8,48
8,49
I,81
7,lO

%
294
295

x
6:39
5,89
6,36

296
291
%

2::
4181
lo,58

%
302

8,12
7,89
lo,65

13)s
::z

-I,16
-6,03

13,04
13,lO

I$;;
-3:24

L-1:;
x
-2100
13:oo
12,90 -4,18
13,00 -lo,60
13,30 -lo,64
13,lO -lo,62

14,16 -4,36
;;,g
-12,lO
-8,OS
20:38
ZIf
15:71

x:
28125

:2;t
13105
13,oo

13,91
14,06
13,59
16,41

-4,51
I:,:;
-7108

:x

-4;;
-8:31

14:27 166:::
16,lO -10114
;y;
4:;
13:50

-4:78
-6,ll
-5,s

484

was 0,2 cm/s.

At this way, the measuring segment of 1 km is represented

In any case, these results shall be the objects of further

researchs in order to determine the most adecvate method for field

on the recording tape lenght of 20 cm (by the vehicle speed of

36 km/h) and of 40 cm (by the vehicle speed of 18 km/h).
Obtained measuring results have bean statisticlv treated on
the following way: the part of recording tape coresponded to the
path lenght of 1 km has been devided into 10 smaller sections for
the vehicle speed of 36 km/h (and to the 20 small sections for the
vehicle speed of 18 km/h). Therefore the lenght of the path passed
of coresponding to the small section is 100 m (for 36 km/h) and
50 m (for 18 km/h).
The variations of field strenght values shown on small SeCtiOn
are mainly due to superposing of numerous waves propagating over
various paths. The field stmnght, beinga statistical value, is pardoned
very approximately according to the Rayleight distribution [ 5 1.
In this case the median field strenght differs from the mean value
for aprox. 5% and therefore it will not be the remarkable error if
the mean value would be determened instead of median value. This
is also so due to the accuracy of reading the recorded tape.
Establishing now the set of median values from IO (or 20)
small sections and finding cumulative function of partition, it could
be found that this one is very similiar to Log-Norm distribution
L 5 ] . After determining median value of this 10 (or 20) median
values, the median field strenght value for the path passed away
(1 km lenght) has been determined.
The median value determined following the described
procedure
represent
the value necessary for mobile radiocommunication planning.
In fact, field strenght will be at 50% of points of 1 km
segment higher and at 50% of points lower comparing to the median
value. As such, thfs value is good enaugh to describe the possibility
of mobile station to communicate with base station [ 5 ] .
This value is marked in the Table 4.1. as Em (dB relating to
1 pV/m).
Calculated field strenght values obtained by the method
described in section 2 are also included in the same Table. Differences between calculated and measured values of field strenght
ammarkedas
A=E -E
(dB).
The mean vaue
f
oT absolute error is determined from the
Table as:

strenght prediction in mobile radiocommunications.

zIEpL-

Emil

=482

5. CONCLUSION
Respective high-standard and adecvate frequency planning
is the must for optimal
frequency managements and frequency
coordination
procedure
to
be used between
governmental
administrations. By applying the digital relief model, today is
possible to fulfill these requirements.
To proof these by the practical way, detailed measurements
along the 1500 km long part have been take in order to record field
strenght at 302 parts each beeing 1 km long. If the value of IO dB
shall be taken as accteptable error, it could be considered that these
measurements have been produced applicable results by using the
computer, digital relief model and the clearence angle methode and
for the terrain configuration for which the ordinary methodes would
be unpractical, long and not enough exact.
According to the presented results, it is to be concluded
that the future frequency planning is to be carried out using
computers and exact digital releif model taking in mind the
engeenering propagation models.
REFERENCES

(I)
(2)

!Sl

(4)

(5)

dB

* m=
-n
with n = 302 being the total number of measurements taken.
Considering the error of IO dB in field strenght predictions
as accteptable [ 61
, it is to be concluded, according to detailed
measurements, that the obtained results am generally accteptable,
particulars
having in mind unfavorable
terrain configuration
described in Section 3.
By comparison the measured field strenght values (Em) to
computer calculated values (Ep) it is to be found: a) for calculated
field strenght values higher of 35 dB the deviations are in most
cases positive (optimistic results), b) for calculated field strenght
values lower than 20 dB deviations am in most cases negative
(pesimistic results).

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

CCIR, Rec. 370-3 and Rec. 567-1, XIV Plenary Assembly,

Kyoto, 1978, Vol. V
CCIR, Rep. 239-4,
XV Plenary Assembly, Geneva, 1982,
Vol. v
DPaunovit,
IStojanoviC:
One probabilistic approuch to
definition
of
service
zone and computer method for
determination it (In Serbo-Croatian),
ETAN Proceedings,
Mostar, Yugoslavia, 1981.
Z.StojanoviC, D.Paunovif,
I.Stojanovit: Selection of most
suitable method for field median value in land mobile radio
systems, Proceeding of ETAN, Subotica, Yugoslavia, 1982.
(In Serbo-Croatian)
I.StojanoviC, D.Paunovid, ZStojanovif,
A.MarinEiC, N.Simid, H.BeCa, ZPetroviC, MDukiC, M.StojkoviC: Application
and verification of one method for field strenght prediction
in land mobile radiocommunication,
Journal ELEKTROTEHNIKA, No. 31 (1982) 1. pp 79-82 (In Serbo-Croatian)
B.BeriE,
D.StarEeviC:
Mobile
operational
radio
communication system planning by an aid of computer (In
Serbo-Croatian),
XVII
Yugoslav symposium on Telecommunications, Ljubljana, Yugoslavia, 1983.
B.BeriC: Determining the receiving and interfering zone in
mobile radiocommunications by the aid of computer, VII
International symposium on Electromagnetic compatibility,
Wroclaw, Poland, June 1984.
B.Beri6, MZec:
Field strenght measurements (In SerboCroatian)
internal paper, Federal Radiocommunication
Direction of the SFR of Yugoslavia, Beograd, May 1984
Set of computer programmes of the Federal Radiocommunication Direction of the SFR of Yugoslavia, Beograd

COMPATIBILITY

485

OF TV AND
.MOUNTED ON

8808

UHF
THE

COMMUNICATIONS ANTENNAS
SAME TOWER

Golas
Ashok
Telecommunication Research Centre, P&T
New Delhi, India

summary
This study was carried out to
determine the feasibility of mounting
TV
transmitter
antenna
and
communications antennas on the same
tower.
Detailed investigations were
carried out to determine the variation
of field strength along the tower face
and to determine the effect of second
harmonic of TV signal on the UHF
communication signil.
Measurement of
field strength variation was carried
out by hoisting an antenna along the
towa face with a calibrated rope and
pulley arrangement and field strength
different
readings were taken
at
heights and for different frequencies.
This data was analysed to determine
the nature of variation of field
strength along the tower face.
A
model of TV signal spectrum was
developed based on measurement of TV
and
spectra of different scenes
This model was used to
patterns,
determine the interference reduction
factor for computing the baseband
noise in UHF FDM-FM systems.
Introduction
Telegraphs
Indian Posts and
Department has set up microwave radio
relay systems which require large
towers and buildings in various parts
of the country. A dedicated rf channel
for transmission of TV signal has also
been provided on a number of routes.
The TV coverage in India is being
planned for expansion at a very fast
Utilization of the towers
pace.
presently being used for mounting
communication antennas in UHF and
microwave bands for mounting low power
(upto 100 watts)
TV transmitter
antenna also
was one of
the

alternatives
objective.

Board

used

to

achieve

this

The separation between the UHF

antenna and TV antenna is expected to
be around 10 to 30 metres.
The
frequencies
for the low power TV
transmitter have been chosen
from
As the
Band III (174 to 230 MHz).
frequencies for UHF FDM-FM radio relay
lie
in
communication
systems
367.0 to 461.5 MHz band, there is a
possibility of harmful in,terferenceby
the emission of spurious signals (at
and around second harmonic) from the
low power TV transmitter. This study
was carried out to develop a suitable
model for estimating interference to
the UHF systems.
Scope of Investiqation
The
proposed
layout
of
TV
transmitter antenna
and
UHF and
microwave communication antennas is
shown in 'figure1.
The type of TV
antenna which is proposed for use is
either a stack of 3 or 4 crossed
dipoles mounted on the top of the
tower or stacks of 3 or 4 dipoles
mounted on the four tower faces.
Interference coupling paths are
also shown in figure 1.
For the case
of FDM-FM systems, the signal power
to noise power ratio (S/N) at baseband
due to interference can be evaluated
by using the following equation :
S/N = C - I+B+NWdB

... (1)

where
c:

paver of the wanted signal

carrier in dBm;

I:

power of the interfering

signal carrier in dBm;

486 -

I+-

E&em-m

microwave
antenna

_ _ + indicates
EM1 coupling

Fig. 1: Interference coupling paths

from TV transmitter

B
NW:

: interference reduction
factor in dB;
weighting factor in
dB (= 2.5 dB).

noise

value of c can be either measured

or taken from the link engineering
documents.
Value of I can be computed by
adding (i) the power of interfering
or
signal ( either at fundamental
spurious in dBm), (ii) the gain of
the TV transmitter antenna towards
the communication system antenna (in
dB ), and (iii) the gain of the
communication system antenna towards
the TV transmitter antenna (in dB),
(iv) the path
and then subtracting
loss (in dB),
Values for antenna
gains and transmitter powers are
taken from the technical data sheets.
As the two coupling antennas are quite
close to each other, it was considered
necessary to verify the nature of
05
strength
variation
field
experimentally.
Remaining unknown variable for
The formula
estimating S/N is B.
for evaluation of B is given in cl] .
For evaluation of B, it is necessary
to have data about the spectrum of
the interfered and interfering signal.
The interfered signal is a carrier
frequency
modulated
by
frequency
division multiplexed signal and it is

Fig. 2: SJhematic showing the

arrangement used for
measuring field strength

possible to determine the spectrum of

such a signal mathematically. However
it is not possible to determine the
Spectrum of TV signal mathematically.
Therefore, it was necessary to develop
a model
of
TV
signal based on
measurements of spectrum for various
types of scenes and patterns,
Field strength variation
alonq the tower face
The scheme used for measurement of
field strength along the tower face
is shown in figure 2. Conical antenna
which covers
the
frequency range
200 MHz to 1.0 GHz was hoisted using
a calibrated rope along the tower
The separation between tower
face.
and
face
antenna
kept
was
approximately one metre and this was
ensured by means of three guy ropes
which are also shown in this figure.
The field strength was measured using
a Field Strength Meter. Appropriate
antenna correction factors and cable
loss values were used to calculate the
field strength values at different
heights and at different frequencies.
The above measurements were carried
out at different sites and using both
types of TV transmitter antenna.
The data collected was analysed
to determine the nature of variation
of field strength.
The least mean
square error fit to this data was

Field

strength

Vertioal

380.0

at

Maa8ursment

MHz

with

487

versun

LNA

at

8808

separation

Surat

on

from

antanns

.3-1zI-02(Souroa

SO)
Ragraesion

80 -

2 I

equation

C + M *

where
2 = Field
in

C I

70-_

Tha

:
5
CI
c 00..
Q

lllo 1

10

strength
dB uv/m

constant

M = Slop8

log

is

Separation

in

20
v8rtioal

Fig. 3

30
direotion

40from 80TV

* *

00
70
erntsnna

60
in

regression
crnalyeis
Qivea
-23.02
M106.89
C

corralat~on
coefffoisnt

-0.02

Z-

, ,~:~ffX

3.43

90
matresb)

Field strength versus separation

obtained using regression analysis.

The variables were the field strength
and logarithm of separation between
the
TV
antenna
and
measurement
antenna.
A sample result is shown
in figure 3.
The
analysis
carried
out
indicated that the slope obtained for
different sets of measurement data is
around minus 20.
This leads to the
conclusion that the
variation
of
field strength along the tower face
would
follow a variation proportional
to l/d where d is the separation from
the TV transmitter
antenna.
The
path loss computation was therefore
carried out using the formula
for
free space paths.

Characterization of TV Siqnal
spectrum
Spectrun of a floral pattern
picked up by a TV camera is shown
the
in figure 4. (Note : All

~~~~e9

in I. _.... . ^

i parenthesi$
_+%_ ..,.$
1 _.,_...
_ __ _^__,
__...-_.
/ ..__+-_
IF' % %dth
/
L-!EE!.

.-... __-

_I.,--

_,._-

^.

..._1

_pJ
_r_.__-..+

Model of TV signal spectrum

The waveforms for different scenes
and patterns were observed on
a
spectrum analyzer which was kept in
the 'maximum hold' condition in order
to obtain maximum value of spectrum
amplitude at different frequencies
for each type of signal.
Various
stages in development of this model
are described
in
following
Paragraphs.

Fig. 4

: Spectrum of floral pattern

signal - determining the
vestigial and distributed
part of 'TV signal spectrum.

- 488 -

IF bandwidth
= 4 kHz
(_.I___

Fig. 5 : Spectrum with highest levels

of video sidebands.

spectrum analyzer displays drawn in

this paper were recorded with 2 MHZ
per division on the abscissa and 10 dB
per division on the ordinate). The
spectrum was recorded with different
IF bandwidth settings on the spectrum
analyzer and
different traces are
shown in this figure. It can be seen
that levels of video carrier and
sound carrier do not change with
change in IF bandwidths. Thus these
part of the
vestigial
form the
The modulation sidebands
spectrum.
and the colour
Of
video carrier
carrier vary linearly with changing
bandwidths and these form the
IF
distributed or continuous part of TV
signal spectrum.
Modellinq of video part of Spectrum
Spectrum of colour bar pattern
signal generated by a video cassette
player (WI?) is shown in figure 5.
In this case, the spectrum
had
highest level of video sidebands as
spectrum
of other
with
compared
scenes and patterns. As the VU? did
not have vestigial sideband filter,
symmetrical
spectrum
appears
the
the video carrier
in this
about
figure although the spectrum will
be assymetric due to the effect of
vestigial filters.
Based on above information and
the model of an amplitude modulated
signal in figure 3.14 of C21, model
of video part of the TV signal spectrum
it3
shown in figure 6. (Note: All the
models have been drawn with the video

;7t;--;-:-:!:

-----

.: r-vestigial
carrier
3 T -I,

6-l

r :

-34

:A:

Frequency offset from video carrier

in MHz
Fig. 6 : Modelling the video part of
TV spectrum

carrier frequency normalized to 0 MHZ).

The video bandwidth is 5 MHz and
therefore
B
= 5 MHz. The video
carrier pave? has been normalized to
0 dB. The continuous part of video
spectrum in figure 5 is 20 dB
lower
than the video carrier when the IF
bandwidth is 100 kHx. IF bandwidth of
4 kHz has been chosen for the model
of the spectrum as this is convinient
in the present case. Therefore, the
continuous part of video spectrum
for the range + B
2 has been shown
at (-20-10 log-(188/4)) dB = - 34 dB.
The shape of spectrum beyond 2 B
VI2
is based on the information in [2 s .

Modellinq the colour carrier part of

spectrum
Spectrum
of
floral
pattern
picked up by TV camera is shown in
figure 7 far the case of IF bandwidth
of 10 kHz.
The colour carrier part
of spectrun consists of energy which
is distributed. This can be modelled
by the triangular
envelope drawn
over
the colour sub carrier
in
figure 7. The level 8f this'carrieris
26 dB below the video carrier when
the IF bandwidth is 10 kHz.
For
the present case,
the model is
being developed for an IF bandwidth
of 4 kHz and, therefore, this part

489

8808

IF bandwidth

Modelling the colour carrier

part of the spectrum
Freq. offset from video carrier in MHZ
Fig. 9: Complete model of TV signal
spectrum

B
2 ( fd + fm )
TS =
fm = max. modulation freguency
fd = frequency deviation

and
given in figure 3.16 of L23
For
this is drawn in figure 8.
the sound carrier, fm = 15 k~z and
f = 50 k~~zz and substitutinq values
value of
i$ the equation for B
kHz =
is obtained as 2*&5)
B
158 kHz. The peak of sound carrier
level is shown as -10 dB as the
sound carrier is 10 dB below the
video carrier.

Complete model of TV signal spectrum

I.

X
a

27
.
2

.I

c2
T

In

EL
offset

.
ul

u;

1.

St

a
I-

In

&

.I

/;;,

E-r

:.

fram video carrier inMHz

Freq.
Fig. 8 : Modelling the sound carrier
part of the TV spectrum

will be at (26+ 10 log (104) = 30 dB

the
below the video carrier in
complete model of TV signal spectrum.
Modelling the sound carrier part of
spectrum
The sound carrier part of the
modelled
on
spectrum
has been
the basis of FM modulation envelope

Different models of spectrum of

TV signal have
various parts of
been canbined and the complete model
shown
in
spectrum
is
the
for
figure 9. The effect of vestigial
filter has not been included in this
However, in an actual TV
model.
filter is
transmitter, a vestigial
and
the
spectrum
model is
also used
this
filter
modified
by
suitably
interference
evaluating
the
while
effects fran the TV signal. Minimum
attenuation
Of vestigial sideband
filter is as given below :
Frequency offset from
video carrier in MHz
- 1.25
- 3.0
- 4.43

Attenuation
in dB
20.0
20.0
30.0

Evaluation of B factor
The calcula*ion for B

factor

Interfering
carrier

: II harmonic of TV

'Interfercid
carrier
: 60 chl. FDM-FM

490

20\

Frequency offset in MHz

Fig. 10 : B factor as a function of frequency offset

can nw
UBFs#tem

be carried out. Data

is as given below:

for

Baseband
: 12 - 252 WHZ
: 60
No. of channels
rms test tone deviation : 100 kHz
pre-emphasis
: CCIR Rec. 275-3
Transmit and receive Xf filters :
passband ripple : 0.1 dB over +l MHz
3dB bandwidth
:+2MHz
40 dB bandwidth : rf:10 MBz
Receive IF filter :
passband ripple : 0.1 dB over _+.SMBs
3 dB bandwidth : 2 1.5 MHz
20 dB bandwidth : + 3.3 MHz
Since the interference effects
from the second harmonic of TV signal
are to be considered, the model of
TV signal spectrum has to be further
modified. Based on the observations
of second harmonic generated by the TV
transmitter on spectrum analyzer, it
was found that the model at second

harmonic frequency can be obtained

doubling the value of
simply by
frequency offsets on the abscissa of
the model shahm in figure 9.
The
factor was
value
of B
evaluated by using a computer program.
The result is shown in figure 10.
References

(13 CCIR Report 388-4,

"Methods for
determining the interference in
terrestrial radio-relay systems
and systems in the fixed satellite
service'&,
International
Telecommunication uhion, Geneva,
1982.

(2) William G..Duff

and Donald R.J.

White, A
handbook series on
Electrcmagnetic Interference and
Canpatibility - vol. 5
'EM1
Prediction
and
Analysis
Techniques", Don White Consultants
Inc., Maryland, 1973.

491

89 09

BZSIGN OF CGMPATIBLZ
..-I_-VEHICLES
-1 JQUIPMENT FOR LAND MOBILE
S Satyamurthy
Combat Vehicles Research & Development Establishment
Avadi, Madras 600054, India

Modern Xlectronic d,,rrices

are fast
replacing conventional electri.r::5:l.,
electromechanicaland electrohydraulio
devices in land mobile vehicles especially in military tracked vehicles in
'a random mannr. This is primarily to
t!l:.l:::t
the challenges of 100% operational reliability and varsatality of sysis not only
tsms. In this arca, ,:%I1
just a system problem but it is also a
great deal of different :3lIconfigurations right from chip level to*the
highest level of deployment of vehicles contributed by different :;MIcoupling paths. As such design of compatible equipment for this application
calls for high degree of lllMC
design
synthes,is,inexpensivehardening techniques and realistic oompatibility
tests. Clear insight to L;MIsituation
at various levels, optimum design
goals and accurate testings are essential tools for successful design of
compatible equipments. In this paper,
an attempt has been made to discuss
the design objectives of developing a
totally compatible vehicle;:using case
by case EMC analysis of systems, their
modifications and,oompatibilitytests.
Introduction_
Land mobile vehicles especially
tracked and wheeled vehicles are densely packed with large.number of mode n elec$ onic devices, heavy duty
efeotricaI machinery, sophisticated
control systems, multipleswitching
devices, etc. depending upon their
application in the operational area.
If we'aee the &m$
development of
ground vehicles from various countries
almost 408 of the cost of the vehicle
is towards eleatronicsr
In order to meet the challenges of
modern electronics w<arfare(EW) and
also for survivabilityand reliability,
a clean electromagneticenvironment
(JX~) in the vehicle is a must. Therefore ti1rlC
of land &bile vehicles play

a critical role in achieving operational reliability, mission accuracy and

supremaoy over other vehicles. From
starting and generating system to servo
control system, achieving total 3MC is
an intricate task in vehicles and calls
for intelligent use of state of the
art EMC design concepts.
While several countries have faced
hostile ZMS in automotive electronics,
-onlyfew have been successful in developing cost effective EMC designs. It
is important to note that EME and EMC
characteristicsof vehicles differ in
respect of their roles, type of equipment fitted in them, vehicle body thickness, deployment area and so on*
Frequently such EME are created by
operation of relays, cont+actors,rot*
ting machines (about few tens of different power ratings) pcbs, number of
switched mode power supplies, computer
peripherals/consoles,transreceivers,
electronic sensors and display devices
(for engine, transmissionand suspension systems) working in close proximity in addition to external world's
interactions.Right from selection of
components
till the deploymont of vehicle (chip to system) in tactical area,
EM1 exists at every stage and a careful
I~MCdesign is mandatory for successful
development of compatiblevehicles.
There are several reasons for the
complexity of EMC designs in landmobib
vehicles. For instance, a design change
in a system has number of consequences
in its subsystems, their sizes, location, etc. in the vehicle. Such changes
are frequent and very common in prototype vehicle development.When there
are multichoice design approaches for
subsystems, and alternate designs for
major systems, true EMC of vehioles
are drastically affected while integrating the systems in thljprototype vehicle. Role of .$lCenginersrsin vehicle
development programme is shown in Fig.1.

492

atmosphcrc, ,antsnnaand XL"cables.

This mansurement is an useful data for
dofining the ,iM.i
as R r:f,:rcnce(both
in
ogcn
site
ES
~~11
as
in
shielded
chamber). Fig.2(c) shows one such
measurement in a tyPica v,Aiiclewith
all systems switched 'ON' in static
condition.

i3ME of mobile
_r?Latforms
*,..1....-_1_
-u__I__-*.
This can be viewed from thrt:adifferent angles. Firstly, what is the
optimum design objective of the prototype vc3hic.l.a
from the theoretical methods? Secondly what Uls level.on63
would achisve in practioa and tihirdly
what will be the differonce/improvements one would expect in production
vehicles? ITumb?r
of subsystems and SYSternsare contributing fox very high EM1
ambients in vehicles due to summation
of their spectrum signatures. It may
also be stated that higher the ambient,
when highor the ,WI emission level
even from a single system. Henci?the
best emission oontrol techniques help
to a larger extent in controlling the
vehicle ..:ME.
It is of great importance
in equipment designs and vehicle designs espeoially for military apalications. Wery critical test point of
the vehicle should be taken care
during early designs.
Now we shall examine fi:wspectrum
signatures of devices recorded from a
landmobile,vehicle.Pig.2(s)
shows the
conducted emission levels from a switched mode power supply unit(SMPU)
Fig.2(b) shows the aonducted emission
levels from a computer intorfaco cable.
Potential EM1 problem exists in vehicubsystems
cle power lines, since many ,J
and systems share power from the same
vehicle battery/alternator.

&MI levels existing at battery

terminals with all systems 'ON' are
due to conducted emission flow from
various interconnectedboxes, sables
and radiation pickups constituted in
the form of EM fields from external

Obviously while using number of

SMPU, digital requipmrjnt,
rotating
machines, <AC. for various ap$ications inside a land-mobilevehicle, !zME
is very high in magnitud'oand rich in
spectrum. ho already stated, depending
upon
the da&ty of equipment and type
of vehicle d:3sinn
, .$pfYs diffi.TG.
On,:
such*com&risiog of 0G for three different vehicles is shown in Fig.3.

EM1 counlinp:Path and end sffeots

Brief
--w_V ease studies
1CC-.Switched Mode Power Supply
These are well known for their EMI
emissions. Conducted emissions are
generally predominant over the frequency range of 0.01 to 10 MHZ whereas

rsdi;3.tI:d

omi:;siolls

even UptO 30 m-U.

ELI22

493

890s

p~:~dOllli~WXlt

IMT free power

supply ~dz3i~;nS are S~~ldOUl nchiovod in

practice without MC modifications.
;;?;I1
generation tnlccS pl_%c<? dU;? t0
pcpi0dica.l
aliiplitUd8
changes Of swi,tthing transistors th:r:$by;gl?OdUciT2.~
@iJlS ':S Of trapczoicL?J
t0 ,2miS,SiOu
Of widx
prcJp&@.tj.on
by

capacitivy

or

conduct-ion
coupling

sinks and equipal,$nt

swj.tchini;

shapes

lxl,dirl~

GlI spectrum. XMI

td<c?s

D&cc!

b,-:tw::.;n
heat

C535.

Xii~$k!r the?

frequancg

and faster the

switchin?;time, wider .th,e
,:iE41
s:)cctrum
and !&gher th::amglitud,~of intzrfer,311~~.
Yinc,?hi..@ frequ ?ncy switching
is alway,sprefdrrsd for highor officiency of pcwS:rsui)plies,!SII is an
inherent problem. iven with proger
care, S.I".N
are likely to affect voice
signals, I-IF, VHF rccoivzrs and err
naviaation and coiilputing
devices.
LMI fr.om?LZVDC Nachin~~
-,~.-~-r----.._,.-__.z.?,
They are potential disturbing
sources to electronic systems and
devices in land-mobile vehicles. They
arc prone to emit %I (both conducted
and radiated) because of commutative
actions and sparking butwzeenbrushes
and copper segments, Amplitude and
frequioncyspectra of :G41emissions
from DC machines largely depend on
properties of carbon brushes, surface
current.denoity,number of-~s@mentsY~..
contact profile,
contact pressure, etc.
besides cablo load length and duty
cycle of the machine. Conducted emisoion tests invariably reveal that 'JFlI
is predominant from O-IO MHZ (Magnetic
and electric fields) abova MIL specs.
and extends sometimes beyond 100 MHZ;.
Bigher the rating of the machine
higher the low impedance magnetic
field emission. Radiated emission
levels are also higher than MILLstandards upto 100 MHZ without EMI suppression. Interfsronce spectrum for
thre,>different rating of machines
installed in a prototype vehicle is
shown in Fi;r.4.Of all, curve (c) is
noteworthy.
'Thisis a 5 K.VDC motor
which drains 1200 Amps initinlly and
poses a sev;3retransient problem to
sensitive electronic devices connected in the same power supply. EMC
design for such heavy maohine is
complex for economical approach.
EMI Problems of Communioation
Electronics
These are multifolded whether it
is a single radioset installation in
a support vehicle/truck or multiradioset installation of combat radio net
in tactical vehicles. They,are both
susceptible to emit and receive
unwanted electromagneticenergy from
different coupling paths. Of all,
important arc (i) antenna to cable
coupling (ii) antenna to fi<?ld
coupling (iii) cable to cablo coupling

wh.:nthctyart!r,>c;:ptors
and (i) antenna
to box couoling (LI) antenna to cablte
coupling (iii) cablo to box coupling
when they are emitters. To cite Lan
intorusting case, thermal picture of a
low level video monitor was masked
half the scresn by a potential YN
field from a VKF transmitter installed
in the same vehicle. Similarly a sensitivo VW receiver located nr?Xtto the
thermal scanner could not pick up
messages from a transmitter located
1 km distance ins@te of several chsngas over to standby freguoncics in VHF.
Mu.B~~~'l,~~er~s~~~e~.a~~-~ess~~-f&~~-l;~~~:cation performance of antenna are very
popular in land-mobilevehicles. Eiadiation characteristicsof a typical
thermal scanner is shown in Table I.
Table -I.I
_-__-_--...
_",_..
I
-.--*..*"*..__
Frequency Intorferonce
Snec.
in MHZ
level in
limit
dbuv/m/iNZ
-_.
-1II~--~---~_---0.01
;*z
0:15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.60
0.70
0,RO
15.20
30.50

141
129
105
1::
100
88

102
;:
89

:5:
86
u2
1::
82
31
139
78
67
79,.
64
_.-I___,_-,1-^-W- _--__-

ElectromagneticCompatibilityof
Di@tal
_-.-_SquiJments
"._
-P_-Microprocessorsare revolutionalising almost in ev~.?ry
field and more so
with land-mobile vehicles. Engine
parameters monitoring and control,
transmission gear control, computing
devices (for navigation and weapon
aiming in the case of tactical vehiion panel,frequency
cles), instrunonta-t

494

hopping techniques and auto euning of

antennas in communicationfield are
some of the %ypical areas where
Microprooessors have simplified the
operations and size of equipment. In
such devices clock, interface cardS/
back plane wiring and ?CW traces
conduct and radiate EM1 significantly
to a wide frequzncy range. IIighspeed
circuits; g"tes and display devices
emit wide band -3M1,while clock emits
narrow band E):lI.
They normally affect
the whole VHF communicationband
masking their rac?ption. ~limissions
from digital equipment upto 490 MHZ
(please see table II) and at levels
more than IQ db above the NIL stsndards are not uncommon in vehiclt+s.
Improper wiring R:shiulding of logic
boards have ros,ultedin CW emissions
at clock frequencies from gear changing equipments. Such emissions are
threat to communicationsreceivers
and also they act as potential jammers
to navigation signals, di:splaysand
sensors. Speed pick up daviccs using
pulse techniques are rich in harmonics
and hence potential threat to communication receivers.
Table II
----II..,~~L--~
-_WP-_--.+-.*Frequency Interference
Spec.
ifi..#&Z. 1 I$jl%fe.l_ i&p,?.
limit
dbuv/m/MXZ
L._u*-__...
PC,*0.15
0.8

xi
71
69
59

:::
1:::

ig*:
50:o

ii80

g*;

1oo:o
200.0
300.0
400.0

I;

92 *
:;

;ft
50
2:

62

,,:i

;"2
GO

;"o

2:

50

50

EMC Aspects
Devices
--- of O&@l
There are several optical techniques for detqtion
and display of
objects/targetsboth in day light and
in darkness for security observations,
.,weaponaiming, battle field survcillante and gun firings. Of alltechniques thermal imaging is becoming vary
popular. Now we shall SIX?the basic
.XMI producing devices in this. They
are (i) switched mode 20Wr
supply
(ii) DC-DC convertors (iii) Motor
operated thermal scanners (iv) video
converter (v) compressor operated cooling
systoru
(vi) Xlectronic processors
(vii) video monitor. Conducted XT41
observed from thermal scanners and
electronic ;?rocessorsare vary high,

right from 0.01

MHZ to G or 7 PJIIX
at a
level of 170 to S5 dbua/hliIZ
s@nst
the specification of 130 to 50 dbua/
HI%. On the other hand, video convertars and monitors are most susceptible
to H.F. signals from VKI?transmitters
located in the same vehicle as discussed earlier. Several horizontal lines
will be seen in tho monitor totally
blocking the image of the object being
viewed. R<adintedomission fro& video
oquipment range from 0.01 to 30 PHZ at
a level of 151 to 80 dbua/KHZ against
the limit of 90 to 54 dbua/IUZ and in
some cases from 50 t0 250 IEIZ at a
level. of 75-72 dbuu/PlHZagainst the
sgscificstion of 65-55 dbua/MIU.
Importance of ~YC design
. lins on the
sensitivity of ratio receivrzs, their
location from video esuipmlnt
in the
_
vehicle, etc.
Protection of Sensors from
IntrasJstem
____~_._._.
*__._G!41
*-..*,....I
Numerous sensors <areused in vehicles for various purposes. 14ostimportant are for monitoring and/or controlling engine performance (transmission
system) for speed pick up, for fatigue
monitoring and load l::v?lling,
slutomatic shift control, compartment heating
airconditioningetc. besides navigntion and weapon aiming. They range
from simple resistance (potmcter/tharmoearpl:csrer~)+zfdpkrk~fCa~erP;~~f~d~~~~-~
transducers viz. integrated peiezoresistive sensors. (hall effect and
Infrared Optical devices) Integrated
sensors and affected by stray light
and strong magnetic fields. Location
of these sensors in vehicles are gritical leading to long distance transmission resulting to low level signals
or unintelligible data. There are 3341
generating scmsors also such as RF
proximity detectors, electromagnetic
valves, pulse generated speed pick up
dilviceo,digital transducers etc.
FTencesensors need greater protection
in vehicle installationsfrom 381 susceptibility point of view mostly and
need emission controls sometimes.
Since sensors form a major information
sources of systems, their failures
have serious consequences obviously.
Transients
They are gcn::ratc:d
from several
sources in vehicles, Some of them are
(i) switching transients (ii) electromagnetic pulses (iii) ground currents
(iv)
coupling from adjacent wiring (v)
lightning (vi) power supply faults.
Important one is caused by battery/
load disconnections.Generation tnechanisms and characteristicsof these
transients reveal that they contain
high frequancy noise which is due to
contact breaking and spark discharges
found in rt:lays,switches, motors,
alarms, ignition circuits, light eontrols (typically2 bU3Zto 60 NHZ
spikt?sat 110 41~ to 60 db lCVclk3

495

respectively) solidstate devices I?tC.

'Sff& of sourc + inductance and rate
of change of current producean electrostatic field which radiates "&II
energy. Solid state devices draw
large transient currents during logic
switching. These current pib,n~
have
fast rise and fall tines and therefoIW
have significant spectral content in
the band 3C-lCCC WZ. The faster the
IC, largs:or
the portion of the spectrum falling within tho band. Transient
current flow in ground affects radio
receivers, upsets operational smplifiors and disturbs magnetic pick UP
sensors.
EMI Reduction
Techniqu$s
-_-I
By reducing the cc?u-pl.ing capacity
to interference current flow or by
using insultating spacers betwaen
heat sink and equi:~'~.:nt
~a::!:,
I%11Cell
be reduced in SMPU. Use of propr
screen betwaen insultators and connecting it to emitter isolated XMI. ALSO
by use of reactive impedance (ground,
line chokes) in ground wire, !WX.is
further reduced. Sufficient i/p and
o/p filtering using balanced mode
filters are must for ;-3N';?Uu,
power transformers should hi3alectrostastically
shielded to isolate primary and secondary from 311 coupling, smission
from DC machines can be minimised by
~~~~irrgpro~~-f~-.~*-,~i~
tors in the motor terminals and cnclosing
it.
However when 2241level is
very high, complete magnetic material
casing of motor and shielding of harnesses are must. Uso of twisted pair
of sables or using single wire system
will reduclsmagnetic field radiation.
IIoav?:
duty machines need suitable
line filter in the paver loads* In
the Gas? of vehicle altternators
EMC
modifications involve using capacitive filtering of powerline terminals,
using soft recovery diodes, proper
routing and twisting of field cable
and ca.reful bonding of regulator to
vehicle structure.
Grounding of ;?quipmnt'k (multipoint)
with short leads, use of good quality
shielded cable for mic, earphone and
RF coax lines, careful routing of communication cables away from potential
EM1 emitters, optimising the location
of antenna on board vehicles, jltdicial use of co-axial RF filters and
sufficiant power line filtering will
'greatlyenhance the ;OK capabilities
of communicationsystem.
Design'of digital. equipment against
interferenceand taking simple precautions like use of twisted pairs, balanced differential signalling with
impedance matchin at oorrect levels
(for line drivers7 , low inductance
wiring, proper grounding and shielding are absolutely necessary for compatibility of digital equii>mm;lnt
in
vehicles. Shield terminals of ICs and

89 09
logic circuits should bo properly connected to ground.
Pibre optic cables are great boon
for 13lCas they are immune to EMI, SW,
lightning, cross talk and over voltage
stresses in addition to their light
weights. However system gcnarated
noise (due to TTL signals) in the electronics needs careful handling of EMT
generation and emission control. Use
of smart integrated sensors such as
optical and hall effect devices greatly reduce WI1 threat and simplifies
encoding of signals directly to processors. Optical transmissions,signal
i/p filtering, shielding, floating are
useful techniques in connecting sensors
(thcrmocouplt?s,
prt2ssuretransducers,
strain gages etc.) i:lho.stile,
%MS.
Transient is an inevitable phenomenon in inductive loads of vehicles
and solidstntc d::vices.The excess
onorgg of transient pulses are to be
absorbi!din addition to protection
against component damage from over
voltages by suitable moans. Vsristors
transzorbs, zeners, capacitorsand
surge filters of correct ratings are
must to tackle transients.
i%lCDrsinn ..--.e,,
Gui.dPlj,nes_.I
k-w-W.-L..&

All the techniques discussed above

~1*e&+32H*-e~tions
during _
design stages and neoessiates XP!C
measurements when systems are developed.:In addition, bofor: system integration in the vehicle, degree of
shieldin@ requir~?m,?nts
are to bc+i-?sti..
mated to m+tt the standards of the
systems and the vehicle. As a general
'SMCdesign guideline, ZXC plans with
r-ga:rdto shielding, bonding and
grounding schemes, filtering and harness routing are necessary in any vohicle installation.Since cables and
connectors form a major portion in
vehicle:integration they need careful
look wi'thregard to nature of signal;
level, no.of cnbles, separation from
adjacent cable, branches, terminations,
shielding etc.
CommcrcialLyavailable special cablo
systems such as lossg line filters,
electroloss filter line cables, and
optical fibres are viable solutions to
critical 22KCproblems. Conductive heat
shrinkable shields, feryite beads, etc.
largely rcduco iZMI. Mesh type shields,
foil type shields, flat ribbon cables,
optimised screening cables and zipper
cables are also extremely useful for
.EMIreduction, While using connectors
of different origin, right COnneCtOr
having sufficient filterpins meeting
the specification for 1011,!1MTshould
be chosen. Invariably backshell of
connectors should be terminated with
cable shields for effective shielding.
Over design and undar design (random
selection of pins, less number of

496

ground pins) of connectors should be

levels
avoided. Pin .topin co~l>li!l~$
of analogue and digital si&nals
should be examined by tc?stingwith
circuits workin& in lIOrU;lal conditions.
i;iETestin?
.-..-wIr_
--_

+v?lWtti
Oil
and
. *. A--.m-._.M

We shall dovidc 311 t::stinc;

of
vehiclr:sinto throc diffcr3nt stsg~s
for simplicity. They arc (i) lo:{
11?vr:l
(ii) middle level and (iii)
high lev;?ltestings. :Jh:?ro
prototype
Subsyst(+msare devolopcd, ::NCcompliancc shall be probed by sample menaurcments knovn.,as..
t..iSKL
pr:3t.23tr for
ths bb>n:::fit
of subsvstem disign::rsto
cater for wave shaping, filt<:ring,
by
passing, shieldin@ ,?tc.Once it is
done, subsystem will be retested for
mee%ing KE1; stdr; whi.cYiiis known a3

low

i3.d

tostin;l;.

Still

this

dznands.

Succ:zssful3EICcoizpatibility
of s;ystemsand vchiclt+scan be
verifi;!dwith IA9 following t ::sts
:
(a) By injectin!;;
emissions Lit
critic21 Points in thy syst,:ms/v
:hicl<!at 6 db highz .than:)r!zd,::tormincd
,:Zi
: lev~oland obs::rving
for malfunction.

(b) 13~incr ::~sin;

th,:s~~nsitivi
;;;/
l,-,v31
of syst ;ms to 6 db so that its
susc~:ptibil_it~
to 31I is incr:ns,?d
by 6 db.

may

need further design chsngz (normally

few) for satisfactory compatibility.
Jh!?rcnumber of prototypes arc:made
for subsyste:nsthey will be subJected
to furth+:rcheck on selected critical
frequencies for the changes undergone.
Mechanical chanyos ,rcq.uirr:
no retest.
Substantial electrical ch:tn~l;i?s
will
need partial retest for 3PICcomgliance.
In addition, inte{yrationof subsystem
will have certninSMC impact. Testing
have an idea about compatibility in
vehicle. When all such major systems
are ready for installntion and opcration in the field, retests shall be
made to confirm the effiaucy of changes. This stage is known as 'high
level testing'. At this stqc: theoretical value of ',.JMZ
of v~ehiclccan be
verified and suitable corrections can
be made.
Compatibilityt:>stSon major :syst.?;.lly
in till? vehicll: nntl v::IIiC:l.~ to
vehicle/externalworld's intcr:Lctions
can bc regarded as lXC evaluation'
which is tht: ultimate test for
proving AX dasi@ns. The zvaluation
phase needs intelligent plannin,gwith
regard %o time, manpower, instrumsntation, t3st site, etc* Transient
measurements and susceptibilitym::asurcmants assume special importance at
this stage. Automatic test systons
controlled by desktop computin:;;
systems facilitate.&11 testin,; by providing good repeatability,fast and
accurate results, besides other
advantages like red!lcinsmanpower,
making large computationsand storage
of data. The mission profile is
excited by prop::rloading sequ:.nces
as in field operation. JIorethe
mission scleneriodisctatoa the naturo
of loadins and schedules as per
I_

000

(5) Dy studyin:;the r :?ctionOE

SJWti3r.D ~~~x~l:?llts (3spO0idl;[

syst,:ms)
,$n~uish

bIi:ZLpOn

to 1~ois.e each time to dis-

periodical and random ?hznom(:!non

of ':+:14I
.
Conclusion
W"I

Dofinins th:evehicle 313, careful

syste?n,_la,yputs
with .intalligqnte_npJ,,7
tostin~s
necring practices, accurnt,::
with repeatability, r,ooaomicnl
harXonins keeping pace with th::!
growth of
technology and avoiding ovl:r designs
make compatible
desi.;;ns aim\?la and
~x~r~)o:3c:ful in ion,? ti;rm vehlclc
devolopm~nt programmos and in turn bulk
production
of vehicles
espocinlly
for
military
upi?lications.
Rof ori3nccs
I-.-P_

(1) Shin Yama lloto etl.

::l<?ctrical
,5;nvironmental C!Wrnct-)risti.cs
for
Automotive L;lectronic
Systems - IS3::
Transac-Lions on Vzhiculnr Technology

Vol.v:~.-'72,
No.2 i'l151-157

(my

1983)

(2) ::hm.i~,X. i!.etl.

Intl.!:.:;ratad
S;i:nsors in A:xtomobi1:3 ;::lectronic
Con;rol inti.:rf:Zc~:s - Third Int:.xn.;,tional Conference on Automobile Electronics Prccccdinays, IT 337-339 (1'381)

The 3010 of
(3) Jose ph .3,dohnston,
Int esrat ed Circuits
Decouplin{; iii
Zlectroma$netic
Compatibility
- .BC
Technology
- PF 19 (Octob::r 1 gGT)
(4) :3ric Chou etl.
A new concept
i:l brLcirplanc communication - .a:lectronit Sngincering
- P;3 97-99 (Play 1384)
(5) Donald White R.J.
A handlsook
si3rio:j o;1 ,,lectroma.,qi~!tic
Comp?tijj.:k$;)
Vo1.2,
PP S:cti.O~l 1 .3
--

497

90

PI

ATTENUATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION FRaM MICROWAVE OVENS

UTILIZING CORRUGATED METALLIC SURFACE COMBINED WITH
MAGNETIC RESISTIVE SHEETS AND ABSORBERS

S.R. Ramasamy
Defence Electronics Research Laboratory
Hyderabad, India

ABSTRACT

S. Mahapatra
Indian Institute of Technology
Bombay, India

attempting innovation of better design

techniques. Microwave ovens which work
at either 980 MHz or 2450 MHz leak
microwave energy through gap between
door and mainframe of oven when opened
as shown in Fig.l(a).

Electromagnetic energy leaks through the

gap when a microwave Oven's door is opened.
In this paper the idea of a corrugated metallic
surface combined with a Magnetic Resistive
Sheet (MRS) and absorber is considered for use
around the edges of an oven's door. Investigations were carried out at 2450 MHz in a
rectangular waveguide. Experimental results
gave an attenuation of 8.6 dB when absorber
was inserted in the linear corrugation slots
and 42.2 dB was measured when MRS of thickness
4.8 mm was used with corrugated metallic
structure. Theoretical calculations based
on a transcendental equation derived by
applying appropriate boundary conditions show
good agreement with measured results. The
use of MRS combined with corrugated metallic
structure for reduction of leakage from
Microwave Oven's is likely to reduce radiation
hazards to operator's eyes and may find wide
application in reducing unwanted electromagnetic radiation from equipments.

INTRODUCTION
Electromagnetic radiation hazards
have been widely discussed in literature /j.,27. It is necessary that each
electronic equipment or device is
properly designed to eliminate EM1 and
Radhazards. People with heart pacemakers are warned not to get too close
to microwave ovens because of reports
that some ovens leak radiation at
frequencies that could confuse the
pacemaker. Astronomers using Radio
telescopes worry about microwave ovens
in the vicinity leaking high frequency
radio energy which will be picked up
by their sensitive aerials. Considering the need for reduction of radiation
hazards researchers are investigating
new methods to improve upon performance of existing equipments and

FlG.l(a).

Ovens door

opening

This leakage is likely to affect eyes

of the operator when exposed repeatedly.
The Bureau of Radialogical Health, USA
in 1971 specified a standard that all
microwave ovens sold i U.S must not
leak more than 1 mw/cm9 of radiation
at the time of sale and not more than
5 mw/cm2 during the life time of
equipment. The new (1982) American
National Standards Institute, Inc.
Standard (workers and population)
C 95.1 specify an exposure level of
f/300 mw/cm2 power density between
300 to 1500 MHz and 5.0 mw/cm2 between
1.5 to 100 GHz where f is the frequency

in Megahertz and all values are averaged over 0.1 hour period c3,4,57.
MODEL FOR ANALYSIS
One of the authors (S.R.R) in his
earlier paper had presented the idea
of using lossy ferrites kneaded with
a plastic material (rubber for example)
backed with a metal plate called
Magnetic Resistive Sheet [67. Door of
the oven was utilised as backing metal
plate. The door and mainframe of the
oven are considered as equivalent to a
parallel plate system shown in Fig.2.

498

attenuation. Coating of an absorbing

paint containing lossy ferrites though
elegant suffers from the disadvantage
that it has to be repainted often due
to frequent opening 8 closing of oven's
door. Sufficient thickness of paint
coating is necessary for high attenuation and the paint has to be coated
after each layer is dried. This process is not a workable solution in the
case of a consumer item like microwave
oven.

S000MHz
3000MHz

In
6

FIG.2.

Parallel
plate line
filled with rubber

partially
ferrite.

FIG.3

It is assumed that parallel plates

extend to infinity in the %-direction.
This is valid because width of the
oven's door is generally several wavelengths. Considering boundary conditions and TEM mode of propogation the
following transcendental equation can
be derived

+ i y2 tanhY212

71 tanhull

2b

=O ...-..,..(

1)

Y:- 72 =k (Er2 Dr2 -l).._,.....(2)

and

k=umo

where 71 and72 are transverse propaation constants in regions (1) and

92) respectively and Er and 0~ are
complex relative permittivity and permeability of the material (rubber
ferrite) respectively and W is
angular frequency. Theoretical calculations based on equations (1) and (2)
indicated that for rubber ferrites
H5C (1:4) or M3 (a TDK, Japan product)
attenuation of 12 and 10 dB can be
obtained when gap between oven's mainframe and door is 0.5 and 1.0 mm but
a much higher level of attenuation is
desirable. A plot of rubber ferrite
thickness Vs attenuation for various
gap sizes are shown in continuous lines
in Fi .3. The use of a thin resistance
card 7 0.5 mil thick) gave only 6.5 dB

CORRUGATION WITH
p-&7,d-!&4,p/d-1.75
WI_THWr FfJRUGATIONqp
---_---

6l
,:

- -IN CM
J3.35

ul
.:

B
ni

RUBBER FERRITE THICKNESS <CM->

ATTENUATION VI RUBBER FERRITE
H!XCII 4LTHICKNESS

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
This paper discusses the use of
a corrugated metallic structure (C.S)
as shown in Fig.l(b,c,d) instead of a
plain metal plate backing to the
rubber ferrite. The linear or slant
45' corrugated structure is fixed to
metal sheet of oven's door as in
Fig.l(e,f,g). Absorbing material
namely rubber ferrite is fixed on top
of the corrugation. This is called
MRS with corrugation backing, The
principle of operation is based
essentially on the fact that the oven's
mainframe and its door when it is
slightly ajar can be considered as
equivalent to a parallel plate transmission line and an axial component of
the field is produced on the surface
of corrugation, then the lossy material
(rubber ferrite) laid on the corrugation sustains a power loss. The corrugation structure was covered on tno
opposite sides with adhesive backed
Aluminium foil which gave fairly good
results. Hence by choosing appropriate values for corrugation depth,
pitch and thickness and also suitable
type and appropriate thickness of
lossy rubber ferrite, a fairly large

499

90

Pl

attenuation
of electromagnetic
waves
leaking
out between
ovens
mainframe
and door can be obtained.

c.s

FIG. l(
k------72

f).

Enlarged

view

mm------A

FIG.1
(b).View

of corrugation

structure

FIG. l(g).
FIG.l(c).

Elevation

of fig.1 (b).

Slant

45O C.S on door panel

THEORY OF OPERATION
Morita
and Suetake
[77 have shown
that
in the case of a lossless
corrugated waveguide
the surface
impeclance
2.1 and Z2 of non corrugated
and corru-

FM(d).

Slant 45OC.S with

Same as fig.1 (CL

gated section
respectively
should
be
equal
because
the tangential
field
components
from which the impedances
are derived
are continuous.
Hence the
following
equation
is obtained
taking
into account
the boundasy
conditions
and each corrugated
slot
in a sense
considered
as the waveguide
which has
a sectional
area (axd) and extends
from y=O to y= -12 and d=p-t
and t
is the thickness
of teeth
of the
corrugation
and each guide
is excited
in HIO wave by the field
component
E,

p,t,d,lj

generated
on the surface
tion
and short
circuited
lower

(e). Corrugation

on door

panel

H plane

of the

of
at

main

corrugay=-l2 by

guide.

Yl is the transverse
propagation
constant
and is determined
from
above relation.
r, the lonqitudinal
propagation
constant
is derived
t

Cr+j/.J

. .

.--

the
from 5
(4)

r. =j /a,=2 n/&j,

500

- - - - ( 5)

where '20 is the guide wavelength in

waveguide from which the corrugated
structure is removed.
a is attenuation constant.
/3 is Phase constant.
Theory of the corruaated wavequide
havinq a resistance card or MRS
When a resistance film card or a
MRS is laid on the surface of the corrugated structure it can be considered that the surface wave impedance of
the COrrUCjdtiOn
Z2
and the impedance
'MRS (ZRFC for resistance film card)
are in parallel, then the look-in
surface impedance Z2 can be written
as II73
d

z2 =

zbazM!?s
. . _-.( 6)
* z;+ $,RS

where L * is the look-in impedance of

2
each small guide in the corrugated
structure.
Hence

cl Z;-ZMRS
yltanhq $=p. Z;+ZMRS - - - (7)

12

should be taken as %$4

CORRUGATION STRUCTURE
In this paper 3 configurations of
corrugated metallic structures that
have been tried are described.
A) The first called linear corrugated
structure (L.C.S) is shown in Fig.l(b)
The
and its elevation in Fi .I(c).
M and magnerubber ferrites H C(l:43
tically loaded ep2xide cillsd Eccosorb
MF 124 LB] have been attempted as MRS.
A part of this workras presented by
one of the authors (S.R.H) @I .
B) Since in microwave ovens a fan is
used and its blades rotate in front of
the waveguide aperture perhaps as a
mode stirer it was thought that a
slant 45' corrugation structure called
slant C.S as shown in Fig.l(dBg) in
combination with MRS (rubber ferrite)
could give better attenuation of
microwave energy leaking from ovens.
Indeed it was so as can be seen from
Tab1e.i. In both the L.C.S and slant
C.S cases MRS thickness doubled from
2.4 mm to 4.8 mm and it was observed
that increased attenuation was achieved in both the cases.
C) Further the idea of using double
corrugated structure was thought of
a&shown in Fig.l(hBi). In this 'case
also
experimental results indicated
that double corrugation is bett,e; ikan
single corrugation structure.
the case of single corrugation that

where
d = gap between two consecutive
pitches
=
pitch of corrugation structure
P
11 = width of air gap

--ale

12 = depth of corrugation+MRS thickness

zMRs

= Surface impedance of MRS

The corruqation effect

The above discussion dealt with
an ideal structure for calculation on
the boundary impedance at the surface
of the corrugation and corrugated surface had been macroscopically considered as a plane having some average
impedance. In reality, however, it is
corrugated, then the corrugation effect
on the propagation constant should be
taken into account.
When the pitch is small compared
with guide wavelength, it is considered that 'the corrugation strongly modifies the value of Gc rather than fl .
Morita and Suetake [77 have shown
that a' (the modifieda ) =(P/~)cx..@)
and t/p are<< 1 and to
when p/X
make Q
large the depth of corrugation

FlG.l(h).

Double side linear C.S with

MRS on dog- panel and
mainframe
of MW oven
,slant

FIG.l(i).
FIG.l.

Double side slant

with MRS
SCHEMATIC
WITH
MRS

45O C,S

45O C.S

VIEW OF C.S
ON A MW OVEN.

501

90

TABLE

Pl

COMPARISON OF THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

-MRS with
slant 45O C.S
dB
dB
dB
____________________~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-~-~Calcu- ExperiCalcu- ExperiCalcu- Experilation ment
lation ment
lation ment
MRS alone

Sl.
No.

1.

Description

MRS (MF 124)Thickness=2,4mn

Magnetically loaded epoxide

14

24.50

26.10

34.65

35.74

2. MRS (MF 124)Thickness=4.8mm

3. MRS(H5C(1:4) - MnZn)
Thickness = 10 mm

10

40.50
17.00

42.20
-

24.00

38.32
-

4. MRS (M3-MgCuZn)Thickness=lO mm

11

19.78

27.00

8.10

8.60

11.50

12,90

21.20

23.10

32.70

33.83

40.03

34.04

5. Corrugation slots filled

with absorber (MF 124)
6, Corrugation with slots filled
with absorber and MRS(t=2.4mn)
7. Corrugation with slots filled
with absorber and MRS(t=4.8mn)

slant 45' C.S was better in double

corrugation also it gave improved results when compared to double L.C.S.
An enlarged view of the single linear
corru ation structure is shown in
Fig.19f).
Corruqated_structuE

with absorbers

Further the idea of fitting an

i)
absorber in the slots of the linear
and slant 45' corrugated structure was
attempted [103. The propagation
constant in this case is

where

MRS with
L.C.S

Since all the parameters Eo,,Uo , 2~ ,

can be calcu/ur ,121 are known
'c;e
lated. The results of calculation and
measurement are shown in Table.l.There
is fair agreement between calculated
and experimental results. The absorber used in this case was Eccosorb
MF 124. However, the attenuation obtained is far less than the required
level.
ii) Then the idea of using MRS on top
of the corrugated structure whose slots
were filled absorber was attempted.
The attenuation measured both in L.C.S
and 45' C.S cases were 23.1 dB and
33.8 dB for MRS thickness of 2.4 mm
respectively. They are correspondingly
lower
compared to the case when the
c.s slots were not fitted with absorbers

namely 26.1 dB and 35.74 dB respectively.

iii) The same characteristic was observed when MRS thickness was doubled
to 4.8 mm as can been at Tablelat
Sl.Nos.2 and 7, It is felt that the
corrugation effect is dominant in
modifying the attenuation constant,CY
when the slots are not filled with
absorbers while it modifies both a and
phase constant, /a in the case when
slots are filled with absorbers due to
the complex CT &fir and lossy characteristics of absorbers, Hence overall
attenuation is marginally less in the
case of (iii) when compared to (ii).
CALCULATIONS
The attenuation,a has been calculated numerically on PDP 11/70 Computer by solving equation (7) in
conjuction with equations(3,4,5 8, 8).
The calculations and plotting of attenuation, Vs thickness of ferrite for
various gaps both for MRS alone and
MRS with corrugated structure for M3
and H5C(1:4) samples using equations
(1,2 & 8) were done on PDP 11/70 and
HP 9825A desk top computers respectively*
Attenuation of 22 dB and 16 dB
have been calculated for a pitch of
0.7 cm and slot width of 0.4 cm for
the L.C.S combined with MRS (in this
case H5C(1:4))when gap between door
and mainframe of oven is 0.5 mm and
1.0 mm respectively. Attenuation of
24.0 dB and 27.0 dB were calculated

502

for

slant 45' C.S for MRS H5C(1:4) and

The dimensions of p,
M3 respectively.
d and 12' were kept same as L.C.S for
the slant 45' C.S.

Since a microwave cooker was not

available with the authors it was decided to carry out the measurements in
a S band WR 284 waveguide set up as
shown in Fig.4.

HP 4iwR

AUTOMATED

6asQR

MEASUREMENT

is so in both the cases of L.C.S

450 C.S. Both from cost,

aInd slant
#reight
and performance
point
of view
it is not recommended.
5. rhe double side corrugation confiJuration with linear and slant

MEASUREMENTS

FIG.4

I :t

SETUP

3-5'C.S was also attempted. Prelininary experimental results indicate that double structure gives
better attenuation to leakage
than single C.S. Here also among
the two, slant 45O C.S. shows
better attenuation characteristics
than L.C.S in that attenuation is
higher in the case of the former.
But the theoretical model has to
be derived taking into account
that the wave travels between two
MRS layers and hence the boundary
conditions are different, But
the gap through which energy
leaks can be divided into two
equal halves by considering an
electric wall of e = 00
Fig.l(h&i). That is, it effectively reduces the gap to half
its size and hence the previous
analysis carried out holds good.
Thus it shows a much higher
attenuation
can be achieved
double

The corrugated structure with MRS was

positioned inside the waveguide.
Though the results are given for 2450
MHz only in Table the measurements
were carried out from 2200 MHz to
3000 MHz and trend of the results indicate almost similar performance except
for marginal variations since p,d and
12* of the corrugation structure were
not altered. Measurements were repeated to check for consistency of the
results.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are
drawn based on the above study:
1.

The corrugated structure provides

much higher attenuation when
combined with MRS than in the case
of MRS alone.

2. Among the two types of corrugations

studied the slant 45' C.S provides
higher attenuation when compared
to L.C.S as can be seen in Table.
3. The slots of C.S filled with absorbers give much less attenuation
when compared to MRS used alone.
Hence this is not recommended.
4. The combination of MRS and C.S
slots fitted with absorber does
not give as much as attenuation as
the C.S without absorber in slots.

slant

45

using

corrugation.

6. For still better results the

orientation of upper and lower
slant
45
corrugation
structure
can be oriented
in opposite
directions
as shown in Fig.l(l).
The upper slant
450 C.S is
fitted
to the mainframe
and lower
slant
45 C.S is fitted
to
door of the microwave
oven

the

res-

pectively.
7. If the attenuation reported here
for L.C.S is reasonably
sufficient
for practical
purposes
then L.C.S
itself
can be adopted
ease of manufacturing
view.

from the
point
of

of p,t,d
of
corru8. Optimization
gation may be attempted for
further improvements in attenuation level and also for compactness.

9. Among the materials studied

Eccosorb MF 124 seems to be
having
better
attenuation
proMF 175 and MF I.90 may
oertv.
be still
better when corn ared

to MF 124 as seen from t e

material
HowevE r,
compared
may be

characteristics.
better
materials

H5C(1:4)
available

& M3 materials
in Jaoan.

90
10. As seen at Table that absorbtion
of microwave energy increases from
26.1 dB to 42.20 dB when MRS thickness was doubled from 2.4 to
4.0 mm in case of L.C.S. But the
increase is only from 35.74 dB to
38.2 dB for doubling the MRS,thickness in case of slant 45O C,S which
is only marginal. From this-two
points emerge namely that the
optimum thickness of MRS (in this
case MF 124) has to be selected.
It is somewhere between 2.4 and
4.8 mm. It is proposed to measure and plot the locus of surfaceZof MF 124 and select the
correct thickness of MRS from this
plot. Secondly the 45' angle may
not be the optimum for the slant
C,S and it appears that there is
an optimum angle which lies between 0' and 45'. This has to be
identified. It is proposed to
investigate this aspect in detail.
11. The idea of combining MRS with
corrugated metallic surface
backing and a resistance film
card was attempted to examine
whether improved attenuation
levels could be obtained. The
resistance film card was kept on
top of the MRS. Resistance film
card and MRS thickness were 0.5mil
and 2.4 mm thick respectively.
The same corrugated structure was
employed. Both in the case of
linear and slant 45' corrugated
structure the attenuation level
decreased by 4.01 dB and 2.99 dB
respectively when compared to
MRS alone with C.S backing was
used . See Table-2. This indicates that MRS with C,S is better
when compared to combining MRS
with C.S backing and a resistance
film card. Also the thin film
card may have to be replaced
often due to wear and tear. Hence
this is not recommended.
TABLE -2
S.No.

Nomenclature

1. Linear C.S with MRS

(2.4 mm thickness)

Attenuation
level in dB
29.12

2. L.C.S and MRS combined

with resistance film
card

25.11

3. Slant 45' C.S with MRS

(2.4 mm thickness)

32.02

4, Slant 45' C.S with MRS

(2.4 mm thickness) +
resistance film card

29.03

--

PI

In this paper the idea of using a

C.S along with MRS and absorbers in
different configurations has been reported. The above study indicates
that a high level of attenuation can
be obtained in ovens to reduce the leakage of microwave energy and thus
reduce its harmful effects. This idea
can also be applied successfully in
other electronic equipments to reduce
leakages and interferences. The C.S
can be built-in in the body of the
oven, The MRS can be fixed on the C.S
by means of a suitable adhesive. The
MRS is not likely to affect the food
being cooked in the oven and it is a
cost effective solution.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors express thair thanks
to Dr. E. Bhagiratha Rao and
Mr. P.N.A.P. AA0 for their encouragements. Thanks to Mr. Rabindranath
Saha for the discussions. Assistance from Mr. Devender in the preparation of sketches and running the
program on PDP 11/70 computer is
greatly appreciated, Help rendered
by Mr. M. Sankaran and Mrs.Neeraja
S. Gopi in the measurements is gratefully acknowledged. Thanks to
Mrs. Udaya Lakshmi for her typing
of this paper.
REFERENCES
Scott,

J.
: Is today's standard
fox Microwave Radiation Safe
for Humans? Microwaves, Vol. 10,
l,, 9-14 January (1971).

Mumford, M.M. : Some technical

aspects of Microwave Radiation
Hazards, Proc. IRE,(USA),
427-447, (1961).
Watkins, C.F. : An Evaluation
of ANSI C95.1-1982, Criteria
for distance determinations,
Table 1, 244-251, Interference
Technology Engineers' MasterITEM, (1984).
Watkins, C,F, : Determination of
Safe Distances for Human Exposure
to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic
fields based on ANSI C 95.1-1982
Standard - A Graphical Method
151-156, 1984 National Symposium
on Electromagnetic Compatibility,
San Antonio, Texas, April 24-26
(1984).

5
r3

American National Standards Institute, Inc., "Safety Levels with

respect to Human Exposure to Radio
Frequency Electromagnetic Fields,
300 KHz to 100 GHz", American
National Standard, ANSI C 95-l1982, 7-24, September 1, (1982).

c6] Ramasamy, S.R. : Attenuation of

E.M. Waves from Microwave Ovens
by Magnetic Resistive Sheet,
J,I,E.T,E (India}, 305-306,
July (1978).
171 Morita, K., Suetake, K. : A new
Waveguide Attenuator element
utilizing corrugated metallic
surface combined with resistance
card. Bulletin of Tokyo Institute-of Technology, (Tokyo),
No. 40, 15-33 (1961).
[8] Technical Bulletic 2-6/4-82
Eccosorb MF, Magnetically loaded
epoxide M/s. Emerson & Cuming
Europe N.V., Nijverheidstraat 24,
Westerlo, (Belgium) 2431.

504

[9] Ramasamy, S.R. : Attenuation of

Leakage from Microwave Ovens,
Indian Institute of Technology,
Bombay, Silver Jubilee Seminar
(India), 10-17, January (1983).
bo) Harrinqton, R.F. : Time Harmonic
Electromagnetic Fields, McGraw
Hill Book Co., 170-171, 193(4-25),
(1961).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1

MARTIN MINTS, GLENN HEIMER. : New

Techniques for Microwave Radiation Hazard monitoring, IEEE
Trans. EMC, Vo1.7, June (1965).

FREY. J. : Biophysical Hazards

of Microwave Radiation, North
East Electronics Research &
Engineering Meeting, Cornell
University, NRECM-72, P-136,
Part I Record, Vo1.14, IEEE
Catalog No.72 CH 0693-2 NEREM,

505

91 P2

LO\J-FREQUENCYMAGNETIC SHIELDING EFFECTIVENESS

OF STEEL-REIWJiORCED CONCRETE PLATFORMS

W. Hadrian
Technical University of Vienna
Austria

This lecture is concerned with the

1. Structure of the Model

shicld.ingeffectiveness of platforms
of reinforced concrete against lowfrequency magnetic fields (16 Z/3 Hz ,
50 Hz). The fields are created by
extended loons.
This problem occurs when constructing
station buildings over railway tracks
with electrical traction. This type of
construction is becoming prevalent as
main train stations along with their

We set up a model in order to test

the measured results. Our task was to
determine the distributionof the magnetic
field over the platform. Therefore it
was necessary to know the current distribution in the platform.
The model structure is based on the
following considerations.
The field caused by the electric

tracks are built in the centre of cities.

Thus administrative as well as bank

traction can be approached through the

superposition of the fields of two

concerns make use of these centrally

straight conductors with currents in

built offices. All. of these offi_ce

opposite directions. This magnetic field

constructions are established with

causes so-called eddy currents by induc-

clcctronic equipment, especially with

tion in the conducting and bonded concrete

steel.

computer terminals. Therefore the influence'from currents caused by electrical traction should be considered

Let us suppose that the dimension of

the platform is very large in the direc-

and dealt with. I;iithin

the buildings

tion of the current-carrying loop. Then

electromagnetic pollution from magnetic

fields of electrical traction can

the eddy currents in the steel netting

of the concrete steel will primarily

greatly reduce the economic efficiency

flow in current-conducting paths parallel

of the building. Therefore we must

estimate these fields when a buildingcompound is still in its planning stage.

to the current-carrying loop. These

Measuring of field distributions in

a completed structure of a station
building shows that the shielding
e.f.fectiveness(SE) is very locally dependent, not larger than 7 dR and is
even negative at the edges of the platform. This means an enhancement of the
field compared to the unshielded
Si.tUatj_on.

current-carrying paths close at the end

of the platform. Therefore we can justify
replacing the steel netting of the concrete steel with conductors which lie
parallel to the current-carrying loop.
Fig.1 shows the structure of our model.
The model measurements of the current
distibution were carried out by about
10 kHe. At frequencies lower than 10 kHz
the distribution is frequency-dependent.

506

Fig.1 : Structure of the model

When we know the currents in the conductors and the coordinates of a point

number N of conductors of a given

P the magnetic field can be calculated

by the following formulars:
sin ai
Bx = - 2
$'i*T
(1)
.

change in the current-distribution.

Y = +

sin ai =

PO

l1
id

cos

I-j_

ai
1

) COS

ri
=

increase of current causes the enhancement of the field and consequently a

negative SE.
3. Measurements

OLj_=

d(3)r.
1

The task of the model eXaminati.OnS

t

r. 1

The current increase at the edge of

the platform is guite notable. This

x - x.

Y-j_

Y -

(2)

r.

platform width does not cause a great

{Cx- xj_l2+ (Y - Y-j_)*

,C4)

was to verify the.results .of field

field measurements. The magnetic field
was measured by means of a calibrated
100~. The situation is shown in Fig. 5.

,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
W,,,,,~,,

Fig.2 : Calculation of the magnetic

field
Our model was built on a scale of 1:lOO.

,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,

..,,,

,,,,

,,,..7,.e7,cr,,m~,,~,,,-

,,,,,,

x,~~~~,~,,,I~,~

,,,,

,,,,

l,ll,,,r

Fig.5: Measuring set-up

Fig.6 shows the calculated and measured

Via a step by step increase of the number

field by I = 100 heff and the SE in

of conductors we studied the influence

on the current-distribution. Fig.3 shows

the laterial axis to the currentcarrying loop.

the measured current-distribution for

N = 19, the calculated induction Be(x)

The fact that the SE is decreasing

at the edges of the platform can readily

of the current-carrying loop (I,), the

calculated superpasition of all field

seen in Fig.6 . At z = +40m the SE is

zero, at z = -35m the SE is negative.

components created by the loop and the

This measured negative SE was the reason

the currents Ii , and the shielding

to start a model examination because

effectiveness SE in dB. The results for

IbT =

there had been no explanation for this

37 are sllcswn
in Fig.4 . The increasing:
LJ phenomenon. We supposed the influence

91~2

N-3?
c=99cm

Pig. 3: Model. examination, N = 19

Fig. 4: Model examination, N = 37

of another fields.
The negative SE is not particularly
critical because in this area of the
platform the field is weak compared with
the field directly over the loop.
4. Conclusion
The measured SE of the steel-reinforced
concrete platform is locally dependent
and even negative at the edges of the
platform. To study these effects we built
a model. The results of the model tests
prove good with the measured data.
5. References
1

Fig. 5: Field measurement,

field without platform a)
fiel.dwith platform h)

Buzzi, R.: Modelluntersuchungen der

Schirmwirkung von Gittern gegen Magnetfelder. Diplomarbeit, ausgefiihrt am
Institut fi.ir
Elektrische RnLagen und
Hochspannungstechnik der TU Wi_en,l98~

509

92

P3

A NEW APPROACH TO ELECTROMAGNETIC SHIELDING

B.L.Michielsen
Philips Research Laboratories,
P.O. BOX 80.000
5600 JA Eindhoven
The Netherlands

A formulation of electromagnetic
shielding theory is presented, which
concentrates on the calculation of equivalent sources induced in electronic
systems by incident fields. Inteqral
representations are derived for the
vector of source strengths applying to
an N-port Thevenin representation of
the electronic system. It is shown that
the influence of a shield on this source
vector can be expressed as an integral
over the shield. A simple elementary
configuration is analyzed explicitly
within the formulation as an example.
1. Introduction and general method of
analysis
In electromagnetic shielding theory,
one studies the effects of applying
shields to reduce the unwanted interaction of an electronic system and an
incident field. Publications in this
area of research mostly treat the influence of shields on the structure and
strength of the electromagnetic fields
in the configuration [l-5]. However,
the behaviour of the electronic circuits
is described in terms of voltages and
currents. Therefore, in order to determine the effects of fields and shields
on an electronic circuit one has to relate the fields to the voltages and
currents. This can best be done by means
of induced equivalent sources representing the fields (see [ 61). To the authors
knowledge no satisfying analysis of
electromagnetic shielding exists in the
literature, which provides these relations mathematically. Therefore, we set
up an analysis concentrating on induced
sources from the beginning. We shall
first explain the general arguments
leadinu to a well-defined problem.
We intend to analyze the electromagnetic shielding of electronic circuits.
As we want to use linear electromagnetic
theory and have to deal with nonlinear
electronic components, we adopt the following reasoning. Any electronic circuit
can be thought to be composed of a
linear N-port network with a set of terminations (which can be active and nonlinear), see Fig.1. The interaction of

Fig.1 Decomposition of an electronic circuit.

the electronic circuit with some incident
field can be separated into an interaction with the terminations and an
interaction with the linear N-port system, We shall assume that the former is
negligible compared to the latter,
because of the smallness of the nonlinear
parts. Then, the problem is completely
described by the source representation
of the linear N-port system,
[ Zl [ 11 -[VI
where

=[vl

(1.1)
(Thevenin)

[VI = column vector of port voltages,

[I] = column vector of port currents,
[Z] = matrix of impedances,
[V] = column vector of voltage source
strengths.
The fundamental unknown quantity of our
problem is [VI, so we shall derive expressions for it; this is done in Sect.2.
In Sect.3 we analyze the effect of a
shield on [Vland in Sect.4 we study an
elementary one-port system. The analysis
is carried out in the frequency domain
(complex time factor exp(jwt) ).
2. Derivation of an integral representation of the source strength vector
The theory presented in this section
is in fact a modification of the one

- 510

presented by de Hoop [7]. We start with

Lorentz' reciprocity relation between
two electromagnetic states satisfying
reciprocity conditions in a domain D
with boundary &S(see Fig.2),
/ B uJg (EJ&EJ$T,

(2.1)

dA = 0,

where
rE_,I$TrR= electromagnetic field in
two reciprocal states
labeled with T and R.

\ ---

,-

a)

b)

Fig.2 Two electromagnetic states

in the configuration:
a) Transmitting state,
b) Receiving state.
The domain D between SO and S is assumed
to contain the linear (and reciprocal)
part of the electronic system, while SO
surrounds all other parts. All component
surfaces of SO are assumed to be small
enough for the low frequency approximation to hold on them. Then the integral
over SO reduces to an expression in port
voltages and port currents (see Appendix
then becomes,
A). Expression (2.1)
[v?

4 IS

- 1 IT1 5 VT = fs).

(gTx~R-&gT,

dA

(2.2)
([ It means transpose)
For the T-state we take the state where
all sources of electromagnetic fields
are contained within So the 'Transmitting' state. In the R-state we take all
sources outside S, the 'Receiving' state.
Because of the passivity, linearity and
reciprocity of the N-port in the T-state,
the following impedance relation exists,
[ VT1 = [ 21 1 IT1

with

[ Zl

(2.6)

where
ET
BT are fields in the m-th
-m -m
T-state (ph sical dimensions
Qrn-land m-1 resp.)
Relation (2.5) is the N-port equation in
the receiving state, so (2.6) provides
an integral representation for the equivalent sources.
We shall call integrals of the type
of the right-hand side of (2.6),
integrals of the Lorentz type. They have
some properties which are summarized
here:
- Integrals of the Lorentz type Only
yield a non-zero value when the (continuations ofthe) two fields have their
sources on different sides of S.
- Integrals of the Lorentz type are
not affected by deformation of S through
domains where the (continuations of the)
two fields satisfy the reciprocity
conditions.
- Parts of S on which both fields
satisfy the same,or the reciprocal, boundary condition, do not contribute to the
value. A particular case of the latter
is the radiation contition on spherical
sectors at infinity.
3. The influence of a shield on the
induced sources
In deriving (2.6) we only assumed
that the fields satisfied the reciprocity conditions in D. Therefore, the
same integral representation remains
valid when a shield is contained in D.
However the influence of the shield is
then implicit in the "weight functions"
'E$$and &$ , and we have no means of
analyzing the contribution of the shield.
Therefore, we follow a different route.
The shield is assumed to be present in
the R-state, but absent in the T-states
(see Fig.2). Now the reciprocity condition is not satisfied in the shield
region,Ds. For simplicity, the shield
is assumed to consist of a simple conducting volume. Theh, instead of (2.6) we
obtain,

= [ Zl .
(2.3)

Substitution of (2.3) into (2.2) yields,

where
[ IT 51 Zl [ I9

4 ?I 1 =jsv

(gTx~R-gRxgT,dA

(2.4)
T
By choosing N different T-states {I&_,
,
HT

[ITIn}

n=l,...N, such that ILf,

n=Sm n
-n,
I
,
we arrive at,
~Zldl

rvItl

= rv3

with
VR = (IT
m,m)-l/sF cg;I~R-~~ldA,
m

or

(2.5)

JR = aE
_R the volume current density
in the receiving state.
The field

ER IHR
-

is decomposed
as
.
.

rE_R,gRl
= @n,$nl + @sc,Iyc;3

2)

where

ign,kynl=

incident part, in absence

of system plus shield,
{Esc,$'c]= scattered part.

Because the scattered part satisfies the

same constitutive, boundary and radiation conditions as the transmitted

field, it does not contribute to the
surface integral. The remaining part of
the surface integral is the same as in
a configuration without a shield and we
write

511

92

P3

advantage that evaluating the effect of

a shield requires knowledge of the currents in the shield in the transmitting
states, which mostly are fixed ones in
contradistinction to the incident fields.
4. Calculation of an elementary example.

[ V] = [ VU] + [ VSh] ,

(3.3)

where
1 vu1

= j&J-

[ VSh]

= j

in
-sinx[ET])dA,
(3.4)
*JR dV.
(3.5)

([ ET1 XH
&ET1

Here [ Vu1 is the source s&ctor in the

unshielded system and [ V ] is the contribution of the shield. It is the task
of the shield designer to obtain as
close as possible the equality [Vsh]
=
-[Vu]
for the interferences. As can be
seen immediately from (3.5), it is of
no use to ap ly shields in regions where either [E !] vanishes or such that
the resultiiig JR will be orthogonal to
[gTI.
Furthermzre we remark that (3.4)
can be used in an experimental procedure to predict interference levels.
Then the "weight functions" t@Tl and
[ 91 must be measured and together
wieh some incident field, substituted
into the integral. This method can be
practical for one-port systems with a
simple structure of the T-fields,and
has actually been carried out by the
author to predict interference levels
of an NMR-apparatus at a hospital location from measurements at the production site.
Fgom (3.5) it follows that knowledge
of J is required for determining the
influence of a shield. However, it is
also possible to obtain the following
relation (see Appendix C for a proof),
[VI =[V systl
where

+ [ vs4

l
EindV,
l
gin dV ,

]V sYst]= /Dsyst]1
= IDsh[ zTl

[ VShl
D

syst

In this section we consider a small

conducting loop, which serves as a first
step towards th,eanalysis of more complicated networks (i.e. superpositions
of loops). In Fig.3 the configuration
is depicted, where a thin conducting
spherical shell is added as a shield.
Because the field transmitted by the
loop is a magnetic dipole field,the
spherical symmetry and the orthogonality
of the vector spherical waves ensure
that all field- and current distributions
transversal with respect to the radiusvector have the same magnetic dipole
structure. We have the following
relations on a sphere,

h*x L, = y*e
(4.1)
wherg -&
{e ,h ]= magnetic dipolefield:+ regular at infinity (i.e. satisfying the radiation cond.),
- regular at the origin,
Y+= jnodkr[krhl(2)(kr)]/krhl(2)(kr),
Y'= jnodkr]krjI(kr)]
/krjl(kr),
(2)= spherical Bessel and Hankel
jlthl
function of the second kind,
k = w(so LIO 4,
no= (EO/UO)L'.

(3.6)
(3.7)
(3.8)

domain of the system.

In cases where the system currents in

the transmitting states are not significantly influenced by the shield, we
can identify the first term of (3.6) as
the source vector of the unshielded system. The contribution of the shield is
then given by (3.8). It may seem that
we have put more restrictions for (3.8)
to hold than we did for (3.5). However,
when using (3.5) the complete interaction between system and shield m st
be calculated and is implicit in J# .
The same effort is needed when usTng
the complete system (3.6) to (3.8). Only
in special cases, e.g. as discussed in
the next section, it is useful to make
decompositions like (3.3).
Expressions (3.7) and (3.8) have the

Fig.3 A simple loop as part of a

circuit (fat contour), in
a spherical shell.

In order to deterqC\ine
the shielding
we must calculate J in the shell. From
the arguments above it follows that the
next representation holds,

y = yT -GT

(4.2)

where
BT= electrical field of magnetic
dipole with unit current,
YT=
as yet unknown amplitude.
The factor YT is determined by a boundary condition at the spherical shell
(see Appendix B),

- 512

y*

do /[l + da/(Y+-Y-)1

(4.3)

where
(5= conductivity of the shell,
d = thickness of the shell.
Now we are in a position to calculate
the shielding factor defined by,
s = (VU + VSh)/ VU.

(4.4)

Using the representations (3.4) and

(3.8) we obtain,
VU

(Y--Y+)

\,&T*e_in

dA,

(4.5)

VSh= Y* ,,&T*gLn dA,

wher n
= electrical field of the dipole
2
component of the incident field.
With (4.5) and (4.6) it follows,
s = 1 + Y*/(Y- - Y+)
= l/( 1 + da/(Y+ - Y-)).

(4.7)

In this particular case the shielding

factor is independent of the structure
of the incident field. This is because
the (shielded) system only responds to
the dipole component of the incident
field, which is fixed by the field vectors in the dipole's centre. The shielding factor in this example is identical
to the spherical wave transmission factor
(cf. [1,2 I).
As a second example, we shall superficially discuss a conducting loop close
to a parallel conducting plate (see Fig.
4). Again we want to calculate the shielding factor of the conducting plate. We
assume that the distance between the
loop and the plate, d, is so small that
the current induced in the plate by the
active loop is concentrated under the
loop. Now, the strength of this current
is simply determined by the ratio of the
mutual and selfinductances of two loops
with radius R at a distance d apart.
I

Fig.4 A conducting loop parallel

to a conducting plate.
This ratio is given approximately as
19 I,
C=l-

l/( 4&n 8R/d - 7).

(4.8)

It is now a straightforward calculation

to obtain the shielding factor for incident plane waves,
S=l-

C exp(-jk*d)
,
--

(4.9)

where
k_ = wave vector of the incident
plane wave,
d=

dv (see Fig.4).

Using the inequality k-d

-- gl,
S=l

- C(1 + jk-d).
--

(4.10)

In this case the shielding factor clearly depends on the incident field.
5. Conclusion
A formulation of eleC+XOIIIagnetiC
shielding theory has been presented which
concentrates on the calculation of equivalent sources in an N-port representation of an electronic circuit. The influence of a shield on these sources
is expressed as an integral over the
shield. It is emphasized that within
the formulation of shielding theory presented here, one can directly calculate
the quantities one really wants to know.
It is often unnecessary to do complete
diffraction calculations in shield configurations, because it is proven here
that the currents induced in the shield
in a transmitting state already determine the shielding properties. In many
cases these currents can be calculated
more easily or can even be guessed. It
is also important to note that in this
way one is able to do the calculations
on the fixed part of the problem (i.e.
the system to be shielded) instead of
the variable part (i.e. the incident
fields). Two elementary examples were
analyzed within the formalism.
Acknowledgement
Some stimulating discussions with
Prof. A.T. de Hoop, on the various representations used in this paper, are
greatfully acknowledged.
References
1 11 Franceschetti,G.,"Fundamentals of
steady-state and transient electromagnetic fields in shielded enclo:
sures",IEEE EMC-21,1979,p.335
[ 21 Harrison,C.W. and C.H.Papas,"On the
attenuation of transient fields by
imperfectly conducting spherical
shell8 'I
,IEEE AP-13,1965,p.960
[ 31 Senior,T.B.A., "Electromagnetic field
penetration into a cylindrical cavity
",IEEE EMC-18,1976,p.71
[ 41 Mgndez,H.A.,"Shielding theory of enclosures with apertures",IEEE EMC-20,
1978,p.296
[ 51 McDonald,N.A.," Electric and magnetic
coupling through small apertures in
shield walls of any thickness",IEEE
MTT-20,1972,p.689

- 513

l'Topological
concepts
for internal
EMP-interaction",IEEE
EMC-20,1978,p.60
"The N-port receiving
[ 71 de Hoop,A.T.,
antenna and its equivalent
electrical
network",Philips
Res. Repts.z,1975,
p.302*
and G. de Jong,"Power
[ 81 de Hoop,A.T.
reciprocity
in antenna theory",Proc.
IEE 121,1974,p.1051
theory
[ 91 StraEn,J.A.,Electromagnetic
McGraw-Hill,NY
& London,1941,p.264

[ 61 Tesche,F.M.,

Appendix

j 2.

Appendix

the

integral,

--

where

04.2)

-V X Hb
- = -Jb , where Jb only differs
from 0 Tn the crosssections
of the wires,
D
(A.31
P'
Substitution
(A.l)
gives

of (A.2) and (A.3) into

(using Stokes'
theorem),

I;

= ,,x*J"

dA

1).

2 = unit

XE
(B.1)
-1 = -10
J-s = ad(vxE)xu,(B.2)
51
=
-vector

d = thickness

Because of charse conservation

we have
=0, together
with gauge invariance
e potentials
one oole can be eliminated-to
yield
N-l ports.
By interchanging a and b it follows
immediately
js$* (Ea Hb-Eb Ha)dA = 1 VaIb - vbIa
P P'P
P P'
(A.51

to the

shell,

of the

shell,

of the shell.

Because of the arguments of Sect.4 we

have only one transversal
field
distribution.
The"field
inside
the shell
consists
of the primary
dipole
field
and a reflected
part.
The field
outside
the shell
consists
of a transmitted
dipole
field.
Therefore,we
write
for
(B.l)
and (B.2) using (4.1),
g
A%T - ArgT
- - - T= 0 '
Y+AteT -YAe- r-T - y+zT= -&&jTr
where
= reflection
sion factor

From these equations

ately
that,

= ,D +agb/Ib dA = /D$adA/]Dl
P
P
P
D = cross-section
of p-th
P
conductor,
IDpI= area of D .
P

normal

0 = conductivity

Ar,At
where

in a spherical
shell
B. Current
due to a magnetic dipole
source inside

at the shell ap{E_.,H_ll I 2= fields

poaching
from side 1,2 ,

The surface 9 is assumed to be penetrated

by N conducting
wires,
constituting
the
poles of the system. In the low-frequency
approximation
it holds on all of SO,
Ea
= -pa
-

Xg2-

-2-v XH

(A.1)

(EaxHb)dA.

P3

Here we consider
the configuration
of Fig.3.
The currents
induced in the
spherical
shell follow
from the boundary
condition
at the shell.
For thin conhave the following
ducting
shells,we
conditions
on the tangential
fields
(cf .[ 11 1,

description
A. Low-frequency
of electromagnetic
fields

Here we consider

92

it

and
resp.

(B.3)

(B.4)'

transmis-

follows

inunedi-

At = 1 /[

1 + do/(Y+-Y-)I

03.5)

JT
-s = da/[

1 + da/(Y+-Y-)]

gT.

(~.6)

and

Appendix

C. Derivation
of an alternative
expression
for
the contribution
of the
shield.

In this appe.ndix we shall

derive an
expression
for the induced source vector, where apart from the incident
field,
only currents
appear which are

- 514

induced in the shield in a transmitting

state. Because the shield is present in
the receiving state too, we have to do
some effort to eliminate the scattered
field in the receiving state.
We start with the following equality,

Because the transmitted fields and the

scattered field in the R-state satisfy
the same constitutive, boundary and
radiation conditions outside S (cf. Fig.
2) we have,
~s~~([~T]~~sc-~sc~[~Tl) dA = 0. (C-5)

gR-E_RX[ET])dA. (C.l)
The field in the receiving state is
again decomposed as in (3.2). Then,
a decomposition of the source vector
follows,
[ V] = [ vloadl

+ [ V ] ,

Using a D=SU -SO, where -So means:So with

the opposite orientation (see Fig.2),
we obtain

-jaDx-

[ I]=

(C.2)

([ET1
~sc-~Sc~~~Tl

)dA,

I, ([ET]~c-~sc*[J_Tl)dV.
(C-6)

_ where
.

[ vloadl = I$* ([zTl~$~--$~x[ fif]

)dA,
(C.3)

From the Maxwell equations it follows

that
JSC

(Eln + Es').

(C.7)

[ Vl
Substitution of (C.7) into (C.6) yields,
The first term in(C.2) given by (C.3)
is interpreted as the voltage source
vector induced in the terminations of
the system. This term is assumed to be
negligible compared to the second term
representing the system and the shield.

[ Vl=jD

[zTl

*gin

dv.

(C.8)

The integration in (C.8) is over all

conductors contained in D.

- 515

93

P4

FIELD lJONUl!WORHfTY
RBDWCTIOl4
IRSIDE
A SPHERICAL
HAOXETICSHISLD
V.A.ltorosov,lV.V.Rodionova,
Institute

of Radioengineering

& Blecrtronice

USSR Academy of Saienoer

roscow,UsSR

It Is ehown that the field nonuniformity of an external interfering

eouree5 is reduoed ineide magnetic
ehielda 611,s.) in magnetoetstio regime.
This property of m.8. ie treated a0 a
relatively
high attenuation of the
higher epatlal modee of the interfering
field,compered
to the fundamental mode,
which is a uniform field for our problem.
Introduction.
Some modern experiment& in magnetioe are poseible only in a high magnatio...Yacylum
bath_-;ln.fiqld.
~eral.aad.
its
spatial derlvatives.An
example of
euoh experiment5 ie the lnveetigation
of magnetlo field5 of bfologi&sl
orlgin in magnetocardiography and magnetoencepholography,oarrie#
out with
extremely low aoirs threrhgld =gnetometers and gradientometers fl] .
The purpose of thla paper ia to
show that the pawiv6 apherlcal m.e.
in mm#neto5tatio regime reduoer not
only the field level of the external
aouroe inside the 5hield,but alao the
field nonuniformity (or relative
spatial derivatives)
within the shielded
enclosure.
Thirr effeot llsr examined here for
two types of m.e.ta)multi-lamellar
magnetoatatic rpherical enaloewre of
1 ferromagnotio ehells separated by
(H-f) nenmagnetlo gapt:b)an anisotroplo spherical shell with high anisotrepy of pemeabillty
at radial and tangential direction5
to the ahell,Such
anisotropic
ehell ie treated ao an
anymptotio (a+-)
model of multi-lamellar magnetostatic shield with fixed
Inner and enter radii.Both
types of
arhieldn attenuate substantially
etronger higher modes of the external nonuniform
field than its fundamental
mode,ao that the homogeneity of the
lnrlde field la increamed,
MultlZamellar
umerlcal

inamdtoetatlo
emeider.

Suppoae that the PPsgnetio potential

nonuniform magnetic
field ia given as 5um of 5patial modest

of an external

r , ,!I -spherical
coordinaterr,PnlcosB)the Leeendre polynomials, *) Equation
(1) holde e.g. in oaee of a magnetic
dipole when the dipole moment vector
ir in the O-5 direction and the dipole
ia itself
at a distanoe aa from the
ori
n*
shield ia mede of
$ e multllamellar
a ferromagnetic
materiel with a hl@
pammbility

$~a$, The .~Wattio~. of. ,thda

problem with proper boundary oonditions

show5 that the oomponenta of the field
veotor H Inride the 8hield are equal
to

where index iii denotes ihe &Bide region of the ehield,

j= !,2,3; oLfiJ,&r,O,Y))i hL2,3=(f,rjr&B).

&@-the llrhielding coefficient

of
the 2Llamellar shield for the n-th
mode.

w$-the reaction o) the B-lam&w

ahield for the n-th mode:the index
111
in these equations
irr for magretlo
shella,i,e,
dM ,dH are the thiokneeetetl of mametio or reapeotively
~Yrhe final reetalt6az-e also eorreet
when U Is expandid In terms of Pi@@
(the a55eelated Legendre polynomials).
This fite,e.g,
the oarno of the *herIaontal magnetic dipole*,f.e.
the d&pole
moment veotor ia in the x-0-y plane.

- 516

nonmagnetic shells. &-the outer ra(N--l and the thickness of a single

shell decreases correspondingly so
dius of the shield consisting of (N-l)
that the Inner and outer radii of the
inner magnetia shellsR~5Rg+d"*(~-z~[dn+d~),
enclosure are fixed (T=const,(&+dn)-,O,
&-the innar space radius of the
dH/dH=const).In this case the permeashield.The first term in (2) corresbility of the magnetic material may
ponds to the uniform,tho second onebe taken as a tensor of the kind:
to the nonuniform part of the field.
With N=l,2 equations (3) and (4) tran+
sform to the classical Kaden's results
[2],generalized to a nonuniform field
iErz%e of the shield structure.
Here WC introduce the equivalent
parameters of the shield with high
for the n-th mode (geometry parameters
and permeability) to estimate how fast
the second term in (2) decreases with
inoreasing n for such a shield.This
significantly simplifies the analysis
when compared to the treatment of the
general equations (3),(4).In accordance to &,.>>Iit is possible if in
(3),(4)
one takes
(5)
$&-

=jR,R:;,d:dMF (6)

An unilamellar shield (Nzl).

For relatively thin unilamellar
shield of thickness d with strong ma netostatic shielding effect (S~ti=,~<l
"s
from (3),(5),(6) we have

A multilamellar shield (Na 2).

For two-lamcllar shield (I?2 Y,Pf)
thickness of magnetic shells icing
equal and the rest as fn~unXL;m;llar
case WC have &,tiZ~/s,,~=2=:~.
hZt;t,,f
;

As an example of the former(N=3) may

be taken the well known MIT shield,
used for biomagnetic research [3].The
form of this shield approaches a sphere
with a magnetostatic shiteldingapproaching-60 dB with 3 mregnetie: shells
made of a material with&&
alO4 .The
former relations give for such shield
6,8*ld2.and s31'r3~~I.IO-~
orp40 dB res%%iveiy).
When the attenuation of-the uniform
field (-60 dB) is taken into account
then the attenuation of the interference souroe far field will be close to
80 dB.
The anisotropic suherioal
shield.
The anisotropic spherioal shield is
treated here as a limit situation for
a multilamcllar enclosure when the
number of shclla grows without limit

where "n" and "t" are indexes of norma1 and tangential directions to the
spherical surface at the point.
The final result for relative attenuation of the n-th spatial mode by
such a shield
i.$
sZ2_ -4.%+I Rotd n-,-r/-mt
S, 3 M+l) c Ro
(7)
which is correct when
(8)

$@$>>I,
nt

Ra=Ro-+d .

It fdilows from (7) that the coefficients of the nonuniform component tend
to zero as&/Ut>>$b,this
tendency being
stronger with increasing mode number
(supposing that (8) is correct).The
desired increase of field homogeneity
of the field within the enclosure is
thus aohieved.
An example.
The nonuniformity of the field inside the magnetic shield made of "isotropic" (M$Ln=&)
and "anisotropic"
(Jut=&-/2,
&*I) material was calculated for the case of an interfering
dipole'at a distance a=Q2dfrom $hc
origin,when d/Ra%10-2,Ko=q=10
.
It is shown that the nonuniformity of
the interfering field4 HPJ/fiIO) lies
below 5% inside the whole enclosure of
anisotropic shield.At the se.mctime for
the isotropic shield a 12% nonuniformity was found for r=O,l.%O .
Conclusion.
It is shown that a passive sphcrical magnetic shield permits a considerable reduction of the relative
nonuniformity of an interfering magnetic field inside the shield.
References.
l.WI$liamson S.J. et al.Biomagnetism
n "Superconductor Applications:
SQUIDS and MachineP,ed.by Schwartz
B.B.,Foner S.,Plenum J?ress,N.Y.,1977/
2.Kaden H.Wirbelstrome und Schirmung
in dcr Nachrichtentcchnic (in German),2nd ed.Berlin:Springer (1959).
3.Cohen D.Rev.de Phys.Appl.,5,53-58,
(fev.1970).

- 517

94P5

F,MP ENCLOSURE PENETRATION AND CABLE COUPLING

Habibur Rahman
Department of Aerospace Engineering
Parks College of St. Louis University
Cahokia, IL 62606
Jose Perini
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13210

Abstract
A very efficient formulation for the problem of a bundle of straight wiers in a rectangular cavity is presented. Any number of wires
in the bundle can be excited and/or terminated
by arbitrary loads and voltages at each end.
The excitation is assumed to be in the form of
a unit voltage source at the point of entry of
the wire in the cavity. The currents in all
bundle wires and the input impedances of all
excited wires are calculated.
Introduction
When aircraft, ships or shielded enclosures are subjected to intense electromagnetic
radiation, such as that of an EMP pulse, it is
well known that very large currents, of the
order of thousands of Amperes, can appear on
cables or cable bundles that interconnect
equipment inside such enclosures. It has also
been observed that if one cable in a bundle is
excited it will excite all others propagating
energy everywhere the bundle goes. If these
cables carry power or data for computer equipment, even small currents can cause irreparable damage.
It is therefore important to study the
mechanism by which the enclosure is penetrated and how the cable coupling occurs so that
ways may be devised to eliminate or attenuate
the induced currents.
Usually the penetration occurs because
small portions of power cables are left unshielded or because they are connected to a
sensor that cannot be shielded such as a nav.,gation light or antenna. The prediction of
this coupling and the calculation of the voltage at the entry point of the enclosure can be
done by using the many available computer
programs for wire coupling. In this paper we
will be concerned primarily with the prediction of the current in a cable inside an enclosure, and the coupling to other cables in
the same bundle, once the voltage at the entry
point is known.
Wire bundles usually run through several
compartments of the enclosure as shown in
Fig. la, where the compartments are assumed
to be rectangular cavities. This problem can

be analyzed if the simpler canonical problem

of Fig. lb is solved first. Here a voltage
source V is applied at one end of a straight
wire W which is terminated by a load ZL at
the opposite cavity wall. Once the input impedance seeing by the generator V and the
currents on the wire as well as in ZL are
known,the original problem can be analyzed as
shown in Fig. lc. Given the load ZL3 the input impedance ZL2 be calculated which in turn
allows the calculation of ZLl. Once ZLl is
known and Vl is set to l+jO volts the current
on wire WI and the voltage V2 across ZLl can
be calculated. With V2 we can proceed in a
similar fashion and calculate the current in
all wires.
Figure 1 shows the case of a single
straight wire in the cavity. If other wires
exist, as in a bundle, the several wires can
be specified and a similar procedure used to
calculate the currents in all wires. The
canonical problem for this case is shown in
Fig. 2 for the case of two wires.
Note that the problem is solved for a
voltage of lCj0 volts. Once the input voltage Vi is known, by solving the external wire
coupling problem, the wire currents can be
calculated by simply multiplying them by Vi.
Problem Formulation
To analyze this problem a rectangular
cavity geometry was used and the wire currents
were expanded in a truncated Fourier series.
Since the wires are parallel to one of the
cavity dimensions, as shown in Fig. 1, the
Fourier series expansion is orthogonal to the
cavity modal expansion simplifying the problem. Next the cavity modal coefficients are
expressed in terms of the currents Fourier
Coefficients and therefore eliminated from
the computation. The problem in principle requires three nested infinite summations. One
is eliminated by the orthogonality with the
Fourier series expansion and a second one was
carried out in closed form. This reduces the
computation time considerably. Usually it is
necessary to use several thousand modes for
the solution to converge. However this does
not cause any problem since only a very small
amount of computer time, of the order of a
fraction of a second for a single wire, is

required. The surface impedance of the wire

can be specified by the user so that loads
can be placed arbitrarily on the wire. This
also allows the treatment of the problem where
the wire does not run the whole length of one
of the cavity dimensions. In this case it is
only necessary to specify a very large surface
impedance for the wire from the point where it
terminates to the wall where the wire would
normally run to. The advantage of this
approach is that the current is still expressed by a Fourier series that runs the
whole length of one of the cavity dimensions,
preserving the orthogonality properties.
The formulation for two wires will be
used here in order to simplify the algebra.
The extension to any number of wires is
straightforward [2]. The geometry of the
problem is illustrated in Fig. 3. The wires
are located at r(i) = (x,yi,si), i=1,2. Assume
that the radius of the wires, ri, are much
smaller than the wavelength so that circumferential currents can be ignored. Time harmonic with angular frequency w and the factor
.jW are understood throughout.
The magnetic vector potential A has to
satisfy the Helmoltz equation
V2& -t k2A = - J

(1)

where k is the wave number of the medium of

the cavity interior, and _J is the source or
impressed current.

y Btcos T
v=o

i=1,2

(2)

Thus, from Eq. (2) we have

x S(y-bi>S(s-ci)

and permittivity respectively. The x-component

of -E is readily written from Eq. (5) as

'
(*
+ k2)Ax
E, = -z---JWEo ax2

(3)

where 5 is the unit vector in the direction

of x and 8 is the impulse function.
Note that J is x-directed and the wires
are thin; so it'is expected that a x-directed
A is sufficient for representing the fields inside the cavity. Thus-Eq. (1) reduces to

(V2+k2)Ex=

f &- d(y--bi)c+.ci)
i=l 0
v=o

tk2 - (?)2}Bi cos 3

B;cosTx&(y-bi)d(z-ci)(4)
5
i=l v=o

In terms of the magnetic vector potential we

can express the electric field E as [ll
E=-

V(V*A)
jwvo
A + -LjWEo

(5)

where u. and EO are the free space permeability

(7)

The general expression for the x-polarized

electric field $ inside the cavity is

Ed=

mIo
nI,prl

*mnp

cos Ex
a

sin=ysin=s
b
c

(8)

where A's are the unknown mode coefficients.

Obviously, the field represented by Eq.
(8) satisfies the boundary conditions on the
walls of the cavity. However, it remains to
satisfy the boundary condition on the surface
of the wire. If we substitute the value of
Ex from Eq. (8) into Eq. (7) and performs integrations on both sides by forming suitable
inner products, we have

mnn

(y)2}

1 Bisin 7
bc(k2-E2 )WEo i=l
mnP

bisin y

ci
(9)

where
KLp

= (?)2+

(7)2+

($)2

(10)

In order to evaluate the coefficients Bi's, we

consider the boundary condition on the surface
of the wire which is given by
iixE
= &(x)1(x)
-tot

(11)

where ii is the unit normal vector on the surface of the wire, Etot is the total electric
field and g(x) is the surface wire impedance.
In view of the assumptions made earlier, Eq.
(11) reduces to
E

- &'(x)Ii(x)
= - ETan

i=1,2

(12)

in
where Etan is the tangential component of the
impressed electric field.
Let us define a testing function of the
following form

wuz+cos
y ;.
i=l

(V2+k2)Ax=-

(6)

Eliminating A, from Eq. (4) by Eq. (6) we have

j4tK2 -

where the B l's are the Fourier coefficients

yet to be determined. The representation of
Eq. (2) converges to Ii(x) on the closed interval 0 -< x -< a.

B;cos f

Let us assume that the current on the

wires inside the cavity are x-directed and
that they undergo variations with respect to x.
In view of this, the unknown currents on the
wires are represented by Fourier cosine series
in the interval 0 < x < a as
Ii(x) =

518

+ 6(y-yi)

{CE;(Y-Yi-r)+6(y-yi+r)16(z-zi)

[b(z-zi-r) + S(z-zi+r>l

(13)

Substituting Ii(x) and E from Eqs. (2) and

(8) into Eq. (12), multi$lying both sides of
the resulting equation scalarly by W and
finally performing integrations with% the
limits of cavity dimensions one obtains a set
of equations that can be put in matrix form as

B1

B2

V1

(14)

V2

References

or

..

first problem is straightforward and the third

should not presentanytheoreticaldifficulties.

ZB = V

[ll

Harrington, R. F., Time Harmonic

Electromagnetic Fields, McGraw-Hill
Company, New York.

[2]

Rahman, H., "Analysis of Wires in a

Rectangular Cavity," Ph.D. Dissertation,
Electrical & Computer Engineering Dept.
Syracuse University, August 1984, also
SU TR-84-8, November 1984.

(15)

The matrices ZLJ represent the self and

mutual coupling between wires. B", i-1,2 are
the vectors of the coefficients of the truncated Fourier expansions of the currents and
the vi, i=1,2 are the wire excitation vectors.
Note that by selecting the testing functions of Eq. (13) the boundary conditions are
being satisfied at four generatices of the
wire at (yi?r,si) and (yi,si+r). The expressions of Eq. (14) are very lengthy but easy to
obtain [2]. Equation (15) is now solved by
inverting the matrix Z
B = Z-l"

El
Y

(16)

b)

giving all the Fourier coefficients of the

currents on the wires.

2,

"2

2L2

"3

"1

2Ll

C)

Fig. l-a) Original problem. b) Canonical

problem. c) Solution of original problem
using the Canonical solution.

ZO:!

Cl\

___ ___

WY

1117i
, 2
II

/,

1'

Fig. 2. Canonical problem for wire

bundles.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The computer program predicts the current
on straight wires or bundle or wires, in rectangular cavities, when one or more wire is
excited and the others are terminated by specified loads. It confirms the practical observation that very high currents can be induced
in wire bundles or parallel wires even when
the wire separation is large. The analysis
can also predict the currents in waveguide
multiple probes without the usual assumption
that only the fundamental mode is present.
The obvious extensions of this work is to
treat the case of cavities of other shapes,
the case where the wire makes one or more bends
before reaching the cavity wall and the case
of surrounding the wire bundle with lossy
dielectric material to attenuate the currents.
The second problem is being analyzed presently
and is the more difficult of the three. The

L
"1

"2

Numerical Results
A few numerical calculations are shown in
Figs. 4 to 9. All cavities are rectangular
and have x,y,z dimensions of 3,4,5 m respectively. Figures 4 and 5 show two wires of
diameter 0.001 m at locations (x, 1.5, 2.0)
and x, 2.5, 3). In both figures wire 1 is
excited at x-3 m by V=l volt and wire 2 is
either connected to the cavity wall or left
open. Note that when open the parasite wire
current is of the same magnitude of the excited even though they are about 1.5 m apart.
Figures 6 and 7 show three parallel wires half
a meter apart. When wire 1 is excited, due to
symmetry wires 2 and 3 have the same current.
When wire 3 is fed, as in Fig. 7, the symmetry
is broken and wires 1 and 2 have different currents. In these two examples the wires not fed
were shorted to the cavity walls. Figures 8
and 9 show a similar situation but for a bundle
of five wires. The wires not fed are shorted
to the walls. The induced currents are about
five to six times smaller. This is still significant taking into consideration that the
bundle diameter is one meter.

"1

Fig. 3. Geometry for the two wire

problems.

- 520

=:
.oo .
(x10-']

LENGTH

IM

.oo
LENGTH

METERS

IN

METERS

Figs.
4 and 5 - Current magnitude for two parallel wires in a rectangular cavity
(3,4,5 m>. F=60 MHZ, 1000 cavity modes, 10 Fourier coefficients, for different
parasite wire termination.

::
(x10-)

.oo
LENGTH

IN

METERS

(X10-1)

LENGTH

IN

METERS

Figs. 6 and 7 - Current magnitude for three parallel wires. Same conditons of
Figs. 4 and 5. Different wires fed. Parasite wires shorted.

LENGTH

IN

METERS

Figs. 8 and 9 - Current magnitude in a five wire bundle.

Same conditions of
Pigs. 4 and 5. Different wires fed. Parisite wires shorted.

- 521

95

P6

MEASUREMENTS OF TRANSFER PARAMETERS

OF SHIELDED CABLES AT FREQUENCIES ABOVE 100 MHz

B. Demoulin, P. Duvinage et P. Degauque

Lille University, Electronics Dept.
59655 Villeneuve d'Ascq Ckdex, France

We propose a method to measure the transfer

parameters of coaxial cables at high frequencies. The usual test setup made by concentric
lines is keeped but the cable under test is
coveredwith an additional shield except along
a small length. This part, exposed to the
disturbing electromagnetic field, behaves as
a shield discontinuity. Matching the disturbing line is not necessary since measurements
are made in time-domain. Results in frequency
domain are determined through FFT procedures
and are given until 1000 MHz.

Limits of the usual benches

Measurements at low frequency
The simplest bench which could be used is
represented in Figure 1.
COWhI

$"?&g

fine
I

1 cd)

,,,,------a#J-----

Introduction
_---The usual method for the measurement of
transfer impedance and admittance of coaxial
cables uses two propagation lines : a disturbing line and the cable under test. In most
cases, the disturbing line is made by a hollow tube which acts as an outer concentric
conductor, the inner conductor being the cable shield itself. This disturbing line is
driven at one end and the transfer parameters
are deduced from the voltages appearing at
each end of the coaxial cable.
At low frequency, thus when the cable length is much smaller than the wavelength, the
transfer parameters are easily determined
from the measurements. However, if the frequency increases, the propagation along the
line cannot be neglected. We shall see on an
example that corrections based on a mathematical analysis does not allow to get results
with a high degree of confidence for frequencies above about 100 MHz. The only solution
is to decrease the cable length but putting a
cable few centimeters long in a usual bench
is not realistic.
We propose a new method of measurement badiscontinuised on the behavior of shield
ties. The coaxial cable has, as usually, a
length of about Im. An additional homogeneous
shield (copper adhesive tape) is added but it
remains a small length of the braid which can
be exposed to the disturbing field. This cable
is then put in a hollow concentric tube such
that the disturbing line is the same as in the
usual benches. To avoid reflection effects
due to mismatches, the line is excited by
pulses
of current with a fast rising time.
We shall describe this method and give results
in the 100 MHz-1000 MHz frequency range.

Fig.1: Experimental set-up

Both the disturbing line (subscript d) and the
coaxial line (subscript o) are matched. At low
frequency, the disturbing voltages at both
ends of the coaxial cable are related to the
transfer impedance Zt and to the transfer
admittance Y t by the following approximate
formulas :
Vo(o) = -~(Zt+ZcoZcdYt)Id(0)L
(I)
Vo(L) = ~(Zt-ZcoZcdYt)Id(0)L
If the tranfer admittance is negligible as for
shields with a high optical coverage ratio,
the disturbing voltages become equal and proportional to the transfer impedance. Otherwise,
both V (0) and V (L) are measured and Z and
Yt are'deduced fgom equations (1) and ($1.
Limits for high frequency
If the reaction of the coaxial cable on the
disturbing line is neglected, the voltages VAL)
and V,(o) are given in the general case by

Vo(o) =

~tZt+Z~oZcdYt)Fot~o,~d,~~~dt~~Lt3~

Vo(L) = %Z -rZ Z Y )F (y y L)Id(o)L (4)

2 t co cd t L o' d'
F. and FL are functions of the propagation
contants of the coaxial line y and of the
disturbing line yd. They chara:terize the propagation of the waves into the structure.

522

As an example, the curves in Figure 2 represent their variations as a function of frequency. The velocity of the waves into the
two lines is v. = 2.10Sm/s and vd = 3.1OSm/s.

oddihnal

,Shield

I1
t

&Id

of Me

aable

~___GL.._?!~~~
-fm 2

________,,

Oscif

f0sCope

Fig.3: Test setup for high frequencies

Fig.2: Influence of the frequency :

variations of F. and FL
If the transfer admittance is neglected,
the low frequency approximation (F =F ~1) is
valid with and error which does no ? eiceed
10 % if
f < 10 MHz if V,(o) is measured
or f < 100 MHz if Vo(L) is measured
At higher frequencies, the calculated values of F, and FL must be introduced for the
determination of Zt. However this supposes
that the propagation constants in the two
lines are well known and that these lines remain matched whatever the frequency. If these
conditions can be verified for the coaxial
cable, difficulties occur for the disturbing
line since it requires complicated mechanical
parts at the ends of the bench.
Even if all these conditions could be satisfed, we note from Figure 2 that F and F
L
have small values at high frequencieg and
are equal to zero for few frequencies 111.
This leads to a low precision in this range
of frequencies. From our experience, one can
expect to reach 100 MHz but not higher values 121. A new method is thus needed.
Measurement at high frequency
Principle
As we have previously outlined, the solution to increase the frequency limit is to
decrease the length of the cable. In order to
avoid to test a cable few centimeters long
(and thus to measure the end effects), we
propose to start from a cable Im long but to
add on the braid an additional shield, made
by a copper adhesive tape for example, except
on a length 6. The configuration is represented in Figure 3.

The cable under test behaves now as a wellshielded cable (perfect shield at high frequency) except along a small discontinuity.
To avoid to match the disturbing line, measurements are made in the time domain with pulses of current such that its rising time is
much smaller than the time of propagation
along the line. The additional shield being
very effective, the disturbing voltages appearing at both ends of the coaxial cable are due
to the penetration through the braid of length
6. This length must be chosen so that the
"low frequency" approximation previously described, can be applied. This leads to a length
of few centimeters (3 cm to 5 cm).
Signals processing
To simplify the explanation, let us assume
that the transfer impedance behaves as an
inductance L . In this case, the effect of the
braid appearE during the transition time of
the disturbing current. The shape of the various signals are given in Figure 4 if the
discontinuity is situated in the middle of
the cable.
We note that the effect of the shield discontinuity occurs at a time 0 /2 + Qd/2 after
the beginning of the pulse of'current where
So and 8d are the durations of propagation
along the entire disturbing and coaxial lines.
The effect of the discontinuity on the voltages V (0) and V (L) corresponds to the derivative xf the curgent. Then they are reflections of the disturbing current at the end of
the line which give rise to oscillations of
the measured voltages.
TO
process these signals, we first make a
shift in the time domain such that all the
signals appear at the same time. (correction
of the time of propagation). Then the signals
are "cleaned" to eliminate all the reflection
effects after the significant response. Before
applying Fast Fourier Transform procedures,
there is a convolution of the signals (almost
Id(O
t))
by the Nicholson Transform
Method 141.

523

95

Low @ical

Cowyage

P6

ratio

--

~----_----_--

Fig.6: Variation of the phase angle of Zt

To obtain these results in the 10 kHz 1000 MHz frequency range, three experiments
have been made successively with various rising times of the disturbing pulse of current:
rd = lus, IOOns, 6OOps., the window for the
Fourier Transform being respectively 4Ous,
4~s and Sons.
We see from Figure 5 that above 1 MHz, the
amplitude of the transfer impedance remains
proportional to frequency. This behavior agrees with a theoretical model base on the diffraction by small apertures 131, 151.
If we now consider the case of a coaxial
cable with a high optical coverage ratio (90X),
we show in Figure 7 and Figure 8 the variation
of Zt between 10 MHz and 1000 MHz. As a comparison the previous results have also been
noted. We see the limit of validity of the
results at about 1 GHz especially on the variation of the phase angle.
Fig.4: Shape of the signals I and V
Experimental results
The variation of the amplitude and phase
angle of the transfer impedance of a coaxial
cable with a low optical coverage ratio is
given in Figure 5 and Figure 6.
(Coverage ration A = 60 X>

0-

OfLf

cbvercye

mhb

Fig.5: Variation of the amplitude of the

transfer impedance

Fig.7: Amplitude of the tranfer impedance for

two cables (low and high coverage
ratio)

524

An other limit is the sensitivity of this

method of measurement. Indeed for cables with
a high shielding effectiveness, the signals
have to be amplified in a wide frequency
band and with a good signal to noise ratio.

Conclusion
Measurement of the transfer impedance of
coaxial cables above 100 MHz is not easy if
the propagation along the lines cannot be neglected. We have shown that the usual setup
made by the cable under test and a concentric
tube can be used if only a small part of the
cable is exposed to the disturbing field.
Furthermore the approach in time domain allows to avoid to match the disturbing line.

_/t

--------References

III

Martin, A.R.: The shielding effectiveness

of long cables : maximum leakage.
5th Symposium on E.M.C. (Zurich), Proc.
379-384, (1983).

121Demoulin,
Fig.8: Phase angle of the transfer impedance
for two cables
Limits of the method
As it has been previously outlined, the
length of the discontinuity must be small
enough so that the electromagnetic field is
nearly uniform along it. On an other hand,
this discontinuity must characterize the
braid and thus it must have a value of at
least few centimeters. A compromise between
these two assuptions leads to a discontinuity
of 3cm to 5cm long. The rising time of the
pulse of current is chased to about 400 ps.
In this case,
the upper limit of frequency
is between 1 and 2 GHz. However the behavior
of the cable for frequencies smaller than
1000 MHz is sufficent for nearly all the
applications.

B.: Etude de la penetration des

ondes Clectromagnetiques a travers des
blindages homogenes ou des tresses h
structures coaxiales. These de Doctorat
d'Etat, Lille, (1981).

I31 Vance, E.F.: Shielding effectiveness of

braided-wire shields. I.E.E.E. Trans. on
E.M.C., vol. 17, no 2, 71-77,
(1975).
141 Duvinage, P.: Etude et caractdrisation
electromagnetique des discontinuites de
blindage. Application B la mesure des
parametres de transfert de csbles coaxiaux aux frequences &levees. These Doctorat 3e cycle, Lille, (1984).
151 Demoulin, B., Degauque, P. et Cauterman,M.:
Shielding effectiveness of braids with
high optical coverage, 4th Symposium on
E,M.C. (Zurich), Proc. 491-495, (1981).

- 525

MAGNETIC
OF

TWISTED
TO

MULTICORE

TWISTED

AND

AG, Power
Erlangen,

The following
means can
reduce
the interference
runs :

be used to
along cable

- Connecting
cal paths

to

- Using

screened

- Separation
different

cores

conducting

the

points

are

dealt

with

1. Voltage

induced
in a twisted
twowire line
by the field
of an untwisted
two-wire
line

2.

Magnetic
multicore

stray
cable

field

of

a twisted,

3. Current

induced
in a rectangular
loop by the field
of a twisted,
multicore
cable

4. Voltage

wire line
multicore

THEIR

TWO-WIRE

COUPLING
LINES

Gonschorek
and Automation

Republic

of

Group

Germany

Introduction
The simplest
way of estimating
the worst case interference
of a
constant
magnetic
field
on a twisted
two-wire
line
is to consider
an
effected
area formed by a half
length
of twist.
As shown in Fig.
1 the vector
of
the area influenced
by the magnetic
field
changes
its direction
every
half
twist
length.
This is indicated
in the figure
by a plus and a minus
sign.
S

= length

RO = core

of

twist

radius

cables

This paper deals

with the effects
of twisting
of power and signal
lines
to reduce
the magnetic
stray
fields
and the magnetic
coupling.
The following
individually:

AND

symmetri-

of cables
conducting
signal
and power levels

- Twisting
of
same signal

CABLES

Federal

Knowledge
of the active
and passive
interference
behaviour
of the devices
and components
is necessary
in order
to be able to analyze
the EMC of
a system.
Quantitative
values
regarding
the interference
radiation
of the
cables
interconnecting
the devices
as well as the interference
coupling
into these
cables
is necessary,

signal

FIELDS

Engineering

The electromagnetic
compatibility
(EMC) between
power and electronic
systems
is becoming
increasingly
difficult
due to the increasing
power
ratings
on one hand and the reduced
signal
levels
and increasing
packaging
density
on the other.

the

STRAY

NON-TWISTED

K.H.

Siemens

96w

induced
in a twisted
twoby the field
of a twisted,
cable

Fig.

1: Schematic
representation
of a twisted
two-wire

line

Assuming any given

length
of a line,
the maximum area which can be subjected to interference
is, as stated
above,
defined
by half
the twist
length.
A rough approximation
of this
area
is given
by
A = ROSS
and the
voltage
i

maximum induced
is

(1)
open-circuit

= w.B*RO.S.

The effects
of large
changes
in the
magnetic
stray
field,
such occur
in the fields
of twisted
cables,
can
at present
be only inadequately
estimated. To improve this unsatisfactory
situation
this
paper deals
in detail
with twisted
lines.
Simple
formula
are derived
for analyzing
the interference
effects.

(21

Voltage
induced
in a twisted
twowire line
by the field
of a nontwisted
two-wire
line
The arrangement
in Fig.
2.

studied

is

526
The resulting
a function
of
parallel
path

shown

.04

0.00
I

Fig.

2:

IT

T--

3:

---!+ 1
r-d 1 *
i r+d
>> d, this
equation
as follows:

spacings
r
be simplified
=

po.

&.G

d2

0
F

M = 37.4

(3)
The coupled

r2

the
for

value of
spacings

.lOo%.

voltage

2d.RO.S
(5)
i-2
*
it was assumed that
Furthermore,
the magnetic
flux density
in the
influenced
area remains
constant
and is equal to the value along
the
centre
axis.
i

= uo . f.1

For I = 1 A, d = 0.5 cm, r = 10 cm,

RO = 3 mm, S = 20 cm and f = 10 kHz ,
we obtain
the value of the induced
voltage
= 7.5 uv .
i
In order
to assess
the accuracy
of
the approximation
(51, the arrangement shown was calculated
for mutual
inductivity
by means of a computer
program.
The program has already
been described
in detail
in /1,2/.

2.

pH .

voltage
w.1.M

is

given

= 2.35

uV .

by

exact
solution
in (5) is

F = 10 dB .
The approximation
(5) can be used for
all
practical
cases
as described
above.
Extending
equation
(5) by a correction
factor
k=0.5 derived
from Fig.
3
reduces
the error
to
F = 4 dB .
Magnetic

,
the coupled
r >> d is

.20
x [ml

= 10 kHz, d = .5 cm,
RO = 3 mm, S = 20 cm

The error
between the
and the approximation

Assuming that for estimation

purposes
the area which can be influenced
(based
on the twist
data)
is given
by
A=RO*S

.is

It can be seen that for x = 10 cm and

20 cm the mutual inductance
and thus,
the induced
voltage
is zero and for
x = 5 cm and 15 cm the mutual
inductance
has a maximum, equal to

In this
case the error
between the
exact
solution
(3) and the approx.
is proportional
to the
solution
(4
ratio
(d/r) 4 :
F=

.i2

Mutual inductance
for the
arrangement
shown in Fig.
x = Length of the parallel

path.

ui
BZ

.OS

I q 1 A, f
r = 10 cm,

The magnetic
flux density
of the
non-twisted
cable
for field
points
in the xy-plane
is given
by the
equation

For
can

Fig.

Arrangement
of a non-twisted
pair of wires
causing
interference
in a twisted
pair

Bz = po+*

mutual inductance
as
the length
of the
is shown in Fig.
3.

stray
field
of
multi-core
cable

a twisted,

The magnetic
flux density
of a
conductor
of finite
length
in space
is given
by the equation

with

the

transformation

ratios
(7)

a
E _

/q-To/

(8)

/(;+-~o,x(?l-Fo~/
_______

(9)

/F1-iro/

y=

(??-Fo)* F1-Fo

(10)

=x3

See also Fig.

4 and the
description
in /l/.

detailed

96

527 -

~7

with
BXI
(Px=atan BXR

(15)
(16)

BY1
AY2 = BYR2tBY12 , cPy=atan BYR

(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)

AX2=BXR2+BX12,

AZ2 =BzR2tBz12,

Cp
=atan
Z

s
6

X4+Az4t2.K2*AZ2*cos(~K-2~z-

;)

AX4tAy4t2. AX2.AY2.COS ( 260x-2qy)

4:

Fig.

Geometry
equation

used
(6)

for

AX2.sin(2$t

deriving

(PX=atan

The magnetic
stray
field
of One core
of a twisted
cable
is obtained
approximately
by representing
the core by
a polygon
and applying
equation
(6)
to each side of this
polygon.
The
representation
of one turn of a core
by 12 straight
lines
has proved
to
be sufficiently
accurate,
Considering
these
bases,
the treatment
of multicore
cables
becomes only a programming
problem.
A current
I. in a wire or in a core
having
amprttude
Ii and phase angle
can be represented
by the equation
Ii
This
flux

= Ii*(cos
current
density

vi+

Ii
Tf

j -

generates

Bi=BXi.~xBYi.b

sin

Each summand in equation

the current
1, according
(11) as its %efficient.

(11)

(Pi).

a magnetic

+BZ..~
-1

i,
Pi

T)tAY2*sin

(21)
(22)

(2%+5)

(23)

AX2.cos (2px ; )tAY2. cos (2cy ; )

If we now use these

equations
to study
the magnetic
stray
field
characteristics
of a twisted
two-wire
line,
we obtain
rather
suprising
results.
Fig.
5 show the magnetic
flux density
of a twisted
two-wire
line
for I = 1 A.
The line
data are:
length
of twist
RO = 2.76 mm.
S = 90 cm, core radius
The radial
spacing
r as measured
from
the centre
of the cable
is drawn On
the abzissa.
Parameter
x for the individual
curves
is the axial
distance
from the beginning
of the cable.
The
lines
of the field
points
thus run
perpendicular
to the axis of the cable.

(12)

(12) has
to equation

cable not twisted, x = 5 m

If a system contains
a number (N) of
wires
or cores
carrying
currents
of
different
amplitudes
and phase angles,
the total
magnetic
flux density
is
given
by the vectorial,
phase-correct
addition
of the individual
components.
Fig.
i?

-ges=

+(BYicos

vi+j*BYi.sin

= (BXR+j+BXI)$

qi)a

+ (BYR+j*BYI)p

at

one
from

(AX2+AY2+AZ2+L2)

values
the

The curve
is harmonic
for x = O! the
field
strength
decreases
approximately
in inverse
proportion
to the square
of the spacing.

field
the
1

of
Magnet ic flux density
a 10 m long twisted
cable,
carrying
a current
of 1 A,
on field
point
lines
perpendicular
to the cable
axe,
Parameter
x is the axial
distance
from one cable
end

It can be seen that for various

Of X widely
different
curves
of
stray
field
are obtained.

+ (BZR+j-BZI) .<
The maximum amplitude
point
can be calculated
formula

5:

(14)

For x = 80 cm, there

is a sharp drop
to a local
minimum value close
to the

cable.
Thereafter,
the field
to a local
maximum and then
ly approaches
zero.

528 -

increases
continuous-

A better
picture
of the magnetic
flux
density
is obtained
by a three
dimensional
representation
(Fig.
6).
In Fig.
6, the display
range in the
axial
direction
is from x = -1 m
to x
5 m and in radial
direction
from r = .I to r = 6.1 m.
q

Fig.

7:

Magnetic
flux density
NYM 4 x 4 cable
Display
range:
x = -1 m to 5 m
1 m to 6.1 m
r=.

for

of the twisted
two-wire
line.
This
curve runs above all
the curves
of
the twisted
line.
Fig.

6:

Magnetic
flux density
for
a twisted
two-wire
line;
Display
range:
x = -1mtox=5m
1 m to r = 6.1 m
r=.

As can be seen minimums in the axial

direction
occur
at regular
intervals
corresponding
to the length
of twist.
It is also
interesting
to note that
in close
proximity
to the line
weak
minimums occur
in the axial
direction
at distances
corresponding
to half
the twist
length.
Fig.
7 shows the magnetic
stray
field
of a twisted,
four-core
cable
used
for electrical
installation
in buildings,
type NYM 4 x 4 (length
of twist
S = 90 cm, core radius
RO = 2.76 mm).
A symmetrical
three-phase
current
of
I = 1 A was impressed
on the cable.
There was no current
flowing
through
the remaining
core.
The display
range
is the same as in Fig.
6. It can be
seen that there
is hardly
any difference between
Fig.
6 and 7.
The behaviour
of
cally
the same.

both

From these
figures
one
that the maximum fields
the ends of the lines.

lines

is

Thus formulas
(3) and (4) can be used
for a worst case estimation
of the
magnetic
stray
field
of a twisted
cable,
replacing
d by RO.

Current
1 00
Here
example

induced
multicore

in a rectangular
cable

again,
we shall
from /2/.

consider

It is required
to calculate
the current in the sheath
of a twisted
cable
NYKY 3 x 185195 which is laid with
a spacing
b above a metallic
cable
tray and
whose sheath
is connected
regularly
at spacings
x*to
the cable
tray.
See also Fig.
8.

l:YKY

3x 185195

\I/<R=Scm

basi-

may conclude
occur
at

Fig.
5 also
shows the magnetic
flux
density
along a non-twisted,
very
long two-wire
line
with spacing
between the cores
twice
the core radius

the

&

IKM

/////////////////////:///)////
Fig.

8:

Model for calculation

of
the current
IKM in a cable
sheath

three-phase
current
For a symmetrical,
the effective
mutual
I in the cable,
inductance
between the three
cores
and the loop formed by the cable
sheath
and the cable
tray can be
calculated
by:
-MlM2

-M1M3

In the above equation,

the mutual inductances
dividual
cores
and the

-M2M;

In the
placed
obtain

loop
(25)

= W. M
*I 9
max

The current
in a closed
in Fig.
8 of this
paper
equation

loop as shown
is given
by the

i
'KM

=
f-

R2-y-w2z27

of the
R = Ohmic resistance
consisting
of the cable
and the cable
tray,
L = Self

inductance

of

(26)

'

the

loop
sheath

IKM=I.

The factor
as

the

Mmax

reduction

can

(27)

be defined

factor

The reduction
factor
k = 0.167.
The error
computer
calculation
Voltage
line

k.

The maximum cable sheath current

occurs
if the spacings
at which the
sheath
is connected
to the cable
tray
is equal
to half
the twist
length.
If this
spacing
is equal to the full
twist
length
the cable
current
is
zero under ideal
conditions.
For a simple
worst case assessment
of
the cable
sheath
current
we require,
besides
the self
inductance
as given
by the equation
(28)
also
the mutual inductance
M,,,.It
can be estimated
by replacing
the culprit
line
by a non-twisted
two-wire
line
and the assumption
of a constant
magnetic
field
over the influenced
area :

(29)

nH.
is calculated
to
as compared to the
is thus negligable.

induced
in a twisted
two-wire
by the field
of a twisted,
multicore
cable

The first
example concerns
the coupling
between
two twisted
two-wire
lines.
The arrangement
is shown in
Fig.
9.

___

Fig.

The self
inductance
of the loop
is
L = 333 nH in the above example so that
the reduction
factor
becomes
k = 0.163.

'

The most confused

situation
is the
case of magnetic
coupling
between
two
twisted
cables.
We shall
here consider
two such examples.
The results
obtained
from a computer
program are compared
to
the approximate
solutions
obtained
by
assuming
a non-twisted
two-wire
line
as the cable
causing
the interference.

If we neglect
the ohmic resistance
of
the loop,
which is permissible
only at
higher
frequencies
O>l
kH), we obtain
a maximum cable
sheath
current
M
- max
L

M
max = 55.5

Y
loop

(;;td2)

~7

above equation
r must be reby b/2 and d by RO. We then
the following
value

(24)

From Fig.
8 in /I/
we obtain
for
xw
.6 m, being half
the twist
length,
= 54 nH as the maximum value
M
oFathe effective
mutual inductance.

96

M max=+R).$$-.

Mi, M2, M3 are

between
the inaffected
loop.

The induced
voltage
in an open
is thus given
by the equation

529

--___________

9:

M
-

52
_-

x0=1. 5m
Arrangement
of
two-wire
lines

-__-___
X

two twisted

The influencing
(culprit)
cable
a twist
length
Sl = 1 m, a core
RI = 1 cm and a length
of 5 m.

has
radius

The influenced
(victim)
cable
has
a twist
length
S2 = 0.5 m = S1/2,
and a core radius
R2 = 1 cm.
The influenced
cable
begins
at
= 1.5 m and runs
parallel
with
a spacing
of 10 CIIJto the influencing
cable
up to x = x .
X0

Fig IO shows the mutual inductance

of this
arrangement
as a function
of the length
of the influenced
cable.
The mutual inductance
is zero
x* - xo = S2. It can be seen
a local
minimum occurs
at
x* - xo = S2/2;
local
maxiums
approx.
0.46 nH occur
to the
and right
of this point.
At a current
of I = 1 A and f
in the influencing
cable,
the

for
that
of
left
= 1 kHz
maximum

530 -

induced
voltage
cable
is
Ui =

in

Mmax

0.

the
I

be used
accuracy.

influenced
2.89 PV.

in

spite

of

the

large

in-

I
.15

.20

661

[PHI 646

431
215
T
0.00
.20

.I0

0.00

.30

.40

Xf - 1.5

Fig.

10: Mutual

inductance
arrangement
shown

.50
[ml

for the
in Fig.

= p, .f

*I .=LFQ.S.
r2

(30)

The shorter
of the twist
lengths
of the two cables
is to be used
S; here S = S2. We thus obtain
i

= 12.5

for

pV.

The error
is relatively
large
(factor
4 = 12 dB). One should
not
however overlook
that we have here
assumed ideal
conditions
which exist
very rarely.
The second
example handles
the coupling
between
an electrical
cable
NYM 4 x 4
carrying
a three-phase
current
of
two-wire
line
I = 1 A and a twisted
laid
close
to it.
Referring
to Fig.
9, line
1 is the
NYM 4 x 4 cable
with a twist
length
Sl = 90 cm and a core
radius
two-wire
RI = 2.76 mm. The influenced,
line
2 with S2 = 20 cm and A2 q 1 mm
is laid
at a centre
to centre
distance
of r = IO mm from the influencing
starting
at x0 q 0.5 m.
cable,

i
From equation
of
ui
=

6.9

we obtain
pV

.5

[ml

Mutual inductance
for the
arrangement
of a twisted
NYM 4 x 4 cable
and a twisted
two-wire
line
remarks

Knowledge
of these
peripheral
ditions
add weight
to the use
approximate
formula.

conof

References
/I/

Gonschorek,
K.H.:
Numerische
Berechnung
der durch Steilstromimpulse
induzierten
Spannungen und Strijme;
Siemens
Forschungsund Entwickl .-Ber.,
Bd. 11, 1982, ppa. 235-240

/2/

Gonschorek,
K.H.:
Application
of Computers
for the Determination
of Magnetic
and Electromagnetic
Coupling;
5. Symposium on EMC, Zurich,
1983,
Sci.
Contrib.
70 M3

131

Bridges,
J.E.:
Study of LowFrequency
Fields
for Coaxial
and Twisted-Pair
Cables;
10. TRI-Service
Conference
on EMC, 1964, ppa. 475-495

a value

The error
in this
example
is 8 dB,
For a conservative
assessment
of
the magnetic
interference
between
twisted
cables
equation
(30) should

x* -

I
.25

Exact assessment
of the magnetic
stray
fields
and of the magnetic
coupling
of
twisted
lines
is only possible
by the
use of computer
programs.
Four arrangements are investigated
extensively.
The
value of computer
calculations
is however not entirely
undisputed
as the
actual
physical
condition
is not the
ideal
one which is assumed when carrying out theoretical
studies
/3/. When
twisting
the conductors
together
the
coupling
is reduced
by the compensation
effect
of opposing
field
or area
components.
The result
is almost
always
a small difference
between very large
figures
so that any manufacturing
inaccuracies
lead very quickly
to large
deviations
between
the theoretical
and
the actual
values.
The magnetic
field
of a coaxial
cable
is a good example.

I_Iv .

(30)

I
.10

An effective
method of reducing
the magnetic
coupling
between power
supply
and signal
cables
or between
signal
cables
themselves
is to twist
the cores
belonging
together.

Fig.
11 shows
the curve of the mutual
inductance
for the above arrangement.
From this,
the maximum amplitude
of the coupled
voltage
in line
2
for f = 50 Hz can be calculated
as
= 2.7

11:

Concluding

If a non-twisted
two-core
line
is
taken for the influencing
line,
the
coupled
open-circuit
voltage
can
be calculated
according
to equation
(5):

ui

Fig.

8
.05

- 531

97a1

PROJECT OF A RAILWAY ELECTRIFICATION

FROM THE EMC POINT OF VIEW

M. Di Stefano
FS (Italian Railways)
Roma, Italy

G.L. Solbiati
SIRTI S.p.A.
Milano, Italy

Introduction

Basic criteria for the project

The expansion of railway traffic in Sardinia, one of the largest Italian islands led, to the "resolution
of electrifying in the 25 kV, 50 HZ ac
single phase traction system the most
important FS lines of the island.

The Italian rules 'concerning

the problem of interference [I] define as induced the telecom lines
which are, at least for a part of
their route, at less than 3 km from
an inducing line.

These lines, having a total len

gth of about 400 km, connect CagliariT
the main town of the above district,
with the greatest commercial ports,fun
damental for the import-export move ments with the continent.

In Sardinia the cablesforp;

blic service which fall in this case, relating to the traction lines
to be electrified, have a total ley!
gth of about 1,053 km (fig. 1):more
in detail the cables are:

The same towns are also linked

by a system of main roads, along which
telecom cables for public service are
laid: the cables are both for long dis
tance service, with coaxial pairs an;i
for short distance service with symmetrical pairs.

symmetrical pair cables :

178 km
coaxial pair cables
875 km
0.7/2.9 mm : 91 km : 848'kmgpair
'l.2/4.4mm :439 km :2772 km-pair
2.6/9.5 mm :345 km :2252 km-pair

Owing to the orographic configuration of the island, the road system covers a considerable length in
proximity to the railway network, and
therefore, the problem of the electro
magnetic compatibility ( EPIC) betwee;;
telecom cables and traction
system
takes up a great importance.
The same problem alsoarises for
signalling and telecom railway cables
which are laid inside therailwaytrack
area.
This paper shows the project
approach followed and the
results
of the project under the EMC fea
tures.
A very short description of the
calculation method for evaluating voltages and currents in a multiconductor
system, widely used in this project,
is also given in Appendix.

A preliminary analysisofthe
problem showed that a large percentage of these cables wouldhavebeen
affected by interference, with re markable effects, if no protective
measures had been taken.
Railway signalling and telecorncables, laid along thetrack.and
thus more affected by electromagnetic coupling, are expected to be:
telecom
: 46 symm. pairs : 400 km
signalling: 1200 km
From a general pointofview,
the protective measures can concern
both the induced cables andthetrac
tion line.
On the basis of economical
considerations it was considered
more suitable to look over the trac
tion system only in order to insure
the EMC with all theexisting cables
for public service, and thentolook

- 532 -

ne the type of cables, as to the shiel

ding characteristics.

railwayline t0
be electrified

To this purpose it is possible

to evaluate the compatibility using a
single pair railway cable-inducing section where the latter is a reference
section with a configuration proper to
abridge the most severe conditions existing in the 13 actual sections.

telecomoables

The admissible limits for the

different cable types are shown in table 1.

COAX CABLES

FOR
PUBLIC SERVICE
SYMM. 4cABms
FOR
PUBLIC SERVIGE
SIGNALLINGAND
TELECOM
RAILWAY CABLES

*I

--

60

1200

-_

60

430*

60

430

Tab. 1 Limitsused in the project

1 Schematicroute of railwaylines
and telecompubliccablesin
Sardinia

ble 1
which
pling
lines

The figures marked with x in ta

are given by the Italian Rules
only refer toelectromagneticcou
between telecom lines and power
under fault conditions [I] .

Other limits were ,,defined by

the telecom system owners on the basis
of the CCITT Directives [2] .

the railway cables only in order

to assure the EMC with the traction
system so shaped.

o%$

Looking at the power

SUPPlY
scheme of the traction line, the
13
sections between a feeder station
and the adjacent midpoint track set tion cabin (MPSC) are regarded as inducing lines: their lengths vary be;
ween 19 and 38 km (fig, 6).
To take into account the speci
fit characteristics of each inducea
cable for public service ( screening,
length, distance from the railway,
...) in connection with the specific
characteristics of the inducing sections (length, train locations, absor
bed currents, .,.I
52 inducing line=
induced cable pairs have to be considered.
Different considerations
be made for the railway cables.

can

Goal of the project is to defi

Preliminary project
This stage of project was car ried out by FS (Italian Railways)in or
der to make the most proper choices foi!
the project, taking into account the
EMC with telecom cables for public ser
vice.
For this stage of project the
following assumptions were considered:
- the traction line is powered by 6
feeder stations each feeding radially line sections as far as the nearest MPSC(s);
- traction currents, for each inducing
section, are picked out in the most
severe 5 minutes, with reference to
the maximum expected traffic (fig.2).
Among the possible choices, the

533

97a1

MPSC

FS

telecom cable

FS
traction line
1,'

' 1,
+

1
&_I

11

13

12

li

lh

MPSC Mid-Point Seotion Cabin

train location (at time t')
Ii

FS Feeder station
li train location (at time t)

Fig. 2

1 l'lj

Faction currents for two inducing section, both inducing the same telecom
cable (asan eX!%Wle).

- classic, with or without the

wire;
- with autotransformers;
- with booster transformers.

return

contact

olassio

following ways to carry out the 25 kV,

50 Hz, ac traction system were COnSidg
red (fig. 3, 4)
Ill<<&:;

rails
ground

analysis
The first step of the
involved the optimization of signifi cant parameters
(conductor section, ma
terials, geometric arrangement,
...)of
the traction system for each mentioned
choice.

with autotransformers
1

feeder
25 kv
contact
line

-_______--_______-

Then, following the calculation

method described in [3] , the
results
of coupling between the 13 inducingsec
tions, for every possible choice of eand each telecom cable
lectrification,
for public service, were
computed
in
the form of emf induced on
the
cable
sheath [4] .

--------wire
(retur
rails
mnmmmnnmmnmmmnmmmmmmground

with booster transformers

=

The analysis of the results

to the following considerations:

led

it is possible to use classic elec trification in some sections only;

in some sections electrificationboth
boos
with autotransformers
and with
ster transformers can assure the EMF
with the cables for public service:
in some sections electrificationwith
booster transformers is necessary to

Fig. 3

contact
line
return
wire

The three possible ways tooarry out

the 25 kv, 50 Hz, a.o. traotion
system

feeder

telecomcable

return
emf
E

wire
wire

railwayoable

Fig. 4

Geometrical
arrangementof the traction
line conductorsand of the railwaycable
electrification
system:

guarantee the compatibility.

In fig. 5, from [4] the values
of the emf induced on thecablesheath
are plotted, for thecableaffected by
the highest induction.
Considerations notdependingon
the EMC problem led to the conviction
that the solution with autotransfor mers would not have been quite satisfactory and therefore itwas stated to
consider the choice between classic
system and system with booster transformers as the project trend for elec
trification.

Definitive project
The EMC definitive project was
developed by SIRTI SpA as a member of
the TEAM Consortium to whom FS entruE
ted the project and the implementation
of the Sardinian line electrification.
The first step of the definiti
ve project consisted inevaluatingthz
measures to be taken on the traction
system in order to assure theEMCwith
the public telecom network.This phase
was developed according to the preli-

classic
withoutreturnwire
l2- classicwith returnwire
3 - with autotransformers
4- with boostertransformers

Fig. 2 The publictelecom cableaffectedby

the highestinduction:emf inducedon
the cablesheath
minary project, by considering the al_
ternative between the classic system
and the booster transformer one.
To this purpose we basedonthe
following elements:
- FS and MPSC positions;
- position of traction system condug
tors and characteristics;
- cables position and their screens
characteristics;
- admissible values for 'the induced
voltages.
Use was made of the calculation method adopted forevaluatingvol.
tages and currents in a multiconductor system and shown in Appendix, as
wellasofthe calculationmethod shown
in [5] and [6] for evaluating the vo_l
tages induced on a telecom cable.
The calculationbas been per formed for each one of the 52 indu -

97a1

- 535

cing line-induced cable pairs in 02

der to determine the sections for
which:

to account requirements different

from the EMC ones.
Fig.

6 shows theresultsob

- no particular measures are requi-

tained.

red;
- just the use of a return conduc tor in parallel with rails is required;
- the use of boostertransformersis
required.

The second step of the definitive project was the evaluation of the screencharacteristics
and other protective measures to
be applied to telecom and Signalling cables for railway service.
This phase was developed ontheba
sis of the traction line configuration coming from the first step.

equipped
For the sections
with booster transformerstheirmost
convenient positioning has been determined, while theb.t. characteris
tics have been chosen eventakingig

AS the cables position is

constante along the line (fig. 4)
cable
the
the emf induced on
sheath depends on thetractioncur
rent distribution and on the indu
ted length only.
For these reasonswedeemed
it useful to perform the EMC calculations on one reference
pair
railway cable-traction line. The
reference cable has been supposed
to have one end in the FS: the re
ference inducing section is thz
longest FS-MPSC sectionassociated
with a traction currentdiagramob
tained as a wrapping of the ac tUa1 current diagrams onthe 13FSMPSC sections.
For evaluating the emf per
unit length induced on the cable
sheaths, use was made of the calculation method adopted for ob taining voltages and currents in
a multiconductor system, shown in
Appendix: the emf induced on the
cable conductors was evaluated V.
sing the calculation method shown
in [5] and [6].
This calculation procedure
has been applied to the reference
inducing section considering the
three alternatives coming fromthe
first step of the definitive project.

MPSC
0 FS

2C$ classic,withoutreturnwire
p.ppw 4% olassio,with returnwire
wti
35$ with boostertransformers
(4,5 km waced)
5$ with boostertransformers

(2,5km spaced)
Fig. 6

Eleotrifioation
type,as the result
of the definitiveproject

On the basis of the screening characteristics ofsomecable

types, suggested by the experiences, this step of the definitive
project allowed us to know per ca
ble type and per kind of traction
system the maximum electrical len
gth of the conductors accordingt_'E;
the admissible limits for the induced emfs (tab. 1).
Where required the electri
cal continuity of the conductors
is cut off by
using isolating
transformers.
Fig. 7 shows a flow-chart
summarizing the calculation proce
dure.

- 536 -

Conclusions
bhe

sing how to carry out

system.

The evaluation of the electrothe

magnetic compatibility
between
traction system and telecomsystemsis
in the proof remarkable importance
ject of an ac 25 kVi 50 Hz
traction
apsystem: when the electrification
plies to a railway network placed whe
devere telecom networks are quite
loped, as in Sardinia, thisevaluaticin
chofor
in fundamentally important

traction

approach we have
The project
followed usescalculationmethods
(Q
pendix,[5],[6])
which for their gene
rality and flexibility
prove
quite
proper and lead to detailed
choices
for the precision of the results.

preliminary
project
1
public cables
position
I

possible measures
traction side

_
Et

railway net.
configuration

alternatives
for screens

dyiGGzJ
I

railway cables
position

F/

rr

-1

actual
inducing
section

--

"(IF;\
1

I
i
i

voltage induced
on the public
cables oonduotors

I
t
eleotrification
type for each
section

i
]
!
!

STEP 1

Fig. 7

inducing
section

multi
cona,

Plow-chart of definitive projeot

I
induced e.m,f.
on the railway
cable sheath
I
I

reference pair:
inducing section
-induced cable
I

/----a
I

e.m.f. induced
on the railway
cables conductors
I
lengths of the
*
electrical
continuity

L tion of the iso@

ting transformers

STEP 2

97m

- 537

in the k-th

Appendix
[J]

Computing voltages and currents

multiconductor
system.

in a

The calculation method is a 2

solution
of
nified approach to the
conductor system in which voltages t
U, and currents, I, depend on genera
tors inserted in the system, G , on
the coupling from external sources ,
C, and on the system self and mutual
parameters, 2, Y;
(U,I)

The whole system is formed by

return ciras many conductor-earth
cuits as the conductor are: the sysinto fl sections W
tem is subdivided
(they can have different lengths and
the
different parameters 2 and Y) :
the
the V sections ' are
ends of
I'pointsII.
inserted
in
Both generators
the system and coupling fromexternal
sources are described through voltage sources inserted in the sections
and current sources inserted in the
points.
The solution, currents in the
sections, voltages in the points, is
given by the following formulas (n is
the number of points):

[II, = @Jl,-blk+,+
bl,j

k=l,...,n-I
k=n

cul
k

, . . ..n-1

[H]~+
[uIki,k=l

where:

k=l
k=2 ,...,n

k-l

k=2 ,...,n
[A],=

k=l

CM1,
[M];[D\*[A$QHI,_,

k=2,... ,n

The input data of the calcula

tion are:
the impedance matrix of
bJlk
tern in the k-th section
CYI, the admittance matrix
in the k-th point

PI, the

voltage

vector

the current vector

k in the k-th point.

the

of the sources

such a solution has no limits

for the number of conductors and the
number of sections: butof course the
computer program has such limits.

viously

f (G,C,Z,Y)

section

The calculation method can ok

be applied even if noEMC pro

blem occur, to study the propagation

of voltages and currents in a given
system (telecom , power , traction ,
etc.).

When EMC problems are invol ved, both inducing and induced systems can be studied in one step putting them together in order to form
a "big system" which is not induced
by external sources.
But this is not always
the
best way and it is not always possible due to the limits of the compu ting system.
When some alternatives to the
induced system must be studied for a
given condition of the inducing one,
it is better to split up the studyin
two Steps separately applied in series to the inducing and the induced
systems: the condition for
this
is
that the effects from theinducedsys
tern on the inducing one are nq.ligi=

ble.
When the induced systemis far
enough from the inducing one , the
first step ends with the calculation
of the inducing current in every set
tion, as the sum of the currents i;i
the inducing conductors (from this,
the emf induced on the induced system can then be evaluated).
When the induced systemis clo
se to the inducing one, but is quit;
small compared to it, the first step
ends with the evaluation of the emf
induced on the induced system.
In both case the firststepon
ly studies the inducing system, not
induced by external sources: the second step is the study of the indu ted system, induced by the previous
one.

SyS-

of the sys-

of the sources

The description of this calcu

lation method will be insertedinthz
new edition of the CCITT Directives,
which is expected to be published by
ITU in 1988 c7].

538 -

References

PI

Norme CEI 103.6 - Norme concernen

linee
dy
ti la protezione delle
telecomunicazione
dagli
effetti
elettromagnetica
dell' induzione
linee elettriche
provocata dalle
vicine in case di guasto.

Cd

concerning
the
CCITT-Directives
protectionoftelecommunication
li
effects
harmful
nes against the
from electricity line - ITU-1963
(1974-1978)

c31 G. Guidi Buffarini

- Impostazione
generale
de1
calcolo
elettrico
delle linee di contatto della tra
zione a corrente alternata - IngZ
gneria Ferroviaria
- n. 8 - 5
gosto 1983

Dl

S. La Rosa, M. Di Stefano - Elet

trificazione della
linea dorsale
sarda. Scelta delle caratteristithe realizzative
de1
sistema 25
kV, 50 Hz per limitare le fern lon
gitudinali indotte nei cavi di tz
lecomunicazione
- Ingegneria Fer=
roviaria - n. 12 - Dicembre 1983

c51

R. Pomponi, G.L. Solbiati - On the

caused
calculation of the effects
by the electric power lines on the
telecommunication
cables
- CSELT
Rapporti Tecnici - n. 4 - Dicembre
1974

ISI

effects
Italy - Evaluation of the
caused by the electromagnetic
coupling between power lines and tele
communication
lines - CCITT Contrz
bution Corn. V n. 42 - Period 19771980

L-71 GRD - Voltages

currents in a
and
Numerical
multiconductor
system .
solution - CCITT Contribution Corn.
Vn.
29 - Period 1981-1984

_.

--

539

98

02

COUPLING AND FILTERING POSSIBILITIESOF TRANSIENTS DURING EMC TESTS

Harald Kunkel, Martin Lutz, Otto Frey

EMILE HAEFELY & CO. LTD., BASEL, SWITZERLAND

1. Object
Manufacturers and users of elCtriCa1
engineering products encounter more
and more the problems presented by
an electromagnetically polluted
environment; in other words, with
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
problems - all the more as it is
becoming widely appreciated that the
quality of a product is extensively
determined by its electromagnetic
compatibility characteristics. The
required standard quality can only
be obtained by EMC testing during
'the design stage as well as during
the final inspection of a product.
In order to obtain meaningful
results from an EMC test, the tester
must possess indepth knowledge of
the prevalent interference sources,
the coupling links and the test setup. Some basic facts were already explained in references /l/&/2/.

A very important aspect of this EMC

test is the systematic and reproducible coupling of simulated interference into the test equipment under actual working conditions. For that
purpose, various coupling elements
are required. At the same time, suitable decoupling elements are needed
to protect the untested system sections from the effects of interference. /6/

Various standard committees /3/ have

prepared and continue to define test
specifications and proposals
applicable to certain applications and
products. This approach has resulted
in a number of different test set-ups,
the interference impulses of which
must contain the same spectral ranges.
In this paper, an attempt is made to
,cover the entire frequency range from
'10 kHz to 300 MHz with a minimum
number of filtering and coupling
elements. /7/

2. The coupling and filter elements

for the EMC test

Fig. 1

Schematic diagram
EMC test set-up

of an

During the EMC test, the coupling and

filter elements must fulfill the following requirements:
The coupling element is responsible
for coupling the interference test parameter onto the equipment under test
with as little attenuation of the required spectral content as possible.
On the other hand, there should be
only a minimum amount of damping of
the useful or operating signal by the
coupling element and the test
generator.
The filter must ensure that the interference variables are directed towards
the test specimen and that no second
system, such as the supply source, the
,AC power supply system, etc. is contaminated. The filter should also offer
the highest possible impedance to the
test interference variables to assure
that the interference generator is
loaded only by the test specimen.
2.1. Possible coupling elements
a) Conducted coupling
- electrical coupling by means of
actual components
- parallel coupling

- 540 b) field coupling

Coupling elements

- indirect coupling by means of a

parallel strip line type antenna
or coupling clamp

r-bwl

A8301 8

Possible coupling elements

Fig. 2

Coupling elements
Varistors
Gas discharge tubes
Bipolar diodes
Capacitors
.

Fig. 3

E-Field coupling by means of

a strip line type antenna

Fig. 4

inductive-coupling in series

inductive coupling, differential mode

Table 1: Types of coupling and measures to reduce

,

coupling represented on the basis of a bipolar system.

Direct

coup11ng

Common Mode
system

Radiated coupling

Radiated coupling

S/S

WE

Common Mode

system

Differential

II

System

Capacitive,
Coupling

Mode

inductive

Differential Mode

RC

power supply unit

Common

Differential Mod

system

II

General transformer

Interferencesource

H/E field
Coupling

20 log

ug
E/H

From H/E field calculate

VEMr, then as for direct
coupling

Interference
H/F field
Coupling

SOUICC
20

log

fix
Differential
node EM2

Cowling

1.

2.

Install choke in,.atth

1inss
optocoplar~

I
crease

circuit

inrredonce

3.

raduction

Reduce the h/l loop

Insert ferrite cores
t.0 absorbxxmwn mode
Screen the h x 1 loop

Red.!.

co&n.~

area

Cou~llng r.duction
1. Reduce pacing
2. Twist cable,
3. SCrewI parsu.1
conductors
I
Reduce cowlinq

Couvlins

area

Select conductor,
I. Select height Over earth
plate (stray capacitance
8. Spaca between conductor,

1.

t
ncrcase

3.

wscin,7

2.

Split

COINIIO
mOde EnI

reduction

connect
primary

screen

to

winding
Differential
node EMI
CDnnsct acreen t0 e*rfl
mode EN2
Optc.COpler
I

cOuDlinq

CaPacitance

90
Fig. 5

inductive field coupling

itCtUAtin9

And

monitoring device

Measuringinstrument

02

8
IF-

Power supply lines

0,

rest specimen

uI

Clamp-on current transformer

\

power

signal

generator

MAtChin

Interference

network

base

coil vindiws

2.2. Possible filter elements

2.3. problems which can be encountered

After the description of various coupling elements and their configurations

this section will deal with the implementation of filter circuits used in
EMC testing.

The use of inductive components, such

as coupling and filtering elements
for mv2 test purposes may present some
problems. In the case of the SuperPOSition of test impulses - also called
test surges - on the power or data circuits, peak amplitudes of up to 12 kV
in the frequency range of 10 kBz and
lower, are specified.

Based on the typical test set-up shown

in Fig. 1, the filter must comply with
the following requirements:
1) The attenuation of the AC power
supply lines from system I to system II for the high frequency
interference must exceed 40 dB.
2) The attenuation of the power supply
lines from II to I for the power
supply frequency operating voltage
should be as small as possible.
(less than 1 dB). The maximum
longitudinal voltage drop with the
nominal current should be less than
10% of the rated voltage.
3) The dielectric strength of the filter should exceed the maximum occurring impulse voltage. Depending
on test operations, an impulse voltage of up to 12 kV can occur.
4) The interference impulses coupled
into the supply lines must not be
influenced by the filter circuit.
This means that the impedance of
the decoupling device in range I
must be significantly higher than
the source impedance of the interference generator.
5) The series chokes used as filter
elements must not exhibit any saturation in the specific frequency range; as otherwise, the inipedance of the filter will be changed
and the filter attenuation will be
adversely affected.

With these test specifications it is

difficult to meet the requirements outlined in items l), 2) and 5) of the
above paragraph.
Items 1) and 2) define the behaviour
of the filter in a certain frequency
'range as well as the behaviour under
powered conditions. The calculation
resp. design of such filters resp.
Coupling elements is well known and
no special problems are met. The caraCteriStiCS of such components, however, as a rule are given for AC voltage operation.
If used in impuls'eoperation in contrast to AC operation much higher voltages and also relatively high DC components occur. These two parameters
can be expressed as voltage/time surface. If the voltage/time surface is
too big, i.e. the impulse voltage too
high, resp. the impulse time to halfvalue too long, the inductive components are driven into saturation. Such
neither the specified maximum amplitude nor the specified time to halfvalue can be superposed, respectively
filtered. The consequence is, that
the specified test impulses cannot be'
coupled unchanged on the equipment
under test.

Fig. 6

Fig. 7

Fig. 6

Fig. 7

Erroneous design
of the filtering
element in act.
with Fig. 1
Correct design of
the filtering element

EUT

Filter

Mains

Fig. 8

principle diagram
superposition of current
impulses

3. Typical EMC test system COnfigUration /4/

Example: Test system

CR0 pictures above show impulses of

6,8,10 c 12 kV peak.

Burst generator
type PB 4
Coupling/filter
element FP 16/3-l
Coupling Clamp
IP 4
1 to 300 MHz

In Fig. 7 the specified impulse 1.2/50

us is correctly superposed on the POwered circuit, whereas in Fig. 6 with
the erroneously designed filter the
series chokes go into saturation above
6 kV so that the test impulses are distorted.
If coupling and filtering elements
available on the market are used,
the rated operation data with respect
to rated voltage, rated current and
rated frequency must be very carefully
checked. If the rated data are given
with regard to AC operation it cannot
be taken for granted that these data
are also applicable for impulse operation. The lower limit frequency can
be assumed to be around 20 kHz, i.e.
impulses with times to half value
> 50 us can hardly be superposed unchanged on the powered circuit.

The superposition of current impulses

by means of a capacitive coupling
element also is possible up to some
limits only. In the case of capacitive
coupling the coupling impedance is part
of the test generator's discharge
circuit and such has the effect of an
additional damping circuit.

Frequency range:

Fig. 8

The photograph shows a test set-up

where the data transmission between a
table top computer (lower right) and a
printer (upper left) are tested. The
data transfer is via series interface
RS 232. The coupling of the
interference pulses on the data line
is made with a capacitive coupling
clamp.

Ph

The higher the discharge energy, i.e.

the higher the impulse current, the
higher the coupling capacitance must
be chosen. Here the justifiable limits
are reached relatively soon.
Another alternative is to connect the
test generator without a coupling element directly to the powered circuit
as the generator does not have a parallel connection to the output terminals.
The generator's spark gap such acts
as coupling and decoupling element.

Example of a test set-up

MEAll

computer

RS 232

l-

Fig. 10

Schematic test set-up

Pfinter

3.1. Description of interference parameters

Fig. 11

time domain
Fig. 14

coupling behaviour of capacitive coupling clamp

3.2.2. Coupling filtering unit

Fig. 12

frequency range

Fig. 14

Amplitude Density spectre

3.2. Description of coupling and

filtering elements
3.2.1. Capacitive coupling clame

The interference pulses are

coupled capacitively on a
power line (max. 4 phases).
The filter protects the remainder of the circuit. It
is such safeguarded that only
the powerline feeding the
equipment under test is surged and peripheral equipment
which need not be tested,
but belongs to the test setup, are not interfered with

Over a length of
1 m the interference transients
are coupled into
the tested data
lines.

Fig. 13

coupling clamp Z = 50 n

Fig. 15

Block Diagram

- 544 References:

Fig. 16

/l/

Interference generated by switching operations and its simulation; Rodewald, Kunkel, Lutz
IEEE/EMC Symp. Tokyo, 1984

/2/

Priifung elektronischer Systeme

und GerBte auf EMV; K.Feser/
M. Lutz
Industrie-Elektrik + Elektronik,
25 Jahrg. 1980

/3/

The Origins, the Effects and the

Simulation of Transients, as well
as their international standardization / 0. Frey
Electra 82/ Boston

/4/

IEC 65/WG 4 draft proposal

/5/

IEEE 587.1

/6/

Guide on surge testing in low

voltage AC power circuits /
F. Martzloff, P. Richman

/7/

Emil Haefely & Co. Ltd., Base1

brochure E 111.20

Filter behaviour

Filter attenuation
Coupling

A NEW PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

545

CONTROL

99

FOR LINE COMMUTATED

03

CONVERTERS

MINIMIZING THE MAINS HARMONICS CONTENT

_________________________-_-_--_____________________--__- ___________-_________ _____________________-____

FRANZ C. ZACH
Institut

fiir Allg. Elektrotechnik

und Elektronik - Power Electronics,
University of Technology, Vienna, Austria

phase conAbstract
- Application of conventional
trolled
power electronic
circuits
causes reduced
power factor
and increased
harmonic
content in
the electric
mains. Therefore,
a new method has
been investigated
here in order to eliminate
to a
large extent these effects mentioned.
The optimization objective
has been to minimize
the rms
harmonics
current
content
in the mains while
achieving
a power factor
of one. It should be
pointed out that the problems treated here are in
the lower frequency
range as most important for
EMC problems concerned with influencing
the electric mains. The method used has been found to
have a duality with PWM (pulse width modulated)
inverters:
the voltage patterns
for PWM inverters
are governed by the same switching patterns and
control laws as the current
patterns
for the (improved) phase controlled circuits. The improvement
requires switching
devices having a turn-off capability.
While this formerly did require thyristors
commutation
circuits,
with
force
today
this
feature
is easily
implemented
by using power
transistors
or GTOs (gate turn-off
devices). The
control
laws for minimizing
the rms harmonics
current contents in the mains, the circuits and the
results are shown in the paper.
Introduction
The application
of power electronic
circuits
connected
to the mains (such as line commutated
rectifiers
with phase control) is connected
with introducing
current
harmonics
and reduced power
factor in the mains. These effects lead to strict
regulations,
especially
in European
countries.
Corresponding
codes are, e.g., EN 50.006, as one
major
guideline
to be observed.
Furthermore,
various electric
utility companies have introduced
their own standards, limiting the use of line commutated circuits without special permits usually to
very low levels (typically
to a few kW, in some
cases even below 1 kW), These reasons make it
almost mandatory
to look for methods to improve
the power factor and the harmonic content
associated with power electronic
circuits connected to
the electric mains. A very promising method is the
so-called pulse-time-control
[l, 31. This method basically adds force commutation
to line commutation, as will be shown later in detail. Since the advent of power transistors
this so-called
force
commutation
does not require any additional devices as was the case formerly when thyristors had
to be used. We also just can say that the switching
devices are assumed to be of the gate turn-off
type (i.e. transistors,
GTOs etc). Whereas the exact

elimination
of lower order harmonics as shown in
[ 1, 31 leads to an increase of the remaining harmonics, the method used here is based on the minimization of the overall current
harmonic contents.
(Here - as in [1, 3] - the power factor achieved
is unity.) The method of [I, 31 is limited to a restricted
load voltage region (where the restriction
is the more severe the more harmonics are to be
eliminated).
Other methods have been proposed in the literature in the last few years. They are based, e.g.,
on the subharmonic
oscillation
method [8]. This
method does not allow a rigorous
optimization
because the control is generated
by intersections
of a sine wave and a triangular
wave without the
basic possibility
of freely adjusting
the switching
instants.
A more sophisticated
method, basically
related
to the method given in [4, 71 and also
applied here, has been proposed in [9, IO]. The
merit of these papers is the discussion of filter
sizes (both on the supply and on the load side).
However, the control angles are fixed values, basically not allowing to control the load voltage
mean value U, and the line current fundamental
$1 in order to control the energy transfer just by
c angmg the control angles. With the method of
[9, ib] application
of two rectifiers
operating out
of phase would be required which is recommended
for higher power applications
only.
The new method proposed here does not have
such limitations
because the control angles can be
adjusted
according
to the Ud and iR1 required.

Phase Control and Concepts of

Power Factor Improvement
and
Mains Harmonic Content Reduction
Figure 1 shows one of the best known linecommutated
circuits,
the three phase fully controlled bridge 131. Also shown is a free wheeling
diode DF. This diode reduces
the phase shift of
the line current with respect to the line voltage.
Figure 2 shows the resulting
line current for one
phase and the load voltage.
It can

be seen

,h,s;es~;;n~tween
.

from Fig. 2 that a certain

and the fundamental
of iR

R.

Another method for reducing the phase shift is

given by splitting up the bridge in Fig. 1 into two
bridges connected
in series. (Then each bridge will

Fig.

546

Three phase fully controlled

bridge using
diode.
thyristors.
DF .,... free wheeling
and resistance.
I-, R . . . . . load inductance

1.

uI

Fig.

Transistorized
3.
trolled
rectifier
time control.

three
circuit

phase bridge consuitable

for pulse

a
wt

b
wt
*

wt

Fig. 2.

Electric variables for the circuit

(a) line to neutral voltages
(b) load voltage
(c) line current

Jo-t-

-c

of Fig. 1.

deliver half of the maximum ud as compared to

the one bridge of Fig. 1.) Furthermore,
if for one
bridge a Y connected
transformer
is used and a
A for the other, a reduction
of line current harmonics
will result.
Both methods
have
been
described many times in literature
wherefore more
details shall be omitted here. The whole area of
influencing
the mains by power electronic
circuits
including the means for reduction of such influences is covered in great detail in [II].
A new method adding turn-off
capability (by
the switching
devices)
to the conventional
line
commutated
circuits
has been introduced
in [5]
and extended in [I]. This method has gained much
mot-e importance
since power transistors
and GTOs
for relatively
high currents have become available
making additional
devices for force commutation
for thyristor
applications
not necessary
any more.
The basic circuit is shown in Fig. 3 where the thyristors of Fig. 1 are replaced by transistors;
Fig. 4
shows
the
electric
variables
obtainable
with
this circuit.
As can be seen from Fig. 4, three control
angles
are introduced.
The pulse
patterns ,!i fzr$edOls&h that symmetry about the
peaks of voltage u is achieved. This leads to zero
phase shift betwe $ n the current
fundamental
and
the voltage in the mains.

Fig. 4.

Electric

variables

for the circuit

of Fig. 3.

Once ud (the mean of ud) is chosen, the three

angles i have to be determined
such that this ud
is obtained. It is seen that two degrees of freedom
remain for optimization
of the line current harmonics
content.
This optimization
in a basic
manner has been performed
in [l] such that t e
lowest order harmonics
(i.e., the 5th and 7?l )
of the line current are eliminated
completely.
This
method, however, shows a limited range of controllability:
for complete
elimination
of lower
order line current harmonics the load voltage has
to remain below a certain level; this level is the
lower the more current harmonics have to be eliminated [6].
A breakthrough
in this respect has come from
optimization
of PWM inverters.
There, the goal is
to minimize the output voltage harmonics contents
in order to minimize the load losses or the speed
and torque ripples of an AC motor [4]. (It is interesting to note that the first approach in this area
has been also to eliminate
lower order harmonics
[2], also yielding only limited control range.) The
most important
feature in this approach is the fact
that
the control
law optimization
has to be
performed
for currents
for purely ohmic load for
the PWM inverter in order to be applicable to the
cqntrolled
rectifier.
Although here an output voltage optimization
is equivalent,
this has to be
mentioned
because
usually
the inverter
control
optimization
has to take the particular
load into

making

current

Control

Laws for PWM Inverters

account,

considerations

547 -

inevitable.

Figure 5 shows a transistorized

(PWM) inverter
circuit
with constant
DC VOltage input (supply).
The usual application of the configuration
of Fig. 5
is in variable speed AC motor drives. There, the
output
voltage
shall approximate
a Sine wave as
close as possible. The frequency and rms Vahe Of
this Voltage shall be adjustable.
This leads to output voltage patterns as shown in Fig. 6.
In order to minimize
the
the general harmonic expression
a1 = F

5-

-.
.

contents

Fig. 5. Transistorized

(I)

(1 - 2cos 1 + 2cos * - 2cos a,),

4ud
(1 - 2cos 39
a3 =v
4ud

harmonic
is used:

Application

to Controlled

circuit.

Rectifiers

(2)

+ 2cos 302 - 2cos SC+

(3)

(1 - 2cos 5a1 + 2cos 502 - 2cos 5+

5n

4ud
an = x
(1 - 2cos no1 + 2~0s no2 - 2~0s no13),
with all even order harmonics

inverter

(4)

Based upon the previous section one now can

say that a duality exists between optimization
of
the line current harmonics of the controlled rectifier (Figs. 3, 4) and the output voltages of the
PWM inverter
with DC voltage input (Figs. 5, 6).
Equations (I) - (4) are equally valid for both cases,
only d has to be replaced by Id for the controlled
rectifier.
The inverter
output fundamental
peak
Value alo is given by Eq. (1):

to be zero.

The optimization
approach now to be followed
for the PWM inverters
would be to calculate the
inverter output current based upon the voltage expressions given above and based upon the particular
load. As mentioned, the load to be used here would
be purely ohmic because
then the line current
patterns
of Fig. 4 have the same characteristic
shape as the patterns of Fig. 6.

1 + 2cos a2 - 2cos a,).

(5)

The line to line voltage can be easily determined: due to the phase shift of 120 between
ulo and u20, we receive
Q12 \/;10 .
(6)
For the following considerations
the duality
of the two circuits
considered
is of advantage:
the line current
peak PR is easily determined
by
starting
with pulse patterns
as shown for u,~.
If we assume that a. pulse pattern
equal to that
for u12 in Fig. 6 is introduced
for transistors
Tl, T4 in Fig. 3 we receive Fig. 7a. This pulse
pattern
IS realized
by appropriate
turn-on
and
turn-off
of the transistors.
Then we assume
the same pulse patterns
for the other transistor
pairs T3, T6 and T5, T2.
load is
tal P
state 5
output

The energy transfer

from the mains to the
characterized
by the line current fundamen. (The phase shift in the mains is zero as
before.) We have (similarly to the inverter
voltage)

PRl =flal
(7)
because the pulse pattern of iR of the controlled
rectifier
is the same as the line to line voltage of
the PWM inverter. Here,

a,

Fig.

6.
of
(a)
(b)

Output voltage
Fig. 5.
for C( - 0
for a11 f 0

patterns

for

the

circuit

4Icl(1

=y

- 2cos al + 2~0s a2 - 2~0s a,).

(8)

Since i is based on two pulse patterns

having a
120 Pease shift with respect to each other, we
receive as for line to line voltages in three phase
systems:
q

iR3n
and

for all

n=l, 2, 3, . . . . .

(9)

for all k odd, but k 1 3n

Rk = fiak

(with

n = 1,2,3,

(I 0)

. .. . .).

One most interesting

and fundamental
feature
can be observed:
the currents
in the upper transistors
T
T3, T aL;;zrs
behave
such that they
yielding
the
required
complemLAt
eat 2
smooth
and constant
load current
Id (Figs, 7a - c).
This is equally
true for the lower transistors
T2,
T4, T6. In some cases (e.g., as in Fig. 8) also intervals are observed
where the currents
do not flow
in the mains line; they have to flow through the
free wheeling
diode in order to
maintain
constant
load current
as required
in controlled
rectifier
circuits
with
sufficient
load
inductance
[ 51.
The most important
fact, however,
is that the control law and the resulting
transistor
current
pulse
pattern
do not require
the same Id, to flow in two
different
or even in all three transistors
(either in
the upper or in the lower half bridge) at the same
time. This is the limiting
fact of the control
laws
gained
from
eliminating
only certain
harmonics:
there
for various
regions
of iR (especially
for
values more or less close to iR
ax) Id would be
required,
e.g., to flow through
q and Tj simultaneously.
This would
mean
a sudden
lump of
the load current
from I to 21d and back to Id
which of course is not feadsible.
The calculation
the

switching

leading

angles

to the optimization
of
has
to minimize

1,2,3

PH = C al

548

and the minimum

PI, determined.
Then the value
of al is changed
in steps and the optimization
iS
performed
for all these
steps of a . This finally
9 - II.
leads
to the solutions
shown
in 6 1gs.
These solutions
all constitute
pronounced
optima. In order to illustrate
this point, a three dimensional
representation
is shown in Figs. 12 and
I3 [7]. One can say that altogether
five different
solutions
can be clearly
differentiated
in Figs. 12
and 13, not to mention
other
local optima
which
are only valid for a very limited
range of aI. Figures 9 to II show only the three most important
region
solutions,
i.e., they are valid for the entire
0 G al G 41d/ti

(I 5)

and they lead to better

values
for PI, than the
other
local
optima.
Figure
12 corresponds
to
Figs.
9 and 10, Fig. 13 corresponds
to Fig. II.
Of the three
solutions
shown in Figs. 9 - 11, tht

66

;I

I,

(11)

k=5,7,11,13,17,19

,.....

with ak taken from Eqs. (1) - (4), where ud is replaced by Id. The sum does not contain
harmonics
with the order
3 and multiples
thereof.
This is
due to the generating
principle:
as explained
before, the current
pulse patterns
in the transistor
pairs are chosen
such that they are the same as
for the line to line voltages
of PWM inverters.
These
in turn
are
generated
by two
voltages
(u
and ~20) having a phase shift of 120 with
re@ect
to each
other.
Because
u12 = uIo
all harmonics
k=3.n;
n=1,2,3,
. . . . . cancel.
u20,

Fig.

7.
Current
waveforms
for the rectifier
with
the new control
scheme.
iR, is, iT, . . . . . waveforms ang,es
as for
tro,
are u?,z,;;
Fig. 6a (the same con-

Fig.

8.
As Fig. 7, but
than used in Fig. 6.

It is obvious that the optimization

can be done
only on the digital
computer.
It does not seem to
be necessary
here to discuss
the different
optimization
routines
existing
for this purpose.
It has to
be pointed
out, however,
that several
local optima
exist.
This makes methods
as the steepest
descent
method
very
unreliable
because
it usually
only
leads
to local
optima.
This
would
require
to
operate
with a whole range of starting
points and
then selecting
the overall
optimum.
It has turned
out that
it is less time consuming
altogether
to
apply an entire
search
over the whole region of
realizable
ai. For realizability,
0 < aI<

2<

3<

-rr/2

(12)

has to be observed.
For optimization
purposes,
it
geous
at first
to select
al
which
Eq. (1) ) to

is advantaleads
(with

I - aI
coso

3-

---

cos 1 + cos 2.

(13)

Then only al, a2 have to varied on the computer;

for each set ( cx I, o 2) Eq. (5) has to be calculated

for

other

control

angles

549

solutions
given in Figs. 9 and 10 show about the
region
0 6
same
results
for PH for the entire
al rel Q I. Either one of these solutions
can be recommended.
The solution
shown in Fig. 11 leads to
spectra
somewhat
higher
PH. The line current
corresponding
to the solution
of Fig. 9 for a1 re, 2
0.5 are shown in Fig. 14 in comparison
to the conventional
phase control.

__

99

the first

alternative

is to

let

ulo

have

a3

a positive

value where the fundamental

of LII~
goes through zero (as assumed in Fig. 6a) or vice
versa (similar to Fig. 6b) for the second alternative. The details are rather involved; therefore,
the
reader is referred
to [4, 71. While this paper has
instantaneous

treated
pulse
trol)
angles,

patterns
certainly

with three
a
also

switching
(conhigher
number

The difference
between
Figs. 12 and 13 lies
in the modulation
sign. This means that the same
fundamental
can
be
generated
by two
pulse
patterns
being
dual with respect
to each other:

1
a

Fig.

Basic principle
of a three
dimensional
12.
representation
of PH versus a , a 2 fqr al =

0.5 ( c1 id given by Eq. (I) ). ihe regions

realiza 2 le solutions
~1
are discussed
l2
[4, 71.

of
in

Fig.

30

9.

Control

anglesai

80

90 i

for line current

harmonic

content minimization.
al rel = al / (414 /71)

(14)

al re
II

Pk
Fig.

a:

13. As Fig. 12, but showing

tions [4, 71.

additional

solu-

&

ak rt :I

Fig.

10.

30
As Fig.

80

60

a second

9, but showing

Ii

_____

I
I0

conventional
control
new optimal

phase
control

9O cli

solution.

at

30
Fig.

11.
As Figs.
solution.

9 and

60
10, but

90 cli
showing

a third

11

a k

Fig. 14. Comparison of mains line current spectra

for the same a, r , (being l/2 of its maximum). One has Eb note that control
of
power in conventional
phase control is performed by phase shift of the current blocks
in the mains, therefore
leaving the absolute
values
of the line current
harmonics
unchanged.

550

is applicable.
Because there is no basic difference
and because there would not be any three dimensional
representation
possible,
such cases
are
omitted here. How the procedure would be can be
seen from PWM inverter
drive optimizations
as
performed in [4].
The practical
realization
can be easily performed as shown in [l], where also the line filter
dimensioning
is discussed.
The line filter Will be
much less involved with this new type of COntrOL

[31

ZACH,
tronics).

II41

ZACH, F.C. and H. ERTL: Efficiency Optimal

Control for AC Drives with PWM Inverters.
IEEE Industry
Applications
Society
1983
Annual Meeting.
Mexico City, Oct. 3 - 7,
1983. (Also to appear in Trans. IAS.)

[51

ZACH, F.C.: Optimization

of the Harmonics
Contents
and of the Power Factor of Power
Electronic
Circuits
by Pulse Time Control.
ETZ 94 (9), pp. 535 - 538,1973.

[61

of Influences on
ZACH, F.C.: Minimization
the Mains for Line Commutated
Converters
the F#se-TimeTControl.
Proceedings
of
by
International
Power Electronics
and
Motorcon
Conference.
Geneva,
Switzerland,
September 13 - 15, 1983.

[7Li

ZACH, F.C. and F. THIEL: Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) Inverters for Efficiency
Optimal
Control of AC Drives - Switching
Angles and
Ef iciency/Loss
Profiles.
Proceedings
of the
3t-6 IFAC Symposium
on Control in Power
Electronics
and Electrical
Drives. Lausanne,
Switzerland,
September
12 14, 1983.

[81

KATAOKA,
T., K. MIZU.MACHI and
S.
MIYAIRI: A Pulsewidth Controlled
AC-to-DC
Converter
to Improve
Power
Factor
and
Waveform of AC Line Current.
IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications,
vol. IA-15,
no. 6, pp. 670 - 675, November/December
1979.

[91

ZIOGAS, P.D., Y.-G. KANG and V.R. STEFANOVIC: PWM Control Techniques
for Rectifier Filter Minimization.
Conference
Record
1984 Power Electronics
Specialists
Conference. Gaithersburg
/ Washington,
June 18 21, 1984.

Conclusions
It has been shown that
the control
of
the transistors
of a three-phase
controlled rectifier
bridge is best performed
as for PWM inverters.
This means that the pulse patterns of the currents
in the controlled
rectifier
are the same as the
pulse patterns
of PWM inverter
output voltages.
This further
means that the basic principles and
relationships
of PWM inverter
output voltage control also can be applied
here.
One essential
feature is that the overall harmonic content of the
line current is minimized.
This leads to realizable
solutions for the entire region of line current fundamentals
between
0 and its maximum.
(This is
opposed to elimination
of only a few selected
lower
order
harmonics
(while
increasing
the
remaining
harmonics)
which would lead to unrealizable
solutions in many cases.) The resulting
control law is especially easily realizable
when the
new high current
power transistors
or GTOs are
used in controlled
rectifier
bridges. The method
should gain importance
in all the countries
where
the application
of conventional
controlled
rectifiers so far has been highly restricted
by regulations.
The new method
avoids
power
factor
reduction
in the mains and reduces the harmonics
content.
The reduction can be further improved if
more than three control angles are applied. With
this method
it is certainly
possible
to meet
the standards
and regulations
determining
the
upper limits of line current
harmonics
generated
by controlled
rectifiers
connected
to the mains.
References
[l]

[2]

ZACH, F.C. and R. DEMATTIO: Pulse-Time

Modulated Converters
for Minimum Harmonics Contents
and Ide 1 Power Factor
in
Supplying
Networks.
5t% EMC Symposium.
Zilrich 1983.
TURNBULL, F.G.: Selected Harmonic Reduction in Static DC-AC Inverters.
IEEE Trans.
Comm. El., vol. 83 (73), pp. 374 - 378, 1964.

(Power ElecF.: Leistungselektronik

Vienna / New York: Springer. 1979.

LlOl ZIOGAS, P.D., Y.-G. KANG and V.R. STEFANOVIC: Optimum System Design of a ThreePhase PWM Rectifier-Inverter
Type Frequency Changer. Conference
Record 1984 Annual
Meeting IEEE Industry Applications
Society.
Chicago, Sept. 30 - Oct. 4, 1984.
011

BUECHNER,
P.:
Stromrichter-Netzrilckwirkungen
und ihre Beherrschung.
Leipzig:
VEB Deutscher Verlag fiir Grundstoffindustrie.
1982.

- 551

100

Q4

COMPUTER-AIDED ANALYSIS OF THE RF1 VOLTAGE

GENERATION BY SMALL COMMUTATORMOTORS
J.

Sack,

H. Schmeer

Hochschule
der Bundeswehr
Miinchen
Elektrotechnik
Fachbereich
Elektronik
Institut
4 Federal
Republic
of Germany
Neubiberg,

100

ABSTRACT

dBoJ/)
The conducted
emission
of radio
frequency
interference
(RFI) voltage
by
small commutator
motors
is investigated,
with emphasis
on permanent-magnet
DC
The current
commutation
in the
motors.
armature
coils
is identified
as the main
source
of RF1 generation.
Therefore,
commutation
theory
is briefly
reviewed
with regard
to the features
of small
It is shown that two types
of
motors.
commutation-dependent
voltage
peaks can
An RF-domain equivabe distinguished.
lent circuit
of the motor is presented
which models the influence
of the distributed
inductance
and capacitance
of
the motor winding
on the emitted
RF1
spectrum.
By combining
the results
of
commutation
analysis
and the RF-domain
model of the motor,
a computer
program
for simulating
the conducted
RF1 voltage
emission
of permanent-magnet
DC motors
is obtained.
Some computed RF1 spectra
in the frequency
range 0.1-100
MHz are
compared
with corresponding
measured
results.
Input data requirements
and limits of applicability
of the computed
simulation
are discussed.
1.
1.1

Generation

INTRODUCTION
mechanisms,

problems

commutator
motors
emit a broadband
RF1 spectrum
(Fig.11,
due to voltage
peaks which are produced
by two mechanisms:
the current
commutation
in those
armature
coils
that are short-circuited
by the carbon
brushes
/l/,
/2/;
and abrupt variations
of the contact
resistante,
in extreme
cases
short-time
contact
breaks
due to the relative
motions
between
the brushes
and the collector
/2/.
Both types of voltage
peaks can be
distinguished
by means of their
spectral
properties,
Those caused
by commutation
occur
in a nearly
regular
periodic
pattern,
which means that the associated
spectrum
is of a coherent
type (surroundings
of spectral
zeros
excluded).
Variations
of the contact
resistance
and

15

OF:

OS

Fig.1:
motor
firing

IO

MHz

100

Conducted
RF1 voltage
of a DC
(1) as compared
to a dimmer at
angles
100 (2) and 900 (3)

contact
breaks
through
the relative
motions
between
the brushes
and the collector,
however,
occur
in a quasi-random
manner. They produce
a spectrum
of 2
stochastic
type.
Two peak voltage
(U)
measurements
at a given
frequency
using
an EM1 receiver
with variable
bandwidth
(B) will
yield:
51/62

= 0l/B2

(coherent

spectrum)

&/ii2

= 4%;

(stochastic

spectrum)

(1)
(2)

For the permanent-magnet

DC motors,
which we examined,
we found that Equ.1
is approximately
fulfilled
within
a wide
range of operating
conditions
(Fig.2).
We concluded
that commutation
is the
most important
cause of RF1 voltage
generation,
at least
within
the shaded area
of Fig.2.
Some results
of time and/or
frequency-domain
measurements
published
by other
authors
indicate
that this
is
also
true for DC motors
from different

Fiq.2:
age is
caused
mutation
shaded
(n:speed,
rent;

RF1 voltmainly
by comin the
area
I:curDC motor)

- 552 manufacturers
/l/,
/3/ as well as for
universal
motors /4/.
The limit between
the two areas in the I/n-diagram
of
Fig.2 is marked by an empirical
equation
of the type

Fig.4:

System of b commutating

coils

1.n = K.
K depends on the construction
the motor, some of which will
cussed in SS2 and 3.

data Of
be dis-

We will treat the following

problems
which have not been solved so far:
- In which way is the emitted RF1 spectrum influenced
by the distributed
inductance and capacitance
of the winding?
- How can the RF1 voltage
be calculated,
purposes?
e.g. for prediction
1.2 RF-domain system model

commutation current
self-inductance
of the coil
LS
of the coil
RS
: ohmic resistance
contact
resistances
rlrr2:
trailing
edge of the brush)
(1:
contact
currents
il,i2:
i2=is2-is1
i =I/2tisl,
(i: armature current)
transformer
voltage
due to mutual
ut1
:
induction
from coils No.Z...b
of rotation
due
el
: induced voltage

is1 i

to

Inter-

Motor

connection

LISN

RF-domain calculations
of the conducted differential
mode interference
voltage
presented
in S4 use a two-port
network model shown in Fig.3,
where the
motor is represented
by an RF-voltage
source !o and a complex, frequency-dependent internal
impedance 21. The principles
of calculating
U, an7 Z are explained in SS2 and 3. FomparaFre to RF1
voltage measurements, the RF-impedance
of the power supply is simulated by a
line impedance stabilization
network
(LISN) which has an impedance Z2. The
influence
of the interconnectiEn
motor/
power supply is included in the calculations,
but will
not be discussed
here.
The interference
voltage c2 across z2,
referred
to uo, is
1

u2
-L:
L!O

&11+!!12/22+!!21* Zl+A22 WZ2

(5)

LSdiSl/dttutl+RSiSl+rlil-r2i2+el=O

(4)

of
where Al . ..A22 are the coefficients
the campi ex Chain matrix of the interconnection
motor/power supply.
2. COMMUTATION
ANALYSIS
Detailed analyses of the current commutation in small motors are presented5
in /4/,
/5/,
and /6/.
The purpose of
S2.1 is to give a risumC of the results
for DC motors. Supplements necessary for
universal
motors are discussed
in S2.2.

(parasitic)

interpole

field

The contact
resistances
rl and r2 depend on time because of the varying contact areas Al(t)
and AZ(t).
Due to contact fritting
/i/,
they are also influenced by the current densities
gl and g2
(Def.:
g=i/A) . Since gl and g2 vary in
the course of a commutation period,
Equ.5 is a nonlinear
differential
equation without a closed-form
solution.
It
can be solved by numerical integration.
The starting
value of i
is I/2 at t=O
if b-l.
For b>l a set o s1 starting
values
iSb must be calculated
by an
of iSl...
iterative
method /9/.
The commutation in
coil No.1 ends at t=tR when isl=-I/2.
Some important influences
on commutation are shown in Fig.5,
with special
regard to small motors:
1.1 The reactance
voltage
across Ls
has a retarding
effect
on commutation
If LS increases,
the differ(Fig.Sb).
ence at t4tH between the actual value
of iS1 and its desired final value of
-I/2 increases,
too. This is equivalent
to a larger contact
current il and contact voltage
rlil.
2.1 For the absence of interpoles,
el
can be varied only by shifting
the

brushes
out of the neutral
zone.
Growing
el in Fig.Sa
is achieved
by a backward
brush shift,
compared
to the rotation
direction
of the motor.
The brushes
in
small motors
are usually
shifted
backward, which partially
compensates
the
reactance
voltage
across
LG.
3.) At t4tK
the current density
gl
under the trailing
edge of the brush
takes
high values,
which in addition
change rapidly
with time /8/.
The effect

0)

b)

C)

2.1 DC motors
A system of b commutating coils
under
one brush is represented
by the equivalent circuit
of Fig.4,
leading to a
system of b coupled differential
equat ions. For coil No.1 we obtain:

Fig.5:

Influences

on commutation

d)

of contact
fritting
and thus,
the effect
becomes
then
of gl on rl (see above)
This is called
the dynamic
negligible.
contact
behaviour.
rl can then be described
as a mere function
Of time:

rd:

(6)

(t+tE)

r1 = rdA,/Al(t)

dynamic Contact
reSiStarm?
full
contact
area

A~:

At t+tE
the reactance
voltage
across
~~ and the contact
voltage
drop across
in the commutating
coil.
rl are dominant
using Equ.6:
Equ.5 can then be simplified
LSdiSl/dt+rdilAo/Al(t)

k 0 (tdtE)

(5a)

From Equ.5a one can

where il=I/Z+iSl.
deduce
the influence
of rd together
with
which is shown in Fig.5c
at
LS at t4tEr
undercommutation
( isl> -I/2 1 and in
Fig. 5d at overcommutat
ion ( islC-I/2
1 by
introducing
a fictive
time constant
LS/rd.
(Overcommutation
can be achieved
by making el sufficiently
large,
see
Fig.5a.)
Thus, increasing
rd at a given
LS reduces
both the contact
current
11
and the rate of change disl/dt
at t-+tE.
2.2

Universal

motors

Additional
parameters
appear in universal
motors:
1.) The armature
current
is no longer
constant,
but varies
with the frequency
i=$!*I*sin(
2rf. t) . As
of the AC supply:
a consequence,
the commutation
analysis
mUSt
be Set
up at various
times within
a
half-wave
of the sine function.
2.) The inductor
pole
flux varies
Its first
harmonic
has
also with time.
the same frequency
and phase angle as i.
The flux
variation
causes
an additional
transformer
voltage
in the armature
coil
which influences
commutation.
3.
3.1

RF1 VOLTAGE CAUSED BY COMMUTATION

Generation

of

voltage

peaks

As a consequence
of commutation,
two
types of voltage
peaks appear
in the
armature.
To demonstrate
this
fact,
we
use the equivalent
circuit
of a symmetrical
simplex
armature
winding
of a DC
motor including
the brush contacts
shown
Each of the brushes
short-cirin Fig.6.
cuits
two armature
coils.
At t4tE
this
corresponds
to a brush-to-segment
width

Fig.6:
Symmetrical
simplex
armature
winding
and brush
contacts
(low frequency)

100

553 -

Q4

The armature
branches
ratio
of l<B62.
are shown as voltage
sources
Ui. They
represent
transformer
voltages
induced
by flux variations
in the branches
due
to the current
changes
in the commutating coils.
We neglect
the remaining
DC or low
frequency
AC voltages
in the branches.
abrupt variations
On the one hand, their
occurring
when a coil
is added to or
taken from a branch also create
a broadband RF1 spectrum.
On the other
hand,
our calculations
show that under normal
operating
conditions
the spectrum
of the
voltage
peaks discussed
below is conThus, the voltage
u
siderably
stronger.
(Fig.6)
consists
of two components:
1.)

The total

contact
_----------_- voltage_

drop

ur = rliltr3i3
It was pointed
out in S2.1 that the
current
density
under the trailing
edge
of the brush attains
high values
at
t+tE.
As a consequence,
rlil
at t_tE
rises
far beyond its average
value within a few microseconds,
thus becoming
Together
with Bqu.6,
dominant
in Equ.7.
one can deduce the approximation:
Ur #

rdilAo/Al(t)

(8)

(t-@tE)

If the commutation
current
iS1 has
not reached
the value of -I/2
at contact
a short
arc is ignited
between
opening,
the trailing
edge of the brush and the
commutator
segment,
well known as commutator
sparking.
The right
hand side of
Equ.Ba (and of course
the term rlil
in
Equ.5)
must then be replaced
by a suitable expression
of the arc voltage.
We
assume that it has a constant
value UB,
yielding:

Ur * UB (t+tE,

commutator

sparking)

(8a)

2.)

The -----_------induced
voltage _
b
ui = t:
MkdiSk/dt
(9)
k=l
inductance
between a branch
Mk: mutual
and the commutating
coil
No.k
u. can also
attain
a high amplitude
at
t+
bet ause high rlil,
see above,
produces a rapid
current
change di,l/dt
in
the commutating
coil
No.1.
This can be

deduced
from EqU.Sa. How$ver,
in symmetrical
windings,
which we assume here,
u. appears
only at a brush-to-segment
width ratio
B>l /9/.
For ~$1, the single
commutating
coil
under each brush is
magnetically
decoupled
from the branches.
A third
contribution
to RF1 voltage
appears
in motors which have an inductor
winding,
like
universal
motors.
This is
due to the flux
coupling
between
the
commutating
coils
and the inductor
windining. Again a rapid diS /dt at t+tE
duces a voltage
peak.
4 he principle
is
the same as explained
above for Ui, except that the value of 13 is irrelevant.

- 554 -

3.2 RF-domain model of the motor

So far we have described the motor by
equivalent circuits valid at low frequencies. For RF-domain calculations we
have to take into account the parasitic
capacitances which are distributed along
the basically inductive motor winding.
These may appear between adjacent pieces
of wire, as well as between the wires
and the motor casing. Their effect can
be seen from the measured impedance of a
DC motor armature winding plotted versus
the frequency in Fig.7. The resonances
at f>2 MHz are due to the interaction
between the inductance and capacitance
of the winding. They are damped by ohmic
and magnetic losses.

traduced as complex quantities Ur and Ui

at suitable locations in the eqriivalenf
circuit of Fig.8. Finally the complete
network can, by complex algebra, be reduced to the representation as a voltage
source I_Jo
plus internal impedance 21 according to Fig.3 (left hand side).Thus, by combining the results of a
time-domain commutation analysis with
the RF-domain models of Figs.3 and 8 we
can calculate the RF1 voltage generated
by a motor.
4. COMPUTED AND MEASURED RF1 VOLTAGE
FROM PERMANENT-MAGNET DC MOTORS
4.1 Results

Fig.7:
Impedance
Of a DC
motor
armature
winding

Simulating these effects by introducing suitable lumped elements in the

equivalent circuits of Figs.4 and 6
would imply the necessity of solving a
high order system of differential equations in the time-domain. Instead, we
decided to choose a method involving
less computing time and offering more
flexibility:
First, the commutation-dependent
voltage peaks u and u. are evaluated
according to s and 3?1. The number of
first order differential equations to be
solved simultaneously is equal to the
number of coils commutating in parallel
under each brush, for example two at
lea42 (Fig.6).
Second, the motor winding is modelled
as a system of lumped elements simulating the distributed capacitances and inductances plus the ohmic and magnetic
losses, An example for a simplex armature winding is given in Fig.8. The computed voltages u and Ui are now transferred into the rrequency domain and in-

The following examples of conducted

RF1 voltage spectra refer to a permanent-magnet vehicle accessory drive
motor. All input data for the computations were taken from a real motor. The
discontinuity in the spectra at 30 MHz
is due to the measurement method (german
standard VDE 0879, part 3; quasi-peak
voltage at receiver bandwidth 9 kHz
below and 120 kHz above 30 MHz), which
is also simulated
by the computer
program /9/.
Computed and measured
results
are therefore
directly
comparable.

First an operating point of 24 A at

3200 RPM is considered. The brush-tosegment width ratio is chosen S>l in
order to make both ur and Ui appear according to S3.1. From the computed contributions of Er and vi to the RF1 voltage U2 across Z2 it can be seen (Fig.91
that_Ui is mosy effective below 5 MHz.
At hi?jherfrequencies, v, delivers the
predominant contribution to U2. This can
be explained with the help of Fig.8: At
high frequencies, rJi is short-circuited
by the distributed capacitances of the
winding. Contrary to this, yr becomes
most effective
if the internal
impedance
Zl is small,
i.e.
at f=lO...lOO
MHz
TFig.7).
By the way, a comparison
of
Figs.7
and 9 shows that the minima of
the spectrum
coincide
with maxima of the
impedance.
It can be concluded
that the
characteristic
curved
shape of the

25

Fig.8: RF-domain equivalent circuit of

a symmetrical simplex armature winding

0.1
Fig.9:

IO

MHz

100

Computed contributions
of gr (1) and ui (2) to g2 (31

- 555 -

100
11112

spectrum, which is similar for any other

motor, is just an image of the impedance
curve.
By choosing %l one can eliminate gi,
as indicated in 53.1. A comparison
between s=O.9 and B=1.3 is shown in
Fig.10 (computed) and Fig.11 (measured),
at the same operating point as before.
The RFI Voltage at 0=0.9 is smaller in
the frequency range fhc3MHz, because Ui
is eliminated. At fL30 MHz a slight a&
vantage of H=1.3 appears. This is explained by the fact that the portion of
the total RF1 energy contained in ci 1S
dissipated within the motor winding at
high frequencies.
The brush shift (see 52.1) can be
optimized for minimal RF1 voltage generation. However, the brush shift also
influences the operating characteristic
of the motor. A reasonable condition for
an RF1 optimization is constant voltage
combined with constant mechanical power.
At 12 V and 155 W, the influence of the
brush shift on the RF1 voltage at
0.5 MHz and 50 MHz is shown in Fig.12
(computed) and Fig.13 (measured). Negative abscissa values correspond to a
backward shift.
Critical parameters with regard to
RF1 voltage generation are mainly the
self-inductance Ls (Fig.14) and the
dynamic contact resistance rd (Fig.l5),
each within a preferred frequency range,

Q4

v / 155 w

sot-~
-400

-100
-20
-300
Fig.12: Computed influence
on U2 of the brush shift

9oc

SO!

-400

-300

-100

-200

Fig.13: Measured influence

on U2 of the brush shift

dB(pV)
15

24 A / 3200 RPM

0.1

IO MHZ 100
Fig.10: Computed RF1 voltage 22
at H=1.3 (1) and a=O.9 (2)

0,1

10

MHz

100

Fig.11: Measured RFI voltage LJ2

at 0=1.3 (1) and B=0.9 (2)

IO

15

20

/JH

25

Fig.14: Computed influence on g2

of the self-inductance L.g

I&#,,1

20

,,,,I,,,,

25

30

mR
35
Fig.15: Computed influence on g2 of
the dynamic contact resistance rd

- 556 -

4.2 Input data requirements,

applicability of the simulation
A full set of input data, as was used
in the computations for Figs.9, 10, 12,
14 and 15, consists of the parameters
needed for the Commutation analysis:
- geometric dimensions of the armature,
collector, and brushes,
- inductor field and armature reaction
field data,
- current-voltage characteristic of the
brush contact,
- ohmic resistance, self- and mutual
inductances of the armature coils,
all of which are determined either according to the usual construction rules
or by field computations. Further the
- RF-parameters of the winding according
to the equivalent circuit of Fig.8
are required, which can hardly be calculated from the construction data of the
motor. They must be found by estimation,
or empirically by choosing a set of initial values and adjusting them for good
agreement between measured and calculated impedance of the winding.
However, the simulation can be used
for parametric studies even if not all
input parameters are accurately known.
This would mean that the tendency of a
variation of the RF1 voltage through
variation of an input parameter is correctly predicted, although the computed
absolute values differ from the real
ones. An example was given in Figs.12
and 13, where the optimum brush shift of
about -25' is correctly predicted by
simulation, while the computed absolute
RF1 voltages are partly incorrect.
The simulation is based on the assumption that commutation is the clearly
dominant cause of RF1 voltage. Therefore
it cannot be used to predict
the effect
of a bad quality
of
resulting
in contact
Moreover,
it should

the sliding
contacts
breaks
(see $1.1).
not be used at oper-

DC motor shows that

- in addition to a contact voltage peak
ur under the trailing edge of the carbon
brush, possibly with commutator sparking, there is also an induced voltage
peak Ui in the branches due to the flux
coupling between these and the commutating coils. Both ur and Ui appear at the
end of a commutation process;
- at high frequencies (fLl0 MHz) only Ur
is effective, while u. is short circuited by the distributea capacitances. One
can eliminate Ui in a symmetrical winding using a brush-to-segment width ratio
BSl, yielding a reduced RF1 voltage in
the lower AM range (fi3 MHz). However,
at FM frequencies there is an advantage
of B>l, since a part of the RF1 energy
is dissipated within the motor winding.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by the Robert
Bosch

REFERENCES
/l/

S.

/2/

Properties of High-Frequency
Conducted Noise from AUtOmOtiVe
Electrical Accessories
IEEE Trans. Electromag. Compatib.,
Vol.EMC-25, No.1, Feb.1983, p.2-7
R.M. Labastille

/3/

/4/

ating points in the unshaded area of

Fig.2.
/5/
5. CONCLUSIONS
The conducted RF1 voltage emission of
small commutator motors can be evaluated
by a computed simulation. The method
presented consists of
- a time domain evaluation of the commutation process,
- an RF-domain modelling of the winding
including the distributed capacitances,
- and combining both in the frequency
domain.
A comparison of computed and measured
RF1 spectra of a permanent-magnet DC
motor demonstrates a satisfactory accuracy of the simulation and its ability
for RFI voltage prediction.
The computed RF1 voltage generation
in the armature of a permanent-magnet

GmbH, Stuttgart.

/6/

/7/

Yamamoto,

0.

Ozeki

Die Funk-Entstorung
von Gertiten mit
und Kleinstmotoren
KleinETG-Fachberichte
l/1975, p.114-121

D.P. Motter
Commutation of D-C Machines and its
Effects on Radio Influence Voltage
Generation
AIEE Trans.,Vo1.48(1949),p.491-496
D. Roye, M. Poloujadoff
Contribution to the Study of
Commutation of Small Uncompensated
Universal Motors
IEEE Trans. Pow. App. & Sys., Vol.
PAS-97,No.l,Jan./Feb.l978,p.242-248
A.W. Mohr
Der funkenfreie Drehzahl- und Belastungsbereich bei Universalmotoren
ETZ-A,Bd.81,H.23,Nov.l96O,p.812-816
G. Bolz
Die Stromwendung der GleichstromKleinstmaschinen
ETZ,Bd.60,H.32,Aug.l939,p.949-953
R. Holm
Electric Contacts, Fourth Edition
;pr;;;;f;Verlag, Reprint 1979

/8/
Die Strom-Spannungs-Charakteristik
des kommutierenden Kohlebiirstengleitkontakts in der Endphase des
Kommutierungsvorgangs
Elektrie
28 (19741, H.4, p.206-209

/9/

J. Sack
Storspannungsemission kleiner
Gleichstrom-Kommutatormotoren
im Bereich
PhD thesis,

der
to

HBrfunkfrequenzen
be published

- 557

101Q5

Control and Reduction of Spurious Emissions from Small

DC to DC Power Converters
J.M.

Firth

Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics

National Research Council of Canada
Ottawa, Canada KlA OR6

INTRODUCTION
The spacecraft for the International
Solar Polar Mission (ISPM; now renamed UlYsses) will carry nine groups of experiments
designed for studies of the sun. Each experiment is separately powered from the spacecraft
28~ bus by its own DC to DC converter, which
serves the unique power requirements of the
experiment and isolates the experiment from
the spacecraft power systems.
This paper outlines the problems encountered in meeting the stringent EMC specifications and describes a neutralising technique
used to meet them. This technique is completely general and may be applied to any converter.

d.

conveniently measured by lifting the unit

from chassis and measuring the current in
a connecting strap.
All converters synchronised to a master
clock.

Fig. 1.

Primary CM, structure current limits.

Fig. 2.

Grounding protocols.

EMC on the ULYSSES Spacecraft: The need to

control EMI
Two experiments have a particular need
for good EM1 control on this spacecraft. The
radio science experiment measures antenna signals of less than a microvolt from a few Hz to
over 1 MHz. The magnetometer measures fields
of less than 100 pTesla from 0 Hz to a few
tens of Hz.
These experiments need the following conditions:
low currents on all cable shields,
ba: low currents in the spacecraft structure,
c. defined frequencies for the possible
interfering signals,
d. low magnetic induced fields from a few kHz
down to DC.

Differential mode emissions, carried on

by a pair of wires to and from the load or
source, are easily handled by well-known
filtering techniques.

Spacecraft EMC Specifications: Controlling EM1

a.

b.

C.

Isolation of both primary and secondary

sides from structure, plus primary to
secondary isolation of better than 1 Mohm
and 1 nF.
Differential conducted currents and voltages (time domain) on primary lines not to
exceed 20 mA and 280 mV pk to pk in a
specified bus impedance.
Common mode (CM) and structure currents
less than 500 uA from 1 kHz to 10 MHz.
See Fig. 1. The structure current is

Radiated emissions will occur from transformers and chokes; these are readily controlled at frequencies above a few tens of kHz by
a case which is thick compared with the eddy
current skin depth.
Defined frequencies (phase-locked converters) for interfering signals prevent the
possibility of intermodulation products in the
power system and allow sensitive experiments
to devise comb filters for troublesome interference.

558

The most troublesome problems in this

context are common mode emissions, the result
of electrical unbalance in the switching clrcuits. Such currents may flow around fairly
large loops, including the structure. These
loops may radiate or couple into other Circuits via a common impedance.

LOAD

Designing for Low Common Mode and Structure

Current
Mechanical and electrical symmetry in
design is a fundamental way to addressthis
problem. This achieves a balance in the coupling to structure (case), thus cancelling the
transients caused by the switching process.
The inclusion of shields around the switching
circuits returned to local ground will help to
keep circulating currents out of the structure.
Other electrical design considerations
include use of toroidal transformers for low
leakage inductance, low radiated magnetic
fields, and low phase shift between primary
and secondary sides. Bifilar winding creates
balance in magnetic coupling and interwinding
capacitance. Active devices should be selected for matched characteristics and the sync
signal supplied from balanced lines. Finally,
the mechanical design should stress symmetry
of layout to create a balance in stray capacitances to case. Mechanical stability of components and wiring is vital to achieve a lasting balance.

Fig. 4.

Structure current induced by

differential voltage.

The solution is the use of common mode

transformers (Tp, Ts, 1, Fig. 6) outside all
the differential filtering applied. This
forces net balance of currents in the lines.
The result closely parallels the way a coaxial
cable can keep RF currents off the structure,
clearly described in ref. 3. Common mode
transformers are fairlv standard practice on
the primary side in splacecraft applications.
Used on both sides, together with capacitors
of adequate size to case, Cs, Cp, they greatly
reduce primary side common mode currents by
keeping these local ised within the unit. Use
of a high permeabil ity core toroid is recommended (ref. 1).

The use of feedthrough filters (a low

pass L-C section in a single package) is the
frequent resort of a designer plagued by
unwanted emissions. This may in fact make the
structure current worse!

Fig. 5.

Fig. 3.

Filters on primary and secondary

lines.

The source and load are inherently unbalanced with respect to structure; the noise
voltage appearing across Cf will drive current
to the load which may return via the system
ground return and structure; this may be worse
from a system point of view than the higher
levels of differential ripple before filtering. In Fig. 4, note how the internal noise
voltage, En, has created an external structure
current, In, as the result of the Cf to case.
Only a large, and maybe unattainable, value of
Lf will control this.

Common mode transformers and

capacitors to structure.

Note that the OC current balance is implicit in the common mode connection and there is
no problem of saturation, even when using a
very high permeability core. Applying this
technique to the secondary side as well produces a dramatic reduction in the structure
current (see Fig. 7). However, the use of CM
transformers alone was insufficient to reach
levels required by the ISPM specifications
(see Fig. 7).
Consider that on the primary side at least
the switching of 28v is equivalent to 4Ov RMS
which, at 60 kHz, when driving unbalanced capacity to case of only 10 pf, will exceed the
100 microamp spec. Practical limits on Lcm
and Cp and Cs may make the filter insufficiently effective at the first few harmonics.
(In the case solved, Cp=Cs=IO nF was needed to
bring the L-C series resonance below the firt
harmonic frequency. This exceeded the stated
spacecraft isolation criteria, and a waiver
had to be requested.) The key to the solution
of the overall problem was the use of a neutralising capacitor from transformer to

IO-IQ5

559

chassis or ground return on the other side of

the transformer (see Fig. 6, capacitors a, b
or c). Here, the requirement for low leakage
inductance should be noted. Minimum phase
shifts between primary and secondary sides
enables one trimmer capacitor to cancel over
20 db of current driven into the structure via
various stray capacitances. Position a, b or
c is arrived at during testing. Thus we
achieve nearly ideal electrical balance (see
Fig. 6).
Fig. 8.

Balancing of sync signal.

CONCLUSION

I
Fig. 6.

=j= =P

cs :

Connection of neutral sing capacitors

to case.

DC to DC power converters operating at

high frequencies need not necessarily be the
source of troublesome emissions. Use of symmetry in both mechanical and electrical
design, together with the use of primary and
secondary side CM transformers, is a powerful
tool in reducing CM emissions. Further reductions of more than 20 db can be made by neutralisation techniques applied to either or
both primary and secondary sides.
REFERENCES
1.
2.

Mullenheim, T., "RF1 suppression chokes

with soft magnetic cores", Proc. Symp. on
EMC, E.T.H., Zurich, 1983.
Ott, H.W., "Ground, a path for current
flow", IEEE Int. Symp. on EMC, 1979.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Fig. 7.

Measured structure currents:

x: Ts, Tp, Cp and Cs installed
o: a, b or c optimised
9: d optimised.

Fig. 7 shows the before and after measurements on the structure current. Note the
dramatic reduction of first harmonic, 40 db of
improvement. At the higher harmonics, effects
of phase shift make the simple capacitive
trimmer ineffective; some further improvement
may be had by adding variable R-C series elements, d, to case and adjusting until the best
reduction is judged to have been achieved.
These can then be replaced by fixed components
of the closest value.
The synchronisation signal itself may be
the cause of CM currents, if not supplied on a
balanced pair with a shield connected to primary ground. Again, a common mode transformer
may be necessary to achieve balance in the
differential current. Note that should the
sync signal be supplied from a floating but
ungrounded winding, grounding one side will
result in large circulating currents due to
the line to shield capacitance. Virtual balance can be created by matching the input
impedance of the circuit, Zi, with its equivalent on the neutral side, Zb (see Fig. 8).

The COSPIN particle experiment power converter was designed by SPAR Aerospace Ltd.;
solutions to the EMC problems were arrived at
in collaboration with the National Research
Council of Canada. I thank my colleagues,
Drs. M. Bercovitch and J.D. Anglin, for helpful discussions, and Mr. W. Blore for suggestions on this paper.

- 561

102

Q6

HIGH CURRENT FAST PULSE MEASUREMENT

WITH A ROGOWSKI COIL

B. Brandli, J. Bertuchoz, R. Steck

Swiss Armament Technology and Procurement Group,
NC-Laboratory Spiez, Switzerland

Summary
A review of the two most important methods
for the measurement of current pulses is given,
and their specific advantages and disadvantages
are discussed. For most applications the
Rogowski current probe is the optimum solution. The theory necessary for the understanding and the main features of Rogowski probes
are resumed. Formulae for the design of a
Rogowski coil are presented and a practical example is calculated. After a short discussion
of the calibration systems used, some measurement results are presented. Further results
will be given at the Symposium.
1. Introduction
In the field of EMP-Simulation the measurement of induced currents is of great importance. Current sensors in accordance with EMP-requirements (e.g. peak values up to 10 kA and
bandwidths from 10 kHz to 130 MHz) are commercially available. For some applications, however, it may be neccessary to have a probe
adapted to very specific requirements. In this
paper the experience gained with self-made
Rogowski current probes is presented.
2. Methodes for wide band current measurements
The principles used for the measurement of
pulsed currents may be summarized as follows:
- measurement of the voltage drop caused by
the current flow through a shunt or a
current viewing resistor [l], [2]
- measurement of the current in an inductively
(or field) coupled circuit
of the maqnetic field
associated with the current {e.g. by Hall
effect or magneto-optic Faraday effect)

. and it is difficult to design and use

(e-g

- feed back of the shunt impedance

on the current to be measured
- influence of the current distribution
- interference of electromagnetic
fields
- skin effect, thermal behaviour)

Field coupled probes require special

calibration facilities and have a low-frequency
cutoff. They have the following important
advantages: easy installation; avoidance of
ground loops and hence, in general, no coupling
problems; comparatively straight forward to
design.
Field coupled current probes may be loosely
classified as fluxmeters, current transformers
or Rogowski coils, depending on their winding
geometry.
A fluxmeter is a single or multiple turn
loop. For current measurements it generally must
be calibrated for each measuring configuration.
The current transformer couples the magnetic
flux from the primary current to be measured
into the secondary sensing windings.
The Rogowski coil is a simple type of
current transformer and will be described in
detail in the next section.

3. The Rogowski current probe

The Rogowski coil geometry consists of a
shielded helical solenoid bent to form a
torus. This principle is illustrated in Fig. 1.

[21*
Only the first two techniques are in practice being used for the measurement of high-current pulses. The field coupled probes are the
favoured current measuring devices in the field
of EMP-Simulation.
The resistive shunt is DC coupled and
although very easy to calibrate has the
disadvantages that

. it is directly connected into the current

path (hence the possible creation of
ground loops)

Fig. 1: I+$iple

i
Pr

of the Rogowski-coil current

- 562

The advantage of the use of this method is

that the flux linkage between the probe and the
current is independent of the distribution of
the current to be measured - i.e. the probe may
be calibrated independently of the measuring
configuration.
The flux linkage in a coil is described with
the following equation

CA
is the path of the windings of the
coil

where: C
A

is the cross-sectional area

is the number of turns per unit

length of the coil

iit is the local magnetic field

dl

is the area element of a turn

dl

is an element of length along C

If (1) the cross-sectional area of the coil, A,

is everywhere the same; (2) the number of turns
per unit length of the oil, n, is constant;
(3) the magnetic field 8 is homogeneous within
the area A; (4) the individual areas of the
turns are oriented perpendicularly to C, then
equation (1)
becomes:
&di
(2)
/
C
If further (5) C is a closed curve; and (6) C
links itself no flux, equation (2)
becomes
Q = nAuipr
(3)

o = nA

where:

ipr
P

where

~7 = magnetic flux linking the turns

ic = current in the coil
= coil inductance
= R,+R,= impedance of the coil
circuit
Rm = impedance of the measuring resistor
Rc = skin effect resistance ot the coil

L
R

(1)

(1 n(iadi)dl

42 =

The field coupled current probe may be designed

to be used in a differential or an integral
mode which depends on the value of Tpr, the
pulse width of the primary current, compared to
the time constant of the sensing probe (= L/R).
Differential mode
If Tpr >> L/R then:
L
di,
-edt
R

<<i,

in equation (4) and hence

1
ic=_._
R

ts main features are:

* advantages
- easy construction (generally no ferromagnetic core
required)
high output voltage

. disadvantages - output voltage is frequency dependent (cable attenuation)

risetime limited by L/R
high output voltage might
become destructive.
Charge sensitive output

is the (primary) current within C

is the magnetic permeability

Condition (6) is achieved in practice by the use

of a conducting housing.
For the following calculus we suppose that
the transit time for the induced pulse in the
coil is small compared to the shortest risetime
to be measured [I] and represent the Rogowski
coil by the lumped parameter circuit shown in
Fig. 2.
L

iC

da
dt

Integral mode
f Tpr < L/R in equation (4) then
L
RXand hence

di,

> ic

di,
1 &
..--._*-_
dt
L dt

Rc
ic

CD

CII-=L

ipr
N

(6)

where N = total number of turns of the coil.

dg

Rm

dt

Its

are:

advantages over the different iating device

PI, PI

frequency-independent output voltage

Fig. 2: Equivalent circuit of a Rogowski

current probe

when the coil is symmetrically excited its

risetime is as short as the transit time
through a single turn

The circuit is described by the following

equation:

due to the low impedance of the currentviewing resistor the device is less sensitive to noise

1
R
-'x

d@

L
di,
=+i
R'dt
'

(4)

less cable attenuation (output is frequency

independent)

- 563

102

Q6

Table I: Symbols
4.

Design

4.1 Construction
This is illustrated in Fig. 3

coil wire diameter

mean minor coil radius

a*%: effective cross section of 1 turn

mean major coil radius

%r: total mean major circumference

total number of turns

number of turns per unit length

#+E:
pitch of windings

P
'pr
Fig. 3: Construction of a Rogowski-type
current measuring system
The two essential components are the probe
coil and the current viewing resistor.
The coil is usually"circular and has to
fulfill as well as possible the conditions
stated in section 3. That is

Meaning

ymbol]
S.

primary current threading the coil

iC

coil current

RM+Rc = total coil resistance

RM

measuring resistance
("current viewing resistor")

RC

skin effect resistance of the coil

- the turns should be equally spaced along

the toroidal axis

fundamental frequency of the current

pulse to be measured

CD

- the effective cross-sectional area of each

turn should be the same

_/BdA: magnetic flux linking the

windings of the coil

- the plane of the turns should be accurately vertical to the coil axis to avoid
coupling with the axial flux.

pipr/b: magnetic field intensity

(cylindrical symmetry)

Bsat

saturation field intensity of the

ferromagnetic core

Urn

Rmic: voltage on Rm

Zt

LIm/ipr:probe sensitivity
(=transfer impedance)

Tpr

pulse width of primary current

The coil has generally an air core or a solide

dielectric, however for measurements below a
few 10 kHz, a ferromagnetic core is needed.
The coil is mounted in a conducting housin
to serve as a shield against electric fie
-78
and to act also as a short circuit of the
the major turn to eliminate axial magnetic
fields.
An air gap is necessary to allow the radial
flux to penetrate to the coil.
The current viewing resistor is, in our
experience, the most critical component for the
design. It should be mounted very close to the
active windings and have the following characteristics
- Non-inductive
- Frequency independent within the range to
be preserved (skin effect)
- small temperature coefficient (Joule
heating)
Damping resistors may be introduced to eliminate spurious oscillations due to capacitive
coupling between the windings of the coil and
the housing.

TC

L/R: coil decay time

povr: magnetic permeability

EoE)-:

conductor resistivity

velocity of light in vacuum

dielectric constant

The following equations are used to calculate the main properties of self-integrating
Rogowski coils. Most of these equations are
explained in References [3] and[4].
Condition for a Rogowski coil to be selfintegrating: if L/R > Tpr then
ic = g/L

(7)

Magnetic flux linked with the coil

lziprNA

(8)
27Fr
Inductance of toroidal coil with circular core
section described by Grover [5]:
$=

4.2 Formulae for design parameters

The symbols used in the equations below are
explained in table I, all units being in
accordance with the SI-System.

coil transit time

L = L'-aL
where

L = 1
2

and

AL

ImaN*

(9)
b

paN(G+H)

G is the winding space correction given

by Rosa [6]

(10)
(11)

- 564

and
with

G=$-ln$

(12)

H =k$o gk(lnW)k

(13)

go
g1
g2
gs

=
=
=
=

arising from the effect of the primary

current distribution.
Hence Tc < 5 ns.
To realize this short transit time with the
large coil diameter requires that it has
only a few windings. If in addition to that
the coil is split in two halves which are
connected in parallel, the coil inductance
is reduced by a factor of 4. This results,
however. in an increased low cutoff frequenCY9 and-a higher current in the coil and
subsequently in the current viewing resistor.

0,00070
0,17730
0,03220
0,00197

Skin effect resistance of slab with width

nd, length [p2+(8Bi2
resistivity (flfpg)
Rc

(nf~g)12N[p2+(2Ra)2]12
(14)

R,: With the assumptions

rd

ZT = 6 IEJ; ic = 3 kA;

Probe output voltage:

R, = ZTipr/ic = 30 ~IXJ

Probe sensitivity on transfer impedance i! :

ipr

@Rm
=_____=
L

+NARm

7=-

Decay time constant:

Core: Assuming a non-ferromagnetic core and

R = Rc+Rm = 40 mu, the inductance
can be calculated for the low cutoff frequency

(16)

271rL
L

(17)

R
Low-3 dB cut-off-frequency: fl = h

L = R/(2xfl) = 1.3 IIH

(15)

7c

which can not be achieved with the

transit time constraints stated above.

Transit time of the coil, neglecting

capacitive coupling between the turns:
Tc =

F [erpr(p2+(2xa)2)]12

For this reason, a ferromagnetic core

has to be used. Its characteristics
are listed in table III.

(19)
Table

Maximum of product iprt before core

saturation:

N2Asat
ipr(t)dt = _
Rc+

Requirements
The design of a Rogowski coil current probe
has to match the signals to be measured; the
case of a probe to measure a signal with the
parameters given in table II is now considered.

Parameter
peak current
current rise time
low 3 dB cutoff frequency
transfer impedance
minimum inner diameter
(with housing)

Value
15 kA
< 20 ns
5 kHz
<
iJ lm62

90 mm
24x24 mm2
> 10
= 1

1T

50 pm

Coil: The constraints arising from the already defined core size and from the
maximum transit time leave only a few
parameters to be varied within a small
range.
Three different coils have been constructed with the basic specifications
listed in table IV.

> 140 mm
Table

b)

Value

The core foil has a high magnetic permeability and is wound up to the core
size of 24 mm. This construction results in a high conductivity in the
core direction and a high resistance
for circular currents in the plane of
the cross section.

Table II: Design parameters

for a Rogowskl coil

Core characteristics

mean radius of circular core r

square shaped cross section
relative magnetic below 100 kHz
permeability br
1 MHz
above
suturation flux intensity B,,t
Thickness of core foil

(20)

4n

4.3 Practical design example

a)

III:

Characteristic

%at

t0

15 kA

the corresponding value of the

current viewing resistor becomes

(15)

ZT =

ipr =

IV: Basic core dimensions

Calculation of parameters
T,: The transit time should be 4 to
5 times shorter than the rise time of
the signal to be measured. This avoids
problems due to spurious oscillations

Symbol

Meanings

I coil wire diameter

Value

- 565

major mean coil radius

90 mm

equivalent mean radius of

the circular turns resulting in the same winding
crossection like the coil
on the square shaped core

14 mm

14

Total number of turns, consisting of two half-coils

with 7 turns each

Coil 1: With ferromagnetic core as described

above
Coil 2: With plastic (dielectric) core
Coil 3: With ferromagnetic core again, but
with doubled cross-section using two
parallel wires as shown in figure 4.

102

Contrarily to the coil, the construction of the

measuring resistor revealed to be critical.
Since there weren't any commercially available
resistors with the required characteristics (no
inductance, no skin effect, value of 30 a~), it
had to be designed by ourselves. The finally
chosen solution consists of a coaxial thinfilm
resistor on a ceramic substrate with the shape
of a disk.
Fig. 5 illustrates the difference between two
transfer impedance measurements at the same coil
with (a) a frequency dependent (skin effect)
resistor and (b) with a nearly frequency independent resistor. The different levels at
100 kHz are explained by the different values of
the measuring resistors: R, q 10 rr~l(a) respectively 100 m62 (b).

Frequency

_.----

wi<h ooened housina

-I-

.,

Using the dimensions from table IV eClUatiOns

(7) through (20) give the following characteristics (Table V) for the case of coil 1:

Table V: Calculated probe characteristics

(coil 1)

-r
Symbol

L
RC

TC

iprt

fl

Meaning

Inductance (p = 1)
Skin effect resistance
,at f
= 50 kHz

Figure 6 shows the calibration setup which

can generally be used for the calibration of
current probes. It is a simple pulsed current
facility. The risetime and decay time of the
tested current probe can be evaluated by analyzing the pulse response.

Value for

700 nH

175 nH

Transit time with

1hr = 1 and er = 2

8rnJ

2mG

11,6 ns

6,8 ns

Il'laximum
current-time1,2 As
Ilroduct before core
saturation with
i3sat= 1 T and R = 32 no,

0,6 As

I_ow cutoff frequency

netic core)

[Hz1

Fig. 5: Measured transfer impedances of the coil

demonstrating the influence of the skin
effect of the current viewing resistor
5. Calibration setup for current probes

single
two
toroidal oaralcoil
leled
halfcoils

. at kr' 1 (air core)

7,3 kHz 29 kH2
. at ur = 20 (ferromag- (D,36 kHz 1,5 kHz
ZT

Q6

f'robe sensitivity or

0,8

rrlaximumprobe output
\loltaqe

12 v

1transfer impedance

ms1 3,2 mc
48 v

Fig. 6: Schematic drawing of a time domain

calibration system for current probes
However, if the characteristics of a current
sensor have to be analyzed accurately, only a
frequency domain measurement provides adequate
information. We have therefore designed and
build an adapted test facility to measure the
frequency dependence of the transfer impedance
of Rogowski probes (Fig. 7).

566

The transfer impedance is shown in

dB (= 20 log ZT). The resistance
of the current viewing resistor iS
R, = 37 ms1
The resonance at CJ 100 MHz may be
caused by coupling effects of coil
turns, core and housing.
Further measurement results of coils with and
without ferromagnetic core will be presented
and commented at the Symposium. They will
illustrate the following possible error
sources:

- asymmetric coil excitation

- Oscillations due to coupling effects
of coil turns, core and housing

Fig. 7: Picture of an adapted (50 Q) test

facility suited for transfer impedance
measurements of Rogowski current
sensors

- saturation of the ferromagnetic core

- thermal effects in the current viewing
resistor

The facility allows the measurement of probes

with an inner diameter in the range between 30
to 160 mm. For this purpose it has to be connected over one of the four measuring gaps. The
other three gaps are short-circuited by the
help of a metal mesh gasket as illustrated in
figure 8. The facility has a constant frequency
response (+ 0.5 dB) up to 400 MHz. Figure 8
shows a schematic drawing of the whole calibration setup.

- remanent magnetism of the core

7. Conclusions
This paper showed the state of the art for
self-made Rogowski coil current probes. The
design allows the construction of probes with
relatively large dimensions with risetimes in
the region of a few ns and lower cutoff frequencies at some kHz.
The calibration can be made by the aid of a
simple test setup measuring the pulse response
of the probe.
However if error sources have to be analyzed,
an adapted CW-test-system for measurements in
the frequency domain is required.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank H. Herren and
Schlirchof the Swiss PTT, General
Directorate Research and Development Division
in Bern for the design and construction of the
current viewing resistors and for the excellent
collaboration.

H.J.

References

Calibration setup suited for the

measurement of current probe
transfer impedances

Fig. 8:

PI

Di Capua, M.S., "Rogowski Coils, Fluxmeters, and Resistors for Pulsed Current
Measurements" Physics International Company, April 1981

E21

Schwab, A.J.,
'Hochspannungsmesstechnik",
Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg,
New York, 1968
Pellinen, D.G. et al., "Rogowski Coil for
Measuring Fast High-level Pulsed
Currents", Rev. Sci. Instrum. 51 (ll),

6. Measurements
Figure 9 shows the measured transfer-impedance in dB's (20 log ZT) with coil No. 3,
which has a ferromagnetic core (see section 4.3).

[31

Nov. 1980

141

Anderson, J.M., "Wide Frequency Range

Current Transformers", The Review of
Scientific Instruments, Vo. 42, No. 7,

July

-68

Id

(55

B,.$

_*

t.1111

3 455

B,#

Frequency

.I

I,,,,,

3 45s

I,d

.,

, ,,,,,f
456

8,$

CHZ I

Figure 9: Transfer impedance of current probe

No. 3

1971

PI

Grover, F.W., "Inductance Calculations",

Dover, New York, 1962

[Cl

Rosa, E.B., B. of S. Bull. 2, 1961, 1906

iI71

Meinke, H. and Gundlach, F.W., "Taschenbuch der Hochfrequenztechnik", Berlin,

Heidelberg, New York, 1968

567

103 Q7

RLECTROMAGNETIC
COMPATlBILITY
OF ELECTRICAL
EQUIWsENT
IN POWERANDINDUSTRIALSUPPLYSYSTEMS

V.Nikiforova
of Energetic8
All Union Research Institute
USSR
Moscow,

An approach for selection

of the
evaluation criteria
of the electromagnetic compatibility
@MC) between
equipment or equipment and the network
is considered in the paper@ Some oonsiderations
are given oonoeming
main
principles
of the national standard in
that sphere. Results of the experimental investigation
of EMCin the electrioal networks are presented.
Claasif ioatlon
terfereneea

of

Interferences
transmitted in the
supply networks might be devided into
continuous and transient ones4 Continuous interferences
occur in the electrical networks of steady-stage
operation. Harmonio interferences,
volasymmet and unbatage fluctuations,
lance of the three-phase vor9 tage system are related to them. All devices
which are of the nonlinear volt-ampere
characteristic
oawe harmonic interf erences.
Fluctuations are produced mainly by
the devices with sharp alternating
duties of operation.
Asymmetry is oaused either by the
nonsymmetrical duty of operation or by
the asymmetry of the network elements
parameters,
The following sources of the electromagnetic interferences
are to be
mentioned among the typioal ones:
electric
arc steel melting furnaces,
rolling mills* welding installationa,
electrioal
means of transport,
various
household appliances,
etc.
Dips and spikes of voltage, various
types of impulses, etc. are related to
transient interferenoes.
Atmospheric
phenomena, fault circuits
and various
commutation recesses might serve as
sources of t %es8 interferences.
Material oonoerning continuous interferences
is presented further on.
Selection of Crit~~~tfor
33.ectromawleti.o C D ibiitv Evaluation
A system of indioes
is necessary
to have a possibility
to quantitively

evaluate the electromagnetic

COmPatibility.
This s stem could be established on the %asis of the following;
requirement8
1 :
1. Electromagnetic compatibility
indices (RMCI) should charaoterite
on
quantitative
base all peculiar properties of the electromagnetic
interferences;
degree of the negative effeot (economy loss) should be oomparable with values of these indices.
2. Norms of EMCI should be determined on the basis of technical and
economioal premises.
3. RMCI should be standardized as
statistical
values per definite
interval of time sufficient
for obtaining
reliable
information with the guamteed error,
4. Standardlsation
of RMCI should
be universal enough to provide the
possibility
of their use in the designing aa well as in the maintenance
practice.
The general approach to the EMCI
determination might be based on the
yeeti;f concept 9elation
nolse/sigual~t.
, the changed of the r.m*s. (or
Peale 7 value of the voltage or the distortion of the voltage sinusoidal
wave, or the impairment of the threePhMe
voltage system symmetry oould be
evaluated by means of the distorted
process energy in the frequency range
specific
for this type of interferenoes.
A ratio of the distortion
energy to
the process energy without of interferenoes,is - - considered as an index
, where P and P, energies of the distorted and non:
distorted proceases respectively.
Generally, the quantitive evaluation of the distortion
energy could be
made on the basis of the time-domain
methods, e.g. Duhamel Integral,
wlth
the known amplitude/frequency
and
%ze-frequenoy
spectrums of the sys-

if to admit that the system is linear (as a rule linear substitution

diagrams are used in the analysis of
the network duty of operation)
and
also that the process is stationary a8

a whole or at definite
intervals
of
time (what is practioally
always observed) then the mechanism of the
spectral theory of the random proaeeees aould be used for obtaining quan-

568

of energy ape&rum along separate disarete frequencies.

Values of EMCI could be determined
as f ollowa :tY

Uiirr

*t(>)
,

F(
F, (&) - the energy spectrum of 4 he dis I!orted and nondistorted prooess respectively.
If the harmonic interferences,
asymmetry or voltage fluotuatioas
are
independent of time the EM01 coinoide
with the generally accepted ooeffieients which oharaoteriae these inter
f erences . The following would be obtained forrthe harmoni interferenoes

where

i.e. the oo%?fioient which characterizes the rem&, value of harmonic

content.
Three-phase voltage system asymmetry could be c&aracterized by the
known ooefficient
of asymmetry which
whereUl,U
- pornas. values of the
dire& and Ll verse sequenoe voltages.
If the voltage fluctuations
are
amplitude modulated acoording to the
harmonio law then
f

=cl-zE

6U

UL

if it is square-wave ooltage(ourrent)
mod;Iio$.
6u
P-

9-W

$Uf

"'

where
magnitude of voltage
ohauge. Thus, when voltage fluctuation,
EMCIL *

It
is more difficult
to obtain simple formula for EMCIduring the action
of the eleatromagnetic
interferences
changing in an accidental way. Rowever, comparatively simple expressions
are managed to be obtained in some
cases, For instance, if the harmonic
interference
amplitudes are accidental
and independent on time the probable
process of the harmonic interference
voltage ohange might be presented as
follows :

where

- random mlues.
oonditions are
observed (in a wide sense) the random
process of the harmonic interferenoe
voltage ohauge manifests itself
as a
proaess of the descrete spectrum,
where values represent a distribution
hfh,a

When the stationary

where
the r.mis. value of the
first harmonic.
It is necessary to point out that
the proposed quantitive evaluations of
EM01 oorrespond to the physical nature
of the random processes of changing
three-phase voltage system in electrical networks. In some oases these evaluations are simple expressions being
wed in practioe for a long time. The
above desoribed approaoh for evaluation of EMCI Gould be easily used in
praetioe of mxintenance and designing
as it proves to be a uniform methodological
basis of measurement and caloulation of EMCI.

Efficiency
of the electrical
equipment operation as well as maintenance
of the required technological
ohasacteristics
as far as eleotrical
equipment is ooncerned are determined to a
reat extent b the ower supply sys&em zualits,
Tge qdity
of E;T,;,E;Pply a understood to be two
neoted conoepte with speeifio
peculiaritiest
reliability
of .power supply
and quality of elecltrical
energy. The
latter is a set of properties
of electrioal energy stipulated by the generation, distribution
and consumption
of energy prooesses and which make the
eleotrioal
equipment operation with
~h&de~rmined technical oharaoterisIt is evident that the quality of ihe eleotrier energy is closely
conneclted with the eleotromagnetio
compatibility
of the equipment during
the action of interferences
propagated
in the network.
Quality requirements of the eleotriaal energy are determined in the acting USSR standard GOST13109-67
Norms of quality of eleotrioal
energy
for appliancsee oonneofed to public
networks*. GOST 13109-67 determines
norms of quality of electrical
energy
on the terminals of the equipment supplied by the public three-phaae and
one-phase 5OHs stationary networks
and by the d.o. networks. Requirements
of the standard are extended to normal
and after-break-down
duties of the
network operation.
Seven &dices
are regulated in the
standard. They determine quality of
the electrical
energy in the a.c.
three-phase networks. There are indioes among them that &araoterise
the
voltage curve sinusoidelity
distortion, asymmetry and unbalance of the
three-phase system voltages as well as
voltage fluctuationa.
Mathematical form of these indices

electromagnetio
interfeoharacterizes
rences asaumlng that they do not change in time.
The limiting values of harmonic
distortion
and-asymmetry indiaes are
determined in GOST13 109-67 with the
allowanoe for susaeptibility
of the
most widely used energy receiver induction motor to the respeative interferences.
Therefore the harmonic diatortion index value up to 5% or asymmetry index velue up to 2% are allowable for a long time on the terminals
of any electrical
aonsumer.
The limiting values of the unbalance index are determined in every paxtitular case on the basis of the allawable voltage deviations on the terminals of one-phase eleatriaal
applfawes since the unbalance of voltages
mainly manifests itself
in the additional voltage losses in the network
and it means that in additional voltage deviations on the terminals of
the electrical
consumers.
According to GOST13109-67 voltage
fluctuations
are evaluated by the ranby the frege of voltage change
, i.e.
quency of the voltage a&nge
by the number of voltage changes per
unit of time and by the time interval
between the consecutive changes of
voltage
of the voltage
Experimeital stu
periodic changes infds uence on visuality and its fitness (the latter has
been charaaterised
by the clear visuallty stabillt
) permitted to set bounJ lowable voltage ahanges
lower boundary oorresponds to
d? . The
to the
those voltage changes when the reduation of visuality
begins to take place
The upper boundary aorresponds to the
voltage changes which cause the lessening of illumination
by 10% allowed for light installations.
For instance, if the voltage ahan e fre uenoy
equals 20 per second (1OHzf the Pover
and the upper limits will equal to
0.32 and 0.45 % respectively.
Besides the energy quality indioes
already ooneidered three more indioes
are determined in GOST 13109-67: the
voltage deviation,
the frequency deviation and the frequency fluctuation.
These indices might be related to
the eleotromagnetic
situation
oharaoteristios.
More over, the voltage and
frequency deviations define, to the
most degree, technical and economic
factors of the electrical
network and
e uipment operation,
quality and quantjty of the manufactured products.
Variation of the energy quality indices on the terminals of the electrical equipment depends on the great
number of reasons most of which are of
accidental nature. This clraumstance
makes approach the energy quality indices evaluation from the probability
point of view.
It is accepted in GOST13109-67
that energy quality index values must
be within the aIl.owable limits with

569

103

07

the integral probabllity

of 0.95 per
the determined interval of time. Besides, to prevent after-effeats
conneoted with coming of the energy quality indiaea beyond the allowable litits which integral probability
do not
exoeed 0.05 GOST 13109-67 requires to
restrict
their values and duration of
their effects
by the limits approved
by the Ministry of Power Energy. This
regulation permits to introduoe the
respective norms of the energy quality in aase of more strict requirements
of oonsumers into branch and departmental standards under condition of
their agreement with the requirements
of the state standard.
The probability
approach to the
uality evaluation accepted by
~~~~~3~09-67 permits, to our view,
to aome more expediently to solving
the problem of the necessary expenditures for keeping uality indices
within the require 8 ljmits.
To use the probability
approach in
the energy quality evaluation in designing and espeoiall
maintenance
practice GOST13109-6f established
the
durations of measurements whioh are
differentiated
for various energy quality indices and types of electrical
appliances.
The durations of measurements are determined on the basis of
the uite lar e experimental material
abou 8 the sta f istloal
aharaoteristica
of the random process variation of
this or that energy quality index, of
the required aoouraoy in index evaluation and expenditures for making meaSwemt3nt8

BesuIts of the Research

Researoh into the interference
levels has been aarried out in urban,
rural and industrial
networks. Index
of harmonio distortion
in the low voltage networks for urban needs has not
erceeded 5% and in rural networks aoming sometimes up to 7% due to great
impedances. Greater ,distortions,
up to
10-158 have been observed in the
points of the network near the traation substations.
Unbalance of voltato 7% has prevailed in the
ft:vt Etage r&al networks
Measurements were oar&d
out with
the help of standard apparatus duxing
a long per&od (not less than 7 days).
Influenae
meotriaal

of Interferenaes
on
Eauiument Oaeration

Electromagnetio interferenoes
are
conducted In the network to the eleatrioal equipment eusceptable to their
aation. As a result the supply voltage
is being distorted.
Action of the distorted voltage, might produce an instantaneous effect or manifeat itself
gradually. In the first oase the eleotxical equipment as a rule stops to
function or has a ielse operation,
for
example, relaying,
automatio devices,

computers. The damage here comprises

not only the oost of the broken equipment but also the losses due to the
disturbances of the technological process, losees of the computer infolc
mation, etc.
Iu the seoond case after-effects of
the electrical
equipment operation
due to interferences
take place gradually. Operation of the electrical
machines in such conditions is a typioal example of it. As a result eoonomio and technical factors of the
electrical
machine operation deteriorate. Por example, heating of windings
increases,
lorsses in machines also increase, servioe of life decreases, the
motor rotation speed and the power
consumption are &anged. The change of
the given operating oapacity of the
motor might cause a damage to the
technologiaal
process, faulty produotion and shortage of it. Therefore
two components of the damage might be
considered:
electromagnetio,
cancerning teohnioal and economioal parameters of the e uipment including the
reduction of sts service life, and
the technological, concerning the
shortage of production and we&age.
Inve~tflgation show that the technologiaal oompoaent of the damage is domineering and in some cases it comes to
85096
This circumstance should be
taken Into aooount in limiting of interferences in the network, i.e. the
problem of the allowable limits is
to a considerable
degree an economical one.

570

Conclusion
For the recent years a wide spreading of electric equipment which creates long-term electromaguetic dieturbances through electrio systema for
supply of that equipment, inoreased
number of eases when the electromagnetic disturbances influence badly on
sensitive eleotrio equipment.
In the USSR in order to guarantee
an effeotive
and reliable
operation
of the sensitive
eleotrio
equipment
there is a standard limitated electromagnetio disturbance levels at a network point where the sensitive
electric equipment has been connected or
may be connected.
The application of standard requirements in the uourse of design and
performanoe prevents expenses due to
BMCI decrease,
References
-1 ~~tantinov B.A., Zheehelenko
Nikiforova V.N. and others:
TLe*kyatem of indices and stendartization of the energy quality.
ELECTRICHESTVO, No 9, 11-19 (19782 Levin B.R. Theoretical fundamentals
of the statistioal radioengineering. SQVIETSKOIE RADIO(1977)
3 GOST 23875-79 oQuality of electrical energy, Terms and definitions
4 Marusova T,P*, Jagovkin G.N.
A question of normalizing volta e
fluotuations in elec ric etworf8,
SVETOTECHNIKA,
No 2 119777

- 571

104Rl

RADIO FREQUENCY SPECTRUM MANAGEMENT

K.
Deutsche
Bonn,

Federal

Bundespost
Republic

Introduction
The usable
radio
frequency
spectrum
is a limited
natural
resource.
Its
use
is open to everybody
and it can be reas well
as polluted.
The reused,
source
is not adequately
used,
when
the objective
can be easily
achieved
in other
ways or the parameters
of the
use are not correctly
applied
to the
task.
To use the resource
efficiently,
it
is necessary
to question
the need
to manage
its
use by imto use it,
plying
efficient
sharing
criteria
and
to coordinate
the assignments
nationally
and internationally.
Developed
countries
have difficulties
to achieve
these
goals
in view of
the ever
increasing
demands
in the
field
of radiocommunications.
They
however,
developed
tools
and
have,
procedures
that
permit
acceptable
aolutions.
The problem
of developing
countries
is lack
of infrastructure:
To develop
or improve
their
economical
and cultural
infrastructure,
an efficient
telecommunication
infrastructure
is essential.
To cope
with
this
demanding
requirement,
governments
have
to look
at priorities
to achieve
nar
tional
planning
objectives.
Radio
networks
can rapidly
improve
domestic
telecommunication
at moderate
costs.
In 1979,
the WARC recognized
the
need to improve
spectrum
utilization
and considered
the application
of computer
methods
in frequency
management
essential.
The conference
also
expressed
the need
for
guidance
in this
It therefore
in Recommendation
field.
31 invited
the CCIR to
prepare
a
handbook
describing
the various
aspects
involved
in applying
computeraided
techniques
to radio
frequency
management
discussing
the approaches
which
have been made,
providing
guidelines
for
various
levels
of practical
application
and making
recommendations
for
those
aspects
involving
international
cooperation.
In Resolution
No. 7 and No. 37 the need to develop
national
Radio
frequency
management
is highlighted
and seminars
are en-

1.

Olms

of

Germany

visaged
to assist
developing
counA first
seminar
was held
in
tries.
Geneva
in October
1983.
CCIR Study
Group 1 in 1978 sat
up Interim
Working
Party
l/2
which
has prepared
a Handbook on Spectrum
Management
and Computer
aided
Techniques
which
has
been published.
This
presentation
is largely
baaed
on the handbook.
2.

International
Regulations
The radio
frequency
spectrum
as an
international
resource,
has been divided
into
frequency
bands
which
may
be used
by one or more radio
services
under
specified
conditions.
This
division
of the spectrum
is the basis
for
the Table
of Frequency
Allocations
set
out in Article
8 of the Radio
Regulations
and constitutes
an agreement
between
the members
of the ITU for
the
sharing
of the spectrum
among the various
radio
services
operated
in different
regions
of the world.
This
table
is a fundamental
instrument
of
the national
and international
frequency
management.
For frequency
allocation
purposes,
the world
has been divided
into
three
geographical
regions,
the boundaries
of which
are defined
in Nos.
392-399
of the Radio
Regualtiona.
Besides
the geographical
division,
different
categories
have been eatabliahed
for
radio
services.
These
categories
are defined
in
the Radio
Regulations
as follows:
primary
services
permitted
services,
secondary
services.
The radio
frequency
spectrum
is
an asset
which
is common to all
administrations.
The spectrum
must be
shared
-among
administrations
-among
radio
services
-among
stations.
On the
other
hand,
each
administration
is
autonomous.
It thus
becomes
apparent
that
the beat
way to serve
the interest
of every
administration
is to obtain
an international
agreement
on
rules
and procedures
for
the manage-

ment of the spectrum.

The ITU Radio
Regulations
constitutes
a base
for
this
work.
The main objective
is to
avoid
harmful
interference
between
stations
of different
administrations.
For this
purpose
coordination
procedures
have been agreed
upon to advise
administrations
how to exchange
information
and how to take
all
necessary
steps
to ensure
that
harmful
interference
will
not occur.
Coordination
procedures
can be divided
into
three
principal
parts:
administrative
provisions,
exchange
of
information,
and the technical
calculations.
(Typical
international
frequency
management
procedures
can be
found
in flowcharts
constructed
by the
IFRB).
The relevant
technical
data
to
be exchanged
between
administrations
and between
the IFRB and the administrations
are given
in the Radio
Regulations
(e.g.,
Appendices
1, 3, 4,
etc.),
in Final
Acts
from ITU Conferences,
or in CCIR Publications,
depending
on which
services
are concerned.
Calculations
of coordination
distance
and coordination
area
are
sometimes
rather
easy
to carry
out
manually.
In other
cases,
the calculations
become
more complex
and timeconsuming.
Examples
of computer
programs
for
coordination
calculations
are given
in the handbook
mentioned.
The geostationary
satellite
orbit
is also
a limited
resource
that
must
be shared
by all
administrations.
In
the case
of coordination
between
apace
services,
it is also
necessary
to consider
the efficient
use of the geostationary
satellite
orbit.
3.

National
Spectrum
Manaqement
The requirements
of individual
radio
stations
or services
can be met
only
by sharing
time,
space,
or frequency.
Moreover,
bilateral
or multilateral
agreements
will
increasingly
be required.
This
means that
general
assignment
procedures
in the form of
simple
network
plans
for
the use of
frequencies
cannot
always
be employed
in the near,
and especially
in the
far
future.
In the future,
it will
become
necessary
to make electromagnetic
compatibility
(EMC) calculations
before
frequencies
are assigned.
The
bulk
of technical
and administrative
work involved
will
not only
require
detailed
knowledge
of the equipment
used
but also
of the physical
characteristics
of propagation
over
the
whole
frequency
spectrum.
The solution
of the aforementioned
problems
neceaaitates
the introduction
of new spectrum management
methods.
Spectrum
management
is the combination
of administrative
and technical
procedures
necessary
to ensure
the
efficient
operation
of radiocommunication
services
without
causing
harmful
interference.
When an administration
ratifies

572

the
International
Telecommunication
Convention
or accedes
to it,
it should
enact
domestic
legislation
to make the
provisions
of that
Convention
and of
the Radio
Regulations
annexed
to it
applicable
to its
Administration.
Generally
speaking,
use of the frequency
spectrum
can only
be efficient
if
it
is properly
organized:
by imposing
restrictions
on certain
technical
characteristics
that
must
not be less
strict
than those
specified
in the international
agreements;
by providing
for
the future
well
in
advance
through
national
planning
of frequency
usages.
The first
condition
necessitates
the issuing
of national
regulations
which
should
not be confined
solely
to the international
provisions
and
may comprise
everything
which
the legislature
considers
necessary
to:
enable
each
user
to carry
on a
service
under
specified
conditions;
make sure
that
the administrations
international
obligations
are fulfilled.
The second
condition
implies
the
existence
of an administrative
body
to ensure
coordination
between
the
different
users.
This
body must have
the technical
resources
and administrative
means to check
whether
the
domestic
legislation
is being
applied,
in other
words,
to manage
frequency
spectrum
usage
in the national
context.
The National
Spectrum
Management
Authority
will
thus
have several
roles,
which
may be summed up as follows:
which
consists
of
a) Standardization,
effecting
coordination
between
various
users
with
a view to defining
technical
standards
to be
imposed
on users
and,
if
necessary,
on equipment
manufacturers,
in implementation
of domestic
legislation;
which
consists
of effecb) planning,
ting
coordination
between
various
users
with
a view to defining
the
use to be made of the frequency
bands
as listed
in the Table
of
Frequency
Allocations,
and in
planning
future
uses
so that
they
may be included
in this
Table
by
an administrative
conference
competent
to revise
it;
proper,
consisting
of
c) management
granting
authority
for
frequency
usages
in accordance
with
international
regulations
and domestic
legislations,
and ensuring
that
those
frequencies
are actually
used
in
conformity
with
the
terms
of the
authorization.
This
role
also
includes
compliance
with
the
obligations
embodied
in
the
Convention
and
the
Radio
Regulations
with
respect
to
other
Administrations
(for

instance,
the
for
coordination

handling
of
received

requests
from

other
Administrations,
etc.).
3.1
Domestic
Leqislation.
Since
domestic
legislation
is considered
to
include
the pertinent
provisions
of
the Radio
Regulations,
an assignment
in conformity
with
it is necessarily
in harmony
with
those
Regulations.
A document
containing
the provisions
of domestic
legislation
greatly
facilitates
the task
of each
national
soectrum
manaoement
authority.
Licensing
is the
3.2
Licenses.
orocess
of conferrinq
the leqal
authority
to operate
a-radio
station
under
specific
and stipulated
condi-

tions.

No. 725 of the Radio

Regulations
stipulates
that
no transmitting
station
may be established
without
a license
issued
by the Government
of the
Administration
to which
the station

In some Administrations
the
belongs.
right
to use a radio
receiving
installicensing.
lation
is also
subjected
to
Administrations
may charge
users
of the spectrum
a fee for their
licenses.
The fee may reflect
the degree to which the spectrum
is used,
as well as the economic
benefit
derived.
3.3 Inspection
of installations.
In connection
with its responsibilities
for
issuing
of the Government,

licenses,
on
to frequency

behalf

users,
including
radio
amateurs,
the national
spectrum
management authority
must be
able to confirm
that stations
comply
with the relevant
provisions
of the
Radio Regulations
and domestic
law,
and with the terms of the license.
For that purpose
it must have the
staff
and equipment
necessary
for
conducting
inspections
of stations
and checking
their
operation
on the
spot;
as far
as checking
the quality
of emissions
from a distance
is concerned,
it is understood
that
the
authority
is able
to do this
with
the
monitoring
facilities
at its
disposal
and also
to see that
the nature
of
the traffic
exchanges
by amateurs
remains
within
the limitations
laid

down in the Regulations.

These various
checks
apply not only
to non-mobile
stations
but also
to
mobile
ststions,
that is to say,
to
ship stations,
aircraft
stations
and
land mobile
stations.
In the case of
mobile
stations,
the Radio Regulations
stipulate
that,
when they are in the
territory
under the jurisdiction
of
an Administration
other
than that in
which the license
was issued,
the
stations
may be inspected
for the
purpose
of examining
the license,
discovering
any irregularities
in the
equipment
or its operation
and reporting
them to the competent
authorities
of the licensing
administration.
In the case of ship and aircraft
stations,
inspection
also covers
examination
of the operators
certificates.

104

5 73 -

RI

It is also
the function
of the
national
spectrum
management
authority
to issue
ship
station
and aircraft
station
operators
certificates
specified
in the Radio
Regulations.
3.4
Monitoring.
The national
spectrum management authority
should
monitor
the emissions
of radio
stations
to check
their
technical
characteristics
and to ensure
that they are op-

erated

in

conformity

with

the

stand-

ards
and various
conditions
on the
basis
of which
their
licenses
were
issued.
A monitoring
station
can help
a
great
deal
in solving
problems
of
harmful
interference
and in finding
suitable
frequencies
not subject
to
such
interference.

The monitoring
service
should
be
designed
to meet domestic
since
radio
emissions
needs.
However,
are no respecters
of frontiers,
the
stations
of the monitoring
service
of
an Administration
should
be prepared
to cooperate
with other
Administrations
as well as with the IFRB and
the international
monitoring
system.
3.5 National
file
of frequency
Once a frequency
has been
usaqes.
assigned
to a transmitting
or a reall the technical
and
ceiving
station,
operating
data indicating
the spectrum
space occupied
by this
assignment
should
be entered
in a government
master file.
Such a file
not only serves
as a reference
for subsequently
usable
assignments,
but also provides
the
basic
material
for taking
effective
measures
required
to adapt national
planning
to the real
requirements
of
the various
users.
The greatest
care
should
be taken in compiling
the national
file
and keeping
it up-to-date;
it must have room for a sufficient
number of assignments
and for all
the
information
needed for the clear
and
complete
description
of each of them.
It is very useful
to employ
modern
computer
processing
and recording
techniques
suited
to the size
of the
file
and its
usage.

primarily

4.

Analyses
Models
Efficient
spectrum
management can
be accomplished
only through
a joint
technical
and administrative
effort
requiring
the application
of rapid
record
keeping,
quantitative
analysis
and experiential
judgement.
In many
cases
the results
of an analysis
process serve
as improved
advisory
information to the human decision-maker
that are used to expand the understanding
of the problem.
It is only
from the application
of rapid
spectrum
management techniques
that timely
and complete
solutions
to the problem
can be obtained,
The nature
of some of these
tasks
requires
data files,
and much of the
problem
approach
is oriented
with

Efficient
use of large
this
in mind.
volumes
of data
logically
requires
high-speed
digital
computer
capability,
and its
application
for
both
data
and
analysis
is considered.
In practice,
a hybrid
approach
using
a combination
of automated
and manual
techniques
may be used
for
the solution
to many
problems.
A variety
of techniques
are available
as aids
in the evaluation
of
These
include:
problems.
Frequency-distance
separation
criteria
Guard Band Design
Parameter
Sensitivity
Analysis
Antenna
Dynamic
Analysis
Frequency
assignment
procedures
Each of the functions
performed
during
this
approach
establishes
requirements
for
a variety
of analysis
techniques.
The requirements
for
a
particular
item
of data
base
information
or a basic
analysis
tool
may be
established
by serveral
analysis
functions,
although
each
function
generally imposes
different
demands
on accuracy
or quality
of the data
or models.
A short
discussion
of these
requirements
for
models
and data
is given
in
the CCIR-handbook.
An initial
list
of System
Models
useful
in performing
basic
EMC analysis
and spectrum
management
functions
include:
File
Selection
and Review
Technical
Cull
Received
Power Prediction
System
Performance
Prediction
Frequency
Assignment
Generation
of Frequency-Distance
Separation
Criteria
The need to evaluate
the basic
power prediction
equation
require
component
(basic)
models
that
are capable
of rapid
computation
and that
produce
consistently
conservative
or safe
estimate
of each
variable.
Basic
Model
requirements
include
prediction
of:
Propagation
loss
Antenna
Patterns
Transmitter
Emission
Spectrum
Receiver
Performance
Each of these
model
categories
is
discussed
briefly
in the following
paragraphs.
More complete
descriptions
for
various
models
are available
in
the CCIR Reports,
many of which
are
discussed
in some detail
in the handbook.
In general,
no environment
input
data
will
be required
beyond
that
needed
by the component
models.
4.1
Propagation
loss.
Propagation
loss
models
are available
in a wide
range
of complexity,
accuracy,
and input requirements.
Input
requirements
for
these
models
vary
considerably.
In most cases,
the less
input
required
by a model
the less
accurate
its
outa characteristic
common to most
put,
model
classes.
Minimum input
models
are used
for
cull
purposes
in most

574

cases
although
for
those
physical
circumstances
that
fall
within
the model
limitations
the results
can be quite
accurate.
4.2
Antenna
patterns.
Models
are
required
to portray
antenna
gain
characteristics
both
discretely,
as a
function
of angle,
and statistically.
Analysis
requirements
can be expected
to involve
all
possible
angles
in
three
dimensions
and frequencies
below
and above
those
for
which
the antennas
were designed.
Model
development
to
date
has been based
primarily
on emand significant
conpirical
data,
straints
have been
imposed
due to the
limited
availability
of measurements.
4.3
Transmitter
Emission
Spectrum.
Models
are required
that
will
portray
electromagnetic
emissions
emanating
from a transmitter.
Emissions
include
wanted
and unwanted
energy
(primarily
that
delivered
to an antenna)
including
in-band
and out-of-band
spuriIn most cases,
models
ous signals.
will
be a primary
function
of power
output
and modulation
characteristics.
While
such
complete
descriptions
are
desirable,
they
are often
unavailable.
In many practical
cases,
knowledge
of
emission
characteristics
within
the
few channels
adjacent
to the tuned
frequency
and at dominant
harmonics
is
adequate.
Problem
analysis
requirements
can logically
be expected
to include
all
modulation
forms,
both
state
of the art
and advanced
development.
4.4
Receiver
Performance.
Models
are required
that
produce
descriptions
of the performance
degradation
characteristics
of electronic
circuitry
(primarily
receivers)
that
is potentially
capable
of responding
to the
presence
of electromagnetic
energy.
This
should
include
the fundamental
response
and selectivity
of a receiver
plus
any additional
responses
that
may
occur
regardless
of frequency.
Image
and other
spurious
responses
are included.
Both linear
and nonlinear
effects
are of concern.
Requirements
may also
exist
for
output
displays
to summarize
or highlight
a large
volume
of output
data.
The most common displays
are the
histogram
type.
In addition,
displays
of functional
relationships
synthesized
within
the program
are useful
as
a user
selected
option.
In the detailed
analysis
case,
a
receiver
input
wanted-to-unwanted
signal ratio
is most frequently
useful.
The use of this
expression
establishes
model
requirements
of emission
spectra,
receiver
performance,
receiver
sensitivity,
desired
signal
level,
and off-frequency
rejection.
Off-frequency
Rejection
(OFR) may
be derived
from analysis
of emission
spectra
and receiver
susceptibility
data
but in some cases,
it may be more
convenient
(and accurate)
to develop
OFR data
directly
for
given
combina-

tions
of transmitters
and
Several
computer
programs
toward
this
objective
are
in Report
654.
5.

receivers.
directed
described,

Data base
considerations
Planning
for
automation
and computer
applications
includes
provisions
for
the extensive
use of automated
Availability
of data
in
data
bases.
computer
readable
form greatly
enhances
the flexibility,
speed,
and
economy
with
which
automated
processing is accomplished.
However,
many of
the analysis
techniques
can be effectively
used without
any automated
data
in which
case
users
supply
rebases,
quired
input
each
time
new analyses
are conducted.
In practice,
the need
for
automation
should
be judged
on the
basis
of individual
requirements.
Prospective
users
should
carefully
evaluate
benefits
and costs
of each
data
base
file.
The most common data
base
structure
involves
one or more files,
each
containing
a number
of records.
Each record
contains
data
located
in a number of fields.
Perhaps
the most
fundamental
data
and one that
already
exists
in
file,
some manual
form in any organization
charged
with
the responsibility
of
administering
frequencies,
is a list
of frequency
assignments.
In the simple
case,
this
frequency
assignment
file
will
contain
one record
for
each
and each
record
will
conassignment,
tain
a number
of fields.
One field
might
contain
frequency,
another
the
transmitter
power
authorized,
a third
the name of the operator,
etc.
Data useful
in spectrum
management
and interference
analysis
can be
grouped
according
to its
degree
of
generality.
Such grouping
offers
several
advantages.
It reduces
the
amount
of data
collection
and storage
required
and improved
quality
control
efforts
by ordering
like
data
togeththus
highlighting
anomalies
and
er,
discrepancies.
An anomaly
(unusual
data)
and a discrepancy
(an error
or
missing
data)
are not the same;
awareness
of both
is important
for
problem
analysis.
For example,
the costs
associated
with
maintaining
the accuracy
and currency
of frequency
data
in afile
may not be justified
for
the mobile
units
associated
with
a base
station.
A useful
distinction
in planning
for
data
bases
is the difference
between unique
and generally
applicable
information.
Unique
information
applies
to one single
frequency
assignment at a specific
place.
The latitude
and longitude
of a transmitter
operating
under
a specific
assignment
is
probably
the best
example
of unique
On the other
hand,
general
data
data.
applies
to a number
of situations
or

104

575

Rl

items
of equipment.
For example,
the
power
output
of the simple
transmitter
used
at a specific
location
is not unique
to that
operator
at that
place.
It is general
data
that
describes
the
power
output
of all
transmitters
of
the same design
(manufacturer,
model
number,
etc).
Data groupings
useful
for
spectrum
management
applications
may be as follows :
5.1
Operational
usaqe
or frequency
Files
in this
category
dependent
data.
contain
data
unique
to a specific
sitLocation,
frequency,
antenna
uation.
and pulsewidth/PRF
are typical
height,
of such
data.
In general,
one might
expect
large
numbers
of relatively
short
records
in such
a file.
A key
item
in each
record
is information
(a
cross
index)
that
unambiguously
relates
to appropriate
information
on
The make and model
of a
other
files.
simple
transmitter
(one
which
has only
one power
output)
is one example
of
such
an index.
5.2
Equipment
characteristics
data.
These
files
contain
data
common to all
equipment
of a given
nomenclature
or
of a given
class.
Antenna
gain,
power
output,
receiver
sensitivity,
and IF
bandwidth
are typically
in this
group.
Parameters
other
than nomenclature
may
be used
as the classifying
criterion,
modulation
type
for
example.
Such a
file
would
normallly
contain
substantially
fewer
records
than in the equipment
dependent
case,
but each
record may be quite
extensive.
5.3.Pathor
couplet
dependent
data.
Files
of this
kind
contain
information
unique
to transmitter-receiver
combination
. Path length,
path
profile,
mutual
gain,
off-frequency
rejection,
susceptibility
criteria,
path
loss,
etc.,
fall
in this
category.
Note that
this
type
of data
may apply
to a single
discrete
path/couplet
situation,
or it may represent
a general
class
of
situations.
6.

Conclusions
Efficient
spectrum
management
requires
an infrastructure
that
can satisfy
national
requirements
and international obligations.
Joint
efforts
require record
keeping,
quantitative
analysis
and experimental
judgement.
Data
files
and analysis
techniques
vary
from simple
to very
complex
systems.
Voluminious
data
and complex
analysis
lead
to change
from manual
to automated processes.
The changeover
will
create
new types
of problems
and may
be costly
in the initial
phase.
Such a
changeover
therefore
requires
time
and careful
analysis
and planning.
Computer
systems
are now available
to perform these
functions
at reasonable
costs,
thus
permitting
improved
handling
of assignments,
staff
savings
and better
information
availability.

577

105

R2

THE BIG SQUEEZE

A SELECTIVE LOOK AT ORB-85/88

H. J. Weiss
Communications Satellite Corporation
Washington, DC, USA*

AN HISTORICAL NOTE - At the 1979 World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC-79), a

strong bloc of mostly developing nations forced
the adoption of a Resolution [l] which calls
for the planning of certain space radio services and frequencies which involve the use of
the geostationary satellite orbit. A two-part
World Administrative Radio Conference will establish in 1985 which services and frequency
bands should be planned (ORB-85) and will institute such planning in 1988 (ORB-88). The
heavy and growing use of the geostationary
orbit/spectrum for some services and in some
frequency bands has engendered concern with
premature orbit "saturation". Planning is to
ensure the availability of viable orbit locations for tomorrow's would-be users of the
resource: to guarantee, in practice, equitable
access to it by all nations. In the predominant view of the proponents of planning this
requires the long-term reservation of specific
orbit locations and frequencies for the exclusive use and disposition by individual countries. Industrialized countries reject this
"a-priori" approach to planning as too restrictive and hold that equitable access can be
guaranteed by other forms of planning which
accommodate new requirements'as they emerge
under observance of agreed obligations and
appropriate codes of conduct.
There are precedents for a-priori planning
of a qeostationary space service: the two
broadcasting-satellite service planning conferences of 1977 (for ITU Regions 1 and 3) and of
1983 (for Region 2). However, these have limited relevance for ORB-85/88 since they dealt
with a service for which no previous assignments existed and for which it was possible
to agree on highly uniform technical characteristics. Neither applies to the service of
most concern to ORB-85J88: the fixed-satellite
service using frequencies below about 15 GHz,
which will be the subject of this discussion.
TECHNICAL BACKGROUND - The electromagnetic
isolation needed to protect two geostationary
networks (,anetwork being a satellite and its
associated earth stations) against unacceptable interference from each other when they
use the same frequencies requires substantial
physical separations between either their
earth stations or their satellites or between
both.

*The views expressed herein do not necessarily represent those of the Communications
Satellite Corporation.

Figure 1 illustrates that an assignment

(the orbit location of a network, its service
area on the earth surface which contains its
earth stations, and certain other technical
characteristics) can visually be represented by
an elongated cone, its apex defined by the orbit
location and its "aperture" determined by the
exocentric 121 angular width of the service area.

Figure 1. Assignment Geometry.

6 = Apparent IntersatelliteSpacing
@ = Exocentric Service Area Separation
Figure 2 shows that coexistence of two
such assignments is possible only when their
service area separation and the spacing between
their satellites meet minimum separation conditions. These minimum separation conditions depend entirely on the radiation characteristics
of satellite and/or earth station antennas,
mainly in directions outside the assignment
cone ("sidelobe gains"), the transmitted power
levels in a network, and the ability of a network to tolerate another network's transmitted
powers which it generally receives through its
and the other network's antenna sidelobes as
unwanted ("interfering") energy. The sidelobe
gains of earth station and satellite antennas
decrease fairly rapidly in directions having an
increasing angular separation relative to the
direction of maximum gain (monotonic sidelobe
'gain "decay") .
Figure 2 also indicates that collocation
of satellites serving sufficiently far separated
service areas is possible, but this option is
limited by geography and service area size and
available electromagnetic isolation. In general, an increasing network population will

578

use up" an increasing number of necessary "separation arcs out of the orbit's 360'; ulti-

Relationship between Triter-satellite Spacing 0 and Service Area

Maximum SatelliteAntenna
Discrimination33 dB. Earth Station Antenna Diameter 10 m. Satellite Antenna Beamwidth 2.5'.

00

20

e+

40

6O

mately so many that additional networks could

only be accommodated if the width of these separation arcs could be reduced.
COORDINATION - Current practice already
seeks to minimize the size of required separation arcs to facilitate the introduction of
new networks. It imposes constraints on and
encourages compliance with minimum standards
for the three major determinants of separation
arc size: earth station and satellite antenna
radiation char'acteristics, t.ransmitterpowers,
and sensitivity to interference (the latter
through "interference criteria") . Most effective, however, in the reduction of required
separation arc size is the process called "coordination". To coordinate two potentially
interfering networks with each other, their
transmission parameters, frequency plans and
frequently also other system characteristics
are adjusted with respect to one another in
such a way that the service requirements of
both networks can be satisfied from the orbit
locations chosen for their satellites. Occasionally, during coordination, rather than putting more effort into the process, it is found
preferable to obtain additional electromagnetic
isolation through the relocation of one or the
other network's satellite. Generally, however,
coordination is successful with the chosen satellite locations and could, with some additional effort, even tolerate smaller intersatellite
separation.
This latter fact and substantial pressure
of demand has prompted one administration to
impose upon networks under its jurisdiction a
fairly small but - as shown by analysis - coordinable spacing between adjacent satellites and
to mandate that networks be coordinated with
one another for that spacing.
One can hardly take issue with the objectives of the 1979 planning Resolution - they
reflect the purpose and spirit of the International Telecommunication Union. However,
one of the ways in which those who found it

necessary to reaffirm the Union's basic tenets

through this Resolution seek to implement it by the reservation of orbit assignments for all
nations - may create a fundamental problem which
has not yet received widespread attention. The
accommodation of new networks under the current
regulatory process, as well as it has worked,
is nevertheless apt to require increasing skill
and effort on the part of administrations.
Therefore, quite apart from the concern with resource depletion, rigid planninq is also seen
to obviate the need for coordination when an
administration chooses to implement its assignment - coordination requiring both skill and
effort - and that such implementation should
not be economically burdensome - implementation
cost representinq another facet of effort.
The problem is that, in certain frequency
bands and orbit segments, the existing regulatory process may already have achieved an assignment density which is greater than probably
achievable with a plan that would not require
coordination between assignments. The first
intimation of that was given expression by one
Region 2 administration at the 1984 Conference
Preparatory Meeting (CPM) for ORB-85. This
administration claimed that, by its calculations, it would have only a 13% chance of finding an orbit location that would not require
coordination with existing networks. This claim
may well be optimistic: under the current regulatory provisions coordination between any two
networks is required when emissions from either
network reach the other as unwanted energy and
set up, at a receiving earth station of the
other network, an equivalent noise temperature
increase in excess of 4%. This is a fairly
stringent "threshold, and there is a good
chance that the actual probability of a new network not requiring coordination with existing
ones is less than 13% when recalculated with
detailed transmission parameters of the new
network.
The problem can be quantified by example.
THE U.S. PRECEDENT - Current practice requires that a spacing of 3' be achieved between
the satellites of U.S. FSS networks in the 6/4
GHz band. This presumes orthogonal polarization between networks using alternate satellites
and thus is equivalent to a 6" spacing requirement between co-polarized satellites. An antenna reference pattern corresponding to a sidelobe gain of 29-25 log 6 dB is stipulated where
8 is the off-boresight angle (in degrees), e.g.,
the anqle to a neighbor satellite, and a polarization isolation of 10 dB is stipulated where
it is applicable.
Assuming that all networks under consideration have equal technical characteristics,
including about equal net available mean power
density-to-noise density ratios and equal satellite antenna gains and coverages, the available "isolation" between two neighbor networks
(i.e., the net wanted-to-unwanted carrier power
ratio between "identical" 131 transmissions in
two neighbor networks) is a function of the
earth station antenna diameter.
With the assumption of a 1 dB "topocentric"
advantage 141, Figure 3 shows the available

579

isolation (in dB) as a function of earth station antenna diameter for the "homogeneous"
example, for earth station antenna diameters
between 3 and 20 meters and a 6" intersatellite spacing without polarization discrimination. Figure 3 also shows the available isolation under the assumption that earth station
antennas conform to the current sidelobe reference gain equation 32-25 log EldB.

29-25

Earth Station Antenna

Sidelobe Discrimination
at 6'
off Boresight.
C-Band.

Figure 3.

"' 2olI
3
5
10
20
;
E. Sta. Antenna Diam.(m)

Available isolation needs to be compared

with isolation requirements. Figure 4 shows
these between several combinations of transmissions having the same assigned frequencies.

Function

acity

of

Required Isolation as
of Voice Channel CapInterfered-with
FDM/FM

dBI c-3
35 -

c-4

30 _

10

20 n +

50

R2

with artificial energy dispersal of 1 MHz

(curve C2),2MHz (curve C3) and 4 MHz (curve
C4) peak-to-peak deviation at frame rate. 1solation requirements between digital 4-phase PSK
transmissions would, by current interference
criteria, lie about 3 dB below the curves A
and B, and those to protect such transmissions
to acceptable interference against FM/TV transmissions about 3 dB below the curves C, when
the assumption is made that there is approximate equivalence between the FRM/FM channel
capacity n of the abscissa and a digital carrier bit rate of 0.26 no** kb/sec.
When the interfered-with carrier is SCPC,
the isolation requirements against FM/TV transmissions are approximately:

log 0 dB

105

100

200

500

Transmissions assumed to be interfered

with are FDM/FM multichannel telephony having
large rms modulation indices (1.25 < m 2 2.65);
their voice channel capacities are given on
the abscissa. The isolation required to cause
no more than 600 pWOp of interference in an
interfered-with transmission by an interfering
transmission is given on the ordinate, in dB.
The interfering transmissions are identical
carriers (curve A), a 792 channel FDM/FM carrier (curve B) and an FM/TV carrier without
artificial energy dispersal (curve Cl) r and

Peak-to-Peak
Energy Dispersal

QPSK SCPC
64 kb/sec

CFM SCPC
27 kHz

1 MHz
2 MHz
4 MBZ

47
dB
45.2 dB
43.4 dB

41.5 dB
39.0 dB
36.6 dB

Departures from homogeneity in the transmission parameters tends to increase isolation

requirements. The use of low-index FDM/FM
transmissions will generally increase the isolation requirements because such transmissions
require higher powers and may themselves be
more sensitive to interference. For example,
an interfering 1800 channel FDM/FM carrier, to
meet its own performance requirements, would
produce required isolation values about 11 dB
greater than those of curve Cl of Figure 4 for
the interfered-with carriers represented by
the abscissa.
Other inhomogeneities (i.e., differences
between systems) may be in the noise temperatures and the antenna gains. They can be additive. Therefore, the general tendency to
consider values of available isolation in the
30-33 dB range as adequate to protect networks
from each other without coordination is not
supported in practice.
The current provisions of the Radio Regulations take this fact into consideration with
the 4% equivalent noise temperature increase
mentioned earlier. Figure 5 shows curves of
equivalent noise temperature increase as a
function of available isolation with the interfering signal being FM/TV with 3 energy
dispersal assumptions. Thus, with 1 MHz of
peak-to-peak frame rate energy dispersal, an
isolation of about 44 dB is calculated. From
Figure 4 this isolation value is about 4 dB
greater than required to protect a 12 channel
FDM/FM transmission to CUrrent interferenCe
criteria. While this isolation also suffices
to protect a CFM SCPC transmission, it is insufficient to protect a QPSK SCPC transmission
(it is generally understood that the 4% equivalent noise temperature increase is an inadequate threshold for QPSK SCPC).
Referring to Figure 3, a 44 dB isolation
would only be available
with earth stations
of about 17 meters diameter
at 6' intersatellite spacing and without polarization

- 580

discrimination,
but
in fact there IS in use a
mix of earth station antenna sizes the majority
of which lie in the 4.5 to 10 meter diameter
range.

at 30 spacing which is the actually pres'_

cribed intersatellite spacing, a 10 dB polar=
Appendix
29
sation isolation is stipulated.
of the'Eadi0 Regulations provides, subject to
agreement by the interfered-with Party, for a
6 dB polarization isolation. Thus, while the
expected isolation at 3O is 10 aB better
than
the values
shown in Figure 3, the fact that
only 6 dB are allowed for purposes of calculating the equivalent noise temperature increase
makes the AT/T threshold for 3O spacing bY
4 aB more protective than at 6' spacing.

the express purpose of establishing whether a

need for coordination exists. Nevertheless,
even the fairly stringent 4% criterion may be
insufficient to "protect" certain transmissions
against interference from certain others (FM/TV
to QPSK SCPC);

- orbit use density is greater than would

allow a significant percentage of potential
carrier combinations to meet current interference criteria without coordination. The U.S.
example is most relevant because it reflects
real networks with a representative mix of
earth station antenna diameters and Service
offerings and is even based on more stringent
earth station antenna radiation characteristics
than are used in other networks;
- high-density transmissions (FM/TV and
low-index FDM/FM) are the major problems, but
they are also likely to be in continued demand
for future networks, as are low-to-very low
capacity transmissions which tend to be those
most sensitive to interference from high-density transmissions;
- net isolation requirements between real
and, for the most part, inhomogeneous networks
are likely to lie, with current interference
criteria, in the range 30-40 dB with larger
values (due to low-index FDM/FM transmissions)
not unlikely to be required. Such high isolation values raise increasingly severe problems
under a trend to decrease earth station antenna
size and/or antenna sidelobe standards.

30

40
35
Available Isolation (dB)

45

what this means is that, under cantinued

aSSLlmptiOn of homogeneity between netwx.dcs, Calculation of equivalent noise temperature increases for 5 and 10 metex diameter earth station antennas would Yield the following values,
at 3O and 6O spacing, respectively (interfering carrier is FM/TV):

,
E.S. Ant.
Diam.(m)

FM/TV P-P
Spreading (MHz)

AT/T @
3O - %

AT/T @
6O - %

10

1
2
4

14
7
3.5

10
5
2.5

1
2
4

56
28
14

40
20
10

These AT/T percentages would be twice as

large with the assumption of the current earth
station antenna radiation reference formula
32-25 log 8 dB and could also be significantly
larger with non-uniform (inhomogeneous) networks, notably with the use of low-index FDM/FM
transmissions as are, in fact, used by some
U.S. networks.
The preceding discussion reaffirmed that
- orbit use density is greater than would
satisfy the 4% AT/T threshold criterion. No.
surprise here: that criterion was developed for

IMPACT ON PLANNING - Qualitatively, the

preceding adds little to what is well known:
that the current coordination process is a
rational, highly effective mechanism for the
efficient utilization of the geostationary orbit/spectrum, at least in the fixed-satellite
service.
Quantitatively, however, the material presented may drastically affect the perception
of reservative planning.
In reservative planning, it would be essential that national assignments be made in
awareness of their potential interaction. One
could deal summarily with this by describing
existing as well as future (not yet well defined) networks in terms of their actual or
projected "Appendix 4" 151 characteristics and
give each an assignment which meets the 4%
AT/T criterion with respect to every other.
However, we know that, with current standards
and interference criteria, even existing networks do not meet the 4% criterion with respect
to each other at the intersatellite spacings
for which they have been successfully coordinated.
Therefore, even if current coordination
arrangements were allowed to remain in force,
the requirement to meet the 4% AT/T criterion
among all assignments to countries not now
having one, and between these and existing
assignments, would necessitate the removal of
a substantial number of existing networks.
Quite apart from the thus resulting very low
orbit .utilization efficiency, this approach
could be expected to meet with resistance.

- 581

There are two alternative approaches which

are more pragmatic.
CONSTRAINTS TO ZIMIT INTERACTION - The
first alternative would seek to diminish the
basic potential for interaction between assiqnments by prior constraints. These could relate
to design characteristics such as a lower limit
on earth station antenna diameter and more
stringent earth station and satellite antenna
sidelobe radiation characteristics. The U.S.
example is illustrative of this, and the adoption of tighter standards or constraints is an
option, notwithstanding the current trend aqainst it.
Then there are two potential operational
constraints that would be effective. The first
of these is the acceptance of more interference
than currently recommended by the CCIR. Of
particular interest is the selective acceptance of greater interference in low-capacity
transmissions which mainly determine the required isolation between networks. Generally
it should be possible to compensate for increased interference to such transmissions by
assigning to them somewhat higher powers in
spectral regions occupied by high-density components of interfering tsansmissions without
thereby placing an undue demand on the total
transmitter power shared with other transmissions (e.g., in a transponder).

105

higher assignment density. An example would

be to adopt AT/T criterion in the range between 40 and 200% for the establishment of
assignments, and to require that, at the time
an assignment is to be implemented, it be coor'dinated with existing networks and other affected assignments. This approach would be
facilitated by the adoption of constraints of
the kind discussed in the previous section, in
particular by agreement on frequency seqreqation between high-density and low-capacity
transmissions.
Figure 6 illustrates the difference between fully protective planning and planning
with insufficient protection. Two frequency
plans are considered: one represented by the
interference "threat" it poses (A) for another
which is represented by its sensitivity to interference (B). Full protection planning must

A
The second operational constraint would
be aimed at systematically segregating the frequencies occupied by (interfering) kigh-idensity
transmission components and (interfered-with)
low capacity transmissions. Such a constraint
has been proposed in the form of various "spectrum segmentation" arrangements of a fairly
restrictive nature. However, there is one arrangement that might be both effective and generally acceptable: the identification of a suf-ficient number of specific narrow frequency
regions across an allocated band, High density
transmission components would be restricted to
these narrow frequency regions by general aqreement (e.g., 2 MHz frequency slots every 20 MHz
across the band). Prior knowledge of where
high-density transmission components could be
expected would allow the planners of low-capacity transmissions to make appropriate frequency
assignments. This approach is fairly equitable
since it is about equally constraining on users
of high-density and low-capacity transmissions,
not denying either any particular major segment
of the spectrum. It would be very effective,
producing on the order of 10 dB lower isolation requirements. Moreover, it would siqnificantly facilitate the selective acceptance of
higher interference as discussed above.
POST-PLANNING COORDINATION - A fundamentally different approach would be to acknowledge the benefits of coordination as an effective tool to produce high orbit utilization
efficiency and to provide for it in planning.
Under this approach, reservative assignments
would be made by electromagnetic separation
criteria which are intentionally insufficient
to guarantee acceptable interference for all
assignments under all possible technical and
operational conditions, in order to achieve a

R2

Eii

Figure 6. Matching of Interfering (A) and Interferedwith (B) TransmissionTypes

to Minimize Isolation Requirements.

III

assume co-frequency assignments of the most

interference producing and the most interference sensitive transmission (I). Planning
under a post-planning coordination arrangement
could ignore the worst situation and seek one
which would allow many but not all carrier arrangements to be protected (II a or b).
In general, coordination would then not
only allow the avoidance of situation I but
could even lead to situation III which represents the tightest possible "packing" of assignments.
Empirically, the difference between situation I and situation III lies in the range
lo-20 dB from frequency assignment considerations alone and may be even greater when
other elements contributing to inhomogeneity
are taken into account during coordination. A
20 dE reduction of required isolation produces
at least a 6-fold orbit utilization efficiency
increase; 10 dB represent a 2.5-fold increase.
PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS - The potential
need to coordinate reserved assignments at the
time of implementation has a number of practical consequences:

..__~_._ _-----

582

- first, it would be necessary to develop

two electromagnetic separation criteria: one by
which assignments are made (assignment separation criterion), and another one by which it is
determined, when coordinating an assignment for
implementation, which other assignments are affected (coordination criterion) i
_ it must be decided how coordination is
to be undertaken with assignments for which no
detailed implementation characteristics have
as yet been developed. One option is to ignore them since they would continue, for the
time being, to be protected by the assignment
separation criterion;
- the nature and magnitude of the assignment separation criterion and the coordination
criterion must be determined. While both could
be AT/T criteria, there are at least two other
ways
in which these criteria can be formulated.
The adoption of a prior frequency segregation arrangement would undoubtedly allow the
assignment separation criterion to be fairly
low (in terms of required isolation), thus producing a fairly high orbit utilization efficiency. However, since it still has to be capable of protecting assignments having undefined
implementation characteristics, detailed coordination would still be capable of improvinq
orbit utilization. Since coordination always
produces the best orbit utilization at little
or no implementation cost and since orbit capacity is a major concern, it should be in the
interest of all to retain coordination provisions even under reservative planning. It
would be absurd to replace a highly efficient
orbit utilization method by one that is less
efficient when the prime motivation is to
guarantee access to the orbit by all nations.
ESTABLISHMENT OF CRITERIA - It is necessary to establish assignment separation and/or
coordination criteria, whether they are to be
applied under reservative planning or under any
other method to gain access for a network. As
has been pointed out, continued reliance on the
AT/T concept would be one option. The use of
AT/T criteria would tend to allow complete
freedom in the choice of technical and operational network characteristics, subject only to
such constraints as may be generally adopted.
However, two other methods have been described by which assignment separation requirements could be established. One relies on calculating, for any two real or hypothetical networks, values of "available isolation" which
depend only on major design characteristics of
each network (antenna gains, gain discrimination, noise temperatures and up link-to-total
link noise ratio). Available isolation, compared with required isolation a) for all transmission combinations, b) for a reasonable majority Of tranSmi.SSiOn
combinations, would yield
a "coordination spacing" and an "assignment
spacing" between networks' satellites. This
could also be used under a purely regulatory
regime (i.e., no reservative planning): the
assignment spacing would be the spacing which
networks would, if necessary, have to accept
when a new network is introduced; the coordination spacing would identify all affected networks.

The other assignment alternative would follow the U.S. precedent: intersatellite spacings
which, if necessary, would have to be accepted
by all networks, regardless of their characteristics, are pre-established by a formula which
qives suitab,le recognition of available satellite antenna discrimination when there is geographical separation between networks' service
areas. Determination of affected networks, when
a new one is introduced, would be by AT/T or
isolation coordination criteria.
CONCLUDING
REMARKS - It has been shown that,
-

-in order to realize an adequate number of or-

bital accesses to satisfy demand under a reservative planning regime such as may be considered at ORB-85, there is a distinct probability
that
a) certain constraints may need to be adopted, notably one relating to an a-priori
segregation of high-density and low-capacity
transmissions;
b) there may be a need for coordination of
an assignment, prior to its implementation, with
existing networks.
This casts doubt on the benefits of reservative
planning vis-a-vis the alternative of accommodating networks as demand for them arises. To
the burden of planning would have to be added
the continued burden of coordination: at worst,
and of grave concern, reservative planning would
diminish orbit utilization efficiency relative
to more flexible orbit utilization approaches.
It is noted that the 1984 CPM for ORB-85,
charged with developing technical bases for the
work of ORB-85, did neither recognize this nor
even addressed the matter in general terms. To
prevent ORB-85 from making decisions for ORB-88
which are in conflict with technical reality,
it must address the questions raised above. As
a minimum, it should request the CCIR to undertake additional studies in the intersessional
period, but would then have to leave enough
leeway in its decisions to allow the findinqs
of the CCIR to be accommodated at ORB-88.
[1lResolution

No. 3 (Final Acts of WARC 1979).

r21 As seen from an "outside" location; here

from a location on the geostationary satellite orbit.
r31 Identical in their modulation characteristics and noise budgets, not necessarily
their required powers.
r41 The apparent (topocentric) angular spacing of two satellites as seen from a point
on the earth is generally greater than
their geocentric angular spacing.
[51 Only information necessary to allow the
calculation of apparent noise temperature
increase to characterize the potential
interaction between networks.

583

106

R3

DEFORMABLE LATTICES FOR EFFICIENT FREQUENCY MANAGEMENT

Andrzej H. WCJNAR
Warsaw Academy of Technology
Warsaw, Poland

summary
Congestion of radio spectrum calls
for frequency reuse in large broadcast
and mobile-radio systems. Theoretical
network planning relies - since decades - upon lattice models with spatial
and spectral regularity.
Here, more realistic and efficient
models without geometric regularity are
introduced. Classical lattice theory is
supplementedwith engineering criteria
of coverage and compatibility.In eq.
/6/, admissible displacementsof stations in the lattice are determined.
Deformability of actual lattice increases with spectrum occupancy, represented by the number n of channel sets.
Small mobile-radionetworks /n<12/ exhibit reduced deformability because of
adjacent-channelinterference.
Extended concept of deformable lattices disregards topological 9esselation" rules, as given by the set of
"rhombic numbers". Various natural numbers n> nmin can be matched to actual
topography and data of stations, provided their spacings remain within the
bounds in /6/. Thus, spectrum occupancy
may be reduced.
1. Introduction
In large broadcast and mobile-radio
systems, frequency reuse is now imposed
by spectrum congestion. Relevant planning of compatible networks relies customarily - since decades - upon lattice
models. So far, of [1,2], regular ar-

rays of cells are exclusivelyused;

consequently,very restrictive assumptions from classical lattice theory
[3,4] are not removable.
This author submitted some time ago
[!!I]
the idea of extending the lattice
theory with due attention to principles of radio engineering.Step by step,
cf [6], theorems and application rules
have emerged. By now, advanced network
planning with elements of technological design can be founded upon deformable lattices, a novel tool in spectrum management.
2. Regular and irregular lattices
Conventional lattice models of radio networks are bound to be completely regular in both spatial and spectral domain [1,2,61.Then, the primary
array of fixed /broadcast resp. base/
transmitting stations is characterized
by the shortest distance between adjacent stations /modulus M in Fig. I/.
In the sublattice of cochannel stations
the least spacing is called coordination distance, D. There are altogether
n such subsets, and a cluster of contiguous cells with different frequency
assignments consists of n cells.
Semialgorithmicrules of channel
assignment in regular lattices are explained in [1,2]. The basic, structural equation of a regular lattice
reads [6]
M.. D/\r;
/I/

584

Complete regularity is achieved with

n = a2 + ab + b2
/2/
Here, a&l; b>,O are natural numbers.
Note that the set /2/ is considerably
larger than the set of "rhombic numbers" in n,2]. The values of M and D
depend upon radio-engineeringconstraints.

Fig. 1: Sketch of a regular lattice.

The cluster consist5 of n=7
hexagonal cells; natural numbers denote frequency channels
/reused/.
In any actual radio network , the
topography of fixed stations is irregular. In most cases, the array can be
modelled by deforming only the geome&y of a regular lattice without affecting its spectral struoture. Evidently, see Fig. 2, such quasiregular
lattice is characterizedby two finite
sets of Mi and Di distances. Unexpectedly, compatible deformations can
still be simply described if lattice
theory is supplementedby engineering
criteria. Let us now summarize this
approach, initiated by this author in
[5j, evolved in [6] and broaden&d
here.

3. Radio ensineerina constraints

Along with topological "tesselatioff
rules reflected in /I/ and /2/, radio
networks have to satisfy coverape and
comoatibilitr criteria. Coverage of a
regular hexagonal cell by a transmitter in its centre requires the service
radius d, to exceed dimension c /Fig.l/.

Fig. 2: Sketch of a deformed lattice

with irregular geometry. Mi,
i I 1,2,... denote spacings
between adjacent stations. Spacings between adjacent coohannel stations are denoted by
D1' i - 1,2,...
The coverage rsquirement leads to
an uoner bound for the modulus
T IQOXPf%l
/3/
With conventional /static/ approach,
ds depends upon the median value of
the received field strength. In advanced probabilistic analysis, see e.g.[7],
ds is the interference-limitedservice
range.
With frequency reuse, the cochannel
compatibility constraint can be presented generally as
Dmln p

fdi/*dsq

/4/

106

- 585 -

where di stands for the interference

radius/range. Interpretationof /4/ depends on the operations in the system
considered. For instance, see [6], in
simplex mobile-radionetworks di is determined between base stationsand the
dsterm in /4/ is omitted. In general,
di and ds can be considered as independent variables and Dmin as a dependent
variable, all with known values.
Eq. /4/ combined with /I/ imposes a
lower bound for Mi in compatible lattices
/5/
Mmin = DminNQ
Thus, the Mi set in any lattice is bounded by coverage and compatibilitycriteria
n-"2*[di /+ds/lbMi<n

d,

/6/

Relation /6/ is quite general and indicates admissible limits of lattice deformation. Fig; 3 shows how the deformability increases with n, iie; with
spectrum occupancly.
The least theoreti-

ceil

R3

value
/di+ds/2
%ni.n*T

/7/

is also shown. In practice, optirmm

values of n)nmin are given by /2/,
but any integer n>nmin can be employed in deformed lattices, see later;
Considering only the cochannel compatibility is not sufficient. In mob%
le-radio networks with small nC12,
adjacent channels in adjacent cells
are unavoidable. Then, as shown by
this author in [63, another more restrictive lower bound for M exists
Mmin %d s

/a/

Evidently, small clusters can be less

deformable because of adjacent-channel
interference.Our recent research on
small clusters with 2 buffer rings
shows that /8b dominates over /5/ only
if
/9/

This case is also shown in Fig. 3.

By means of /6/, every actual structure can be checked and - in case of
need - readjusted, e.g; by changing
the elevations of transmitting antennas. Manoeuvring with the n parameter
can be optimized; thus avoiding exoessive spectrum usage.

Od,

4, Extended concept of deformable lattices

Fig. 3: Admissible variation of the

M /n/ values in the hatohed
area; Regular lattioe is represented by one point 'M/no/i In
compatible deformed lattice
Mmin /r+,/<Mi /no/<Mmax /no/;
The adjacent-channelconstraint
in small clusters is also shown.

It is easy to show that restrictive

assumptions from the theory of regular
lattices, [1,2], can be loosened or
abandoned with deformed structures
without affecting the frequency assignments. In particular, transmitters and
antennas need not to be identical,
directive radiation can be employed and
propagation can also be taken into ac-l
count. The main task in network planning and design is to satisfy relation
/6/ throughout.

586

Going f&her, the topological condition /2/ can also be disregarded. It

was shown by this author that - in a
regular array of identical cells - the
numbers n not satisfying /2/ produce
irremlar coohanml sublattices with
two or three different values of D. It
is then potentially possible to exploit
this property for complying with different values of interference range of
individual transmitters.
Note that any adjustment of this
type aids in avoiding excessive spacings between cochannel stations and
can reduce the number n of cells in
one cluster. In particular, by adopting integer n smaller than the value
dictated by /2/ or by the set of rhombic numbers, one can reduce the spectral accumn~y without any noticeable
impairment of system performance or
overall capacity.
Summing up, utilization of deformable lattices extends far beyond theoretical network planning. In engineering design, versatile /prrtual/matching of deformed lattice to actual
network layout is feasible. Thus, rapid scanning of various solutions and
choice of spectrum-conservingsnas is
facilitated.Validation of the network
design requires usually determining of
worst-case probabilitiesof service.
3; Conclusions
Deformable latticea serve for planning and design of networks with irregular topography. Novel eq. /6/ indicates bounds of admissible interstation spacings.
By abandoning regularity assumptions and tesselation constraints the
number of channel sets can be minimized and spectral efficiency enhanced.

References
1

Arnaud, J.-F.: Frequency Planning

for Broadcast Service in Europe.
Proc. IEEE; 68, No 12, 1515-1522
/1980/.

C.C.1.R;: Report 944, Theoretical

Network Planning. Vol. IO, 161-174
/1982/.

3 Fastert, 11.W,: Die mathematischen

Grundlagen der theoretischenSendernetzplannung.Rundfunktechn,
Mitteilungen, 4, 48-56 /1960/r
4 Arnaud, J.-F.: Projets thdoriques
de r&partition des frbquences a un
rQseau d'tlmetteurs.
Onde Electrique, No 420, 208-218 /1962/.
5 Wojnar, A.: Solved, unsolved and
missolved problems of dense radiocomunicationnetworks. Proc. of
3rd World TelecomunicationForum,
Geneva, paper 3.5.5. /1979/.
6 Wojnar, A.r Electromagneticcompatibility of terrestrial radio communication systems* Chap-t.IO in:
Rotkiewicz, W. /Ed;/, Electromagnetic Compatibility in Radio Engineering. Elsevier, Amsterdam 1982.
7 Cox, D, C.: Cochannel Interference
Considerationsin Frequency Reuse
Small-Coverage-AreaRadio Systems.
IFEE Trans. on Communications,30,
135-142

/1982/.

CORRECTION
The rhombic numbers - with b 9 F in
/2/ and without common divisor in (_a,
b,n} - do produce option /max. density/ latticesA But, against the assertions in b ,2,4] , all numbers satisfying /2/ - i.e. nonrhombic ones too yield fully regular lattices with eauilateral cochannel triangles$ for easy
check try with n 319 or 12,

581

107 R4

THE PREDICTION OF FIELD STRENGTH IN THE FREQUENCY RANGE 30 - 1OOOMHz

AND ITS INFLUENCE ON SPECTRUM MANAGEMENT

R. Sandell
British BroadcastingCorporation,Research Department
Tadworth, England

Field strength prediction is an

important aspect of spectrum management and
its significancecan be demonstratedby
considering the planning of broadcast
services. These services make heavy demands
on the spectrum - they have access to between
40 and 50% of the frequenciesbetween 30 and
1OOOMHz - and the financial investment
involved is enormous. They are used by
hundreds of millions of people, and high
technical standards must be maintained.
These facts emphasize the need for efficient
planning.

that the service is planned to achieve maximum

coverage as efficientlyand economicallyas
possible.

The assessment of field strength values

determinesnot only channel usage and spectrum
demand, but also the siting and operational
specificationof each transmittingstation.
Errors can result in intolerableinterference
and wasted expenditure. Yet despite its
obvious importance the evaluation of field
strength remains a less than exact process.
This paper discusses the techniquesof
determiningfield strength in the process of
broadcast service planning. It considers the
relationshipbetween the accuracy of these
methods and the impact upon coverage and
frequency demand.

Assessment of the field strength of a

transmissionmay be cLchievedby measurement or
prediction. The former would seem to offer
the obvious advantage of precision, but the
situation is complex. If the value at a
precise position in space must be stated, and
the transmissionis available, then a
measurementis the obvious choice. Such a
requirementarises when it is necessary to
determine the quality of a signal from a
distant station which is to be re-broadcast
from a new relay. But where informationis
required about a new station or network, then
a combinationof measurementsand predictions
is the only practicablesolution. The sheer
volume of results needed demands this mixture
of evidence, and ideally the accuracy must not
suffer. In practice a well-designed
prediction process can offer distinct
advantages over an inadequatemeasurement
programme. The next two sections consider
the features of the alternatives.

The Objective
Basically the objective of field
strength assessment in broadcast planning is
to ensure that every potential viewer and
listener has access to signals which will
provide acceptable reception quality.
Clearly, subjectiveassessmentsof quality
will vary, but many tests in the past have
provided informationon this aspect, and
minimum field strengths to provide services to
agreed standards have been estab1ished.l
Also, there will be wide differences in the
quality of the receiving installation,
although in this instance the planning
engineer has to assume that the user is making
the best use of the available signal.
However, it is recognized that there are
certain unavoidableconstraints- not everyone
can erect an external aerial which enjoys a
clear view to the transmitter. Similarly a
substantialproportion of the radio audience
will want to use portable or car radios.
Thus the measurement or prediction process
must take account of these factors in order

It must also be remembered that the

examinationconcerns not only the
transmissionsfrom the wanted station, but
also those from other transmitterslikely to
share the same or adjacent frequencies.
Errors in estimating the field strengths of
these stations can lead to interference,and
this must obviously be kept within acceptable
limits.

The Measurement of Field Strength

The field strength of a signal varies
with time and receiving location. As the
range from the transmitterincreases the
temporal variations become more significant,
whereas changes resulting from movement of the
aerial/s are largely independentof distance.
The changes with time - fading - can only be
deduced from measurementsat fixed receiving
locations extending over substantialperiods,
and many such measurementshave been used to
produce statisticalpropagationcurves which
are used to predict field strengths over paths
extending up to 1,OOOkm in length. Such
curves are published by the CCIR,2 and these
have been used throughoutthe world for more

588

These
than 20 years for planning work.
curves avoid the need to carry out
time-consuming measurements of distant
stations - transmissions which cause
Inevitably,
interference to a new service.
there are errors inherent in this form of
assessment, which is prediction rather than
measurement, and these will be discussed
Here the use of measurement is
later.
analysed in respect of its ability to define
spatial variations of field strength.

and even this requires measurement well clear

As a measure of the
of local obstacles.
local standing wave situation it has some
value in determining reception conditions for
mobile services and in the assessment of car
But measurement
radio service areas.
intended to indicate the overall structure of
the available field requires different
Various techniques have been
guidelines.
tried and these will be described in the
presentation of this paper.

There are two sources of error in

Firstly, there is the
measurement.
instrumental error, introduced during
equipment calibration or at the time of
Investigation has shown that
measurement.
this is small3and should not bias the
Secondly there is the far
measurements.
more significant sampling error, created by
the limitation in the number of measurements
Obviously results cannot
which can be made.
be obtained for every potential receiving
site, but means must be found whereby some
indication is obtained of the range of values
If the variation of
likely to be available.
field strength with location observed some
simple statistical law, then the parametersof
this law could be used both to guide the
siting of sample measurements, and the number
Such an approach is adopted in the
required.
propagation curves forming Recommendation 370.
The basic curves are based upon results for
"50% or median locations" and field strength
is presumed to follow a log-normal
distribution about these values.
Thus the
error in defining the median, and hence the
number of samples required, can be obtained
from

In general, measurements of the field

strengths of broadcast services are carried
out with a receiving aerial elevated to a
This figure, which is
height of 10m a.g.1.
an internationally-adopted standard, is based
on the assumption that the majority of
domestic aerials would be mounted at the
In the
roofline of typical suburban houses.
United Kingdom this is true of about 70% of
television aerials, although obviously in the
case of radio reception the situation is far
An important part of the
more complex.
assessment of the error inherent in the
measurement therefore is the definition of the
difference between values at 10m a.g.1. and
those available at other heights.
In
practice, of course, this is only the third
dimension of location variation.
Investigations by the BBC have revealed
relationships between measurements made at
different heights and the nature of local
These relationships in
clutter and terrain.
particular receiving locations can be
confirmed by comparatively few measurements,
and substantial improvements in present
techniques appear feasible.

where e

d=
n

2.56

\$-

error in definition of median

standard deviation of
distribution
number of samples needed

However, although a survey technique was

extensively used in the early days of BBC
measurement work which used this formula to
describe the number of samples required, it
was soon recognized that the whole process was
based upon a false premise.
The concept of
log-normal distribution is incorrect variation will depend upon the size of the
area under investigation, the nature of the
propagation paths to it, and the local
"clutter" (buildings and trees>.
In this
context it is noted that there is in any case
a bias in the type of location qualifying for
measurement in the assessment of broadcast
Television services are planned
coverage.
for viewers at home, and although radio
services must also be available for listeners
in cars, the majority of the radio audience
Therefore interest is
too is at home.
concentrated upon populated areas, where the
size of buildings will play a major part in
deciding the overall distribution of the
field.
Many observations have shown that the
strict concept of a Gaussian distribution
applies only to very small movements of the
receiving aerial, say within a distance of ZOh,

An important conclusion which emerges

from the examination of present measurement
techniques is that whilst a well-designed
programme of measurements can reveal much
information about a service area and the
probability of providing reception to stated
proportions of the audience, inadequate
methods can easily produce serious and
misleading errors.
The Prediction of Field Strength
There are two basic methods of
Firstly there are
predicting field strength.
the propagation curves already mentioned,
which are based upon the statistical analysis
of many thousands of past field strength
measurements.
These are simple to understand
and easy to use, but it has already been
mentioned they are not suitable for predicting
Another serious
detailed local variations.
problem is the inaccuracy which must be
expected when using any statistical curve they cannot take account of the unique
In an
features of each propagation path.
examination by the BBC several thousand
measurements were compared with predictions
obtained using the Recommendation 370 curves,
The
and the distribution of errors analysed.
standard deviation of this was just over 13dB.
The majority of this error can be attributed
to difficulties in assessing spatial
Past results reveal that fading
variation.
ranges can be fairly accurately predicted,
although here again there is a need to improve

589

the form of statistical analysis used.

A second and more precise means of
prediction takes account of the terrain
With this
details of each propagation path.
information, attenuation along the path can be
calculated, and field strengths estimated with
The terrain details can be
good accuracy.
acquired by producing a profile for each path
using suitable topographic maps, which may
also provide information about buildings and
trees at critical points along the profiles.
Alternatively a national terrain data bank can
be built up and profiles extracted from this.
The accuracy of the prediction is closely
related to the density of the data, and this
will be illustrated during the presentation of
Several organizations have
this paper.
developed field strength prediction programs
for use on a compquter, and the BBC system is a
Over the past 20 years or
typical example.
so this program has been progressively
developed, especially for use in connection
with UHF work, and comparison with measurement
produces a distribution defined by a standard
This can be
deviation of about 5.5dB.
compared with the result of 13dB obtained
However,
using the propagation curves.
development work on this program is far from
complete.
It is less accurate at lower
frequencies, and as mentioned above its
accuracy in any case is limited by the data
supplied, which in turn dictates the design of
Prediction for low receiving
the method.
aerial heights is inadequate, although it is
hoped that work in connection with the
measurement of the influence of local clutter
can be used to provide further improvement in
this area.
The Result of Improved Techniques
Three obvious benefits emerge from the
use of more precise methods of field strength
assessment.
The first is very tangible greater accuracy allows the transmitter
requirements to be precisely stated, resulting
in financial savings.
Secondly, better
coverage is achieved.
Thirdly, there is
increased economy in the use of the RF
spectrum.
The latter can be illustrated by
considering the case of UHF broadcast planning
in the U.K.
Planned to provide four
programme coverage, the network is based upon
50 high-power stations - which were planned 20
years ago using the basic CCIR propagation
curves.
Together these covered about 90% of
the population, and a further 800 or SO
low-power relay stations have been needed to
complete the national coverage.
Detailed prediction has been of
considerable importance in the planning of the
relay network, both to ensure the required
coverage was achieved, and to avoid the very
real and constant risk of interference to
existing services.
In any case the scale of
the work demanded computer-aided analysis - a
full appraisal of the interference situation
on each UHF channel involves more than 100
transmitting stations and the prediction of
several thousand propagation paths.
Thus a
complex computer system has been built up
around the field strength prediction program

107 R4

not only to provide information about service

area fiel.d strengths and interference levels,
but also to present the planning engineer with
detailed analyses allowing him to concentrate
It has been estimated that
upon decisions.
without the improved prediction technique the
final population coverage of the U.K.
television service might have been 3% (1.5M
people) below the present level, and there
would also have been a substantial increase in
the number of people suffering co-channel
An example of the impact upon
interference.
the planning of a part of the UHF relay
station network will be shown during the
presentation of this paper.
Future Work
The studies so far completed by the BBC
have demonstrated that a field strength
prediction technique has been developed which
can compare favourably with the accuracy
achieved by measurement in the determination
and planning of broadcast service areas.
Immediate objectives are to improve this work
so that it can be used at lower frequencies,
specifically those in the range 88 to
108MHz - where currently much planning is
taking place in the expansion of the VHF/FM
However, it is suspected there may
networks.
be a limit which will obstruct the attainment
at the lower frequencies of the prediction
It seems likely
accuracy achieved at UHF.
that the ground reflected component is
increasingly significant at frequencies below
about 150MHz, and the present technique may
A new and
not be able to deal with this.
more complex approach might be needed, but
inevitably this would require more detailed
data, and this is a questionable investment.
It must be remembered that about 80% of the
receivers likely to be used in these broadcast
service areas will be portable and car radios,
and field strength values will need to be
translated in terms of probability of coverage
Similar
to the different types of audience.
considerations apply to mobile radio systems,
which are currently undergoing rapid growth,
and improvements are being considered within
the limits of the present prediction program
which will allow more meaningful statements to
be made concerning the reception quality of
these services.
This is an area of
particular interest to both broadcasters and
mobile radio users, because the need to share
the spectrum efficiently demands the best
planning techniques.
It is hoped therefore
that the program will meet the needs of both
interests.
The advantages of the detailed path loss
predietion methods are clear, but it is
acknowledged that at this time they cannot be
internationally adopted.
Few countries in
Europe have immediate access to a terrain data
bank, and the manual preparation of profiles
can be a time-consuming and expensive procers.
Thus it is reasonable to expect that the CCIR
Recommendation 370 curves will remain in
widespread use for many years to come.
Certainly they will be the basis for frequency
planning and international spectrum
management.
But it is also clear that steps
are now possible to improve the application of

these curves for particular circumstances,

given more informationabout spatial and
temporal conditions. In essence, the whole
prediction process should be a logical
sequence, starting with the basic propagation
curves, and yielding greater detailed accuracy
as more informationabout particular paths and
conditions becomes available. The
confirmatorypart played by measurement,and
the type required to confirm the predictions
must also be defined. The fundamentalcurves
and certain correction factors could be
applied manually to provide simple, quick
assessments,greater precision would require
investment in more sophisticatedfacilitiescomputer systems, data banks etc. The
presentationof this paper will run through
the phases of the proposal, and will
illustrate the impact that this would have
upon existing CCIR texts.
An important objective of such work
would be standardization,particularlyin the
development of prediction programs, to
facilitate internationalco-operationin the
future. In this way is is hoped that the
positive advantages of more precise
prediction,demonstrated in the U.K. and
elsewhere, could become widely available with
consequent benefits to spectrum utilisation.

590

Acknowledgement
The author gratefully acknowledges the
permission of the Director of Engineeringof
the BBC to publish this paper.
References
1.

"A Comparison of
SANDELL, R.S.
Standards Used to Plan UHF and VHF
Networks". Royal Television Society
Journal Vol. 12 No. 7 Autumn 1969.

2.

Recommendation370 Vol. V.
Propagationin Non-Ionized Media
InternationalTelecommunicationsUnion,
Geneva.

3.

LEE, R.W., CAUSEBROOK J.H.,

SANDELL, R.S.
"An Investigationinto
the Prediction of Field Strengths".
BBC Research Department Report 1970/26.

4.

Computer Prediction of Field Strength A Manual on Methods Developed by the BBC

for the LF, MF, VHF and UHF Bands: BBC
Research Department.

591

108

R5

OPTIMUMFREQUENCY
ASSIGNMENTSTRATEGIES FOR
RADIO CELLULARSYSTEMS
G.A.

De Couvreur

Department
Ottawa,

of

and M.C. Delfour

Communications

Ontario,

SUMMARY
It has been established
that it is
possible
to achieve ideal spectrum utilization
for radio cellular
systems with a maximum
frequency
separation
strategy
and with an
intermodulation-free
assignment strategy.
In the complex intermodulation-free
case, the proposed method, which is based on
necessary
and sufficient
conditions,
reduces
the calculations
to the level of one cell and
provides
the means to select
the intermodulation-free
strategy
with the highest
achievable
The method can easily
frequency
separation.
be implemented on a computer with a simple
A simple example is used
efficient
program.
throughout
to illustrate
the concepts
involved.

CANADA

strategies

are presented

in this

paper.

CONDITIONFOR IDEAL SPECTRUMUTILIZATION

Let us consider
a cellular
radio
system containing
M cells,
where N frequencies
have to be assigned to each cell,
without frequency re-use,
from a set of contiguous
frequencies.
Since a total
of MN different
quencies
is required,
it is clear that
spectrum utilization
will be achieved,
if the necessary
particular
constraint,
contiguous
frequencies
does not need to
tain more than MN frequencies.

= (fa,fl,...fMN1),

Af = fn+l

fO<fl<

freideal
for any
set of
con-

*** fMN_l

(1)

- f,

(2)

INTRODUCTION
An important objective
of frequency
assignment strategies
is to achieve optimum
spectrum utilization
within reasonable
constraints
imposed by interference
potential
considerat ions.

the fixed frequency

adjacent
channels.

separation

between

two

First of all,
the frequency
spectrum
will be represented
by an equivalent
set which
is more amenable to mathematical
treatment.

In the case of cellular

radio systems where the same number of fixed frequencies is assigned
to each cell
from a set of
contiguous
frequencies
without frequency
it has been established
that:
re-use,

The frequency
spectrum can be represented by a set of integers
that is
independent
of the values of the frequencies:

s = {0,1,2

It is possible
to achieve ideal spectrum
utilization
under the constraint
of theoretically
maximum frequency
separation
between the frequencies
in a cell.
In this
case, all frequencies
in a cell are equally
spaced and are therefore
in intermodulation
relationship.
It is also possible
to distribute
the frequencies with ideal spectrum utilization
and without any intermodulation
relationship between the frequencies
assigned to a
In this case, the theoretically
cell.
maximum frequency
separation
will not be
achieved,
but it is possible
to calculate
the maximum achievable
frequency
separation
and to obtain the corresponding
frequency
distribution.

The methods
mathematical
theories

and the underlying

to achieve these optimum

MATHEMATICAL
FORMULATION

,...,

MN-l},

The N frequencies
represented
by:
Fm=

(SUES:

fk = fo+kAf,

assigned

O(n<N):

O<k<MN (3)

to the cell

m are

Olm<M

(4)

There is then an immediate correspondence between the frequency domain and the
integer
domain.
For instance,
the absence of
intermodulation
relationship
between three
frequencies
can be represented
by:
2fi

- fj

# fk+=+>

2i

- j # k

MAXIMUM
FREQUENCY
SEPARATIONSTRATEGY
The
strategy
will
starting
with
Let us assume

maximum frequency
be established
in
the derivation
of
that the smallest

separation
two steps,
an upperbound.
frequency

592

separation
AF between the two closest
frequencies in any ce.11 could be larger than the number of cells
M, and could be equal to M+l for
Then, in the cell containing
the
instance.
frequency would be
frequency
k, the closest
k+M+l, and the M intermediate
frequencies
would have to be assigned
to the remaining
M-l cells,
on a one per cell basis in order
to satisfy
the hypothesis
AF = M+l; this is
Therefore:
obviously
impossible.

The frequencies
in the second
be, with a shift
of three:

AF 5 M

The frequency
can then be represented

(5)

This upperbound can

all successive
frequencies
in
constant
frequency
separation
frequency
distribution
is as
0,
1,

0 + M,
l+M,

Mll,

(M-l)

be achieved if
a cell are at a
equal to M. The
follows:

. . . . 0 + (N-l)M
. . ..l
(N-l)M
M, . . .,

(M-l)

i. (N-l)M

0
1

cell

M-l

INTERMODULATION-FREE
ASSIGNMENTSTRATEGY
The derivation
of a strategy
that
achieves
ideal spectrum utilization
without
intermodulation
relationship
within any cell
is a complex problem that requires
extensive
mathematical
treatment beyond the scope of
this paper.
Therefore,
the presentation
of
the method will focus on the concepts
rather
than on the theory.
The fundamental concept was to reduce the problem of distributing
MN contiguous
frequencies
among M cells
to the choice of an
appropriate
set of N frequencies
for a first
cell,
from which the frequencies
to be
assigned to the other cells
would be obtained
by successive
shifts,
so that equally spaced
frequencies
in intermodulation
relationship
would be systematically
in different
cells.
A simple example of 4 cells
with 3
frequencies
each will be used to describe
the
concepts.
In this case, the 12 frequencies
are first
distributed
among three subsets containing
4 equally
spaced frequencies
so that
each cell would be assigned one frequency
from
each subset.
These subsets are:

S] = 11, 4,

Fz = 19, 13 = 1, 81

Fk = ((sn

distribution
by:

+ kN)Mod MN , 0 (

method

k < Ml

(6)

111,

(7)

Where s are the frequencies

for the ?irst
cell:

selected

OLn<Nl

(8)

However, it is not obvious that

there is a simple method to generate the set
such that the entire
specfor the first
cell,
trum S can be distributed
among the M cells
with the frequency
distribution
method given
by (7), and without intermodulation
relationship in any cell.
Theorem 1
It has been demonstrated
that a
necessary
and sufficient
condition
for the
distribution
of the entire
spectrum S among M
cells
with the frequency
distribution
method
given by (7)) is that the set F~Jcontains
one
element from each of the following
subsets:
sn = (n + CN:

0 < C < M),

O<n<N
-

(9)

In the case of 4 cells

with 3 frequencies
in each cell,
the three subsets are
given in (6).
For instance,
the element 7 in
subset S1 corresponds
to n = 1 and C = 2.
Once these subsets are defined,
it
remains to find an efficient
method for the
selection
of the N frequencies
for the first
cell.
An obvious condition
is that there
should be no intermodulation
relationship
among the frequencies
of the first
cell,
but
this is not sufficient
to guarantee the
absence of intermodulation
relationships
in
the other cells.
For instance,
in the above example
involving
12 frequencies
to be distributed
in
4 cells,
the choice of the set Fo = 11,3,11)
for the first
cell leads to equally
spaced
frequencies
in the second cell:
F1 = (1+3=4, 3+3=6, (11+3)Mod 12=2)
Theorem 2

The first
step consists
then in the
choice of three frequencies,
one from each
subset,
to be assigned to the first
cell,
with
the obvious constraint
that they cannot be
equally
spaced,
in order to avoid intermodulation relationships.
For instance:
F. = (3.7,2)

5)

9),

7, 101,

S.? = 12, 5, 8,

10,

would then

This shifting
process
can generate
the sets of frequencies
for the other cells,
provided that the resulting
integers
be expressed in Modulo MN arithmetic.
For
instance,
for the third cell:

Fo = (sn&S)

cell
cell

It is obvious that the maximum frequency separation

AF = M is achieved,
without
frequency re-use,
and with ideal spectrum
utilization
since the total number of frequencies required
is equal to MN. However, with
equal spacing between the frequencies
in a
cell,
the frequencies
are in intermodulation
relationship,
which may be objectionable.

so = IO, 3, 6,

Fl = (6,

cell

It has been demonstrated

that a
necessary
and sufficient
condition
for the
absence of intermodulation
relationship
in
any cell is that any triplet
of elements
S

n,0

=n +C

n70.

in the first
relationships:

N,s
n,l

cell

=n +C
N,s
=n +C
N
n,2
2 n,z
1
n,l
satisfies

the following

n,1

n,l

+s

n,2

-2s

+o

n,o

n,2

Cn 1 > Cn , 2 (11)

- 2sn 0

in the above example,

For instance,
Fo = {1,3,11)
does not satisfy
Condition (11) since 11+3-2.1 = 12 and
Cz = 3 > 0 = Cl.
However, the sequence
F. = {0,2,7)
meets all conditions.
Finally,
it has also been established that the minimum frequency
separation
between the two closest
frequenci.es
in any
cell can be calculated
directly
from the set
of N elements in the first
cell.
Theorem 3
The minimum frequency
separation
between the two closest
frequencies
in any
cell
is given by:
(AFo min, MN - AFo max)

(12)

where:
AF
= Min
0,min
AF
0 ,max

= Max

R5

CONCLUSIONS

the set

AF = Min

108

(10)

, # + MN if

+s

593

(lSn,2

- n,,])

(13)

(lsn,2

- n,ll)

(14)

With these expressions,

it is
possible
to calculate
AF for any set ~~ satisfying the conditions
of Theorem 2, and to
select
the set Fo that guarantees
the largest
value of AF.

The problem of optimum frequency

assignment strategies
for cellular
radio
systems has been investigated,
and methods to
achieve ideal spectsum utilization
with
theoretically
maximum frequency
separation
or
without intermodulation
relationship
within
any cell have been presented.
With these methods, it is very easy
to obtain complete frequency utilization
strategy
is
schemes : the maximum separation
essentially
trivial,
and the method for the
intermodulation-free
strategy
can easily
be
implemented on a computer with a rather
simple program which is very efficient
since
all calculations
are made on a single
cell.
Furthermore,
it is also easy to
write a program that selects
the intermodulation-free
strategy
with the maximum achievable
value of the minimum frequency
separation,
which can then be compared to the theoretical
maximum.
For instance,
it has been found that
336 frequencies
can be distributed
among 21
cells,
with 16 frequencies
per cell with a
separation
of 17.
In comparison,
a frequency
separation
of 21 can be achieved with the maximum frequency separation
strategy,
at the
cost of intermodulation
relationships. This
gives a good idea of the trade-offs
involved.

595

109R6

A SECONDGENERATION
MOBILE SPECTRUMMONITORINGSYSTEM
P. Vaccani
Department
Ottawa,

of

Communications

Ontario,

SUMMARY
The Canadian Department of
Communications has been using for several
years mobile spectrum monitoring
vehicles
to
gather occupancy data and has recently
been
engaged in the design of a second generation
mobile spectrum monitoring
system.
This second generation
system builds
on previous
experience
and utilizes
a microcomputer to automatically
control
the frequencies to be monitored in osder to obtain
The major differspectrum occupancy data.
ences from the previous
generation
is the
availability
of processed
and unprocessed
data
concurrently,
the capability
of automatically
controlling
and recording
data of additional
equipments that would support othes spectrum
monitoring
functions
and the capability
to
generate all reports with the on-board
computer.
INTRODUCTION
Currently the Department has a
number of mobile spectrum monitoring
vehicles
which are used operationally
to gather occupancy data automatically
for the land-mobile
bands at twenty monitoring
sites
across
Canada.
The monitoring
format for obtaining
occupancy data was jointly
developed by the
Departments
Communications Research Centre
(CRC) and Spectrum Management Systems (SMS)
and described
in the literature
(1,2,3).
These systems were obtained
in the mid 1970s
from SRI International
and modified
substantially
in the ensuing years and are now
approaching
the end of their life
cycle.
Recognizing
the need for replacing
these systems the Department proceeded on the
design and implementation
of a second generation Mobile Spectrum Monitoring
System; hereafter,
referred
to as MSMS. The MSMSwas to
be designed using the departmental
research
and operational
experience
with the first
systems; yet, taking advantage of the advances
in technology
in particular
in the microcomputer area.
This paper deals with the
characteristics
and functions
of this second
generation
Mobile Spectrum Monitoring
System.

CANADA

DESIGN OBJECTIVES
During the feasibility
phase of the
design of a second generation
MSMSa number
These
of design objectives
were fixed.
ob j ectives
were :
The microcomputer
on-board the MSMShad
1.
to be utilized
to the maximum extent possible.
channel occupancy and
Channel histograms,
other reports
had to be produced at the end
of the day and at the end of a full monitoring
The microcomputer
had to have the
run.
capability
to be completely
self-supporting
without the need of an off-site
computer.
2.
For economic reasons,
MSMShad to be
capable of providing
other monitoring
functions besides
occupancy monitoring.
The MSMS
had to be designed as a multi-purpose
vehicle
supporting
the enforcement
function
as well
as the occupancy monitoring.
As other requirements would be identified
in the future,
additional
equipment had to be easily
incorporated under computer control.
3.
The MSMShad to provide processed
and
unprocessed
data concurrently
for the same
monitoring
run.
This would allow further
research
and analysis
of the unprocessed
data
by programs using the on-board microcomputer
or an off-site
computer.
4.
The MSMShad to be easy to use with
particular
attention
given to the man machine
interface
and automated sufficiently
that
only one operator would be required.
A
diagnostic
capability
for fault identification and for carrying
out preventive
maintenance had to be included.
5.
The system had to be installed
in a removable enclosure
so that the investment
in
the system would be protected
from the higher
wear rate of the vehicle
and the removable
enclosure
could be moved from one vehicle
to
another.

'

596

Figure 1: MSMS System Architecture

Length = 3.66 m
Width = 2.29 m
Height = 1.9 m
.Access to Cab

ccess

Cover

Figure 2: Exterior and Interior View of MSMS

SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE
Figure 1 shows the MSMS system
architecture. The major components of the
system are:
1. Computer and associatedperipherals
2. Monitoring receiver subsystem
3. Antennas and mast
4. Vehicle which includes the above components, air conditioners,heaters and
power generator
The first three components are described in
more detail below and Figure 2 gives a

pictorial view of the exterior and interior

of the MSMS.
Computer and Associated Peripherals
The MSMS central processing unit is
a DEC PDP 11/23 Plus with S12K bytes of
memory and 64 bit parallel and IEEE 488 interface. The peripherals included are 2 x 20
Mega byte Winchester disks, a 40 Mega byte
streaming cartridge tape drive, a CRT console
and keyboard, a graphics display and a
printer. The cartridge tape drive is used
for bulk storage, transfer of occupancy data
and for disk back-up.

597

The MSMS programs run under the

control of the DEC RSX-11M operating system,
a real time multi-taskingenvironment. The
MSMS programs are mainly written in FORTRAN
and in ASSEMBLY language where speed of execution or device control is required.
Receiver Subsystem
The monitoring receiver subsystem
includes a custom designed receiver and
standard manufacturer supplied synthesizer,
signal generator and modulation analyzer.
The specificationsfor the custom designed
receiver are summarizedbelow.

Antennas and Mast

To optimize the achievable coverage,
the monitoring antennas are mounted on a
pneumaticallyextendablemast. Eight sections
telescope up from a stowed height of 2.286 m
into an extended height of about 12 m. Three
antenna elements are arranged on the mast.

DATE:

DETAILED FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION

In order to obtain occupancy data
and control other equipment, the MSMS has to
perform the following major functions:
1. Acquisition of occupancy and enforcement
data
2. Data display
3. Operator interface and control
4. Diagnostic capability
Acquisitionof Occupancy and EnforcementData

Frequency Coverage:
[Band I 138-174 MHZ] [Band II 406-470 MHz]
[Band III 806-870 MHZ]
Noise Figure:
8 dB maximum across the frequency coverage
Minimum Detectable Signal [in 10 KHz IF (SW)]:
Band II -118 dbm
Band I -121 dbm
Band III -115 dbm
Third Order Intercept Pt.:
Band II +16 dbm
Band I +16 dbm
Band III +3 dbm
IF Bandwidth: 3 KHz/l0 KHz
Scan Rate: 2 ms per channel

AVERAGE SPECTRUM OCCUPANCY

________________..___..-_.-_--___--~
EDMONTON
532645
SITE:

109 ~6.

The major function of the MSMS is

to obtain occupancy data. This is achieved
by listing the frequenciesto be monitored in
scan tables, each specifying up to 1,000
channels or frequencies. Up to 10 scan
tables can be selected for use in a single
monitoring run. The selected scan tables are
used in rotation with 600 passes, constituting
a raster, being made through the current scan
table before proceeding with the next.
Amplitude samples on successivechannels are
taken at a rate of 500 per second. A separate
histogram is formed on each raster for each
channel scanned and is analyzed at the end of
the daily run to yield the threshold occupancy
and the window occupancy.
The other major function of the MSMS
is to have the capacity to add other monitoring equipment under computer control.
Initially,a modulation analyzer is being
added to measure the frequency,modulation
and the signal level for enforcementpurposes.

REPORT
1133918

27-JUL-83

CHN
(MHZ)

25

50

75

100

406.050

********

TH 52%
BS 24%

46.1c,

**************t*******************
************

TH 88%
BS 33%

406.250

***********

TH 82%
ES 26%

406,350

*****t*******************************
***************

TH 92%
BS 38%

,**************************t***t*
406.450

TH 82%
BS 24%

406.550

*******

TH 62%
ES 22%

406.650

************t*******t*t********
*****t********

TH 68%
BS 34%

406.750

********

l ****t*********t*****

t********************************

*******

t******t********t********

t****t***************
**t*t****t****t******
406.850

*******

*****t*********t*****
406.950

*******

.*t******************

TH 52%
SS 24%
TH 52%
BS 24%
TH 52%
BS 24%
TH
8s

52%
24%

407.050

********

407.150

******

TH 52%
BS 24%

*t**t**t~***********
*******

TH 52%
BS 24%

r******,********+*****

407.250

407.350

tt******t***tt***t**t
*****a**

TH 52%
BS 24%

407.450

ttt**t***************
********

TH 52%
BS 24%

Figure 3: Average Occupancy Report

598
Data Display
The MSMScan generate two types of
displays ; those produced during monitoring
and those produced after a monitoring
session.
The reports
produced during the monitoring
session
are the Spectrum Activity
display
and
the System Status display.
The Spectrum Activity
display
is a
real time display
whose main function
is to
give the operator
an indication
of the
activity
and the validity
of the data
collected.
The signal
amplitude is plotted
as a function
of frequency
on the graphics
display
unit.
The System Status display
indicates
the mode of operation
and the commands available in that mode on the console
screen along
with the date, time and disk space left.
MSMShas three modes of operation:
the
command entry mode, the monitoring
mode and
the file
preparation
mode.
In the monitoring
mode the scan tables
being used for the
monitoring
session,
the scan table currently
in use and the raster number are displayed.
The reports
monitoring
session
is
on the printer
or the
be transferred
to an

produced when the

complete are displayed
graphics
display
or can
off-site
computer.

A Daily Channel Amplitude Histogram

report displays
the channel amplitude histogram for a particular
channel after all raster
amplitude histograms
have been combined.
An Average Occupancy Report (as
shown in Figure 3) displays
average threshold
occupancy and window occupancy for each channel scanned during the monitoring
session.
The Peak Occupancy Report is similar
except
the peak times are shown.

displays
basis.
Operator

The Mean Occupancy

the mean occupancies
Interface

by Time report
on an hourly

and Control

The operator
interface
function
allows the operator
to monitor and control
the
operation
of the system via the console
The operator
can specify
the freterminal.
quencies
to be monitored and the operational
parameters to be used either
from a tape
cartridge
produced from the SMS database or
prepared on-line
by the operator
using the
text editor.
He can initiate
and terminate
monitoring
runs, invoke various
displays
and
print-outs
and run the analysis
programs.
If
he requires
assistance
the complete operational manual is available
to him on-line
on the
computer and he can request assistance
on any
command or mode via the help facility.
Diagnostic

Capability

A diagnostic
capability
is provided
to verify
that a particular
unit within the
Diagnostic
programs
system is functioning.
are provided to test the computer system and
The DEC 11/23 comthe receiver
subsystem.

puter system includes

diagnostic
programs for
exercising
and verifying
the correct
operaDiagnostic
protion of the computer system.
grams are provided to attribute
faulty
operation of the system to the receiver,
the
synthesizer
or the modulation
analyzer or
verify
that all three are functioning
correctly.
CONCLUSION
All of the design objectives
have
been included
in the implementation
of the
testing
was successfully
MSMS. Acceptance
completed during August 1984 and demonstrated
that the system met the design specifications.
The MSMSis currently
undergoing
field
trials.
REFERENCES
[l]

BURKE, M.J. and COYNE, T.N.R.

Monitoring
IEE Conference
Land-Mobile Radio Usage.
on Radio Spectrum Conservation
Techniques,
London, England, July 7-9, 1980.

[2]

AHMED, S.N., DE COUVREUR,G.A.,

McCAUGHERN,R.W. and RACINE, T.
A Spectrum Management System for
IEE Conference on Radio Spectrum
Conservation
Techniques,
London,
England, July 7-9, 1980.

[31 DE COUVREUR,G.A.,

Canada.

DROUIN, M.,
McCAUGHERN,R.W. and AHMED,S.N.
Acquisition
and Utilization
of Channel
Occupancy Data in the Shared Frequency
Assignment Process.
EMC Zurich
Symposium, Zurich,
Switzerland,
March 1981.

599

110

Sl

SELECTIVE INTERFERENCE IN HOME ENTERTAINMENTELECTRONIC DEVICES

Henryk Cichob, Hubert Trzaska

EMC Working Group of the International
Amateur Radio Union, Region 1
Katowice, Poland

Changesin the naturalelectromagneticenvironmentcausedby an

ever increasingnumber of sourcesof
radiationappliedin t&eCOmmUIIiCatj.on industry,medicineand household
equipmentalter in turn the conditions under which home entertainment
electronicdeviceswork. The sources
are locatednear and nearerto inhabited areas / quite often they are
locatedwithin these areas /#
In this paper the authorscontinue their investigations,resented
in the previouspapers,of t%e susceptibilityof home entertainment
electronicdevices.In the paper
selectiveinterferencecausedin radio- and TV receiversby external
electromagnetic
/ EM / fieldshas
been taken into account0However,the
interference
under studyappearsonly
becauseof the receiversensitivity
at frequenciesdependentupon the
harmonicfrequenciesof the local
oscillator.
In the work typicalmethodsof
sensitivitymeasurements
have been
applied,,
The measurements
have been
made in the frequencyrange up to
about 400 MH5. Inuring the measurements the levelhas been estimated
of the interferingsignalat which
remarkabledistortionsin sound and/
or in image were observedand the
maximalsensitivityof the deviceunder test / WT / has been determined
at severalharmonicsof the local
oscillatorfrequency.
The work has ermittedus to
formulatesome conePusionswhich may
be of interestto receivingequipment
manufacturersr
These conclusions,
similarlyas thosepresentedin the
previouspapers,show the necessity
of applyingsome solutionstypicalof
professional
eauipmentin home entertainmentelectronicdevices.These
are, 8,g.z
- spectralpurity of local oscillator
- linearRF amplifierand mixer
- well tuned input circuits.

Introduction
The sourcesof electromagnetic
radiationlocatedin inhabitedareas
and in apartmenthousesare e*g.t
transmitters
of variousradio services
/ includingpolice,taxi,emergency
and amateurradio service/, medical
equipment/ RI!and microwavediathermy, lancetron/, small workshopequipment / inductiveheater,dielectric
welder / and householdelectronic
equipment/ microwaveoven,radiosand
TV receivers/. These sourcesmay remarkablychangeEM environmentand
disturbthe work of home entertainment
electronicdevices,e.g.: another
radio- or/andTV receiver,tape recorder, gramophone.
Till now the susceptibility
of
home entertainment
electronicdeviaes
to undesiredsignalshas been taken
into accountneitherby manufacturers
nor by scientists.It shouldbe mentioned,however,that this problemhas
satisfactorily
been solvedin modern
radiocommunication
equipment.It is
necessaryhere only to understand
necessityand to adopt well known protectivemeans and use them in home entertainmentdevicesas well.
In the previousworks Cl,&33
the authorshave shown that the above
formulatedthesisis true with respect
to widebandinterference.
In the prssent work the authorshave tried to
find not only reasonsof high susceptibilityto selectiveinterference
but also simpleand inexpensive
means
making it possibleto improveimmunity
of radio and.TVreceiversto selective
interference.
Some selectiveinterfe-,
rence has been observedin otherdevices than radios / e.g.: phonograph,
tape recorder,heart pacemaker,hearing aid /; these effects,however,are
ratherincidentaland they appearat
parasiticresonantfrequencies.
Such
frequenciesdependupon parasitic
inductancesand capacitances
and they
are usuallyabove severalhundredb!H5.
AB a rule these selectiveeffect8are
qtitewell eliminatedby the means

- 600 -

applied

outside chamber
measurements -----_-

to liquidate wideband effects.

Selective interference which

occurs mostly as signals passing through
the pass band of IF stages of a
receiver and which is a result of linear combination of frequencies radiated by a source and frequencies generated in the receiver itself, may seem
to be easier to eliminate in comparing
with wideband effects. It is, however,
the first approximation conclusion.
In fact it can be quite troublesome
and its elimination difficult since
the susceptibility of a device c6.nbe
in the same level as its sensitivity
to the signal being received.
At the beginning of the work the
authors had wide program of the selective interference measurements. During some introductory measurements
an exceptionally high sensitivity of
the investigated receiver was haphazardly found at frequencies corresponding to harmonics of the local
oscillator. It was shocking and it
made us limit the work only to intermodulation effects related to the loaal oscillator harmonies.
Contrary to the case of wideband
interference where susceptibilities
measured in similar types of devices,
produced by different manufacturers,
were also similar - in the ease considered devices of the same type made by
the same manufacturer differ considsrably. This allows us to conclude,
that from the considered oint of view
it ia not the design but Bts realization which i6 important, i.e. I tuning, control during production.
Analyses and measurements were
made from the point of view of the
Amateur Radio Service / ARS /, and
they should be representative for, or
at least transposable to other services. The work presents result6 of measurements in the frequency range up to
400 MRa. In this range the majority of
services of some importance from the
considered point of wiev work.

_L-

!---

--

--

-_-

--

__---_-

--

--

I,

-7

__-__A

inside chamber
measurements
Fig.1 Test set for susceptibility
measurements of receivers with
ferrite rod antenna.
f

SPL

DUT

MAINS

f-

Fig.2 Test set for susceptibility measurements to RF voltages induced

in IN and OUT wiring of DUT.
vity of a DTJT/ at S/N = 0 / to interfering signal was observed, A complete
description, including frequencies
and field intensities, of the local
BC and TV stations is given in Cll.

The measuring methods applied

are similar or exactly the same as
those applied previously Cl'1 . Suscaptibility to EM field was measured in
TEM cell and in standard EM field.
Conventional standard transmitting antenna was applied to susceptibility
measurements of radio receivers with
built-in ferrite rod antennas / Fig.
1,/. The susceptibility to RI?voltage6
induced at antenna input and in other
DUT wiring was measured as in Fig.2.

All the radio- and TV receivers

available for the authors were measured and no correlation between the
type of device and its manufacturer
was found. Neither was found a correlation between the repaired and neverrepaired devices / repairs were simply
connected with exploatation of a device /. As all the measured devices were
made available to the authors with no
permission to introduce any changes in
their circuitry, the presented results
of measurements were obtained with the
use of one device and verified with
the use of another. The first one in
a way represents all the measured devices as its sensitivity at local oscillator harmonic frequencies is intermediate between the worst / - IO +
- 30 dB / and the best ones / 30 and
more dB /. As the changes in the sensitivity due to the applied means were
similar in both the reconstructed
receivers one can suppose that the
final conclusions are true.

The measurements were made in

the presence of a signal from loual
BC or TV station and without it. In
the latter case the maximal sensiti-

All the measurements presented

in the work were made in the Institute
of Telecommunication and Accoustics
of the Technical University of PlrOClaW.

&asurin& methods

601

In the general case an input voltage of the first stage of a recerver

/ usually mixer / is given by:
=

&

Ai.cos 2riifit

(11

i=O

where : 9. - frequency of i-th frin@r

its amplitude
A=
i A selective interference will appear
if an arbitrary linear combination Of
an arbitrary number of fringers / including their harmonic frequencies /
is equal to intermediate frequency
of the receiver:
IF = nofo + &Ifl * ....

Sl

Results of measurements

Basic theory

u(t)

110

(2)

where : no, al ,.. = 0, +,1, f 2 I..

If IF is a result of linear combination of m input fringers and their
amplitudes are quite low, then the
amplitude of IF An is C5J :
AIR = Ao/no/,Al/n,/..Am/nm/ (3)
For the work of a superheterodyne receiver at least are necessary two
frin ersg it is the first order intermodu!?
ation. If we have another fringer
it gives theoretical possibility of
generation of infinitely large number
of fringers interfering at IF.
As can be seen from formula (3) the
products of higher harmonics have the
rapidly decreasing amplitude which
should limit the number of fringers
of practical significance / resulting
in remarkable interference /.
The above considerations allow
us to calculate ,,apriori" frequencies
at which selective interference can
appear. This needs, however, some comments. As was shown in Figs.'land 2
measurements were made with the use of
a generator as the source of a single
frequency fringer. Irrespective of the
purity of the generator spectrum it is
in most cases impossible to foresee,
basing on the above presented way, any
product caused by the nearby transmitter and making interference in the RUT.
In any transmitter, of quite modern
construction, an output frequency is
usually a result of combining two or
more frequencies and their multiplication or division. All these signals,
more or less attennuated, are represented in the output signal of the
transmitter. At small distances from
the transmitter each radiated miliwatt
may cause interference / see [4J where
interference made by a TV receiver
oscillator is presented /.

The results presented hereafter

are related to measuremente of a poPUlar class, transistorieed, battery or
mains-operated receiver. It is 0oUi.P
ped with a built-in, ferrite rod antenna for.reception at long and medium
waves and needs extsrnal s.ntenWS for
short waves and OIRT FM band. The receiver is representative for all other
receivers, measured during the work,
as its sensitivity at the local oscillator harmonic frequencies is approximately intermediate between the worst
and the best sensitivity measured in
this work.
The measurements were made by
applying the "step by step,'method as
the use of a sweep generator made it
practically impossible to select and
to identify particular fringers in the
"jungle of fringers". The applied generator, of quite a good quality, had
also some spurious fringers. This made
the authors use the less advanced method of measurements, i.e.: accurate
generator frequency measurement / with
an external frequency counter / and
the measurements with a calculator in
hand for current identification of
fringers.
As the results of measurements
of the maximal sensitivity / S/'lV
k 0 /
of the receiver at harmonic frequencies of the
local oscillator are the
. ._
_.
most repeatable ones under any condit;ions they are presented in this paper.
The results are shown as the relation
of receiver Sensitivity im its working
band to its sensitivity at undesired
bands. This way of presentation seems
to be picturesque and makes it possible to see directly from the figures
t&e decrease of sensitivity at undesired bands due to the applied means
and procedures.
In Fig.3 the results of relative
sensitivity measurements are showm.
Fig.3a shows results of measurements
in the long wave /LW/ range, Fig*3b in
the medium wave /MW/ range and Fig.3~
in the short wave /SW/ range of a new,
just bought and never-used-before receiver. It can be seen from these figures that the receiver sensitivity at
undesired frequencies is sometimes
almost equal to the sensitivity in the
receiving range / curve 1, Big.3c /.
All the curves show extraordinary high
sensitivity of the receiver at local
oscillator harmonics.
In Fig.3 / broken line / the generaliz;edrun of the receiver sensitivity is shown as a function of the
local oecillator harmonics order and
frequency. Such a generalieatioa was
used to compare the performances of
the investigated receivers and to analySe the efectiveness of proposed and

[dBl

602

-10

-30

Fig.3a

-40

wave
range

low!i

-50
-60
SW

0
[dBl
-10

;<I

2
4

-20

130

<

_6_
\>,'a

-40

z%Z"

wave

range

10

-50
40
-60,

20
IO

2015

IO
30

5o

[MHz]

loo

MW
Q)

IdBl '
-10

!?
k

-20

Fig.3 Resultsof msasurements

of a newly boughtreceiversensitivityat

harmonicfrequenciesof the lo~l~scillator

Indicationst 1.
f, * IF,
. o - IF,
3. 2f, + IF,
4. 3f, - II?,
5. 3f, + IF,
6, 4f; - DP
7. 42, + IF,
8+ 52, - ICIP,
9. 5f, + IF, 100 62, - n?
11. 6f, * II?.
In the frequencyaxis amateurbands on 160, 80, 40, 20, 15 and 10 meters
are denoted.
appliedprotectivemeans+
From the resultspresentedit
followsthat it is practicallyimpossible the use the 160 and 80 meter
bands while receptionat long waves,
neither160, 80 and 40 meter bands
while receptionat mediumwaves
any shortwave amateurbands / &%-

ding 11 m citizenband and 7.5 m radiotelephonebaud / while reception at

shortwaves.
To improveattenuationof the
receiversensitivityat its oscillator
harmonicsthe first of all the reoei-

- 603

-30
IdSI
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80

110 Sl

at the oscillator harmonies. It is

shown in Fig.4 / curves with **/.
These changes in the circuitry of
the receiver were introduced after
its tuning and the curves show effects resulting from the two above
presented procedures.
To eliminate disadvantages of
the use of a nonlinear mixer as well
as troubles connected with optimisation of the stage playing two roles
in the receiver these roles were separated. The original stage was adopted to work as the local oscillator
and a balanced mixer of the SRA-1
type was added.
As an
^ ..
example or tne use
such a design the results of measurements
in the long wave range are shown in Fig.5.
All the above
mentioned changes in

-20
id61
-30
-40
-50
-60

neither that changes applied are optimal. Capacitive couplings play an important role when attenuations at the
level of above 40 dB are considered.
Thus, provisional reconstructions can
show only aualitative results. The results confirm the validity of the idea
presented. Its realization, however,
must be applied at the desigting atage
where each factor may be considered
and optimized.

Fig.4 Results of measurements of the kiB1

same receiver
as in Fig.3
-50
after tuning / curves with ' /
and decrease of local oscillator
-60 x
amplitude / curves with *' /.
ver was tuned once again and the re-70 sults are shown in Fig.4. The tunning
has not changed the out-band sensiti-80
vity. However, the in-band sensitivity
increased and as a result the sensitivity out the band decreased.
-90

In the original design of the receiver the first stage is an auto-generating mixer. It has been found that
its oscillations amplitude is too high.
As a result of this and of nonlinear
characteristics of the transistor, the
oscilator voltage was distorted. Due
to a change of the workin& point of
the transistor and changes in the oscillator circuits the voltage was reduced by 2 + 6 dB. This has remarkably
reduced the sensitivity of receiver

,j,I,

,I
r

(4...)"'
<-9OdB

\ 3"'

5 [MHz] '0

Fig.3 Results of measurements of the

same receiver as in Fig.3 with
separated local oscillator and
balanced mixer of the SRA-1 typed
Irrespective of the accuracy
with which the optimal conditions of
the input stage of the receiver were
chosen it may be said that after these
reconstructions the receiver was not
susceptible to the nearby workin
amateur radio station using FT.1%1 Z

604

transceiver and TH3MK3 antenna. Both

the Presented results of m@aSUrements
and this qualitative liedi permit US to
suppose that suggested way may be considered another step toward the design
of a new generation of radio receivers
destined for aide use and able to work
in electromagnetic environment at the
level permitted by national or international regulations for inhabited
areas.
Conclusions
International Amateur Radio Union
as well as national unions in majority
of the developed countries try to indicate the necessity of thinking nowadays on the future situation in the
field of compatibility of electric and
electronic devices* The engagement in
this subject is supported by experience of the Union concerning the coexistence of home entertainment electronic devices and located-near-them amateur radio stations as well as the related problems and conflicts. To eliminate further, more serious, conflicts
between users of home entertainment
electronic devices and previously mentioned services utilizing EM field
generating eauipment it is necessary
to think about this problem at present.
Various effective protective
means are knowlaand widely applied in
proffesional eauipment, The only problem is to simplify them, adopt and
apply in the!devices concerned, The
authors have shown that this is fully
possible in the case of wideband interference. In this work the problem was
considered of a receiver sensitivity
at frequencies corresponding to the
local oscillator harmonics. The observed results are in most cases caused
bY " technical insouciance *Iof manufacturers, namely :
- receivers are carelessly tuned,
- local oscillators are designed not
for optimal work of the mixer but
for easier oscillations.

Hence, the following factors

should be taken into account from the
considered point of view :
- spectral purity of the local
oscillator,
- linearity of the RI?amplifier and
mixer,
- well designed and well tuned input
circuits,
- tuned RF amplifier recommended.
All the factors are well discussed in
the literature and, except for RF
amplifier, do not affect the cost of
a device / the only added here part balanced mixer - is available for
50 cents ! /.

The above considerations allows

us to state that it is possible to
improve receiver performance in a
simple and inexpensive way in considered case as well.
The authors would like to express
their gratitude to braves who decided
to permit us to measure receivers of
their own* Their favor have made this
work possible.
References
Cichon H., TrBaska H.: Selected
susceptibilit problems of the
aeneral use e3:
ectronic devices.
&oc. 3rd EM2 Symp., Rotterdam
1979, pp* '+23-128.
CichoraH., Trzaska H.t Susceptibility problems of home entertainment
electronic devices. Proc. 4th EMC
SYmP., Zurich I981, pp. 295299.
Cichon
H., . Trzaska
H.: Immunity _
.
.._
improvement of nome entertainment
electronic devices. Proc. 7th EBdC
Wroclaw 19&t, pp.'lO15-1024.
[4jl?:%%ik M ., Slniezko0.: Television receiver local oscillator
harmotic radiation: statistical
data, Proc. 7th EMC Symp.,
F$roELPg4*
PP. 731-7404
., Walaszek M. Analysis
151of moaliloear
phenomena occurimg fa
the presence of narrow band additive interference. hCoc. 7th EMC
Symp,, Wroclaw lVS4, pp. 879-830.

Ills2

- 605 -

CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE IN AN ON-BOARD PROCESSING SATELLITE

Ikuo OKA, Kazuhito ISHIDA, and Ichiro END0
Department of Communication Systems,
University of Electra-Communications
Tokyo, JAPAN

ABSTRACT
This paper presents co-channel interference
on-board
techniques
in
an
cancelling
processing satellite system using orthogonal
The techniques based on mean
polarizations.
criterion
and
error
square
(MSE)
convolutional coding / soft decision Viterbi
decoding (SDVD) are introduced on board. The
bit error rate (BER) is derived for the mixed
and
an
of a desired signal
detection
co-channel interference when the
undesired
techniques are applied to binary phase shift
keying (BPSK), and is compared with that of
interference.
for
the
compensation
no
Performance results, obtained theoretically,
show that the techniques of both the MSE
processing and the SDVD realize an excellent
improvementsof the BER, and the improvements
become significant in a large interference
environment.

improve the system performance independently,

because the performance of SDVD depends
on
the
probability
distribution
function
(P.D.F.) of an amplitude of the MSE processor
output. Therefore, the compound effects of
both techniques on the BER
seem to be
produced.
A
model
for the on-board
processing
satellite system employing BPSK is presented
in
section
2.
We derive an
explicit
expression of the P.D.F. of the amplitude of
the MSE processor output in a form of the
Hermite polynomials in section 3. The BER of
SDVD is derived with the P.D.F. in section
4. Section 5 provides the numerical results
of the BER and investigates the interference
cancelling effects due to the MSE processing
and the SDVD.

2 SYSTEM MODEL
1

INTRODUCTION
'CONVOLWIONAL
ENCODER

CHANNEL 1.

A recent problem of the rapid increase of

communication demand that faces in satellite
services leads to the effective
use of
frequency resource. One of the solutions is
the frequency reuse by means of a dualpolarization
system.
However,
channel
distortions due to atomospheric propagation
anomalies
such
as
rainfall
cause
a
interference
at
receiving
interchannel
terminal.
In this paper,
co-channel interference
techniques are introduced in an
cancelling
processing satellite
which

on-board
expected as a hopeful1 satellite scheme. ;:
the on-board processing satellite, various
including a
techniques
baseband
signal
become available on-board the
processing
practical
satellite.
As
effective
and
techniques for reducing the effect of cochannel interference, we consider a compound
strategy of mean-square error (MSE) signal
processing and soft decision Viterbi decoding
(SDVD) in binary phase shift
keying (BPSK)
systems [l]. The MSE signal processing has
been shown to be a useful scheme to reduce
the interference by Nichols [Z]. On the other
hand, the SDVD yields the significant bit
error probability (BER) improvements [3],
in future
and
is expected to be used
satellite systems. These two techniques never

CONVOLUTIONAL
ENCODER

CHANNEL 2.

EARTH STATION --

"1

LUP-LINK

PSK
MODULATOR

4/

r---_------.
RECEIVER ____________~

SATELLITE _____/

Fig.1. On-board processing satellite system.

Fig.1 shows the model for the on-board
processing satellite system. All symbols in
Fig.1 are denoted in a complex envelope form.
In what follows, we investigate the system in
Channel 1 and 2
a lowpass equivalent form.
the same frequency band, and are
utilize
separated into two independent information
orthogonal
using
bearing
signals
polarizations. At the transmitter, the input
are convolutionally
data
(Xl, h2(=0,1))
encoded. The coded data are sent to the BPSK

606

modulator. In the up-link, the transmitted

aPSK signals Si=exp( ihln),
Se=exp(&R
)
are corrupted by the channel anomalies of
both TII, T22 in the direct path and Tvz,T~I
for the co-channel interference, where T~I ,TI~
coefficients
are the channel
,T~I ,T22
corresponding to the attenuations and / or
phase shifts. Thus, on-board the satellite,
received signal rl and r-2are expressed as

complex
the asterisk denotes the
where
conjugate, and the relations of ISm]2=1 and
(m=1,2) are used. Determination
E[ n?+,]=2p2
of the channel coefficients ( Tii ) leads to
the choice of thzoptimum v$.ghts
('&J;& ].
are obtained
and S2
The MSE outputs Sl
immediately. Now we let

Xi

=T22

T21=

lexp( 01

b exp($)

(6)

T:!=bexpk@)
the
where nd and n2 are
respectively,
mutually independent gaussian noises with
variance 2p2 . The on-board MSE processor
makes the mean square error between the
transmitted and received signals~minimum,,and
and S2 .
yields the MSE processor output S1
are
and $2
The estimated values 31
converted into digital forms using Q-l soft
decision thresholds. Then, the obtained Qlevel soft decision data is sent to the
transmitted
decoder to get the
Viterbi
information.

where b corresponds to an amplitude of the

interference, and phase offset (h
between
channel 1 and channel 2 is
distributed
uniformly on [ 0, 2X
1. Eq.(6) implies that
channel 1 and channel 2 are symmetric with
the same signal-to-noise power ratio (SNR)
and the same signal-to-interference power
ratio (SIR). Since the same approach is valid
in
the
performance analysis
for
both
channels, we go on the analysis of channel 1.
For St =exp(jO)(symbol ~1 =O), we can derive
the MSE output-$, from eqs.(3),(4), and(5).
(7)

PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

OF MSE PROCESSOR OUTPUT
where

The MSE criterion is based on minimizing the

error e(W):
Sef =

(7-j
i+=
where W is the vector of weights to be
determined,
Sm
is the transmitted BPSK
signal, and Frn is the estimated signal
reformed by the _MSE prEcessor.
The MSE
processor outputs Si and S2 in Fig.1 can be
expressed by linear combinations of
the
received signals r-1 and r2 as

(3)

and
z&=tiln

+2322r2,

(Ilef=

tlt2&-ti,+bZ(t!+2~2-I 1
(l+b2+2u412 -4bZ

4@b

(l+bz+ 2u-212-4bz

expC1N

(8)
f

(9)

2)nl+b(b2+2~z-11exp(-~9)n2 ,

(+*~;;b+
2@)2,,&b2

(10)
We note that the MSE processor output 3
consists of the signal component sef
, the
interference component &f
,
and the noise
component 0l.af
the probability
distribution fuActr&dr;geD.F.) of the MSE
output $
The probability distribution
function P.D.F. F(k) is expressed as

where (z(rii ) is the weights to minimize the

MSE in eq.(2). With the aid of orthogonal
principle [4], the following equations for
the optimum weights ( '&J-Y
) is obtained.
where

e+(t)=

&@q)(-w2)dI.f,

(12)

the absolute value of ief

k is thl?
is the variance of fief
th:
signal
normalized
by
amplitude
amplitude, and E;p(. ) denotesa;i;eexpgtati;g
with respect to the phase
expand eq.(ll) with the relation of

Ills2

60.7 _-.

represents the Hermite

where
polynom~!!~s'o$x!~derL-l.
Then, averaging the
t we
resultant equation with respect to @

The bit error rate (BER) is derived for the

SDVD using the MSE processor output in this
section. Fig.2 shows the concept of Q-level
are the
soft decision, where go, *. . . .,gQ
decision thresholdswhich are spaced equally
and to be optimized by minimizing the BER,
and where In(n=1,2;* l,Q) represent symbol
metrics. The soft decision probabilitycan be
calculated by

hbi

p(n)=$ p(r)
= F-ck,&-

J (14)

dr

F(len~,

n=1,2;..,~,
(18)

where the effective SNR p and the effective

SIR r are defined by

gn.=k*Sq

E%f
I

p=

len-

{(d-Q+l)+p(~+-l))2

(151

= ck{(ch-(3+1)2 + p(d+(3--1,2}

iw-P+l)+P(d+g-1)2

where
CX= - i

2 &*

: inverse of SNR
(17)

and

b2: inverse of SIR

p =

(19)
(n=2,~~~+J-1

and
where kn is the normalized threshold
is the space between the neighboring
n
thresholdsexcept for go and gg .
We show the derivation of the BER of the
SDVD using soft decision probability p(n).
For the convolutionalcode with rate qu/nu,
the BER Pb is tightly upper bounded by [5]

(20)
where d is the minimum free distance of the
code, Cq is the total number of erroneous
bits included in all incorrect paths whose
distance from correct path equals to q, and
the
coefficient Cq is obtained by
the
generating function T(D,N) of the code.

dT
where D correspondsto the free distance ,
and N corresponds to the error bit.
The first event error probabilityPq can be
derived from the soft decision probability
p(n) as follows, We let M be the metric of
correct path, and M* be the metric whose
distance from correct path equals to q .
Then, Pq is given by

BIT ERROR RATE OF SOFT DECISION

VITERBI DECODING

density)
?

ived
1.C

threshold
VP&H

81

decision

soft decision
probability

:P()

soft

dT( D,N)

(Prob.

kn-1=A,

t (16)

4cq

where F(*) is the P.D.F. of the MSE processor

output, and

EgiO

Q
P(Q)

Q-1

80-00

-es_

____

P(Q-1)

----

----

PW

,P(l)

symbol

IQ

Iq_,

.---

----

I,

l;l

symbol

11

I*

___-

----

&,

Ig

metric:

Fig.2. Concept of Q-level soft decision.

where me and rnh* are the symbol metrics of

the correct and the incorrect paths
and
& runs over q symbols wherein these two'paths
differ. Fig.3 shows the probability density
function pm(m) of mQ*-me in eq.(22). In
Fig.3, the area of each impulse is the soft
decision probability p(n) (n=1,2," * * ,Q).

- 608

Since mQ '%-mLare statistically independent

the probability density
among all L
function p (m) o; $1 (mb'k-mL) is obtained by
the q-folds convolution of pm(m) [4]. Then we
get

where 5 is the positive number which is

sufficiently small relative to the symbol
metric IL. Substitution p(n) into eqs.(20)
and (23) yields the BER of the SDVD.

The derivation of the BER of SDVD with the

MSE processing is summarized below.
(1) For the given channel SNR l/d and SIR
Up,
we derive the P.D.F. F(e) using
the effective SNR P , and the effective
SIR J- ...a * eqs.(14),(15), and (16)
(2) The soft decision probability p(n) is
given from the P.D.F. F(k). ""eq.(18)
(3) The first event error probability Pq is
derived by the probability density
function of metrics with p(n).s**eq.(23)
(4) The BER is obtained by Pq and the
parameters of the code. **** eqs.(20) and
(21)

5 NUMERICAL RESULTS
PnI(1n)

Fig.4 shows the BER of SDVD for Q=2 and 4

numerical
In
using the MSE processing.
P(l)
calculations of SDVD, the convolutional code
A
with rate l/2 and constraint length 3 is
examined. The SDVD demodulation encounters
however,
the optimum threshold
problem,
P(2)
in eq.(19) is optimized
threshold space 0
my minimizing the BER. Since utilization of
. .
rate l/2 code requires the bandwidth spread,
P(a-1)
. .
P(Q)
nre reduce the SNR by 3dB in the SDVD case.
T
T
,rnz-f?e. For comparisons, we depict the BER without
compensation for interference in Fig.4.
It
2) (1 Q-11)
(I l-1 $ (12-IQ-I)----o---*(1 Q-1-I
is
apparent
from Fig.4 that
excellent
improvements are achieved by the techniques
Fig.3. Probability density function of metric.
of MSE processing and SDVD. To be specific,
the
BER improvements are remarkable in case
of the low SIR. For instance, at BER=lO-5
and
SIR=5dB,
the techniques
can reduce
the required SNR by 2.8dB for Q=2 and 5.9dB
for Q=4 in comparison with the BER without
the compensation. Therefore, in this region,
the MSE and SDVD techniques yield the SNR
withoutsignalprocessing
margin of 2.8dB for Q=2, and 5.9dB for Q=4.
----withSDVDforQ2 usingI%E
The effects of MSE processing and SDVD are
-.-.-.-.tith SDVD for Q=4 usingMSE
examined independently in Fig.5 for MSE' and
Fig.6 for SDVD. We also show the BER without
the compensation in Fig.5 and Fig.6. First,
from Fig.5, we note that the MSE processor
has the SNR margin of 2.ldB for SIR=5dB, and
1.3dB for SIR=lOdB, and 0.6dB for SIR=lSdB,
at BER-10-5.
According to the increase of
SIR, the improvements produced by the
MSE
processing become smaller. This fact agrees
with our intuitive comprehension. Since the
MSE
criterion
is based
on
co-channel
interference cancellation, the MSE processing
is effective at the low SIR.
Next, we
consider the effect of SDVD on the BER.
In Fig.6, it is found that the SDVD for Q=4
is extremely powerful compared with that for
At BER=lO-5
Q=2.
and SIR=5dB, the SDVD
for Q=4 has the SNR margin of 5.ldB.
On the
other hand, the margin for Q=2 is at most
1.7dB. The value Q more than 8 is expected to
yield the remarkable improvements, and to be
investigated intensively. We summerize the
SNR margin at BER=lO-5
and SIR=SdB in
Table 1. From Table 1 we found that for Q=2
_Lthe
MSE
processing and the
SDVD
are
24
68
10 12
14 16
effectively combined, but with more powerful
SNR(dB)
SDVD(QEL),
the SDVD dominates the
BER
Fig.4. BER of SDVD for Q=2 and 4 using MSE
performance.
processing.
A

609

10

without signalprccessin
__________withm

without SDVD
-------_-- with SDVD Q=2
-.-.+_
with SDVD 4~4

10-l

10 -2

-3
10
aJ
c1 10-4
$!
2
k
2 10-5
c,
;;:
10-6

lo-'

lo-8
0

246

10
12 14
SNR(dB)
Fig.5. BER of MSE processing

16
14 16
12
SNR(dB)
Comparison of BER of SDVD for Q=2
and 4.
2

Fig.6.

10

Table 1. SNR margin at BER=10R5 and SIR=5dB.

REFERENCES

SDVD

1.7dB

5.ldB

6 CONCLUSION
This paper has introduced the co-channel
interference cancelling techniques in the onprocessing satellite
communication
board
system utilizing orthogonal polarizations. In
order to reduce the co-channel interference,
MSE processor and the SDVD
are
the
equipped on board the satellite. The BER
both techniques has been
derived
using
analytically for BPSK. The numerical results
of BER have shown that the compound technique
yields the excellent BER improvements. To be
specific, the improvements become significant
in the case of low SIR.

[I] K.Ishida, K.Funayama, I.Oka, and I.Endo,

Study
on
Co-Channel
"A
Interference
Cancelling
in
On-Board
Processing
Satellites",
IECE
of
JAPAN,
National
Convention Record,
No.708,
Oct.1984
(in Japanese).
H.E.Nichols,
A.A.Giordano,
and
[21
J.G.Proakis, "MLD and mse Algorithms for
Adaptive Detection of Digital Signals in the
Presence of Interchannel Interference", IEEE
Trans.
Inform.
Theory, vol.IT-23, No.5,
Sep.1977, ~~563-574.
[3] Y.Yasuda, Y.Hirata, and A.Ogawa, "Bit
Error
Rate Performance of Soft Decision
Viterbi Decoding", Trans. of IECE of JAPAN,
vol.E64, No.11, Nov.1981, pp'OO-707.
A.Papoulis,
"Probability,
Random
[41
Variables,
and Stochastic Processes, 2nd
Edition", Tokyo:McGraw-Hill Kogakusha, 1984.
[5] A.J. Viterbi, "Convolutional Codes and
Their Performance in Communication Systems",
IEEE Trans.Comm.Technol.,
vol.COM-19,No.5,
Oct.1971,pp751-772

- 611

RELATION

112

BETWEEN APD/CRD OF AUTOMOBILE IGNITION

AND RESULTANT TV PICTURE DEGRADATION

s3

NOISE

*
Shigeru YAMAZAKI,*cukihide NOGUCHI and*Hiroshi KURONUMA
*
Science & Technical Research Laboratories, Japa;*Bsoadcasting Corporation
Nippon Electric Company
l-lo-11 Kinuta, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 157 Japan
4-14-2 Shiba, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108 Japan
In this article, first, a newly developed
Summary
noise receiver is introduced. It has a wide IF
bandwidth for measuring the APD and CRD of the
newly developed noise receiver
is
A
impulsive noise received through nearly the
introduced, which has a wide IF bandwidth to
same transmission bandwidth as TV signals.
measure the APD and CRD of impulsive noise
an APD/CRD measuring instrument,
Secondly,
received through nearly the same transmission
which can
called a noise level analyzer,
bandwidth as TV signals. An APD/CRD measuring
measure the APD/CRD of the impulsive noise with
instrument, called a noise level analyzer,
a frequency spectrum of this width is also
which can measure the APD/CRD of the impulsive
introduced.
noise with a frequency spectrum of this width
Thirdly, the results of outdoor measureis also introduced.
ments of automobile ignition noise using this
Outdoor measurements are made of automobile
together with the
equipment is described,
ignition noise using this equipment, together
results of the subjective evaluation of TV
with subjective evaluation tests of TV pictures
pictures impaired by corresponding ignition
impaired by corresponding ignition noise. The
correlation of
the
measured
noise.
The
a very
subjective annoyance level shows
parameters of the percentage time and the
good correlation with the percentage time and
with the annoyance
average
crossing rate
the average crossing rate of the 'envelopecaused in TV reception is also described.
detected impulsive automobile noise, which are
both derived from APD/CRD, in both cases the
Wide-bandwidth noise receiver
bandwidth of the noise is 3.5 MHz and 120 kHz.
On the other hand, the quasi-peak voltage is
In order to investigate the statistical
not a proper parameter as far as the annoyance
properties of impulsive noise with nearly the
caused by automobile ignition noise in TV
same bandwidth as a TV transmission channel, a
reception is concerned.
new noise receiver was developed which can
ilr~c3SLkC
iis2
rx~;st:
envelope ara>liLude of a,,
arbitrary VHF and UHF TV broadcasting channel.
Interference from impulsive noise affecting
Fig.1 is a block diagram of the wide-bandwidth
noise receiver. The receiver has a 3.5 MHz
TV reception and causing the degradation of
picture quality has become a serious problem
bandwidth of 6 dB down and a dynamic range of
with the increase of automobiles, household
50 dB. The lowest possible input voltage is 30
appliances, various kinds of electric facilidB$l with 50 ohm termination. The noise is
ties, and other sources. Quasi-peak (Q-peak)
detected
after
being
compressed
by
a
voltage measured by a CISPR measuring receiver
logarithmic amplifier employed at a 57 MHz IF
developed for use in amplitude modulated sound
stage. The receiving frequency is variable by
broadcasting has been said to be not always a
*1.5 MHz with a 80 kHz step from the video
proper parameter by which to gauge the annoycarrier
frequency of any VHF and UHF TV
ance in TV pictures. On account of this, there
channel. The measurement error of the level
has been a need for a new look at more suitable
indicator
is within f2 dB. Three different
parameters from the statistical point of view,
holding times of 0.05, 0.3, 3.0 seconds can be
such as the percentage time of noise envelope
used for a peak voltage measurement.
amplitude or the average crossing rate obtained
from the amplitude probability distribution
Noise level analyzer
(APD) or the crossing rate distribution (CRD).
Only a few articles,
however,
have been
The newly developed noise level analyzer
published
with regard to the relationship
for the measurement of the APD and CRD of
between the annoyance in TV picture reception
impulsive noise has 24 high speed voltage
and such parameters.
comparators to discriminate the noise level

RF input

RF
attenuator+
(lOdBx5)

Logarith- Noise
mic ampl.' detector

Synthesized
oscillator

Fig. 1. Block diagram of wide-bandwidth noise receiver.

- 612

Gate

32 Bits binary #'

counter for APD-

Control signal

32 Bits binary
counter for CRD-

a
P

CRT

Printer

Start/Stop

IF

Clock rate

Ext. trig.

Fig. 2. Block diagram of noise level analyzer.

Switch settings are in the following status;
Sl: IF signal measurement,
S2: counting duration of measurement.(only for 24th counter)
from 24 different reference levels set up
beforehand by micro-processor. Fig.2 is a block
diagram of the equipment. The frequency range
of the input signal is from DC to 6 MHz. The
reference level of each comparator can be
arbitrarily chosen from among 256 levels at
The clock rate for the
intervals.
equal
measurement of the APD can be selected from 30
MHz down to 1 kHz. Consequently, the maximum
duration is from about 143
to
measuring
4,295,OOO seconds (about 1,193 hours) according
to the selected clock rate, as a 32 bit binary
co%Jnter is employed fcllawinp each comparator.
24 other 32 bit binary counters are employed
Repetitive
for the measurement of the CRD.
measurements can be performed up to 128 times
with less than 10 ms sleep time between each
measuring block, required for data transfer to
a micro-computer.
It is possible to measure the APD/CRD
directly from an IF signal whose frequency
For APD
spectrum does not exceed 6 MHz.
measurement, the number of IF carrier cycles
which exceed a specified level is counted ;
while for CRD measurement, a train of IF
carrier pu,l,ses
corresponding to one impulsive
noise are converted to a single pulse using a
re-triggerable one shot multivibrator following
each comparator. The multivibrator yields a
pulse with a slightly longer duration than one
period of the IF carrier.
The equipment is fully controlled by microcomputer and is designed to measure the APD/CRD

of not only impulsive noise but also

kinds of base band signals.

Measurements of automobile ignition noise

Outdoor measurements were made of the automobile ignition noise caused by various kinds
of motor vehicles running through the main
street in front of our laboratories. Parameters
measured were as follows;
a) the APD and CRD of the noise envelope with
a 3.5 MHz bandwidth,
b) the APD and CRD of the noise envelope with
a 120 kHz bandwidth,
c) the APD and CRD of the Q-peak voltage.
In the case of a) the wide-bandwidth noise
receiver was used. While in the case of b) and
c) a standard CISPR receiver was used.
It is impossible to measure a), b) and c)
simultaneously for the same noise using a
single noise level analyzer. Measurements were
therefore divided into two cases : simultaneous
measurement of a) and c), and that of b) and
c). In these cases, measured data related to
c), i.e., the waveform data of Q-peak voltages,
were recorded
in a digital data recorder.
After a sequence of measurements, the APD/CRD
of the Q-peak voltages were measured by the
noise level analyzer on reading out the data
from the recorder.
Fig.3 shows a noise measuring system. The
noise was picked up on channel 2 (at
a
frequency of about 100 MHz ) on which no TV

Antenna

I,

Ban
pass
filter
(TV ch.2)

Power
splitter
Attenuator

CISPR
receiver

Widebandwidth
receiver

Power
combiner
Video
sip@&

TV signal
modulator
(TV ch.2)

Digital
--.
> data
recorder
12OkHz, envelope
----_
r---(offline)
Quasi-peak

>

various

Demodulator
recorder

Attenuator
Fig. 3. Noise measuring system.

- 613

112

10
% time

ordinate
(a)

Average

is exceeded
APD

10l

102

10

crossing
(b)

rate

10

s3

lEIS 10

(cps)

CRD

Fig. 4. Examples of measured APD/CRD for automobile ignition noise.

programs are transmitted in the Tokyo area.
Notch filters for adjacent TV carriers were
introduced in a band pass filter block in order
to prevent any intermodulation between the
carriers and the incoming noise. The noise was
distributed in two ways : one was by feeding it
into the measuring equipment, and the other was
by introducing it to a power combiner to
produce interference in the TV signal. The
level of the desired TV wave was set to 80 dBuV
at the input terminal of the power combiner.
The duration of one measurement was 30
seconds. Clock rates were chosen as 30, 5 and 1
MHz depending on the bandwidths of 3.5 MHz, 120
kHz and Q-peak respectively. The level interval
of comparators in the noise level analyzer was
properly chosen as 2 or 3 dB according to the
dynamic range of the incoming noise. 64, 33 and
97 samples were obtained for the measurement of
a), b) and c) respectively.
Examples of measured APD/CRD are shown in
Fig.4. APD is plotted on Weible graph paper.
Subjective tests
Subjective tests were made of the pictures
impaired by the ignition noise, which were
recorded on video tape at the same time as the
The
original
measurement of the APD/CRD.
picture is a still, colored one, as shown in
Fig.5. The viewing conditions and the evaluation scale are listed in Table 1. Viewers were
more than 20 expert TV engineers.
Mean opinion scores CMOS) were calculated as
follows;

Table 1.

MOS=

Z?
i=l

i*qi

(1)

where, qi is the population of votes for each

of the comments i, (i=l to 5), obtained from
the comment data for each subjective test.
Test results
The noise amplitude was measured as an
absolute value, for example in dBuV. It is,
however, quite convenient to express the noise
amplitude relative to the desired TV wave
amplitude
because the annoyance depends on
their relative amplitude. Hence, we define the
following quantity D/Uj as a measure of the
noise.
D/Uj = Dw - Uthj

(dB)

where Dw is the amplitude of a desired TV wave

in dBuV, and Uthj is the discriminating envelope amplitude of the noise in dBuV, which
corresponds to the reference voltage of a j'th
comparator in the noise level analyzer.
Relations between the MOS and D/Uj in the APD
Fig.6 and Fig.7 show the
relationship
between D/Uj and the mean opinion score CMOS)
at four parameters of percentage time, obtained
from APD for the noise with different bandwidths. Solid line in the figure are logistic
trend. lines expressed in the form of Eq.(3).
The logistic function is often applied instead
of a linear regression, because it has the
advantage of being able to express the property
that the MOS never does exceed the value of 1.0
and 5.0.

(a) Viewing conditions

. . . 370 x 275 mm
Picture size
Highlight brightness . .. 150 fL
... 50 : 1
Contrast ratio
Ambient illumination .. . 75 lx at the cathoderay-tube face
... 6 times the height of
Viewing distance
the picture screen
(b) Five-grade evaluation scale
Comment descriotion
Comment
Imperceptible
5
...
Perceptible but not annoying
4
. ..
Somewhat annoying
3
...
Severely annoying
2
...
Unusable
1
.. .

(2)

Fig. 5. Test picture (NTSC,color).

- 614

5.0
g
B

%: time
* ; 10-1
0 ; 1o-2
4.0
t + ; 1o-3
E
s
; 3.0

,
n PJ/

0
?I
a

2.0

1
0

10
20

30

D/Uj (dB)

D/Uj (dB)

Fig. 7. Relations between D/Uj and MOS for

120 kHz bandwidth at specified
percentage time.

Fig. 6. Relations between D/Uj and MOS for

3.5 MHz bandwidth at specified
percentage time.

Fig. 8.
Relations between Q-peak
voltage and MOS at specified percentage time.
% time ; (a) .. 10 %
(:b) . . 5 %
(c) .. 1 %
11G 10

20

30

40

50

60

10

20

30

40

50

60

1
10

20

30

40

50

60

D/Uj (dB)

crossing rate
* ; 100 (cps)
: 4.0

: 4.0

s
$3.0
.ti
E?
2.0
9
2
-20

-10

10

20

30

40

50

D/Uj (dB)
Fig. 9. Relations between D/Uj and MOS for
3.5 MHz bandwidth at specified
average crossing rate.

Y =

1 / (1 + exp ( A-X
1)
A,B:Bregression constan::)

There is a satisfactorily good correlation

between D/Uj and MOS, especially at the percentage time of lc2 for a 3.5 MHz bandwidth, and
163 for a 120 kHz bandwidth.
Fig.8 shows the relationship between D/Uj
and MOS for Q-peak voltage at the percentage
time of 10, 5 and 1, which are obtained from
the measurement of a) and c) in the previous
section. In this case the correlation is somewhat poorer than in the case of Fig.6 or Fig.7.
Nearly the same poor relationship was obtained
from the measurement of b) and c).
Relations between MOS and D/Uj in CRD
Fig.9 shows the relationshin between D/U.i
and MOS obtained from the CRD for a 3.5 MHz
bandwidth. There is a good correlation between

1.0

I.

10

20

30
D/Uj

I.

40

50

*I

60

(dB)

Fig. 10. Relations between D/Uj and MOS for

120 kHz bandwidth at specified
average crossing rate.
them at an average crossing rate taken from
about 10 to several hundreds cps, although it
is difficult to decide an average crossing rate
at which the correlation becomes maximum. For a
120 kHz bandwidth, in Fig.10, the correlation
is also high when taken from a few cps to
several tens of the average crossing rate. It
can be confirmed that the ratio of an average
crossing rate for the bandwidth of 3.5 MHz t0
that for 120 kHz, at which the correlation
between D/Uj and MOS seems highest, coincides
approximately with the bandwidth ratio of 3.5
MHz to 120 kHz, i.e. about 30.
In the case of Q-peak voltage, the average
crossing rate has an extremely poor correlation
with MOS. For one reason, a 30 second duration
of measurement seems inadequate to produce
statistically meaningful data, but the average
crossing rate of Q-peak voltage may be said to
be an improper parameter as far as the annoyance of the automobile ignition noise in TV

-7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
% time
(a) D/Uj= 41 dB

(b)

D/Uj=

(d)

29 dB

D/Vi=

11

dB

Fig. 11. Relations between percentage time and MOS

for 3.5 MHz bandwidth at specified D/Uj.

% time
(a) D/Uj= 56 dB

(b) D/Uj= 50 dB

(c>

(d) D/Uj= 29 dB

D/Uj= 41 dB

Fig. 12. Relations between percentage time and MOS

for 120 kHz bandwidth at specified D/Uj.

Fig. 13.
Relations between percentage
time and MOS for Q-peak voltage
at specified D/Uj.
(a) D/Uj = 44 dB
(b) D/Uj = 36 dB
(c) D/Uj = 28 dB

reception is concerned.
MOS at a given D/Uj versus percentage time
and average crossing rate
Relations between MOS and percentage time
at a given D/Uj can be derived from APD graphs
drawn for each noise measurement, shown for
example in Fig.4, and from corresponding MOS
data. This is also possible for the relation
between MOS and the average crossing rate.
Fig.11 shows the:relation between MOS and
percentage time at D/Uj ratios of 41, 29, 20
and 11 dB corresponding to a) through d) of the
figure. The noise bandwidth is 3.5 MHz. Graphs
indicate that there is a very good correlation
between MOS and percentage time when D/Uj
equals 29 or 20 dB. A similar relation holds
for noise with a bandwidth of 120 kHz when
D/Uj equals 50 dB, as shown in Fig.12. On the
other hand, the correlation is poor for Q-peak

voltage at any D/Uj, as is clear from Fig.13.

Fig.14 and Fig.15 show the relation between
MOS and the average crossing rate for 3.5 MHz
and 120 kHz bandwidths respectively. Correlations similarly high, as in the case of MOS
vs. percentage time, are obtained when D/Uj
29 or 20 dB for 3.5 MHz bandwidth and
equals
when 50 or 41 dB for 120 kHz bandwidth. Roughly
speaking, in both relations for percentage time
and average crossing rate, there is about a
20~ 30 dB difference between the cases of the
bandwidths of 3.5 MHz and 120 kHz, with respect
to D/Uj, at which the correlation seems highest.
If we do not take into account the overlapping
of impulse responses owing to the reduction of
the bandwidth,
the peak amplitude of the
impulse increases in proportion to the banda 29.5 dB
Considering this fact,
width.
decrease of the peak amplitude can be expected
for the impulsive noise at a bandwidth of 120
The 20~30
dB difference in D/Uj is
k&.

3
cl
rerifd

l$lEW18

llQle'lB

ldldl~

Average crossing rate (cps)

(a) D/Uj" 41 dB

(b) D/Uj= 29 dB
(d) D/Uj= 11 dB
CC> D/Uj= 20 dB
Fig. 14. Relations between average crossing rate and MOS
for 3.5 MHz bandwidth a< specified D/Uj.

Average crossing rate (cps)

(b) D/Uj= 50 dB
(a) D/Uj= 56 dB

(C)

D/Uj= 41 dB

(d) D/Uj= 29 dB

Fig. 15. Relations between average crossing rate and MOS

for 120 kHz bandwidth at specified D/Uj.

considered to originate from the peak amplitude

reduction of the impulsive noise as mentioned
above.
Discussion
In both cases of percentage time and the
average crossing rate, the correlation between
MOS and D/Uj is considerably higher for impulsive noise with a bandwidth of 3.5 MHz and 120
kHz than for Q-peak voltage measured by a
standard CISPR receiver. The correlation for
the bandwidth of 3.5 MHz seems slightly higher
than that for 120 kHz, but no significant
difference was obtained between them. This
leads to the conclusion that the fabrication of
a noise receiver with a wider bandwidth than
necessarily
standard 120 kHz is not
the
required for the measurement of the parameters
APD or CRD for automobile impulsive noise, as
far as the annoyance caused to the television
reception is concerned.
From the relation between MCS and percentage time or the average crossing rate, the
noise
caused by impulsive
can
annoyance
quantitatively
evaluated and
probably
be
measured using a quite simple noise level
analyzer, in which it is sufficient to employ
only a single comparator and counter pair. For
example, a noise level analyzer, which has a
single comparator to discriminate the envelope
amplitude of impulsive noise at 50 or 40 dB in
D/Uj, and has a single counter to measure the
average crossing rate, can evaluate the quality
of the picture impaired by ignition noise,
using the result shown in Fig.15.

Conclusion
A newly developed noise receiver has been
introduced, which has a wide IF bandwidth to
measure the APD and CRD of the impulsive noise
received with nearly the same transmission
bandwidth as TV signals. A noise level analyzer
which can measure tne APD/CRD of the impulsive
noise having a frequency spectrum of this width
has also been introduced.
Outdoor measurements with regard to the
automobile ignition noise were made using this
equipment. Subjective evaluation tests of TV
ignition
pictures impaired by corresponding
noise were also made. The subjective annoyance
has a fairly good correlation with percentage
time and the average crossing rate of envelopedetected impulsive automobile noise, in cases
of both 3.5 MHz and 120 kHz bandwidths. As for
the parameters of quasi-peak voltage, the correlation was found to be poor. This suggests
that the APD/CRD of quasi-peak are not proper
parameters, as far as the annoyance of autois
mobile ignition noise in TV reception
concerned.
References
(1) Parsons, J. D., and Sheikh, A. U. H., "The
characterization of impulsive noise and consifor a noise-measuring receiver",
derations
Radio & Electron. Eng. Vo1.49, No.9, 1979.
(2) Matheson, R. J., "Measurements of Automotive Ignition Noise Using A DM-4 APD Meter",
IEEE Int. Sympos. on EMC, 1981.

- 617

113 s4

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION CAI!SE.n

BY SILVER PALLADIlJlVl
ALLOY
CONTACT StlITCHING
Keiichi Uchimura", Teizo Aida*, find Tasuku Takmi**
* Kumamoto University
Kumamoto,
** Tohoku

Japan

University

Sendai,

This paper deals with the electromagnetic radiation (EMR) caused by Ag-Pd
alloy contact switching. In the case of
a normal arc, the EMR level depends
upon the alloy composition of contact
materials, while, in case of a showering arc, it does not depend upon it.
A parallel capacitance connecting
between the contacts is effective for
suppressing the EMR.
Introduction
An electromagnetic
relay trends
toward small-size and low-power, as an
integrated circuit (IC) is being developed. There are many cases where the
relay is installed closely to the IC iii
an electronic equipment or a control
system. A discharge due to the relay
operation may cause the electromagnetic
interference to the various IC equipments, especially the IC is irradiated
by the electromagnetic
radiation (EMR)
from an arc which appears in breaking
contacts of relay. Thus it is very
important to clarify the characteristics and the generation of EMR which
causes by the breaking electric
contacts.
Meanwhile, in a low current region
of O-l-3A, various alloy contacts such
as Ag-Pd, Ag-Ni, etc., are widely used
in the relays rather than the pure
metal contacts.
This paper deals with the EMR caused
by silver palladium alloy contact switching. The Ag-Pd alloy contacts have
such good properties as low contact
erosion and very few brown-powder.
Ag-Pd alloy contacts are also not expensive compared with pure metal
contacts such as Pd and Au. From these
reasons, new manufactures of wire
spring relay now practically employs
the Ag-Pd alloy instead of pure Pd [l].
In this study, we operated Ag, Pd,
and Ag-Pd alloy contacts at the source
voltage of d.c.25V and 5OV and in air,
and then measured various properties
of the EMR caused by a normal arc and
a showering arc. As a result, it was
found that the EMR caused by normal
arc depends upon the alloy composition
of contact materials, while the EMR

Japan

caused by showering arc does not depend

upon it. Furthermore, from the generation mechanism of showering arc, it is
described that a parallel capacitance
connecting between the contact is
effective to inhibit the EMR.

Experimental

Method

The experimental setup is shown in

Fig.1. The circuit contains two contact
pairs Kl and K2 connected in series.
The break-make order between Kl and K2
is controlled so that Kl arcs only on
break and X2 arcs only on make. The
contact used here is approximately
3mm
long and has a diameter of 5mm. The
surface shape of fixed side contact (
cathode) and that of moving side contact (anode) are plane and spherical,
respectively. The contact force is
about log and the velocity of contact
separation is about O.lm/s. The length
of contact gap is Imm. Break-make cycle
rate is 15 times/min. Contact materials
are Ag, Ag-20%Pd, Ag-40%Pd, and Pd,
where the percentage represents the
weight percent (wt.%).
In the right-hand side of Fig-l,
shown is an apparatus for measuring the
electromagnetic
radiation (EMR). In
this experiments, two types of the electromagnetic field measuring apparatus
and those of the quasi-peak value
meters were used. The electromagnetic
field measuring apparatus have the
following specifications;
one of them
has the frequency range 0.15-IOMHz, IF

Quasi-peak
value meter
Fig.1 Experimental

,
setup

bandwidth 4kHz (3dB down), and nonshielded loop antenna, and the other
has 25-23OMHz, 120kHz+lO% (6dB down),
and loop antenna. The quasi-peak value
meters have also the following specifications; overload coefficient of beyond
12dB and 43.5dB, charge time constant
of detector of 1+0.5ms and Ims, and
discharge time constant of detector of
600+120ms and 55Oms, respectively.
The distance between the contacts
and the loop antenna of the apparatus
is 3 meters. The floor of experimental
room was covered with the metal grounding screen. The height of the contacts
above the ground was kept at 0.5 meters
and that of the antenna at about 1
meter.
Measured
EMR Caused

Results

by Normal

of EMR

Arc

Frequency Distribution of EMR. A typical normal arc of Ag contacts is

shown in Fig.2. Figure 3 shows the frequency distribution of the EMR caused
by the normal arc in breaking contacts.
Using Eq.(l), we Convert the value E(dB
) of EMR shown in Fig.3 into e(uV/m),
E=2Ologg

Fig.2 Typical

618
where e. is a standard field strength
of luV/m. We then obtain the following
relations in the frequency range from
0.1 to about 1OMHz.
e oc f-u

where f is a frequency and a is a

constant inherent to the contact
materials.
(X=0.75-1.49 for Ag,
u=O.95-1.6
for Ag-20%Pd,
(3)
for Ag-4O%Pd, and
a=O.86-1.6
a=0.73-1.18
for Pd.
The above values are applicable to the
case where source voltage is d.c.50
volts and the circuit current region
from 0.5 to 7 amperes. Besides, although the experimental results of Au,
Ag-Au, and Ag-Cu contacts were omitted
in this paper, c1 of these materials
have similar tendency to those shown
in (3) 121.
On the other hand, in the frequency
range from 25 to 20OMHz, E(dB) reachs
the maximum at the frequency f=60-70
MHz, as shown in Fig.3.
It is also found that there are
some differences in the level of EMR
by the alloy composition.

( .I

[dBl

waveform

of normal

(2)

arc

voltage.

Circuit Current Dependence of EMR.

In order to know the circuit current
dependence of EMR, experiments are performed in source voltage V=5OV and
circuit current 1=0.5-7A. Figure 4(a)
shows E(dB)-I characteristics
for Ag at
the frequencies 0.15, 1, 5, and 50 MHz.
The maximum of EMR appears at 2-3A
which is markable in case of 5 and 50
MHz. The E(dB)-I characteristics
at 5
MHz for Ag, Pd, and Ag-Pd alloy are
shown in Fig.4(b). Excepting pure Pd,
the maximum of EMR appears at 2-3A.
With regard to those effects, we shall
discuss in the following chapter.

80

I=2A

Ag
T

i:

-.
i
-L'**
.-c
..
;;.

Ag-208Pd

0.5

5
Frequency

Fig.3 Frequency

distribution

10

50 '100

f(MHz)

of electromagnetic

radiation

in normal

arc

619

(a)

(b)

0.15MHz

70

113 s4
f=5MHz,V=50V
50

-50
8
w
30
1
50MHz

10

Circuit

v=5ov
I

1
Circuit
EMR Caused

current

by Showering

Fig.4

Relation

5
current

between

I(A)

E(dB)

and I in

7
I(A)

ASI

Arc

v=25v
1=90mA
L=550mH
C=O.O026pF
200V/div.
lOOp.s/viv.

Frequency Distribution of EMR. A typical oscillograhic

trace of a showering arc for Ag contacts is shown in
Fig.5. Figure 6 shows the frequency
distribution of EMR caused by showering
arc which has similar tendency to that
of the normal arc for Ag. That is to
say, the EMR is roughly inverse proportion to the frequency in the frequency range O.l-about IOMHZ, while in
25-20OMHz, the maximum of EMR are seen
at about 7OMHz. The difference of the
EMR level owing to alloy composition is
not recognized; in normal arc, the &iR
level depends on alloy composition (
refer Fig.3).

Fig.5 Typical

waveform

of showering

arc voltage.
limited up to lOOmA. Hence the only two
cases of 50 and 9OmA have been tested,
and the EMR from contact showering arc
were measured under the conditions
where the source voltage V=25V, inductive load (coil of relay)L=550mH,
and
parallel capacitance connecting between
the contacts C=O.O026pF. Figure 7(a)
shows the measured results of E(dB)-I
characteristics
for Ag contacts at the
frequencies 0.2, 1, 5, and 70MH2, and
Fig.7(b) shows those for Ag-Pd alloys

Circuit Current Dependence of EMR.

A coil in hinge type electromagnetic
relay was used as an inductive load in
our first experiment. In this case, the
current flows through coil of relay was
80

V=25V
1=9omA
L==550mH
C=O.O026uF

2
.:
u-l83
CG
:
(H"
&I
2
.5

40

I : Ag
T

20

h : Ag-20%Pd
1 : Ag-40%Pd
_
1 : Pd

.;
rd
$

0
0.1

II

Ill

0.5

III

1
Frequency

Fig.6 Frequency

distribution

I
5

III
50

10

100

f(MHz)

of electromagnetic

radiation

in showering

arc.

- 620

IIntermittent
(a)

1:

4.

@Z:z

20

arc voltages

0.2MHz

Ag
v=5ov
I=2.5A
lOV/div.
lms/div.
f=lMHz

w
v=25v
L=550mH
Fig.8 Normal

C=O.O026pF

arc voltage

and EMR voltage

100

50
Circuit

current

I(mA)

(b)
-

I:

f=70MHz

ACJ

-r

': Ag-20%Pd

;;i
2 40
E

_$I/=4

W
t: Ag-QO%Pd

v=25v
L=550mH

20
c

1: Pd

C=O.O026pF
I

I.1

50

100

Circuit

current

I(mA)

60

I : Ag
I : Pd

(c)

40

wave

(a)

(b).

Discussion

01

60

wave

/z

Z
w

/
f=SOMHz
20

Normal Arc
In order to clarify the effect of
circuit current on the EMR, the waveforms of both normal arc voltage and
EMR voltage were simultaneously
observed by using a 2 channel oscilloscope.
The EMR voltage was observed at the
output of the intermediate frequency
amplifier in the electromagnetic
field
measuring apparatus. Those observed
waveforms are shown in Fiq.8. The
source voltage is d.c.50V and the
circuit current is 2.5A for Aq contacts.
The larger EMR voltage is seen at the
portion (lower trace) corresponding
to
the lager amplitude voltage fluctuations in the waveform of normal arc
voltaqe (upper trace). The intermittent
arc voltage fluctuations, which is
shown in the upper trace of Fig.8, are
governed by the transition of arc phase
from a metallic phase to a gaseous
phase, and occur at the circuit current
2-3A [3].
On the other hand, Figure 9 shows
the relationship between arc duration
Ta and circuit current I. In cases of
Ag and Aq-Pd alloys, Ta chanqes discontinuously at 2-3A. It has been said
that this discontinuous
is also due to

V=lOOV
L=lOmH
Ag-20%Pd

C=O.OlpF
I

0
10

50
Circuit

Fig.7

Relation

100

between

500 1000

current

case of showering

III

A='

I(mA)

E(dB)

and I in

arc.

at 70MHz. Second experiment has also

carried out under the conditions where
V=lOOV, L=lOmH, and C=O.OlpF, the E(dB)
-1 characteristics
of Aq and Pd contacts were measured at the frequency 50MHz.
These results were shown in Fig.7(c).
As we can see from Fiq.7(a)-(c), the
EMR increases with the circuit current.
Although the E(dB)-I characteristic
is
independent on the alloy composition,
it depends upon the circuit condition,
such as V, I, L and C.

Circuit

current

Arc duration
current.

versus

7
I(A)

circuit

621

t;le transition of arc phase from the

metallic phase to the gaseous phase.
As understood from the above two
the contact arc has an
descriptions,
unstable condition in a current range
of 2-3A. In this case, high frequency
oscillation with large amplitude
appears in the arc, which results in
the electromagnetic
radiation (EMR).
Such an EMR can be detected as higher
electromagnetic
field intensity E(dB).
On the contrary, in the case where the
circuit current is higher than 2-311,
the arc discharge becomes stable, so
that E(dB) can be considered to take a
relative low value.
Showerinq Arc
The showerinu_. arc is characterized
by large, rapid voltage fluctuations
appearing across the contacts [41.
When the voltage across the contacts
exceeds the dielectric breakdown voltage, the showering arc occurs. The
voltage across contacts and EMR voltage
for Ag contacts were observed simultaneously, under the conditions of V=25V,
I=90mA, L=550mH, and C=O.O026pF. Typical
examples are shown in Fig.10. The EMR
voltage appears at the portion (lower
trace) corresponding
to the dielectric
breakdown across the contacts (upper
trace).
The dielectric breakdown across the
contacts during the contact break are
consi.dered to occur due to the following
three kinds of causes: (I) field emission breakdown,
(2) breakdown occuring
at the constant voltage VB2, regardless
of the length of contact gap 151, and
(3) air breakdown which is governed by
Paschen's law. Figure 11 shows the times
of the showering arc in which the three
main mechanisms operate. According to
Germer
[5],the dielectric breakdown
voltage VBZ for both fixed Ag and Pd
electrodes are equal to 340V. Hence VB2
of Ag-Pd alloys is considered to be
340V. The dielectric breakdown voltage
VBl in region (1) is approximated by
[61:
VBl = F u t f K(1)
(4)
where F = 2~10~ V/m
for Ag,
F = 3x108 v/m

for Pd,

u =constant separation velocity

in m/set, and
K =constant relating circuit
current.
Using VBl=340V, u=O.lm/s, F=2xlO*V/m
for Ag and 3x108V/m for Pd, we obtain
the relations of Eq.(5) as the duration
of region (1) in Fig.11.
t1 < 17u.s for Ag, and

(5)
t1 < llus
for Pd.
On the other hand, according to our
experiments, the start time t of
region (3) is approximately
2$ Ops,
which is independent of the circuit
condition and the kind of contact
material. Hence, the regions (2) and
(3) are nearly independent of the
contact material, that is, alloy compo-

113 s4

Ag
v=25v
1=90mA
L=550mH
c=O.O0261;1F
2OOVldiv.
1 OOus/div.
f=50MHz

(a)

(b)

Fig.10

Showering

arc voltage

and EMR voltage

wave

wave

(a)

(b).

VE2

-~Lzztp--_I
I-----Fig.11

Schematic

Tsdrawing

of showering

arc.
sition. Therefore the duration tl of
the region (I), which depends on the
contact material, is only a few percent
of the total duration of showering arc
Ts (see Fig-II). From this reason, it
is considered that, since the showering
arc voltage waveform does not nearly
depend upon the alloy composition, the
EMR characteristics
become also roughly
independent of the alloy composition.
1" the meantime, the voltage across
the contacts begins to rise according
to:
dV
(6)
E t=() = ;
where

I=circuit current, and

C=capacitance of circuit.
From Eq.(6), if the circuit current I
increases, dV/dt will become large. As
the results, the dielectric breakdown
occurs from just after contact break,
so that the number of dielectric breakdown Nb results to increase (see Fig.11
); this thing is also supported by
Mills [4]. Eventually when Nb, that is,
I increases, it can be considered that
the indication of EMR in the electromagnetic field measuring apparatus
becomes large.
Furthermore, we can propose the
method for suppressing the EMR from Eq.
(6). That is to say, if we increase the
value of C, Nb can be expected to

decrease
[4], so that the Z:MR can be
expected to decrease. From the above
consideration,
we tried to connect the
C-r series circuit between the contacts
in parallel. The result is shown in
Fig.12, and it is found that the C-r
series circuit is effective in suppressing the EMR from showering arc. In
case of the normal arc, we already
stated that the C-r series circuit was
effective for suppressing the EMR, as
well [2].

\
60

non C-r

44

40

-_

-1,

ACJ

\T
i\

20
C-r
C=0.33pF
0

III

0.1

0.5

Fig.12

Frequency

T.

r=14851
I III
I

I
5

Frequency

current I char3. In the E(dB)-circuit

acteristics, excepting pure Pd, the
maximum of EMR appears at 2-3A in
case of the normal arc. On the
contrary, the EMR in the case of
showering arc increases with the
increasing of I. The reason for the
difference of the above things was
discussed from arc generation machanisms: the EMK of normal arc is due
to the transition of arc phase, and
The EMR of showering arc is due to
three kinds of dielectric breakdown
and depends upon dV/dt) t=O4. We briefly discussed that the EMR
caused by showering arc was fairly
suppressed by connecting a capacitance C between the contacts in
parallel, which we confirmed by our
experiments.

The authors arc grateful to Associate

Professor H.Echigo of Tohoku University
for his useful advice, and Mr. S. Ogata
, Mr. Y. Kosaka, Mr. H. Matuo and Mr.
T. Matuura (Kumamoto University) for
their useful assistances.
References

10

f(MHz)

distribution

Acknowledgment
\

3
w

622

of EMR

in case with C-r circuit.

Conclusion
The results of this study are summarized as follows.
1. The EMR caused by normal arc depends
upon the alloy composition of the
contacts, while the EMR caused by
showering arc is independent of the
alloy composition of the contacts.
2. In the normal arc, the EMR is roughly inversely proportional to the
frequency in the range of O.l-IOMHz,
while in 25-20OMHz, the maximum of
EMR appears at about 70MHz. In the
showering arc, the frequency characteristics of EMR are similar to
those in normal arc.

[II T.R.Long and K.F.Bradford: "60Pd-40Ag as an

Electrical Contact Material to Replace Palladium", Proc. of the 8th ICECP, pp. 56-61
(1976).
r21 T.Aida, K.Uchimura, T.Noguchi and S,Ogata:
"Effect of Alloying Elements on The Radio
Noise Characteristics of Silver Based
Alloy Contacts", Proc. of the Int, Symp. on
EMC (Tokyo) (1984) (to be published).
131 P.J.Boddy and T.Utsumi: "Fluctuation of Arc
Potential Caused by Metal-Vapor Diffusion
in Arcs in Air", J. Appl. Phys., 42, 9, pp.
3369-3373 (Aug. 1971).
141 G.W.Mills: "The Mechanisms of the Showering
AX,
IEEE Trans, Part, Materials and Packaging, PMP-5, 1, pp. 47-55 (Mar. 1969).
r51 L.H.Germer: "Electrical Breakdown between
Close Electrodes in Air", J. Appl. Phys.,
30, 1, pp. 46-51 (Jan. 1959).
[61 K.Uchimura and T,Aida: "Extinction Critical
Curves of Showering Arc in Breaking Contacts
at DC Source Voltage Less than lOOV", Trans,
IEE of Japan (in Japanese), 103-A, 8, pp.
421-428 (Aug. 1983).

623

114

s5

ON THE CHARACTERISTICSOF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC

FIELD
GENERATED
BY VIDEO DISPLAY UNITS
W. van Eck,

.T. Neessen

and P. Rijsdijk

Dr. Neher Laboratories

Leidschendam

Abstract
The electromagnetic
field
generated by video
is
investigated
at
units
(VDUs)
display
frequencies
above 30 MHz. This
type
of
data
generates
a radiated
equipment
processing
frequency
spectrum
consisting
of
two major
emission
in
the
Narrowband
components.
frequency
spectrum of
the
radiated
field
is
predominantly
generated
by the
VDUs clock
whereas the most powerful
broadband
circuitry,
emission
originates
from the circuits
for video
From the broadband emission
signal
processing.
of a VDU a TV receiver
will reproduce the image
ow screen.
displayed
on a VDU screen
on -its
This
phenomenon is more severe if a coherence
exists
between
the
broadband
and narrowband
emission.

1. Introduction

and assumption

The use of
square
wave signals
and fast
circuits
in digital
equipment leads
switching
fields
electromagnetic
radiation
of
to
containing
frequency
components up to far above
As the radiation
resistance
of
the VHF region.
inside
the
equipment
leads
interconnecting
increasing
frequency,
the
high
increases
at
frequency
parts
of
the
signals
in
digital
efficiently,
quite
equipment may be radiated
with
broadcast
reception.
and may interfere
generated
by
The electromagnetic
field
equipment
generally
consists
of
a
digital
narrowband
isolated
combination
of
linear
distances
on the frequency
signals
at regular
from the
axis,
and random noise originating
in
the
signals
random
binary
various
equipment.
We now confine
ourselves
to the interference
that
may be produced
in TV reception
due to
In general
there
will
these types of signal.
be no relation
between a broadcasted
TV signal
When a video
and the
interfering
signal.
display
unit
(VDU) is
incorporated
in the
digital
equipment this may no longer
be true.
In a VDU the information
is displayed
on the
screen using the same techniques
as in
a TV
receiver.
Therefore
there
is
a rather good
similarity
between the video signal
in
a VDU
and that
in a TV receiver.
In most VDUs even
the
same horizontal
and vertical
synchronused
as
in
TV
frequencies
are
ization
As the video signal
in a VDU is
a
receivers.
each harmonic of
impulses,
stream
of
square
this signal shows a remarkable similarity
with
a broadcasted
TV signal.

PTT

- Netherlands

Due to the amplification

of the video signal
in a VDU to several
hundreds of volts before it
is fed into the cathode
ray
tube
(CAT),
the
radiation
originating
from the higher harmonics
of the
video
signal
will
be stronger
than
radiation
originating
from other
broadband
signals
inside
the VDU.
A television
receiver
picking
up one of
these
higher
harmonics
will
demodulate
the
signal
- by envelope
detection
and thus
reproduce
the image displayed
on the VDU on its
own screen.
This means the
interference
from
video
display
units may be more annoying than
interference
from other
types
of
digital
equipment.
2.

Theory

The power spectral

density
of the video
signal
The screen of a video displav
unit is built
up from small
dots,
calleh
pixels.
These
pixels
are
arranged in horizontal
lines which
are scanned by the electron
beam in the CRT, as
in a normal TV receiver.
On the analogy of
European
black-and-white
television,
the refresh
rate of the display
is
generally
chosen equal to 50 Hz, and the
line
synchronization
is about 16 kHz.
In most VDUs
no interlace
is
used,
in
contrast
to
TV
reception.
In figure
1 an overview
is
given
of
the
build-up
of an average VDU system, in which the
generation
of the video signal
is shown.
To build
up the
display
in
pixels
the
current
of
the
electron
beam in the CRT is
on-off
modulated.
Thus the video signal
in
a
VDU is
a digital
signal,
in which a logical
one will evoke a white
spot on the
screen,
whereas a logical
zero
will inhibit
this.
To obtain the
required
resolution
on the

figure

Overview

of

the VDUs buildup

624
display,
the
bit duration
in the video signal
is shorter
than 50 ns in
most
VDUs.
Between
two
Success1 ve
bits
the
video
signal
is
generally
equal to zero.
This is
accomplished
by multiplying
the initial
video
signal
v(t)
with bit duration
Tb (< 100 ns) - with a square
wave
of
period
I,,,
using
a logic
AND. This
square
wave is called
the video-dot-clock.
The
video-dot-clock
is
already
available
in the
VDD, because
it is used for synchronization
of
the parallel
to serial
conversion
to obtain
the
initial
video
signal
v_(t).
Assuming
the
information
displayed
is
non-repetitive
the
initial
video
signal
v(t)
may be approximated
by a random binary
signal.
Now let
the
probability
af
v(t)
having
an
then
consequently
amplitude
equal
to A be
p,
the probability
of the amplitude being equal to
For a VDU
screen
full
of
0 is equal to l-p.
text
about
10% of the pixels
are white,
thus p
is generally
smaller than 0.1.
The autocorrelation
function
Rxx(7)
of
the
after
final
video
signal
x(t)
- obtained
multiplication
of v(t)
and the
video-dot-clock
An expression
for the
is given in figure
2.
power spectral
density
of the signal
x(t)
can
be obtained
by computation
of
the
Fourier
transform
of Rxx(~)
according
to
the
scheme
R,,(T) is decomposed into
given
in
figure
2.
the sum of two auto correlation
functions.
The
transform
of both functions
sum of the Fourier
is the power spectral
density
S,,(f)
of x(t).
2
sin(nfTb/2)
S&(f )=;A Tb(p-$)+pzk> 6 (f-k/T,,)
i.=
W&l:!
)[
I
In the above expression
we may
respect
to p, because
p < 0.1.
From the obtained
expression

neglect

and

knowledge

in

the way in which x(t)

is generated
it is
about
of- AM demodulation
one
evident
that
in case
of S (f) provides
enough information
sidelobe
Reconstruction
to reconstruct
the signal
x(t).
of
the initial
signal
y(t)
is already
possible
only
half
this
sTdelobe
of
S,,(f)
is
if
since
v(t)
has a bit duration
T and
available,
x(t)
has a bit duration
Tb/2.
Envelope detection
of the signal
filtered
at
wider
than l/Tb will give the LF
a bandwidth
part of the signal v(t).
whatever
the
central
This is
of the detection
filter
is.
frequency
If,
however,
a narrowband
shown in figure
3.
frequencies
k/T, lies inside
the
component
at
filter
bandwidth
a better
reconstruction
of
v(t)
is possible
since the narrowband component
serves
as a carrier.
Reconstruction
by means of a TV receiver
with
a
As a TV receiver
is
equipped
vestigial
sideband demodulator
over a detection
bandwidth of approximately
5 MHz, reproduction
of
the
LF part of the signal v(t)
is possible
without
interference
whenever
intersymbol
Tb>lOOns.
In most VDUs the bit duration
Tb is
than
100 ns,
thus
causing
slightly
short,er
intersymbol
interference
during
detection
with
a TV receiver.
Since
a TV receiver
is not equipped
with
a
sampling detector
and subsequent
clock recovery
envelope
includes
the
receiver
circuit
and further
analog signal
processing
detection
- the intersymbol
interference
will
manifest
itself
as a lengthening
of the pixels
on the TV
This leads
to
a slight
decrease
in
screen.
readability.
The LF signal
beyond the
envelope
detector
the
TV receiver
can be made to look like
a
in
digital
signal
by adjusting
the contrast
level
The clipping
threshold
to
the
maximum value.
by means
as shown in figure
2 can be adjusted
of the brightness
control
in the TV receiver.

3. Verification

figure

Srheme for

comp~lf;~tion of

F&f)

Measurement set-up
For verification
of
the
reconstruction
of
TV
information
by a normal
the
radiated
according
to
set-up
receiver
a measurement
figure
4 was realised.
(Singer
NM 37/57,
The measuring
receiver
30-1000
MHz) is set to an IF banduidth
of 1 MHz
and the IF signal
is fed into
a TV broadcast
after conversion
of the frequency
to
receiver,
an arbitrary
VHF channel.
possible
In this
set-up
measurements
are
the TV broadcast
bands and the ambient
outside
fieldstrength
can be compared to
the
received
The effective
bandwidth
of the
image
quality.
1 MHz.
Thus
the
TV receiver
is reduced
to
readability
of
the received
image is reduced.
Measurements
proved
that
the picture
is
still
the
detection
bandwidth
is
readable
when
of the pixels
reduced
to 1 MHz. The stretching
on
the TV screen
can easily
be compensated
for
by adjusting
the clipping
threshold,
as
shown
in figure
3.
As the
video
signal
in
a VDU does
not
contain
synchronization
information
the
horizontal
and vertical
synchronization
signals
have
to
be
brought
into
the
TV receiver
seperately
to carry out the
measurements.
In
this
set-up
the
synchronization
signa Is are
reconstructed
from the magnetic
field
in
t,he
the VI%.
II-II c field
is gener;,tt.tA,i
II I cinity
of

114

-L

s5

black

white

-__--

ehreshold
_-

-et

black

white
-L
+t

frequency
domain
of I impulse

figure

Reconstruction

representarion

of

4th order Butterworth

filtering
and threshold
setting

the video

by the high voltage

transformer,
which normally
operates
at the line synchronization
frequency.
A simple phase locked loop,
a digital
frequency
divider
(+
number of display
lines)
and two
one-shot
circuits
transform
the received
signal
into
horizontal
and vertical
synchronization
signals.
Both signals
are combined and brought
into
the
synchronization
separator
of the TV
receiver
by means of an optical
fibre.

signal

Overview

of

the measurement

setup

Measurement results
Reconstruction
of the displayed
information
the
received
interference
from
signal
is
generally
possible
in the
following
frequency
regions:
- at almost any frequency
between 30 and
300 MBz,
- at almost any harmonic of l/Tb
between
300 and 500 MHz, and
- at some frequencies
above 500 MHz.
The distance
between
the
VDU and
the
receiving
biconical
antenna may be as large as
reconstruction
of
50 metres
before
the
information
is
impossible.
displayed
This
refers
to
measurements
carried
figure
out
within
the
TV broadcast
bands, using only the
TV receiver
for reception.
For a VDU in metal
covering
this distance
is generally
reduced to
about 5 metres.
The fieldstrength
measured
at
1
MHz
bandwidth
is
independent
from the number of
characters
displayed
on the
VDU screen,
in
contrast
with the results
expected from theory
Additionally
it
was
p and p*).
(S,,(f)
::
noticed
from
the
fieldstrength
measurements
that there are more narrowband components
that
these
could
not
be
however,
expected,
large
distinguished
very
well
due to
the

video

signal

in a TV receiver

detection
bandwidth (I MHz).
Screening
of the circuits
for
video
signal
and disconnecting
the
CRT had no
processing
drastic
effect
on the
measured
fieldstrength
the
reconstructability
of
on
the
nor
information.
To explain
the
origin
of
the
unexpected
measurement results
a more detailed
analysis
of
the interference
from a VDU was performed.
4. Explanation

figure

TV receiver

of

results

Measured fieldstrength
as a function
of display
contents
In the theoretical
contemplation
of
chapter
2 it was assumed that the video signal
x(t) is
the most powerful source of
radiation
yn the
assumption proves to be inadequate
VDU.
This
for
explanation
of
the
measurement
results
obtained.
The radiation
originating
from the
video
be very
powerful
due to
the
signal
may
amplification
of more than 26 dB, however,
the
total
power is spread over the entire
frequency
axis.
In comparison to other broadband signals
it
will
be the
most powerful source in most
Narrowband
cases.
signals
such
as
the
video-dot-clock
and the microprocessor
system
clock
(see figure
I) may be radiated
as well.
but
less
These
signals
can still
strongly.
cause
high
levels
in
the
measured
power
spectral
density
of
the
radiated
field
at
discrete
frequencies,
since the total
power is
concentrated
in equidistant
spectral
lines.
This could perfectly
explain
why narrowband
spectral
components
are
measured
at
small
frequency
intervals,
the
level
of
which
is
independent
of the number of charachters
on the
VDU screen.
To verify
this
assumption
measurements
of
the
interference
produced by a one single
VDU
The video4ot-clock
of
the
were carried
out.
VDU chosen is equal to 11.004 MHz. The system
clock
frequency
is
equal
to
1.57
MHz, so
may be expected in the
narrowband
components
radiated
spectrum at 1.57 MHz intervals.
Two types of measurement were carried
out:
interference
available
- The maximum
on The mains
power cord
was
power
using
the
CISPR
absorbing
measured
clamp.
- The electric
field
radiated
by the
VDU
in
the
direction
of maximum radiation

626

i
f--I

:!

1%

3Q

40

60

80

140

IQ0

290

220

240

figure

hb

260

Fieldstrength
radiation at
Bandwidth

frequency
I

30

40

60

80

140

100

figure 6

160

280

in direction of maximum
pal)

I meterdisfance.(hor

10 km,

VDU screen empty

in MHz

180

200

Fieldstrength in the direction of maximum

radiation at 1 m distance (horizontal pal)

220

240

300

260

280

628

was measured with a biconical

antenna
according
to
MILL-STD-4G1/462
in
1
metre distance.
In this
set-up
the
mains power cord was shielded.
Measurements
were taken
with
a HP 8586 A
spectrum analyser
in the frequency
range 30-300
MHz, at a detection
bandwidth of 10 kHz and the
function
MAX HOLD selected.
The results
are given in
figures
5 and 6
respectively.
Figures
5a and 6a give
the
measurement results
for a VDU screen
full
of
text
and fb
and 6b those for a cleared
VDU
display
(only a cursor on the screen).
From these results
can be seen that:
- The level of broadband interference
is
largely
dependent
on the
number of
characters
displayed
on the screen.
- The level of narrowband interference
is
independent
of
the
contents
of
the
display
and
individual
narrowband
components
are
determined
by the VDU
system clock and the video-dot-clock.
Evidently
the
theoretical
assumptions
made
above may be considered
true.
The effect
of shielding
of the video circuitry
In the theory developed
in chapter 2 it
was
assumed that the signal v(t)
is a random binary
Its amplitude,
however, is known to be
signal.
electron
beam is
to
zero
when the
equal
inbetween two characters.
Assuming that the width of each character
on
screen is n pixels
and the spacing between
the
the
video
signal
two characters
is m pixels,
as the product of the
x(t)
can be described
random signal z(t)
and a square wave z(t)
with
period (n+m)Th and duty cycle n/(n+m).lOO%.
The autocorrelation
function
RZZ(7) of
z(t)
triangle.
The power spectral
is
a periodical
density
of z(t)
is obtained
through computation
of the Fourier transform
of R ZZ(r):
2

S,,(f)
is
obtained
through
convolution
of
S,,(f)
and S,,(f):
It can easily
be seen that the video
signal
only
modulated
on the
narrowband
is
not
components
but
to
all
cOmpOnetItS
k/Tb ,
i / (n+m )Tn (which includes
all components k/T, ) .
Because of the structure
of the video signal
density
of the broadband
the
power spectral
simple
the
obey
will
not
components
sine-function
assumed in chapter 2, as can also
be seen from figures
5 and 6.
In most VDUs a square
wave with
period
to
clock out the video
(n+m)Tb
is
necessary
successive
memory to obtain the coding for the
arrays to be changed into a video signal
pixel
by parallel
to
serial
conversion
(see
also
This parallel
to serial
conversion
figure
1).
is synchronized
by the video-dot-clock
signal.
Since the signal
with period
(nun)Tb is in many
VDUs in the range l-2 MHz it is often also used
incorporated
as
the
system
clock
for
the
Therefore
the narrowsystem.
microprocessor
band components in the radiated
electromagnetic
with
the
radiated
video
field
are
coherent
signal.
exists
it
has
a large
If this coherence
effect
upon the
demodulation
of the received

broadband video signal

by a TV receiver:
In
terms
of
modulation
the
narrowband
components
are
responsible
for the modulation
index of the
AM signal
received
by the
TV
receiver.
As the narrowband components in the
radiaited
electromagnetic
field
are
powerful,
they mainly determine the total power received.
Shielding
of the circuits
for
video
signal
processing
will reduce the broadband interferwhereas the narrowband interference
ence level,
level
remains
unchanged.
Thus the modulation
whereas
index of the received
signal
decreases
the total
power received
remains unaffected.
experiment
showed that
the
TV
A concise
produce
a purely
receiver
used
can still
black-and-white
picture
when the
modulation
index of the received
signal
is 0.5%.
average
Figures
5a and 6a show that
the
difference
between the narrowband and broadband
level
is 20 dB.
As the measurements of figures
5 and 6 were taken at 10 kHz bandwidth,
the
power of the broadband signal
measured at 1 MHz
bandwidth will be about 20 dB higher.
Thus the
signal
received
by the
TV receiver
in
our
measuring set-up is a 100% AM modulated signal,
video
processing
circuitry
is
not
when the
shielded.
To decrease
the modulation
index to
less
than
0.5% the shield must reduce the emission
of the
video signal
more than 46 dB.
This explains
that
the
reception
quality
will
not
when the
video
processing
change
circuitry
is shielded
less effectively.

5.

Conclusions

Narrowband components of the electromagnetic

interference
radiated
by video display
units in
30-1000
MHz are
mainly
the frequency
range
originating
from the digital
clock signals
in
the equipment.
Broadband components in the frequency
range
30-1000
MHz will generally
originate
from the
The level
video signal
processing
circuitry.
of broadband emission
is therefore
dependent on
the contents
of the video display.
A normal
TV receiver
picking
up
the
interference
signal
from a VDU will reproduce
the displayed
information
on its own screen,
if
synchronization
signals
are provided to the TV
receiver.
This may lead to
a rather
annoying
type
of
when
interference
TV
reception,
in
synchronization
information
is already received
from
a broadcast
TV signal.
This phenomenon
may also lead
to
unwanted
reconstruction
of
or
privacy-sensitive
information
confidential
at a large distance
from the VDU.
If
the
narrowband
components
and
the
broadband
components
in the radiated
emission
mentioned
above
are
are coherent the effects
more severe and the detection
by a TV receiver
cannot be prevented adequately
by shielding
the
video processing
circuitry
in the VDU only.

Reference
Papoulis,
A. :
and stochastic

Probability,
random
processes,
McGraw-Hill,

variables
1965.

OVERVOLTAGE

629

115

PROTECTION

S6

CIRCUITS

W. Biichler
Meteolabor
8620

Wetzikon,

This
paper
deals
with
protection
measures
against
overvoltages
in electrical
conductors
resulting
from NEMP or lightning.
Measurements
recorded
for discharge
elements
and protection
circuits
under NEMP conditions
will be presented in addition
principles.

to

generally

applicable

Switzerland

During the first phase the discharge

element
is converted
from
a high impedance
condition
to a low impedance
condition.
This is purely
and simply
a voltage
problem.
Important
parameters are: du/dtmax,
umax
and
lu - dt.

basic
of

Overvoltage
given

to

the

protection
following

circuits

is the

combinations

name

of primary

and secondary
protection
elements
which have at
least one longitudinal
element
for de-coupling
various
voltage-limiting
elements.
The scope
of this paper is limited
to arrangements
which
as far as possible
are universally
applicable.
Basic

principles

Protection
conductors

of overvoltage

against

overvoltage

is achieved

the

parameters
are:
sibly li2qdt.

di/dtmax,

Requirements

of

overvoltages

imax,

not

time

during

destroyed

appreciably
Residual

which
and

/i .d,t and

for discharge

in electrical
by dischar-

phase
does current
to flow.
Important

Discharge
elements
are
to the following
criteria:

as
the

elements

assessed

1:

are

is
not

changed.

voltage

clear
Data on the maximum
energy absorption
capadity
(J) are not useful criteria
as it is not

to absorb energy,
rather to prevent
its conduction, i.e. to reflect
it. The ideal protective
element
(short circuit)
absorbs no energy whatsoever.

is

made

between

two

phases

,max

I
I

Fig.

function
element

values

most

important

task

of a protective

Equally
useless
are certain
data
over delays'
by protective
elements.

according

certain

discharge

its electrical

pos-

The voltage across the discharge

element during each phase of the overvoltage
to be expected.

the

second
begin

I).

differentiation
(fig.

of

during
the
significance

Discharge
capacity
The
flow of current

in principle

discharge

Only
any

protection

ging
energy
pulses
to chassis
(Faraday
cage)
and
ultimately
to earth.
Discharge
elements
such as gas-filled
surge protectors,
varistors,
protective
diodes
etc. are used for this purpose.
In

AG

Voltage

protector

and

imax

flow

'spark-

The manufacturers
of protective
diodes
often
give a
switching
time
of less than IO-12
seconds.
This value
applies
only to the semiconductor
chip.
Zt has practically
no significance
for a
protective
element as a whole.

2.Phase

current

on

element

in

a gas-filled

surge

In many practical
applications
the protec-"
tive value of a discharge
element
is not detkrmined by the theoretical
characteristics
of the
element,
rather
by the skill with which it is
installed.
Therefore
one should
pay as much
attention
to this aspect as to the evaluatian,
of a component.

630

discharge
manufacturers
of
Unfortunately
elements
issue little or no useful data on the
performance
of their products
under NEMP condi-

- Each
ways

manufacturer's
230V surge protector
alhad the lowest
dynamic
sparkover
vol90V
or
900V
surge
protectors
have
tage.
higher

tions, i.e. with extremely

high du/dtanddi/dt.
In order to rectify this situation
we have carried out tests on the dynamicsparkover
filled surge protectors.

of gas-

- The

values.
dynamic

after

sparkover

powerful

voltage

discharge

in

attenuates

the

specified

range.
Gas-filled

surge protectors

under NEMP conditions

- Gas-filled

minimum
Make

Fig.

2:

Coaxial

pulse

voltage

for

generator

a du/dt of

4kV/ns

A
sure

coaxial
was

specimen
to

spark

used
the

maximum

as

gap

under

switching

sparkover
steepness

normal
gap.

voltage
du/dt

gap

On

air
the

prestest

in a voltage

protectors

values

lay

do

between

Specif.

discharge

cap.

(8/20)

kA

not

always

Table 1: Dynamic

sparkover

__-

covering
dard

range

60

1.4kV

and

3.7kV.

Sparkover
voltage
max.
X
min.

(kV)

1.4
2.0
2.1

0.24
0.14

10
20
IO

II
III

was adjusted

of 2-3kV. A commercially
available
coaxial holder was used for the test specimen.
The bandwidth was 400MHz
which is equal to a rise time
of approximately
0.9ns. Fig. 3 shows a typical
voltage curve for a particularly
high sparkover
level,

surge

sparkover
at the same voltage
under
uniform
test conditions
(this depends
on the momentary
ionization
level of the gas).
Table
1
shows
the
results
of 60 dynamic
sparkovers
using
230V
surge
protectors.
Maximum
and

The dynamic
sparkover
voltage
was measured
in the test arrangement
shown in fig. 2.

2.3
2.5
3.7

voltage

sparkovers.

range
X:

1.8
2.4
3.1
(du/dt

mean

0.32
=

value,

4kV/ns)
s:

stan-

fluctuation.

The most important

finding
of this investithat
gas-filled
surge
protectors
gation
was
have
an extremely
rapid sparkover
under NEMP
conditions.
The
remng
dynamic
sparkover
voltages
lie within
a range which, as regards
insulation,
pose no difficulties.
Although
the
dynamic
sparkover
voltage
is higher
than the
static
sparkover
voltage
(23OV) by more than
a
factor
of ten,
the
voltage-time
integral
across
the surge
protector
(and therefore
the
residual
side

energy

when

which

voltage

smaller
than
lightning).

with

Overvoltage
Overvoltage

Fig.

3:

Voltage

small

curve

div.,

t:

for

9ov

Ins/small

surge

protector. u: 5oov/

div.

principle

makes in detail,
as follows:

the

results

can be summarized

protected
- NEMP)

overvoltages

protection
-

protection

of such

is

(e.g.

circuits

circuits

are a combi-

coerse
protection

Fig.

of

The longitudinal

to

Ooutput

4: De-coupling

rent through
and enables

an arrangement.

ZL

input 0

di/dt
value

Altogether
110 specimens
from three ceramic
8x8mm
series
(static
sparkover
voltage:
9OV,
23OV, 9OOV) from three different
manufacturers
were
tested.
Between
the
initial
and
final
sparkover
tests,
pulse tests
were carried
out
which loaded the surge protectors at the highest
discharge
impulse
current
specified
by
the
manufacturers.
Without
examining
the individual

slower

the

rapidly

nation of primary
(coarse) and secondary
(fine)
protection
elements.
Fig. 4 showstheinvariable

A voltage
rise and drop
of approximately
4kV/ns was recorded.
We can assume that with
a
higher
bandwidth
a
somewhat
higher
peak
voltage
would
have
been measured. The second,
smaller
pulse
is due to the inductive
voltage
drop at the surge protector.
The maximum
recorded
here was over lOOkA/vs;
the peak
f at 300A.

reaches

increases

primary

and

element

fine
protection

secondary

protection

2~ limits

the

cur-

the secondary
protection
element
the increase
in input voltage
up

sparkover,ifa
gas-filled
used at the input.

surge

protector

is

Fig.
5 shows
the equivalent
circuit
for a
protective
circuit with a 9.1V protective
diode
of the 1.5kW type in conductive
condition.

631

115
These

components

are

designed

units
in a Faraday
cage which
tion protection.
The protected
sides

are

Secondary
Bipolar

thus

optimally

5:

Equivalent
9.1V

circuit

protective

LL largely

of

diode

a
in

protection:
protective

circuit

conductive

diode

with

fail-safe

Secondary
Capacitor

RL

must

than
be

the

at

frequency

inductance

least

of the

so large

that

table

protection:

.
Q-d

unprotected
0
1

diode.

even

protected
0
1

23ovprotector

with

a slow increase
in input voltage the protective
diode
is not destroyed
up to just below
the
static sparkover
voltage of the surgeprotector.
Normally,
RL is designed
for a pulse of I-IOms
The
time-to-half-width
value
of a
duration.
(see
lightning
current
is approximately
Ims
also

protected

condition

high

Fig.

7: Diagrams
wiring

to

show

diagrams

Dstand

off Ppeak
(Ims)

90V

a bipolar

RL min
surge
230V

protectors
n

6.63
12.9

2.1
3.6
6.5
0.83
1.45

surge

protectors
n

26.8
6.63
12.9

600
600
600
1500
1500

IN6051

26.8

1500

2.6

7.5

5KP7.0

7.0
13.0

5000

5KP13

0.22
0.40

0.58
1.1

5KP28

28.0

0.69

2.1

various

5000
5000

longitudinal

2: Minimum

primary

NEMP

protection

Fig.

tection

some

principle

commercial

and

block

protection

cir-

2).

P6KE8.2
PbKE16
P6KE33
IN6037
IN6044

Table

operating

of

cuits

Diode-versions
Prot.
diode

characteristic

;3J"

be-

larger

the

with

haviour of the protection

circuit and above all
the
inductive
voltage
drop at the protective
diode.
At the highest
frequencies
(50-IOOMHz)
attenuation
is achieved
by voltage
division
between
LL and LF.
LL must be at least 1000
times

determines

protection

as feed-through
provides
radiaand unprotected

de-coupled.

unprotected

Fig

S6

shows

circuit

and

resistances
secondary

circuits
a

for

3.9

using

RLmin

protection

for signal

commercial

5.3
9.6
18.7
2.1

elements

lines

single-wire

universal

application

pro[I],

ting

(6/12/24V,

protective

voltage

diode

of +6.6V,

see

fig.

7)

for a maximum

+12.9V,

+26.8V

have

operaas

re-

quired.
These models are designed
for the protection
of signal
inputs
and outputs
without
For inputs
and outputs
electrical
isolation.
with
electrical
isolation
the protection
circuit with capacitor
output
(C-type)
is recommended.
The
low-pass
cut-off
frequency
(3db
drop) lies at approximately
18OkHz.
Because
of
the large gap between
the probable
useful frefrequency
range) and
quency
range
(e.g. voice
the cut-off
frequency,
the protection
circuit
has

no

useful
circuit

influence

on

line

termination

frequency
range.
Thus
the
is universally
applicable.

in

the

protection

Fig. 8 shows the internal

construction
of a
12V
(diode-type)
protection
circuit.
The protected
and unprotected
sides
are ideally
decoupled by the earth plate. Even with discharge
currents
of more than 50kA (waveform
8/20) no
uncontrollable
tected

Faraday

side.
cage

voltage

surges

The radiation
is not affected

occur

on the

attenuation
by installing

pro-

of

such

a component.
surge protector

younding

disk
cted

case
Fig.

6:

Internal
protected

Fig.

6:

Protection

circuit

(series

USSl)

coupled.

construction
and

of

unprotected

protection
sides

are

circuit.

The

ideally

de-

632

9 shows
the frequency
response
curve
Fig.
(50Q
insertion
transmission
loss) of a C-type
protection
circuit.
The uniform
curve over the
whole
cut-off
range is due to the good shielding between
the input and output, the low parallel capacitance
of the impedance
coil.

In both

With

slow

voltages

traces

of really

high

put

voltage
rates-of-rise
in general
higher.

are

circuit
OdE

cases

frequen-

cy voltages
at the outputs were practically
imperceptible
(the upper cut-off frequency
of the
oscillographs
was 400MHz).

this

not

can

in the

connected

approximately

worst

to

earth)

the
With

case
attain

output
C-type

(filter

out-

a value

of

550V.

[VI
600
50dE

500
400
300

lo-500MHz

200
100
OdB

n
1

"0
Fig.

11:

C-type
du/dt

With
50dB

input

5051

insertion

type

protection

Fig.

10

set-up
Fig.

transmission

shows

conditions.

It

to that

output

of

voltage

5
for

loss

of

a commercial

C-

circuit

the
was

shown

output
measured
in fig.

voltage

under

NEMP

in a similar

test

2.

WI

different

input

of

the

less

low-pass

unhindered.

The

than

25OV/vs

filter

output

the

can

pass

voltage

peak

value is equal to the dynamic sparkover

of the gas-filled
surge protector.

0,5-2,4GHz

9:

the

rates-of-rise
signal

practically

Fig.

circuit,
at

voltage

With models
using diodes the output voltage
can, in the worst case, attain twice the maximum permissible
operating
voltage.
If voltage
increases
slowly to just below sparkover
of the
surge
jected

protector

the

to the

greatest

protective

diodes

are

sub-

stress.

The
discharge
capacity
of these
types
of
protection
circuit
is 25kA
(waveform
8/2Ops).
With a single pulse of 40kA (waveform
8/2Ops),
lasting
changes
to data
can arise,
although
basic operation
(normal operation
and switching
functions)
is not affected.

10a

Conclusion

Fig.

Gas-filled
surge protectors
are highly
suitable as primary protection
elements
even under
NEMP conditions.
Unlike
previous
concepts
with
separately
mounted
surge
protectors
and filmodern
protection
circuits
in
which
ters,
coarse-protection,de-coupling
and fine-protec-

lob

tion are optimally

adjusted
to each
combined
in a mechanical
unit, permit
petitively-priced

and

space-saving

other and
more comsolutions.

Bibliography

under

Fig.

voltage

output

Fig.:

lob:

output

NEMP

voltage

conditions

for

diode-type

(24V)

circuit

conditions

for

C-type

circuit

under

NEMP

Biichler,
W.
Bosshard:
"Blitzschutz
elektronischer
Get-ate und Anlagen",
Eigenverlag Meteolabor
AG, 8620 Wetzikon

[II

w.

[2]

Meteolabor
AG: "UeberspannungsDatenblstter
spannungsschutz",
Schutzschaltungen

und Starkauflicher

633

116 ST

Iteratlve InterferenceCompensator Simulation for the Division

of TWO FM Sisnals
Bykhovaky,M.A., Gurianov,G.G.
Ministerstvo avjazi SSSR, Mogkva, SSSR

Abstract
The results of computer simulation
study of phyrsicalprocesses taking
place Sn the iterative interference
canceller (IIC) are reported. The
canceller irrdescribed and arimulation
resulta are given in the form of
threahold CUTVC(J.The data obtained
prove8 an IIC capability to separate
reliably two FM signalersharing the
aame bandwidth.
Introduction
The development of devicea for
separating two 'FMsignal8 sharing a
common bandwidth would significantly
improve electromagnetic compatibility
(EXC) of the existing FM communication
Prystems[I and lead to novel communication ayai ems transmitting two FM
signalerover a common bandwidth with
high noise immunity retained. Iterative interference canceller is one of
much promising devioos. The theoretical investigation at S/N exceeding
the IIC threslholdlevel iarpresented
in 12 . The theoretical analyaim of
the I4C operation near a threahold
area is rather complicated, and because of thiar,the computer simulation
of phylricalprocearee occurring in IIC
waa chosen for our study. This method
is very attractive, Princeit provide@
a complete analysis of the IIC operation near and above a threlrholdlevel.
IIC Description
A block-diagram of the IIC under
study is ahom in Fig.1. The canceller
includea a number of iteration atepa.
Two demodulatora of the 1-th step,
DW
and DEM21, extraot merxrages
and weak FM signalar.
from?atrong

has two outputs, a desired

extracted at the low
mesaage
frequency (LF) output, while an FM
signal replica paaaringto the next
DJ3M irrextracted at the high
fre$&@noy (HF) output.
may be realized on the
basfa &$ any of the conventional FM
demodulators. Its block-diagram,
(l?ig.l),includes a limiter (LIM),
a frequency discriminator (FD), a
low-paisla
filter (LPF) and a voltagecontrolled oarcillator(VCO) uaed in
tandem. The IIC delay line (DL)
HF output
provides at the DEM
equalization of l?b!
Qgnal replica
delays resulting from LPF with rerrpeot
to FM &gnaln coming to the IIC input
and to the input of the next aubtracter, where an interfering FM aignal ir cancelled.

Each
Dmi;S

Simulation alnorithm
Basic relationship which are neC)e#aary for the IIC lemulation are given
below. A arignalat the IIC input h'arr
the form
W(t)=Im(A,exp[j(U,t+a,+Y,))+
A2eXP[j(W2t+a2+~2)]+n(t)exp(jqt~],(1)

A rsignslat the FD output of DEMil

is dencribed by
(2)
where y (t) isre distortion of
phase of e&tracted signal, which ia
due to an interfering FM eignal and
noise.
The voltage at the VCO output af
DEMil ia a# followr

- 634

W~~ft)=Im(Aiexp[j(Wit+ai+Q_+
9;r +Eil)l) 9

wherenW=W2-U,, k=A2/A,< 1,
(3)

where &.- linear distortionn of

mesaage& at the LPI?output, which
3 e negligible, when it% parameters
arc properly chosen; E - the renult
of filtering '#' (t) inithe LPI?.
According d?(1)-(3), yi,(t> ie
determined by
y,,(t)=Im[ln[l+k exp[j(&.&+ti+&ti]
+

Y/2l(t)"Im(ln{l~

(4)
l

[-j2Sin $!z$exp[-j(AS+Aq- q,J3+

Aa=a2al,

Av=(P2 -$$

When simulating the IIC operation,

all physical procesreesare arimulated
by the use of software. Sampler from
a (t) and n(t) were obtained by mean8
of faat Fourier transformation on the
ba&s of frequenoy samples obtained
according to energy srpectrumform.
y/ (t) filtering (the calculation
ofi&l(tN may be suitably written akl

w&re F(f), F"(fj-- direct and

inverse PO ier transformationa of f
function;+"TD(w)f=H(U)D(@) - filtering
of a procearawith D(w) spectrum by
LPF with frequency reaponne H(U).
According to (51, filtering rsimulation
may be represented by the following
aeauenoe of calculationa of:
1)"a file ofyil(t) samplea calculated
bs (411

2)

3)

ted by a formula S (w)=H(W)$,(eJ);

4) a file of c. (t> samples calculated using f&&,Fourier transformation Eil' _F {S&)j.
A FORTRAN-program for simulating
the IIC operation was developed on
the basis of (4)-(5).
The algorithm
takes account for changes in the
following parameters:
I) message bandwidth ai(fbi;
21 effective index of &d modulation mj,;
shift of central frequencies
3)
between FM signals -AN;
4) ratio between signal amplitudes k;
5) ratio between power of the l-at
PM signal and noise power in fbi
bandwidth - p.
Provisions for variations in LPF
frequency response are also made.
The validity of simulating physical processes in IIC by means of the
developed algorithm was confirmed by
the comparison of an average value
of threshold pulses at the DEM,, output when receiving a single FM signal, with theoretical data calculated
by the Rice equation, which is known
to have a good agreement with experimental data.

I.*.._..___

635

116 ST

Simulation results
The program developed was used to
obtain the relationship,E. (p),
between a mean power of in?.&modulation product, resulting from the
evaluation of the i-th signal at the
LF output of the IIC 1-th step and
S/N-p at the IIC input. The dependence, &. (p), agrees well with the
theoretic&& results at the area above
the threshold level (21.
naln and IIC. Fig 2 presents this
dependence for the case of an ideal
LPI?,in IIC,when f =fb2, m,=m2,
Fig.2, that
kxO.1. It is meen &om
the separation of two FM signals
takes place,when p>pn . The value
ofp, may be called a threshold for
IIC. The analysis of curves for
strong FM signals reveals that from
the second step of iteration there
are two values of p (p,, pn; with
), above which the signal rec&$8$% is markedly improved.
This results from reaching a
threshold in the first (p,) and in
the second (p ),frequency discriminator, It may b& shown, that the IIC
threshold may be estimated by the
following approximation formulae,(dB)

636 -

P=-20

lg k -I10+15, when k (0.5

, when k)0.5
Pn =-20 lg(l-k)
This estimation is supported by
the curves of the figures presented.
Fig.2 show&that extraction of
desired messages in XIC becomes
greatly improved (by lo+15 dl3)at
p>>l, when l-2, rather than l=l.
However, the use of l--3instead of
1~2 does not significantly increase
noise immunity at the mentioned
values ofp . This results from the
fact, that after the second step of
iteration, the level of interfering
signals
is lower than the level of
thermal noise. Because of this, at
the subsequent steps of iteration the
;;;;z $&lo;;;;
$;i~~;;~;o;Yb~e
reduced by increasing the number of
iteration steps. Consequently, an
additional step of iteration is effieient,only if at its input the level
of an interfering signal is higher
than that of thermal noise.
Simulation results reveal an improvement in the IX! noise immunity
at p>>l and rise in m. This is conditioned by the widening of the
bandwidth occupied byY/. (t). If the
L3?Fpassband ia fixed, %&en this
leads to 3
reduction.
SimulHtion of IIC at ml=ms=md
has shown that two FM signa s
not be separated at any modulation
indices, but only if mb2.5. When
m<2.5, the aeparation of two FM signals does not occur in IIC.

It is interesting to note, that

simulation results revealed the possibility of separating two FM signals
of approximately the same levels
(ksO.99, Fig.3).
It follows from Figa. and 3, that
when extracting a strong l?Msignal,
IIC may provide a significant gain in
noise power which is equal to IO-30
dB.
Conclusion
The results given above prove a
significant potential of IIC to separate reliably two FM signals. This
opens the way for enhancement in EMC
of FM communication systems as well
in their capacity without widening
a common bandwidth.
References
Bykhovsky M.A.: Odnokanalnie
kompensatori pomekh v aistemakh
svyazi. (Single-channel Intcrference cancellers used in Communication Systems), Radiotekhnika,
No.11, 1981
Bykhoveky,Y.A.: Razdelenie dvukh
ChM signalov
8~ pomorrh.iu
iterazionnogo kompensatora; (Separation of two FM Signals by means
of Iterative Interference Canceller), NIIR papers, No.2, 1982