Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
126
Downloaded from http://jmk.sagepub.com at CALIF STATE UNIV LONG BEACH on May 11, 2007
2007 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.
JOURNAL OF MACROMARKETING
25
127
50
45
40
15
Population (%)
Population (%)
20
10
35
30
25
20
15
10
0
Global
Least
developed
countries
Developing
countries
Overweight
Economies
in transition
Developed
countries
Underweight
FIGURE 1
OVERWEIGHT RATES AND LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT
SOURCE: Food and Agriculture Organization (2002)
5
0
Middle
East and
North Africa
CEE/CIS
Sub-Saharan
Latin
Africa
America
and Caribbean
South Asia
FIGURE 2
programs may forestall the far worse problems that the rich
nations are now experiencing. Two additional objectives, therefore, are to show how food companies might help by adhering
to the ethical standards inherent in marketing principles and to
present and assess alternative public interventions and new
social marketing strategies in developing countries. These ethical, public policy, and social marketing issues will be examined
following the description of the macromodel in Figure 3.
DEVELOPMENT PROCESSES AND THE
ENERGY EQUATION
Less Strenuous Manual Labor
Development entails processes of economic and social
change that affect both sides of the energy equation. As
economies grow and countries move up the development
ladder, their jobs typically require less physical energy.
Human toil becomes more productive through the introduction of capital goods or, in the case of trade liberalization,
through specialization. In agriculture the need for exhausting labor declines because of mechanization and the substitution of local production by imported foods. Indeed food
imports sometimes make subsistence livelihoods untenable
and, like the diffusion of new technologies, result in surplus
labor. Some of these displaced workers may end up as day
laborers in fields such as construction, whereas others move
into factory jobs, and still others find work in occupations
such as transportation or the hospitality industry.
At the same time, jobs in the manufacturing and service
sectors may themselves become less physically demanding
as labor-saving capital equipment and information technology are introduced, often by foreign investors. The new
types of work that accompany development may not be
Downloaded from http://jmk.sagepub.com at CALIF STATE UNIV LONG BEACH on May 11, 2007
2007 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.
128
JUNE 2007
FIGURE 3
Downloaded from http://jmk.sagepub.com at CALIF STATE UNIV LONG BEACH on May 11, 2007
2007 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.
JOURNAL OF MACROMARKETING
129
Downloaded from http://jmk.sagepub.com at CALIF STATE UNIV LONG BEACH on May 11, 2007
2007 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.
130
JUNE 2007
cost far less but can take days to prepare. An eighty-fivegram package of noodles contains 385 calories and 14.5
grams of fat versus 145 calories and 4.4 grams of fat for an
equally sized portion of rice and beans (Dickerson 2005).
Downloaded from http://jmk.sagepub.com at CALIF STATE UNIV LONG BEACH on May 11, 2007
2007 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.
JOURNAL OF MACROMARKETING
131
Downloaded from http://jmk.sagepub.com at CALIF STATE UNIV LONG BEACH on May 11, 2007
2007 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.
132
JUNE 2007
Downloaded from http://jmk.sagepub.com at CALIF STATE UNIV LONG BEACH on May 11, 2007
2007 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.
JOURNAL OF MACROMARKETING
133
Downloaded from http://jmk.sagepub.com at CALIF STATE UNIV LONG BEACH on May 11, 2007
2007 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.
134
JUNE 2007
Microsettings include local markets and food service outlets, whereas macroenvironments consist of food production, processing, distribution, and marketing systems. The
authors pilot-tested this 2 X 4 framework on Pacific Island
communities and in New Zealand and found it a flexible
and robust instrument for the needs analysis and problem
identification stages of reducing the obesogenicity of modern environments (p. 563). This model appears capable of
scalability, the ability to transport successful programs or
program elements across developing countries, cultures, and
languages (Prahalad 2004, 25).
The following are three broad goals, as well as some
strategic recommendations, for dealing with the problem of
obesity in developing countries:
1. Create awareness of health risks. People in the less affluent
world too often have a poor understanding of the connection
between obesity and chronic illness. Customarily foods have
been perceived as more beneficial (nutritional, hedonic) than
risky, and in any event, the harms related to excess weight are
long deferred from the moment of consumption choice
(Seiders and Petty 2004). In the South Pacific, being big has
been a symbol of health, well-being, status, and beauty, and
therefore larger bodies have been viewed favorably (Gill et al.
2002). Pacific Islanders need to be taught the difference
between size because of muscularity and size resulting from
flabbiness. Similar misconceptions may be present in other
societies (Watson 2000). Among Mauritanian Arabs, fat
women traditionally have been seen as more desirable, and to
achieve this end, girls are still sometimes force-fed (BBC
2004). Further research on various market segments within
and across nations will be needed to provide the cultural
understanding necessary for crafting and placing appropriate
messages. For example, it may not be necessary to target
elites in some developing nations, such as Brazil, who seem
as averse to large bodies as their counterparts in rich countries.
2. Increase energy expenditure. Populations enjoying the economic benefits of development must be reminded that an
active lifestyle is conducive to good health. The preference for
convenience, the law of least effort (Wansink and Huckabee
2005), may be universal. Younger adults and children who
are experiencing a middle-class lifestyle may need to
become less sedentary perhaps, like their rich nation counterparts, by watching less television and playing fewer computer games. This is always easier said than done. Children
are difficult to motivate, and urban parks and streets in
developing countries may not be safe places for them to
keep fit. Women who desire to control their weight may face
additional hurdles. For example, some may live in maledominated societies that forcefully restrict their ability to
move about outside the home. Even in places where these
social and cultural barriers are less daunting, people may not
have the financial resources to indulge in interesting physical activities. Finding ways to facilitate this behavior change
will be a major challenge for social marketing.
3. Decrease energy intake. Not only is the human appetite for
fats, salts, and sugars deeply ingrained biologically (Wansink
and Huckabee 2005), but dietary habits are a central element
CONCLUSION
Obesity in the less affluent world is indeed a health problem too big to ignore. Ironically it has to a great extent
resulted from improved prosperity. With economic development, manual work has become less physically demanding,
discretionary incomes have risen, and men and women have
sought opportunities in big cities where they have become less
active and have had more opportunities to eat energy-rich
foods. Genetic predispositions and early life undernutrition
have added another layer of causes. Finally the rampant economic liberalization and globalization of the past quarter
century have enabled food marketers to introduce a great
variety of new products, distribute them widely, price them
reasonably, adapt them to local cultures, and promote them
to the most responsive target audiences, especially children.
Few would disagree that the food industry shows more
virtue than tobacco companies, but everyday food marketing
mix decisions ultimately may have equally serious consequences for the health of hundreds of millions of consumers
worldwide. Despite several justifications for a laissez faire
position inherent in marketing management theory, ethical
analysis based on these same principles indicates that food
companies should accept some responsibility for informing
Downloaded from http://jmk.sagepub.com at CALIF STATE UNIV LONG BEACH on May 11, 2007
2007 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.
JOURNAL OF MACROMARKETING
REFERENCES
Adler, Carlye. 2003. Colonel Sanders march on China. Time Asia
Magazine, November 17. http://www.time.com/time/asia/magazine/
printout/0,13675,501031124543845,00.html (accessed May 4, 2006).
Alon, Ilan. 2004. Global franchising and development in emerging and transitioning markets. Journal of Macromarketing 24 (December): 156167.
Associated Press. 2006. Dont blame big gulp for Americas obesity.
MSNBC.com, March 19. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/11823972
(accessed May 4, 2006)
Baier, Leslie J. and Robert L. Hanson. 2004. Genetic studies of the etiology
of Type 2 diabetes in Pima Indians: Hunting for pieces to a complicated
puzzle. Diabetes 53 (May): 1181-86.
BBC. 2000. West exports obesity to developing world. BBC News Online,
September 26. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/943783.stm (accessed
May 4, 2006).
______. 2001. Pacific islanders are worlds fattest. BBC News Online,
November 28. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1681297.stm
(accessed May 4, 2006).
______. 2004. Mauritanias wife-fattening farm. BBC News Online,
January 26. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3429903.stm
(accessed May 4, 2006).
Belk, Russell W. 1993. Third world tourism: Panacea or poison? The case
of Nepal. Journal of International Consumer Marketing 5 (1): 27-68.
Bone, Paula Fitzgerald and Karen Russo France. 2003. International harmonization of food and nutrition regulation: The good and the bad.
Journal of Public Policy & Marketing 22 (Spring): 102-10.
Boudreaux, Richard. 2004. Mexicans living in one of the fattest of the
lands. Los Angeles Times, May 20, A5.
Bowman, Shanty A., Steven L. Gortmaker, Cara B. Ebbeling, Mark A.
Pereira, and David S. Ludwig. 2004. Effects of fast-food consumption
on energy intake and diet quality among children in a national household survey. Pediatrics 113 (January): 112-18.
Brenkert, George G. 2002. Ethical challenges of social marketing. Journal
of Public Policy & Marketing 21 (Spring): 14-25.
Burslem, Chris. 2004. The changing face of malnutrition. IFPRI Forum
(International Food Policy Research Institute) (October): 1, 9-12.
Caballero, Benjamin. 2001. Introduction. In Obesity in developing countries: Biological and ecological factors: Proceedings of experimental
135
biology 2000, edited by Benjamin Caballero and Najat Mokhtar, supplement to Journal of Nutrition 131: 866S-870S.
Campos, Paul, Abigail Saguy, Paul Ernsberger, Eric Oliver, and Gleen Gaesser.
2006. The epidemiology of overweight and obesity: Public health crisis or
moral panic? International Journal of Epidemiology 35 (February): 55-60.
Cateora, Philip R. and John L. Graham. 2005. International marketing,
12th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Cavanagh, John and Jerry Mander, eds. 2002. Alternatives to economic globalization: A better world is possible. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler
Publishers.
Cawley, John. 2006. Markets and childhood obesity policy. The Future of
Children 16 (Spring): 69-88.
Consumers International. 1999. Easy targets: A survey of television food and
toy advertising to children in Central Europe. A report by the
Programme for Developed Economies and Economies in Transition
(October). Available via publications link at www.consumersinternational.org (accessed May 4, 2006).
______. 2004. Regulate television food advertisements aimed at children,
press release, May 14. Available via press and news archive link at
www.consumersinternational.org (May 4, 2006).
Czinkota, Michael R. and Ilkka A. Ronkainen. 2004. International marketing, 7th ed. Mason, OH: South-Western.
de Soto, Hernando. 2000. The mystery of capital: Why capitalism triumphs
in the West and fails everywhere else. New York: Basic Books.
Dholakia, Rub Roy. 1984. A macromarketing perspective on social marketing: The case of family planning in India. Journal of Macromarketing 4
(Spring): 53-61.
______ and Nihilesh Dholakia. 2001. Social marketing and development.
In Handbook of marketing and society, edited by Paul N. Bloom and
Gregory T. Gundlach, 486-505. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Dickerson, Marla. 2005. Steeped in a new tradition. Los Angeles Times,
October 21, A1, A31.
Drewnowski, Adam and Barry M. Popkin. 1997. The nutrition transition:
New trends in the global diet. Nutrition Reviews 55 (February): 31-43.
Eckhardt, Giana M. and Michael J. Houston. 1998. Consumption as selfpresentation in a collectivist society. In Asia Pacific advances in consumer research, vol. 4, Frank R. Kardes and Mita Sujan, 52-8. Provo,
UT: Association for Consumer Research.
______ and ______ . 2001. To own your grandfathers spirit: The nature of
possessions and their meaning in China. In Asia Pacific advances in
consumer research, vol. 4, Frank R. Kardes and Mita Sujan, 251-57.
Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research.
The Economist. 2003. Spoilt for choice: A survey of food. (December 13):
1-18.
Food and Agriculture Organization. 2002. The developing worlds new burden: Obesity, food and agriculture organization of the United Nations.
http://www.fao.org/FOCUS/E/obesity/obes1.htm (accessed May 4, 2006).
Fezeu, Leopold, Etienne Minkoulou, Beverley Balkau, Andr-Pascal
Kengne, Paschal Awah, Nigel Unwin, George KMM Alberti, and JeanClaude Mbanya. 2006. Association between socioeconomic status and
adiposity in urban Cameroon. International Journal of Epidemiology
35 (February): 105-11.
Fox, Karen F. and Philip Kotler. 1980. The marketing of social causes: The
first 10 years. Journal of Marketing 44 (Fall): 24-33.
Frisancho, A. Roberto. 2003. Reduced rate of fat oxidation: A metabolic
pathway to obesity in developing nations. American Journal of Human
Biology 15 (July/August): 522-32.
Ger, Guliz. 1992. The positive and negative effects of marketing on socioeconomic development: The Turkish case. Journal of Consumer Policy
15: 229-54.
______. 1997. Human development and humane consumption: Well-being
beyond the good life. Journal of Public Policy and Marketing 16
(Spring): 110-15.
______ and Russell W. Belk. 1996. Id like to buy the world a coke:
Consumptionscapes of the less affluent world. Journal of Consumer
Policy 19: 271-304.
Downloaded from http://jmk.sagepub.com at CALIF STATE UNIV LONG BEACH on May 11, 2007
2007 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.
136
JUNE 2007
Downloaded from http://jmk.sagepub.com at CALIF STATE UNIV LONG BEACH on May 11, 2007
2007 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.
JOURNAL OF MACROMARKETING
Yuhua, Guo. 2000. Family relations: The generation gap at the table. In
Feeding Chinas little emperors: Food, children, and social change,
edited by Jun Jing, 94-113. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Yum! Brands, Inc. 2005. A world of Yum! 2005 annual customer mania
report. Louisville, KY: Author.
137
Downloaded from http://jmk.sagepub.com at CALIF STATE UNIV LONG BEACH on May 11, 2007
2007 SAGE Publications. All rights reserved. Not for commercial use or unauthorized distribution.