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Introduction to Woodturning
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INTRODUCTION TO WOODTURNING
Some comments
These documents take the form of a book. They can be read on screen but it will
probably be easier to print them out and file the pages in a four ring binder. They can
be downloaded in Portable Document Format (ie pdf files, see Home page) for
printing.
At present 15 chapters have been installed. More will be added as time goes on.
Subjects still to be covered include the following:
Some simple exercises in spindle turning

Bowl turning
The gender issue

Please see my remarks on the the question of gender in the general introduction to this
site.
Copyright notice
Before making use of these files please read the copyright notice. Failure to read this
notice does not exempt the user from the conditions of use.
Contents
Chapter 1: Learning to turn
Chapter 2: The workshop and equipment
Chapter 3: The tools
Chapter 4: Sharpening tools
Chapter 5: Safety
Chapter 6: Making the cut
Chapter 7: The effect of grain and other factors on the cut
Chapter 8: Introduction to spindle turning
Chapter 9: Spindle turning - setting up for practice
Chapter 10: Spindle turning - roughing down
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Chapter 11: Spindle turning - the planing cut

Chapter 12: The 'V' cut
Chapter 13: Cutting a bead
Chapter 14: Cutting a cove
Chapter 15: Chapter 15: Spindle turning - the final cuts
Contents in detail
1.1 The art of woodturning
1.2 The learning curve
1.3 Developing skills
1.4 The basic principles
1.5 The pleasure of woodturning
2.1 The workshop
2.2 Moving equipment
2.3 A separate workshop
2.4 The electricity supply
2.5 The equipment
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Scrapers
3.3 Chisels
3.4 Parting tools
3.5 Bowl gouges
3.6 Spindle gouges
3.7 Roughing-out gouges
3.8 Interchangeability of gouges
3.9 The different types of steel
3.10 The form of the bevel
3.11 The minimum kit of tools
4.1 The grinder
4.2 The type of wheel

4.3 Dressing the wheel
4.4 Using the grinder
4.5 Overheating the tool
4.6 To hone or not to hone
4.7 Safety
Chapter 5: Safety
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Clothing
5.3 Hair
5.4 Eyes
5.5 Wood dust and toxicity
5.6 Noise
5.7 Physical fitness
5.8 Guards
5.9 Turning speeds
5.10 Checking the work-piece
5.11 Adjustment of the tool rest
5.12 Polishing
5.13 Precautions against a dig-in
5.14 Use of the correct tools
5.15 The use of other machinery
5.16 A clear floor space
5.17 Fire
5.18 Conclusion
6.1 General introduction
6.2The correct stance
6.3 The grip
6.4 Controlling the cut
6.5 Problems caused by a badly sharpened tool
6.6 The concept of the rubbing bevel
Chapter 7: Grain and other factors relating to the cut
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The concept of grain
7.3 Cutting along the grain
7.4 Cutting end grain

7.5 Cutting across the grain
7.6: The way the work is held on the lathe and the terminology
7.7 The implications of rotation
7.8 The slicing cut
8.1 The basic cuts
8.2 Roughing down
8.3 The planing cut
8.4 The 'V' cut
8.5 The bead
8.6 The cove
8.7 Blending beads and coves
8.8 Squaring the end
8.9 Rounding the end
8.10 The pummel
9.1 The blank
9.2 Mounting the blank
9.3 The rest
9.4 Turning speeds
10.1 Setting up
10.2 Preliminary exercise
10.3 Making the cut
10.4 Repeating the cut
10.5 The sequence of operations
10.6 The direction of the cut
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The chisel
11.3 The attitude of the chisel
11.4 The cutting point
11.5 Preliminary exercises
11.6 Trying out the cut
11.7 Possible problems
11.8 Spiral ribbing

12.1 Introduction
12.2 The swing cut
12.3 Points to note
12.4 Summary of points to watch
12.5 The push method
12.6 A comparison of the swing and push cuts
12.7 Problems and accidents
13.1 Which tool?
13.2 The nature of the cut
13.3 The procedure
13.4 The bevel must rub
13.5 The first cut
13.6 Forming the bead
13.7 The tool must slide along the rest
13.8 The problems to be faced
13.9 Using a spindle gouge
13.10 Try, and try again
14.1 Preparation
14.2 The tool
14.3 The shape of the cove
14.4 Marking the size of the cove
14.5 The first stage in making the cut
14.6The second stage in making the cove
14.7 Preparation for stage two
14.8 Beginning stage two
14.9 Practising the cut with the lathe switched off
14.10 Some further considerations
14.11 Discontinuous cuts
14.12 Cutting with the leading edge of the tool
14.13 Cutting the wood in the centre of the cove
Chapter 15: Chapter 15: Spindle turning - the final cuts
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Forming a pummel
15.3 Forming a pummel - method 1
15.4 Forming a pummel - method 2
15.5 Creating the waste
15.7 Squaring the end - the conventional cut
15.8 Squaring the end - the Raffan cut
15.9 The parting cut
Home
Brian Clifford (June 1999)
Last update: October 2000
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The Woodturner's Workshop

The Woodturner's Workshop has moved to a new host.
Please click on this link to transfer:
www.turningtools.co.uk
Thank you
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Learning to turn - introduction
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About this site

The aim
The intention of this site is to provide newcomers to woodturning, and those who
are still developing their skills, with useful information. It may be thought of as an
on-line magazine. There are four main types of information:
1.
2.
3.
4.
General information relating directly to turning

Information not specific to turning but which turners may find interesting
Projects
Reference material
The site is still under development. I expect to go on adding material for some
time. The section of the "Introduction To Woodturning" on spindle turning has
just been completed; now all I have to do is the same for bowl turning. I also have
more ideas for projects, gadgets and other things.
Most of the information has been prepared for a British audience. It is not
practical to try rewrite it for an international audience so I hope that visitors from
other parts of the world take this into account and bear with me. When suggesting
suitable material, for instance, I can only recommend English woods. This can be
misleading. American readers, in particular, should note that common terms do
not always relate to the same species. American sycamore (Platanus accidentalis) ,
for instance, is known as plane in Britain. Conversely European sycamore (Acer
speudoplatanus) is, I think, known as plane in the US. Similarly, basswood (Tilia
americana) belongs to the Lime family (Tiliaceae) and is known as American lime
(or just Lime) in Britain. Butternut (Juglans cinerea) which is a member of the
Walnut family is very rare in Britain; but if it was available here from local
sources it would probably be described simply as walnut. Confusing, isn't it?
The presentation of the information
Because my aim is to provide information I have made little attempt to provide a
jazzy Internet experience. Most of the information is in the form of articles which
need to be read with some care. All of them can be read on screen but it will
probably be easier to print out those of particular interest and file the pages in a
four ring binder.
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The "Introduction To Woodturning" can now be downloaded in Portable

Document Format (ie pdf files, see Home page) for printing out. Other documents
will be converted to this format in the near future.
When printing in Internet Explorer make sure Medium is selected in theView/Text
Size menu. In other browsers it may be necessary to experiment a little to find the
optimum size of type for printing.
Screen resolution
The majority of my visitors use a screen resolution of 800 by 600. It makes sense,
therefore to design the pages with that in mind. I hope users with their screens set
to other displays will not find that too irksome.
Copyright notice
Before making use of these files please read the copyright notice. Failure to read
this notice does not exempt the user from the conditions of use
The question of gender
In all of the texts I have decided to refer to the turner as a male in order to avoid
the tedious form of 'he or she' or some awkward circumlocution. I have noticed
that many writers now use the term 'she' (where relevant) to avoid being branded
as sexist. This is a neat way around this problem; however, because the great
majority of turners are men it would be dishonest to use that device in these
documents.
I would be very sorry if this was to discourage any woman from taking up
woodturning. I have taught a number of woman in my classes and I have no
doubts whatsoever that women are just as capable, if not more so, of becoming
good turners as men. It may also be noted that, In relation to the overall number of
men and women turners, there is a disproportionately large number of women in
the top flight.
I hope that, in time, far more women will come to appreciate the pleasure that
woodturning can provide. I would like to think that those women who come
across these pages will find them a source of interest and encouragement.
Brian Clifford
Lincolnshire, England
Brian Clifford (July 1999)

(Last amended July 2001)
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Copyright notice
Visitors are invited to reproduce pages from this web site, in part or in full, subject to
the following conditions:
1. The information is not used for commercial purposes.
2. No changes are made to the text or images.
3. Both, the ownership of the copyright and the source (ie Brian Clifford at www.
a1studio.freeserve.co.uk) are clearly acknowledged.
Brian Clifford (April 2001, revised June 2002)
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Learning to turn
Home | Intro to WT
1.1 The art of woodturning
Woodturning is an art not a science. Each skilled practitioner has his own particular way of doing things.
The reason for this is that wood unlike, say, metal or plastic, is not an homogeneous substance. No two
pieces of wood are identical even when cut from adjacent positions in the tree. In contrast, consider a
piece of steel to be used in (for instance) a motor car: numerous metallurgists, and other specialists, will
have been employed in its production, and testing, to ensure that it has the required characteristics, and
that these will be consistent from one batch of material to another. This means that properties such as its
granular structure, its hardness, its elasticity and its tensile strength will be the same for every sample.
Wood is not at all like that. Adjacent pieces will exhibit differences in such features as fibre structure,
grain pattern, hardness and elasticity. As each unique work piece spins on the lathe and is traversed by
the tool the turner has to make subtle adjustments to his technique as he is presented with a stream of
changing information. To add to the choices which have to be made a variety of tools can be used to
achieve the same basic forms and these tools can be ground to a variety of shapes and bevel angles. Even
the lathes that turners use can affect their style. As turners develop their skills so they find their own
solutions to the problems they encounter, and blend together the various tools and techniques they have
at their disposal in their own unique ways.
One unfortunate result of the development of individual styles is that beginners can be confused by an
apparent conflict in instructions in teaching manuals, methods used in demonstrations, and even in
techniques shown in woodturning videos. The beginner should not be upset by this. Underlying this
variety there are certain principles which are followed by all successful turners and which enable the
novice to experiment and to explore different techniques with confidence and without danger. These
principles and the way they can be applied to different situations and different tools are set out in the
following chapters.
However, because there are a variety of ways to tackle problems, I, like everybody else, have my
favourite way of doing things. As a consequence the views I will be putting forward may differ from
those of other instructors. They are an amalgam of the things I have found to work for me and my own
particular attitude to woodturning.
Because of such differences in views there is a principle which I think is very important: one should not
make statements in a book of this kind, particularly if they are controversial, without explaining the
reasons for them. The reader (or listener) should always treat unsupported assertions with suspicion.
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Learning to turn
1.2 The learning curve

Turning requires manual dexterity, visual judgement and the co-ordination of hand and eye. In this
respect it is similar to games like tennis. Such activities require the development of what psychologists
term motor skills. The learning and development of these skills require relatively long periods of
practice.
It has been said that it can take seven years, working full-time, for a turner with aptitude to reach the
peak of his abilities and become fully skilled. But again this should not deter the beginner. What does
fully skilled mean? It means that the turner can perform all the operations with speed and accuracy. At
the top level, for a professional needing to earn a living, speed is an important ingredient in skill.
This can be illustrated diagrammatically by the so called learning curve which may be familiar to the
reader. The general shape of the learning curve is illustrated in Diagram 1.1.
Diagram 1.1 The learning curve

It can be seen from this that typically, with continual practice, the individual goes through a period of
steady improvement. Then after some time the rate of improvement begins to level off and eventually
there comes a time when very little further improvement takes place. In reality it is found that some
individuals have more innate ability than others. Generally, too, where motor skills are involved, it is
best to start young. Usually, those who have an early start eventually reach higher levels of skill than
older people. But older people should not despair: on their way through life they may well have acquired
skills which will be of assistance to their endeavour in the woodturning field.
Because of the differences between individuals, their innate ability, their age, or their previous useful
experience then each turner will have his own distinctive learning curve. Some possible, contrasting,
curves are shown in Diagram 1.2.
Learning to turn
Diagram 1.2
Individual C is a very slow learner but he improves little by little. Individual B is a quick learner and
reaches his full capacity earlier than individuals A or C. But, although A is a slowish learner, he
eventually becomes more skilled than B.
1.3 Developing skills

In the case of woodturning there is a bit more to it than motor skills because, with the right attitude of
mind, it is within the power of the individual to alter the shape of the learning curve. Indeed the key to
skill is attitude. What does this mean? To begin with it means developing an understanding of the correct
basic techniques. If the turner does not get the basics right then, however much he practises, he will not
improve. In contrast he may develop a lot of bad practices which will be difficult to eradicate.
It is necessary to have a strong desire to learn and progress but at the same time one must have patience.
It is no use the turner trying to make things which are way beyond his level ability, particularly in the
early stages. On the other hand it is necessary for him to stretch himself with projects of steadily
increasing difficulty.
It may be a good idea for the learner to set himself a series of achievable goals but it has to be recognised
that the hobby turner with only limited time at his disposal is in a different position to the aspiring
professional. Learning to turn is a little like learning to play a musical instrument (although turning is far
less difficult). Regular short periods of practice are preferable to periods of intensive effort with big gaps
between them. Having said that it must be acknowledged that the hobbyist will have to fit his turning
into the free time he has available and do the best he can. Life is full of compromises, and this is one of
them.
In developing skills and working out the best way to progress it will be necessary to experiment with the
Learning to turn
various cuts, tools and techniques. In order to avoid dangerous practices, some caution is required in
doing this, but experimentation is a very necessary part of the learning process. However, in the early
stages the instructions given in the following chapters should be followed with care.
Whatever his circumstances, and however much time he has available, when the aspiring turner is
practising he must keep thinking about what he is doing and asking himself questions. When things go
wrong he must ask himself: why? What happened? What can I do to try to ensure it does not happen
again. It also helps if the turner can recognise when things are going right, so that he will know what
things he can do, as well as those he cannot.
Good turning entails careful observation involving the three main senses: sight, sound, and touch. The
eyes are the primary source of information. Obviously, it is necessary to look to see what one is doing,
but one should also be watching for the results. What is happening to the shape: is it smooth or is it
ridged? Will I be able to blend it into the profile I want? Are the fibres tearing? What else can I see?
Sound provides further important information so it is necessary to keep ones ears open. For example,
when a cut is being made correctly there will be a variety of sounds but underneath these it should be
possible to hear a relatively quiet, but clearly distinguishable, hiss which is made by the fibres being cut
cleanly. The other sounds carry information as well. When I am teaching more than one person at a time
I can often tell when someone is having trouble from the sound alone.
Yet more vital information is being transmitted back to the turner through the tool. The turner should try
to develop as much sensitivity in the hands as he can, holding the tool as lightly as possible. Even where
a firmer grip is required the turner can still feel what is happening as well as see or hear.
In many cases where a cut is not going correctly all three senses will be telling the turner that something
is wrong. In other cases just one will be enough. For example, when a hidden split, or other defect, in the
wood is encountered there is often a quiet click which warns the turner to stop the lathe to have a look.
In summary therefore it can be said that these three senses are providing the turner with a stream of
information which has to be continually interpreted. Much of the time, it is to be hoped, the signal will
be that all is well, but the turner must be vigilant.
In conclusion it can be said that by applying himself diligently to the task, developing a sensitivity to the
stream of information, continually analysing his actions and their results, and practising as regularly as
possible the turner can learn more quickly and will eventually reach a higher level of skill.
1.4 The basic principles

It must be noted, however, that although skill can only be acquired by practice, by making shavings as
the saying goes, it is futile practising unless the basic principles are being applied. The basic principles
are comprised of four main elements:
Learning to turn
1.
2.
3.
4.
The choice of the correct tools

The use of properly sharpened tools
A good stance
The use of correct cutting techniques
Consideration must also be given to safety. Safe working habits should become habitual and are as much
part of basic principles as the four points covered above. Unsafe practices may not prevent good turning
but they may cut short a turners career.
Much of the first part of this book is devoted to these basic principles. However, before he can practise
the basic principles the prospective turner must provide himself with a certain amount of equipment. At
the very minimum this will be a lathe, a grinding machine and a set of tools. He will also need
somewhere to keep it and somewhere to work; usually, of course, these are the same place, namely the
workshop. The question of a workshop and equipment is discussed in the next chapter and tools in the
one after that.
1.5 The pleasure of woodturning

Some of the comments made above may make learning to turn seem daunting but it is not intended to put
people off. Anyone, from nine to ninety, male or female, with a modicum of manual dexterity, can learn
to turn successfully. Given a reasonable degree of application it will only take most beginners a few
hours of practice to learn to make simple but attractive objects which provide immense satisfaction.
Many of these objects only take an hour or so to make. (Some ideas for these objects, and instructions on
how to make them, will appear on this web site.)
The great pleasure which can be derived from wood turning stems from two things. One is that, whilst
very satisfying results can be obtained with relatively little experience, learning and improvement can go
for the rest of a lifetime. The other source of pleasure is that hand turning brings the maker into a very
close and intimate relationship with his material. Turners get to know wood as few other people can.
Brian Clifford (March 1999)

Home | Intro to WT
The woodturning workshop
Home | Intro to WT
2.1 The workshop
The first thing anybody taking up woodturning must contemplate is where they are going to put their
lathe and other equipment. This obviously depends on the size and amount of the equipment and the
working space required. But there are other considerations. The three most important are questions of
noise, dust and security.
I have heard of turning being carried out in locations as diverse as a flat, an attic and a greenhouse. To
some extent, therefore, the location of the workshop depends on the ingenuity and determination of the
turner. However, in the discussion which follows I am going to assume that the workshop will be
somewhere outside the house (or domestic area).
Woodturning itself, that is to say work on the lathe, is not very noisy, but some of the activities which
are associated with it can be a cause of nuisance. How much noise can be tolerated by the family and the
neighbours depends partly on their life styles and characters and partly on the amount of noise coming
from the general environment.
The attitude to noise of people living under the flight path of Heathrow or near a busy motorway will be
different to that of those living in a quiet close on the outskirts of town. I know from experience that
noise, or other people's perception of noise, can cause problems and needs to be considered.
Woodturning causes a good deal of mess. Not dirty dirt but lots of dust and small shavings. This can be
reduced by the use of a dust extractor but cannot, by any means, be eliminated. This may cause problems
if the woodturning is to share workshop space with some other activity.
It should be mentioned in passing that shavings refuse to be confined to the workshop; even when
protective clothing is worn they find their way into pockets, shoes, underclothing and all sorts of unlikely
places, and are subsequently deposited all over the house. The only way I have found to deal with this
menace is to keep a rechargeable hand-held vacuum cleaner in a convenient place with which to pick up
the offending particles. Nevertheless, unless one has a tolerant partner, the emergence of errant shavings
can easily be a source of conflict. I admit I find them a nuisance myself, but this nuisance is a small price
to pay for the pleasure of turning.
It is difficult to say what is the minimum size for a workshop. In some cases it depends on whether the
space is to be shared with another activity or whether some ancillary equipment can be located
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elsewhere. At the minimum the working space must house a lathe and a grinder and provide the turner
with sufficient room to manipulate the tools. As there are some very small lathes on the market a bench
space, of say, 3ft by 1ft might be sufficient. This would, however, limit the turner to very small work.
So, as with many other activities, the turner's requirements in respect to space and equipment depends on
his aspirations and his resources. The result is likely to be some sort of compromise.
There are two basic ways of looking at this problem. The turner could look at the work space available
and ask: "what can I get into here?". Or he could decide what equipment he would like and then ask:
"how much space do I need and how am I going to find it?" The most likely approach, however, is some
combination of these. In practice many aspiring turners see the garage as the obvious place to use; but
this space may also have to be share with the family car, the garden tools, the lawn mower and, possibly,
some other large item such as a freezer.
2.2 Moving equipment

The use of the garage has one advantage over other places in that cars are designed to be moved. So,
even if the car is not permanently banished from the garage, it can be moved outside whilst turning is in
progress. However, when the car is in the garage the space for storing equipment may be very limited.
As a consequence it may be necessary to move equipment back and forth from a storage position to a
working position. If this is not to deter its use it needs to be done as easily as possible.
The means of achieving this may be applicable to other restricted working spaces so some ideas are set
out in this paragraph. The most obvious way of making items easier to move is to put them on wheels.
Industrial castors, which can be obtained from the larger DIY stores, are ideal. If the item is not too
heavy it might be enough to put a pair of castors under one end only. In the case of a lathe this would be
under the headstock end which is always the heaviest. However, lathes in particular, need to be mounted
so that they are free of vibration, and castors may cause a problem in this respect.
The answer to this problem is to have some means of lifting the whole assembly off the ground and
inserting something solid, such as block of timber, under the bench so that the castors are clear of the
ground. A lever could be used to lift the end of the assembly whilst a block is inserted, but one person
might find this difficult on his own. An alternative would be to use a car jack. A neat idea would be to
have a jack permanently attached to the bench so that it could be wound up and down quickly and easily.
2.3 A separate workshop

Many turners, like myself, start off in the garage and then aspire to a space which can be dedicated to
turning. Others may decide to start as they mean to carry on and set up a separate workshop from the
outset. Not many are fortunate enough to be able to have a brick (or similar solid structure) to house their
precious equipment. But some can afford a wooden shed. As a place to work in this is fine, particularly if
it is well insulated. I use one myself.
There are, however, two possible problems with a timber building: fire risk and security. Some insurers
will not consider such buildings for these reasons. If care is taken the fire risk should not be very terrible,
but security is another matter. It is very difficult to make the typical shed secure against a determined
thief.
Having said that my only experience of theft happened when thieves broke into a workshop which was
in a brick building with a strong door secured with a heavy padlock. The thieves cut the lock off with
bolt cutters. This workshop was in a museum and was open to the public in the day-time but was
deserted at night - the worst possible situation. They took all my powered hand-tools: hundreds of
pounds worth of drills, saws, a router, and similar items. But they took no turning tools, and no big items
such as lathes or a dust extractor. It is possible the thieves might have come back for more but I
immediately vacated this workshop.
What conclusions can one draw from this? One, is that security is affected by the environment. Another,
possibly, is that turning tools are relatively unattractive to thieves because they are difficult to dispose of.
In addition, the large pieces of equipment will be left alone by the casual thief but will not always be
safe.
I learned three important things from my experience. One is to keep the existence of the workshop
known to as few people as possible. Another is to keep the more expensive hand tools out of the
workshop in a more secure place. In case all precautions prove futile it is advisable to take out insurance.
The Association of Woodturners of Great Britain (AWGB) run an excellent scheme in conjunction with
insurance brokers which provides the relevant cover at very competitive rates. Membership of the
Association is worth the money for this alone.
2.4 The electricity supply

Whatever space is used for the workshop it will be necessary to ensure that the electricity supply is safe
and adequate. Ideally, a qualified electrician should be consulted. In any event there are two suggestions
I would make. Try to run all the equipment through one double pole switch of the required amperage. On
leaving the workshop at the end of a session this can be switched off, so making sure that every piece of
equipment is isolated from the mains supply. Many workshops have a concrete floor which can be a
source of danger from electric shock - this danger can be reduced by fitting an earth trip.
Lighting is another thing which needs to be considered. Fluorescent tubes are good for general lighting
but many turners prefer tungsten lights over the lathe. Stroboscopic effects can often be a nuisance (or
even dangerous) when turning - tungsten light is better in this respect. It also provides lighting which is
less flat than that from fluorescent tubes. Shadows help turners to see what is happening on the surface
of their work and to spot defects.
2.5 The equipment
The most obvious piece of equipment required for the prospective turner is of course a lathe. There is a
variety of lathes on the market today. With lathes, as with many other things, you get what you pay for,
but even the cheapest lathe may represent a considerable outlay for the person with only limited funds to
spend on a hobby. Unfortunately, expenditure does not stop at the lathe. Two other things are essential: a
basic set of tools (see Chapter 3) and a grinder (see Chapter 4). Once the beginner has learned the basic
techniques, and gained some confidence, a number of other purchases will begin to beckon. These will
include a combination, or scroll chuck, a bench drill, and sundry small items such as callipers, and a
dressing stone for the grinding wheels.
Other things which may appear on the wish list will be a Jacobs' chuck, a band-saw and a long-hole
boring kit. And, of course, some suitable wood will be required. I mention these things because they add
considerably to the expense. The prospective turner is liable to fail to take this into consideration. It
needs to be borne in mind.
Some points can be made about the choice of some of these items. First and foremost: the lathe. Rule
number one is to buy the biggest lathe one can afford: whilst the smallest items can be turned on a big
lathe, large items cannot be turned on a small lathe. If a suitable second-hand lathe can be found so much
the better. A lathe is a pretty basic piece of machinery; as long as the bearings are in good condition, and
the tailstock aligns properly with the headstock, there is not much more to worry about. If it later
becomes necessary to sell the lathe, either because it is not used or the owner wishes to upgrade to a
better one, then very little money should be lost.
Bowl turning will require a larger lathe than spindle turning. It also needs to be borne in mind that bowl
turning is difficult over the bed of the lathe (particularly for a left-handed person) and that the maximum
size of the bowl that can be turned is determined by the distance between the drive centre and the bed
bars. For bowl turning the lathe will ideally have an outboard turning facility or a swing head.
Outboard turning arrangements require an extension of the drive shaft on the left-hand side of the
headstock so that the turner can work on that side. This has two disadvantages: (1) a considerable
amount of space is required to the left of the lathe; and (2) when viewed from the left-hand side the head
will be seen to be rotating clockwise. The latter point means that the shaft on the outboard side, and face
plates and chucks to be used on it, have a reverse thread. This leads to additional expense. Because of the
disadvantages of the arrangements for outboard turning the swing head has become more popular and
most new lathes of any size have this facility.
Other considerations when buying a lathe are the choice between fixed speeds or variable speeds, as well
as the speed range. An important aspect for the turner who wishes to turn large bowls is the availability
of a low speed. The most expensive option, but the best, is the electronic variable speed, as long as it
provides sufficient torque at the bottom end of the range. Otherwise, given the availability of similar
speeds at the low end, there is probably not a lot to choose between 5 or more speeds on a pulley system
and a mechanical variable speed system but, with another proviso, that the speeds on a fixed pulley
system should be easy to change.
The cheaper lathes have only 3 speeds on a fixed pulley system. This has its limitation in terms of
control over the work but nevertheless many turners manage with it quite adequately. It does help if the 3
speeds provided cover a suitable range. The first lathe I bought had only three speeds: 750, 1500, and
3000 rpm. In my view this was a very poor selection particularly as this lathe had a generous 9 in. swing.
Given just three speeds a much better selection would have been something like 500 (or lower if
possible), 1250 and 2000 rpm.
Often, the problem is that the lowest speed is determined by limitations on the sizes of the smallest and
largest pulleys. The smallest pulley must be large enough to fit on the motor shaft and the largest must fit
inside the headstock casing. It should be remembered that most motors for lathes run at 1500 rpm. As a
consequence the choice of the lowest speed is determined by the size of the largest pulley which will fit
into the headstock. This is just one of the points that must be considered when buying a lathe.
Factors such as the length of the bed and the power of the motor depend on the type of turning which
will be undertaken. Without knowing about this it is difficult to generalise.
Check list on choosing a lathe

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3.1 Introduction
The range of woodturning tools on the market today is enormous. Ashley Iles, for example, produce 350
different woodturning tools. These are all standard tools made in a range of sizes in carbon steel or high
speed steel. In addition a number of manufacturers are making some highly specialised (and very
expensive) tools, such as the Stewart System. Most beginners, however, will only be able to afford a
limited number of standard tools so they will have to make some careful choices. My suggestions for the
minimum basic set of tools is given at the end of this chapter.
But, before coming to the choice of tools the beginner needs to understand the functions of the different
types and the reasons for some relatively subtle differences in shape and form. The difference between
carbon steel and high speed steel also needs to be understood.
When I started turning at the beginning of the eighties only carbon steel tools were available, but since
then high speed steel turning tools have become ubiquitous. High speed steel, which is harder than
carbon steel, was originally developed to enable higher cutting speeds to be used when machining metal.
Because of this high speed steel tools retain their edge longer on wood.
Nevertheless, each type of steel has its advantages and disadvantages. These are discussed later in this
chapter. There are three principal types of tool: scrapers, chisels, and gouges. Gouges can be sub-divided
into three further types: bowl gouges, spindle gouges, and roughing out gouges. Chisels and gouges are
usually described as cutting tools, because they are designed to sever rather than break, or tear, the wood
fibres. In contrast scrapers are often perceived as crude tools which simply tear out a shaving. However,
when employed with care, and the correct technique, scrapers can be used to sever the fibres and leave a
good finish. It must be pointed out, too, that chisels can, on occasion, be used for scraping.
However, there is a clear distinction which can be made between chisels and gouges on the one hand and
scrapers on the other. This concerns the attitude in which they are used. When employed in the cutting
mode chisels and gouges are used with the bevel rubbing and the wood moving onto the edge of the tool
(see also Chapter 6). In contrast scrapers must never be used with the bevel rubbing and the edge must be
trailing. Except in very special circumstances this means that a scraper must be used with the tool
pointing downwards. (See Diagram 3.1) If a chisel is used for scraping it must be held in the same
attitude as a scraper, that is, pointing downwards.
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Diagram 3.1 Attitude of scraper in use

These distinctions will become clearer when the ways the tools are used are described in the chapters
which follow. The description of the shapes of the tools will also help to clarify matters.
3.2 Scrapers
Scrapers are mostly made from rectangular bar and are usually ground with a large bevel angle. The size
of the bevel angle is not critical, however, and some turners may make it relatively small. Like a chisel,
the cutting edge of a scraper can be skewed, but it can also be a variety of other shapes. Some of the
most common, which a beginner may wish to use, are shown in Diagram 3.2. They can be made from
either carbon steel or high speed steel and the same shapes are used in both materials.
Diagram 3.2 Some shapes for scrapers
3.3 Chisels
Like scrapers chisels are usually made from rectangular bar but the bevels are ground differently. Chisels
usually have double bevels, and the bevel angles are smaller than those normally used on scrapers (see
Diagram 3.3).
Diagram 3.3 Bevels on chisels and scrapers

The cutting edge of a chisel can either be ground square across or it can be skewed (see Diagram 3.4).
Diagram 3.4 Square and skewed edge chisels

Carbon steel chisels have always been made with a rectangular cross-section. High speed steel skew
chisels can also have a rectangular cross-section. Some, however, are made slightly oval in section with
one edge rounded (see Diagram 3.5, section A-A). In the smaller sizes this can make them a little flimsy,
particularly when they are made overlong. Until recently the cutting edge of a skew chisel was always
ground so that it was straight (as in Diagram 3.4) but in recent years some turners have made it curved
(as in Diagram 3.5).
Diagram 3.5 Oval section HSS chisel with curved cutting edge
3.4 Parting tools

Parting tools are narrow chisels. In principle, as their name suggests, they are used for separating the
waste material from either end of the finished piece of work. In practice they have a number of other
uses. They come in a variety of shapes and sizes, some of which are shown in diagram 3.6.
Diagram 3.6 Parting tools
3.5 Bowl gouges

Because bowl gouges are often used with a long overhang between the cutting edge and the rest they
need to be stiff and strong so that they will not bend or flex in use. Books written before high speed steel
came into use refer to the long and strong bowl gouge. This is a carbon steel gouge which has a deep
U section. It has been superseded by the high speed steel bowl gouge which is made by milling a flute
into round bar. This gives a very different cross-section (see Diagram 3.7).
The long and strong carbon steel bowl gouges were ground so that the cutting edge was square to the
axis of the tool, as shown in Diagram 3.7. Also shown in this diagram is the shape of the a high speed
steel bowl gouge. It can be seen that in this case the wings are ground back. The way this is achieved is
described under sharpening below. (See Section 4.4)
Diagram 3.7 Bowl gouges

Sizes normally refer to widths but high speed steel bowl gouges are measured in a very peculiar way:
from the inside of the flute to the outside of the bar (see Diagram 3.8). Although these tools have only
been available for a few years the reason for the way in which they are measured seems to have been lost
in the mists of time. Anyway, the unfortunate result of this system is that, in effect, there are no standard
sizes. Differences in the size of the flute in relation to the diameter of the bar can lead to very different
gouges with the same nominal size. Note that it is the size of the flute which really determines the size of
the tool. The diameter of the bar determines the strength of the tool.
There are in practice quite substantial differences between manufacturers and I suggest that when
building up a set of bowl gouges an attempt should be made to stick to a single brand.
Diagram 3.8 Measurement of size of HSS bowl gouge
3.6 Spindle gouges

Carbon steel spindle gouges are forged from flat bar to form the cross-section shown in Diagram 3.9.
High speed steel spindle gouges can be produced in the same way but they are more commonly made by
milling the flute from round bar in a similar way to bowl gouges. The flutes in spindle gouges are,
however, much larger than those in bowl gouges relative to the size of the bar. This provides a slimmer
tool which can enter the more restricted spaces encountered in spindle turning. The shape of the cutting
edge of a spindle gouge has traditionally been described as a a fingernail shape, that is, half an ellipse
(see Diagram 3.9).
Diagram 3.9 Shape of spindle gouge
3.7 Roughing-out gouges

Roughing gouges are used in the preliminary stages of spindle turning (as described in Chapter 9). They
are normally much larger than bowl or spindle gouges and it is important to note that they should never
be used to shape bowls. They are made by forging or pressing flat bar into a half-round section. Some
manufacturers of high speed steel roughing gouges extend the wings a little to form a U section which
flares out slightly (see Diagram 3.10).
Diagram 3.10 Shape of roughing gouge
3.8 Interchangeability of gouges

It is quite common today to find a high speed steel bowl gouge used to perform the function of a spindle
gouge. I do this quite frequently myself. The reason for this is that when they are made from high speed
steel there is not a great deal of difference in the shape of the cutting edge of the two types of gouges.
But there is one important difference which should be noted: for a given size of cutting tip (which is
related to the size of the tool) a bowl gouge is very much stronger than a spindle gouge. As a
consequence, although a bowl gouge may be used for spindle turning a spindle gouge should not
(normally) be used for bowl turning.
3.9 The different types of steel

It is often said that high speed steel tools are easier to sharpen (on a grinding wheel) than carbon steel.
The justification given for this statement is that it is less easy to overheat and soften the edge of a high
speed steel tool. Although that is true, they also take longer to sharpen (because they are harder) which
can make it more difficult to get the desired shape. It is also said that high speed steel tools last longer.
This , too, is true, but they are also a lot more expensive. And how long does one want a tool to last? I
have been using my 1 1/4in carbon steel skew chisel for eighteen years and I still have more than half the
length left.
So, we come to a contentious point. Nowadays, some turners will only use high speed steel tools, and
some stockists do not sell carbon steel tools. Nevertheless, I always advise beginners to buy a mixture of
high speed and carbon steel tools.
Because of the edge retaining properties of high speed steel I certainly believe it is best for bowl and
spindle gouges. The high speed steel bowl gouges are also made from round bar which also provides a
better shape than the old, forged, carbon steel forms. For skew chisels and scrapers I find that the edge
retaining qualities of high speed steel are not so important. So, for these, I recommend carbon steel; they
are easier to sharpen, they are cheaper, and they will last as long as necessary.
3.10 The form of the bevel

The bevel on cutting tools, ie chisels, gouges and parting tools, must be the correct shape: either hollow
ground (concave) or flat, it should never be rounded (convex). If the bevel on a tool is rounded it will
very difficult, if not impossible, to use it without digging in. (The reasons for this are explained in detail
in Chapter 6.) So it is vitally important to get the bevel right. Many novice turners get it wrong; I have
seen a lot of tools it would be impossible to use successfully.
There is also the question of the bevel angle to consider. The size of bevel angles is by no means as
critical as many pundits would suggest. One aspect of this is that bevel angles are often expressed as a
precise number of degrees. In practice it is pretty well impossible to grind, and to measure, to that degree
of accuracy. It certainly is not necessary. There is wide disagreement among skilled turners regarding the
bevel angles for specific tools. For example one book on my shelves says that the bevel angle on a skew
chisel should be 25 (that is 12.5 on each side!) and another suggests that it should be 45&deg. The
truth of the matter, probably, is that skew chisels can be used successfully with bevel angles anywhere
between these two figures.
A wide range of bevel angles can be used on bowl gouges without experiencing problems although the
most satisfactory angle tends to depend on circumstances. For example, it may be necessary to use a
bowl gouge with a large bevel angle (eg 60) to turn the bottom of the inside of a deep bowl. However, a
bevel angle of 40 to 45 will serve for many circumstances. Other angles can be experimented with
when the turner feels inclined. In general slightly smaller bevel angles can be recommended for spindle
gouges. If the spindle gouge is to be used for cutting beads then a small bevel angle is required so that
the tool can be introduced into small spaces.
Generally speaking, however, I believe that tools with relatively large bevel angles are easier for the
novice to use than the reverse. Tools with small bevel angles tend to be grabby, that is to say they have
a tendency to bite into the wood. This is particularly true of chisels. In my view most manufacturers
supply chisels with the bevel ground to too small an angle. For my students I grind the chisels to a bevel
angle of around 45 degrees. But any angle between 35 and 45 degrees will be satisfactory.
3.11 The minimum kit of tools

I would say that the minimum number of tools required to start with is ten. I bought a boxed set of that
number when I started turning, more by luck than judgement, and I have never found any reason to think
that was a wrong decision. The beginners set of mixed high speed and carbon steel tools I would
recommend is made up as follows:
High speed steel
3/8 in bowl gouge

1/4 in bowl gouge
1/2 in spindle gouge
1/4 in spindle gouge
Carbon steel
3/4 in roughing gouge

11/4 in skew chisel
11/4 in square nose scraper
1/2 in square nose scraper
3/4 in round nose scraper
3/8 in square beading and parting tool
1/8 in plain parting tool
It will have been noticed that this list contains 11 tools. This is because have added the 1/8 plain parting
tool to my original list - it is a very useful tool. My choice of a carbon steel skew chisel may surprise and
irritate a lot of turners. The oval, high speed steel, skew chisel has many devotees. I can only say that I
am not enthralled with it, but that is probably a personal idiosyncrasy.

(Last amendment August 2000)
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Sharpening Woodturning Tools
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4.1 The grinder
Once some tools have been acquired they must be sharpened correctly. To do this a grinder will be
required. All that most amateurs need is a relatively cheap machine with two 6in. wheels, a coarse and a
fine. At the time of writing new machines can be purchased for as little as 20. More expensive
machines with water cooled wheels are available but these entail unnecessary additional expenditure.
4.2 The type of wheel

It is likely that a cheap grinder will be supplied with two Carborundum wheels, which are grey in colour.
The coarse wheel will probably be 30 grit and the fine wheel 60 grit. These wheels will be suitable for
sharpening carbon steel tools but, if high speed steel tools are to be used, then the 60 grit wheel should
be replaced by one made of aluminium oxide. This is often called a white wheel because of its colour.
These wheels work satisfactorily with carbon steel as well so they can be used for both types of tool. It
would be worth asking the suppliers if they can provide the machine with an aluminium oxide wheel; if
the change is made by the purchaser the Carborundum wheel is redundant and is a waste of money.
Another, important reason, for asking the supplier to change the wheel is that, by law, wheels should be
fitted only by someone who has been correctly trained to do so and has a certificate to prove it. A
damaged grinding wheel, such as one which is cracked because it has been dropped or badly fitted, is a
very dangerous object. Grinding wheels can, and do, explode into pieces in use. Since the operator will
probably be standing in the firing line when this happens the results can be horrific.
A new wheel will have a label attached which gives the specification. The wheel I bought for my
machine is marked as follows: 180x25x31.75 BA60PV. The first three figures refer to the size of the
wheel in millimetres. The first letter (B) is the makers own mark. The second letter (A) indicates the type
of abrasive. 'A' stands for aluminium oxide. If it was 'C' it would be Carborundum (ie silicon carbide).
The number (60) indicates the grit size. The third letter (P) indicates the hardness of the non-abrasive
material which binds the grit into the wheel. This ranges from 'E' which is soft, to 'Z' which is hard. The
binding material on my wheel is therefore right in the middle of the range so it is of medium hardness.
The final letter (V) indicates the nature of the binding material. In this case 'V' stands for vitrified. It
could also be 'R' for rubber or 'E' for shellac.
4.3 Dressing the wheel
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In order to reduce the possibility of overheating the tool, and to make the sharpening process as efficient
as possible, the grinding wheel must be kept in good condition. If it is not dressed regularly the edges of
the silicon carbide or aluminium oxide granules in the wheel lose their edges and the little crevices
between them get filled with particles of dust. This gives the surface a glazed appearance which can be
seen when the light strikes it at the an angle. In this condition the wheel is inefficient and satisfactory
sharpening is difficult, if not impossible.
There are a number of devices used for dressing a wheel. One of these is called a star wheel. Personally,
I dislike this device intensely because it seems so crude and dangerous. This leaves two alternatives: a
Carborundum stick or a diamond tool. A Carborundum stick is cheap and effective. It is used with the
machine running: with the stick supported by the tool rest, one of the edges at the end is passed firmly
across the face of the wheel so as to remove the glazed surface. A diamond dressing tool can be
somewhat more expensive but it does the job very efficiently. A simple little jig may be required to
ensure that the diamond is passed across the wheel so as to give a smooth square surface.
4.4 Using the grinder

The ability to produce a sharp edge on a tool is a very important aspect of turning. Unfortunately there is
even less uniformity of method in sharpening than there is in turning itself. If the opportunity can be
taken to watch a variety of turners' sharpening tools, either at demonstrations or on videos, it will be seen
that some very different methods are used.
Many novice turners find sharpening on the grinding wheel difficult. The problem is in achieving a well
formed bevel without burning the tool. Various aids, such as the use of special jigs, can be used to help
hold the tool at the correct angle but these do have certain disadvantages. They can be slow and awkward
to use and the turner can come to rely on them to an undesirable extent. If he should find himself in a
situation away from his own workshop, without his usual aids, he may be unable to sharpen his tools
satisfactorily. It is better to learn how to sharpen your tools without any special devices. Having said
that, however, it is vital that beginners should be confident that their tools are sharp and correctly
ground; if it is found that some kind of jig is necessary to ensure this, then use one. More information on
the correct form for the bevel is given in Chapter 3 paragraph 10 and Chapter 6.
My own methods (which may be a little unusual) are as follows. The only tool I support directly on the
tool rest is the scraper. I set the rest so that scrapers can be laid flat on it at the correct angle. A scraper
can then be sharpened very quickly with just a touch on the wheel. The other tools, chisels and gouges, I
hold high on the wheel with the underneath hand (my left) supported by the rest.
These methods can be employed more readily if the tools rest is bigger than those normally fitted to
small grinders and made so that its angle can be adjusted. If the rest is reasonably long it makes it easier
to sharpen chisels as the hands can then be slid backwards and forwards along it. As a consequence it is
necessary to modify the rest on many machines.
High speed steel bowl gouges should pose no special problems. Because they are made from round bar a
satisfactory shape can be obtained merely by rotating them in the fingers along their central axis with the
bevel resting on the wheel at the correct angle. This produces a cone shape at the end with the flute
cutting through it; the required edge shape is then created automatically. When sharpened in this way it
is the size of the flute which determines the size of the tool not the diameter of the bar from which it is
made. The diameter of the bar is important in that it determines the strength of the tool.
Spindle gouges are a little more difficult to grind because, to produce the finger nail shape the handle has
to be swung from side to side as the tool is rotated along its axis. This requires some practice.
4.5 Overheating the tool

When grinding all tools only the very lightest weight should be applied in order to avoid overheating the
edge. Very often the weight of the tool on the grinding wheel provides enough pressure. Prolonged
contact between the wheel and the tool should be avoided for the same reason. If considerable re-shaping
of a tool is required then it must be cooled by dipping the tip in water at frequent intervals. Overheating
becomes apparent when the metal turns blue. When this happens to high speed steel it is not too much of
a problem since the steel will not have been softened. But when it happens to carbon steel it means that
the temper will have been taken out of the steel and the tool will not hold its edge.
4.6 To hone or not to hone

I have found this to be a contentious area. After sharpening on the grinder tools can be honed with a
whetstone. When done by a skilled practitioner honing can save time and prolong the life of the tool.
Nevertheless, I do not recommend honing to the beginner. When it is not done skilfully it is very easy to
spoil the shape of the bevel by making it slightly convex at the tip.
It may be noted too, that most professional turners in the UK prefer not to hone their tools; they use them
straight from the grinding wheel. There are two reasons for this, I think. One is that they find grinding
quick and convenient. The other is that a ground edge may, in practice, cut better than one that is honed.
I sometimes make some very thin turnings which require very sharp tools; I have tried honing my tools
for this but I have never found that it makes any improvement. It may well be that the slightly serrated
edge left by the grinder makes it easier for the tool to slice through the fibres of the wood.
There are occasions when a slip stone should be used. When a gouge is sharpened on the grinding wheel
a burr is often left on the top of the edge, ie in the flute. This can prevent the tool from cutting properly;
the burr can be taken off with a few strokes of a suitable slip stone.
In thinking about honing account should be taken of the fact that turning is a power assisted process.
Consequently, the requirements are not the same as for woodcarving, for instance. The woodcarver has
only his own muscles to apply and the work is often very delicate. He does find that honing leads to
more satisfactory results.
Let us assume, for the sake of argument, that honing a turning tool can provide a sharper edge. The
question is: how long will a very fine edge last when applied to hardwoods rotating at relatively high
speeds. The friction and the heat generated in this process can destroy a very fine edge in no time at all.
It may be thought that going to the grinder every time a tool needs sharpening will lead to tools being
worn away very quickly. In practice this is not a great problem. Once the turner becomes proficient in
grinding all that is required is just a short, light, touch on the wheel.
4.7 Safety
Potentially, a grinder is a very dangerous machine. However, it used with due consideration safety
should not be a problem. The need to take care when a new wheel is fitted has already been mentioned.
The other principal danger, when the wheel is in use, is that particles of metal can be thrown off with
sufficient force to penetrate the eyeball. As a consequence eye protection should always be used: either
safety glasses or a full face mask should be worn. Similar care should also be taken when dressing a
wheel.
It should be recognised that a grinder will go on revolving long after it has been switched off whilst
being relatively quiet. It remains dangerous in this state not only to the operator but also to anybody else,
particularly a child, who might come into the workshop and unintentionally put their hand on the
machine.

Revised January 2001
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Safety in woodturning
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Chapter 5: Safety
5.1 Introduction
We are getting near the point when we can put a piece of wood in the lathe, switch on and start
practising. But before we do that there are a number of important points regarding safety which need to
be considered. It should be noted, however, that serious accidents from woodturning activities are
relatively rare. Nonetheless, very few human activities are completely risk free and it is sensible to
obtain as complete an understanding as possible of where possible dangers may lie in woodturning. What
we need to be concerned with principally are those accidents which can cause serious hurt or
disablement. In the following I will look at those areas where there is potential danger.
5.2 Clothing
The danger with clothing lies in the possibility that it might be caught in the lathe or the work-piece at it
revolves. As a consequence all clothing should be relatively tight fitting. Ties should not be worn, and
there should be no loose cuffs, or anything of a similar nature, which might get caught up. Unless
watches are covered by clothing they should be removed, as should rings, necklaces and other items of
jewellery. There is also the possibility of injury to the feet. Since I dropped a large bowl blank on my
toes I have thought it a good idea to wear safety shoes. Sandals and even trainers are inadvisable.
5.3 Hair
Long hair should be kept carefully under control when near any machinery. I have never heard of it
happening to a woodturner but in engineering workshops people have been scalped because their hair
has been caught in machinery.
5.4 Eyes
Some sort of protection for the eyes is desirable, at the very least safety glasses should be worn. As I
normally wear glasses with plastic lenses I tend to rely on these under most circumstance. However, if,
when turning, I think there is particular danger of a loose piece of wood or bark flying off I put on a full
face mask. As an extra precaution I also stand out of the firing line. Eye protection is also very necessary
when using the grinder. There is always a possibility that a fragment of metal or other debris may be
flung off the wheel. This is particularly likely when dressing the wheel.
5.5 Wood dust and toxicity

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Wood dust, particularly fine dust, is an almost invisible but insidious hazard. Long-term exposure to
wood dust can have effects on the eyes, nose, throat, lungs and skin. Effects on the eyes include:
soreness, watering and conjunctivitis. Those on the nose include: rhinitis (runny nose), violent sneezing,
blockage and (very rarely) nasal cancer. The effects on the lungs include: breathing difficulties,
impairment of lung function and the triggering of asthma attacks. There have been instances where the
inhalation of wood dust has had whole body effects such as headache, thirst, nausea, visual disturbance,
drowsiness, anaemia and hepatitis.
The long-term effects are likely to concern only professional turners who have been working at the craft
for a relatively long period. Nevertheless, some of the effects described above, such sneezing, can occur
after short-term exposure. I have suffered from a sore throat and cold-like symptoms after a few days in
the dusty conditions of a woodworking exhibition.
Relatively short exposure to wood dust, such as that which may be experienced by amateur turners, can
also have irritant effects on the skin which can lead to nettle rashes or irritant dermatitis. Symptoms
usually only persist as long as the affected skin site remains in contact with the dust. Similar, and more
worrying effects, can result from the development of allergic dermatitis caused by contact with the dust
of specific wood species. Asthma can also be caused as a similar specific allergic reaction. Once
sensitised the skin or lungs may react severely if subsequently exposed even to very small amounts of
dust from the specific species.
As far as woodturning is concerned wood dust is mostly produced by sanding, particularly power
sanding, on the lathe, as well as by cutting wood on the band-saw. Dust is also raised by sweeping and
cleaning-up. Any turner who wears glasses will know that when these operations are taking place the
lenses quickly become covered in dust. This is what one is breathing unless precautions are taken.
The most dangerous dust is the finest dust. This fine dust is so light it will hang in the air for a long
period after the activity which produced it has ceased. Ideally an efficient dust extraction system which
will remove the smallest particles should be fitted. But many amateurs, and those who spend only a
limited amount of time turning, will be not be able to justify such expense. In that case some form of
dust mask, or a battery powered respirator, should be worn.
Protection against allergic reactions to wood dust is very difficult to achieve. Fortunately, for most of us,
it is relatively uncommon. Those of us who have not suffered in this way should not be smug, however,
because an allergy can strike without warning and once sensitised the victim will always remain allergic.
There is a mitigating factor in that these allergies, as mentioned above, are specific to particular species.
The answer for those who have become allergic to a species is to try to avoid using it.
Another possible danger from dust is that of fire or explosion. Explosions caused by wood dust are not
unknown but I have never heard of them occurring in a woodturner's work shop. Where the latter is
concerned, one place where high enough concentrations of dust might occur is within a dust extraction
system, particularly if there are positions where dust might collect.
Fine dust gets everywhere in a work-shop including electrical fittings such as plugs and switches. It is
conceivable that a spark might ignite such dust when it could smoulder for some time before bursting
into flame. Fire and explosion from such causes are unlikely perhaps, but it is well to be aware of the
possibility.
5.6 Noise
Noise can also create a long-term hazard. Persistent exposure to loud noise can result in deafness.
Generally speaking, woodturning is not a noisy occupation, but there can be occasions when it and allied
activities such as powered sawing, particularly with a chain-saw, can produce high sound levels. On such
occasions it is a wise precaution to wear ear protection.
5.7 Physical fitness

There are some books on woodturning that advise one never to work when tired. This really is a counsel
of perfection. Only in an ideal world would it be possible to follow that advice. The use of alcohol is
another matter. Using any machinery after drinking should be avoided.
5.8 Guards
Guards, particularly those over pulleys on the lathe and on band-saws, are fitted not only to protect the
operator from an absent minded action, or slip, but also to protect other people who may come into the
work shop. They should be used.
Lathes are sometimes used in public places, such as craft fairs, where guards and safety screens are even
more important. I have seen a lathe at a craft fair used with no guards over the pulleys and nothing to
keep the public at a safe distance. That is irresponsible. I have also seen a turner at a craft fair wearing a
face screen to protect himself but with no safety screen to protect the public. In such circumstances clear
polycarbonate plastic safety screens should be fitted. Polycarbonate is very strong, in contrast acrylic is
unsuitable because it can shatter under impact.
5.9 Turning speeds

If the turner is in any doubt about which speed to use the lower option should always be selected first.
The danger from excessive speed is that the work-piece, or bits of it, may be flung from the lathe. The
biggest danger is from a work-piece that is badly split or is built up from glued up pieces (such as stave
work). I once had an extremely painful blow on the arm from a large oak platter which split into two
pieces as I was taking a cut. I was lucky - a piece might have hit me in the face or some other vulnerable
area. I have also heard more than one story about the disintegration of built-up work. Where any danger
of such mishaps is perceived a low speed should be selected.
Quite frequently pieces of scrap wood are glued to the work-piece as a means of mounting it on a face
plate, or chuck, to prevent screw marks appearing in the finished piece. It is tempting to use plywood or
MDF (medium density fibreboard) for this purpose. This should be avoided if the work-piece is of any
size. Both of these materials tend to be very weak across the layers and may split under load. The use of
paper in the glue joint is often recommended for the reason that it makes it easier to separate the waste
piece from the finished work. For that very reason this technique should be used only be on relatively
small jobs.
5.10 Checking the work-piece

When starting a new piece of spindle turning care should be taken to ensure that the work-piece is held
firmly. Subsequently, the work-piece should be checked from time to time to make sure that it has not
worked loose.
5.11 Adjustment of the tool rest

Whenever a new work-piece is fitted to the lathe it should be rotated by hand before switching on to
ensure that any projections will not catch on the tool rest. Whenever adjustments are to be made to the
tool rest the lathe should be switched off. Before switching the lathe back on the work-piece should
again be rotated by hand.
5.12 Polishing
A possible source of danger to the hands is the use of cloth for polishing. When a piece of rag is used,
particularly a piece with loose strands where it has been torn, it can get caught in the rough wood where
the work-piece has been partially parted off. When this happens the cloth is wrapped tightly around the
wood in a fraction of a second. Consequently, when cloth is used, it should be held loosely in the hand so
that if it is caught it will pull out easily. It should definitely not be wrapped around the hand. It is best not
to use cloth at all, many turners now use paper towel for applying finish and polishing. It is readily
available, cheap and, above all, safe. If it does catch on the wood it just tears.
5.13 Precautions against a dig-in

Fear, and the muscular tension which accompanies it, can inhibit the novice turner. If the beginner is
very afraid of a dig-in, and what happen as a consequence, he can make arrangements for the drive to
slip (like a clutch) if unusual resistance is encountered. On some lathes it is possible to run the lathe with
a loose belt. Where this is not possible the work-piece can be driven with a solid cone centre or ring
centre. In this case a rotating centre must be used at the tailstock end. Either of these arrangements will
permit the drive to slip if there is extra resistance.
5.14 Use of the correct tools
It should become clear from the instructions which follow in subsequent sections of this book that
successful turning will only result from the use of the right tools for the job. There some instances,
however, the use of the wrong tools, or the right tools in the wrong way, can be dangerous. The
instructions given should be followed with care.
5.15 The use of other machinery

This is not the place to comment on the safe use of all the additional machinery which might be used by
the wood turner. There are, however, three machines which can be considered, two of which are very
commonly used, ie the grinder and the band-saw, and one which is used from time to time which is
potentially extremely dangerous. The main safety precautions to be taken in relation to the grinder are
covered in Chapter 4 and should be referred to there.
I am not qualified to comment on all the safety precautions which should be taken with a band-saw.
Nonetheless, there are a number of things I have become aware of through experience. Full use should
be made of the safety guard. This should always be brought down as close to the work as possible. Like a
grinder the a band-saw will continue to run after it has been switched off. Consequently, after completing
a cut I make a practice of pulling the guard down to table level. Obviously the fingers should be kept as
far away from the blade as possible, push sticks are a must.
It is often necessary to cut pieces of wood of an irregular shape. These can include burrs and limb wood.
Because of lack of support under the blade the work can be caught by the teeth and given an sudden,
uncontrollable, jerk. As a result the fingers could be brought into contact with the blade. Even if this
does not happen the fingers can be injured by being caught under the work - I once lost a finger nail
when this happened when I was attempting to cut a small log. Some means of safely supporting such
pieces of work should be found.
The tool to be treated with the utmost respect is the chain saw. This is not the place to go into the safe
use of this tool. Anyone preparing to use this tool should ensure that they are aware of all the hazards it
presents, and that they make use of the appropriate safety measures and clothing.
5.16 A clear floor space

Wherever there is machinery there is the danger that someone will trip up and put their hand on moving
parts. Because of this the floor of a work shop should always be kept clear.
5.17 Fire
Fires do occur in work shops.They may not be a source of personal danger but they are a hazard which
could result in damage to property and equipment. Particularly in timber work shops naked lights and
inflammable materials should be handled with care. An eye should also be kept open for the possibility
of electrical faults. Cloth or paper soaked in finishing materials such as cellulose or oil can ignite by
means of spontaneous combustion if collected together in sufficient concentration. I make sure that each
piece has thoroughly dried out before binning it.
5.18 Conclusion
This chapter turned out to be much longer than I expected when I began writing it. But I make no
apology for labouring the point. Serious accidents to woodturners are uncommon and are no more likely
to occur than accidents to people undertaking other relatively 'safe' activities. I used to know two people
who had accidents playing table tennis; one broke his jaw and the other his ankle. If we were deterred
from such activities because of the fear of an accident then we would not do anything and miss a lot of
pleasure. Having said that, it should be acknowledged that the possibility of an accident can be greatly
reduced by knowing where the dangers may lie. My two table tennis playing friends could have avoided
some serious discomfiture if one had been aware of the danger of slipping on water on the floor and the
other of a brick lying in the corner of the room.

Home | Intro to WT
Woodturning - Making a clean cut
Home | Intro to WT
6.1 General introduction
This chapter, and the one which follows, deals with the general way in which the turning tool is
controlled so as to produce a good clean cut. This should leave the wood with a smooth surface
unmarred by torn fibres. In later chapters instructions will be given on how to perform the specific
operations by which the range of basic shapes, which form the fundamentals of woodturning, are
produced. A description of these basic forms (or cuts)is given in Chapter 8. This present chapter is
concerned with the factors which are common to all these operations.
In considering these factors we will start with the position of the body and end with thoughts on the
direction of the cut in relation to the grain of the wood in the following progression:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
the position of the body (the stance)

the way the tool is held in the hands (the grip)
the attitude of the tool (the rubbing bevel)
the way the correct attitude of the tool is maintained
the direction of the cut in relation to the grain.
This analysis will focus on the use of cutting tools, eg chisels and gouges. Some thought will be given to
the use of scrapers in a later chapter .
6.2 The correct stance

When first learning to turn it is vital to adopt the correct stance. There are two main reasons for this. One
is that the turner will be standing at the lathe for long periods - the adoption of the correct stance will
help to reduce the fatigue that this entails. The other, with which we are particularly concerned here, is
that much of the control of the turning tools comes not only from the hands but from body movements.
Often, when making a cut, the body and the hands should move as one. It will be found from experience
that it is much easier to maintain the tool in the correct attitude if the body forms a firm platform for the
hands.
Initially, when the turner is preparing to make a cut on a work piece held between centres, the body
should be balanced on both feet with the legs and trunk more or less vertical without any twist. If the top
half of the body is bent over very far then it will not be long before backache sets in. The position of the
feet is important; they need to be close to the lathe so that the turner can reach the rest without bending
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very much. The position of the feet also determines the orientation of the body in relation to the axis of
the lathe. A slightly oblique position is suggested; that is to say a line drawn through the shoulders
should cut the axis of the lathe at an angle of somewhere around 15 degrees. So the feet need to be a
little distance apart and pointing in the correct direction (see Diagram 6.1).
Diagram 6.1 The position of the feet

The stance should also be compact with the elbows kept close to the sides of the body. Because of this
the right hand (of a right handed person)should be positioned to hold the tool just below the ferrule. Tool
handles are usually made considerably longer than required for many operations. When the right hand is
held too far back the elbow is pushed away from the body, ie behind and to the side. If this happens there
is little to stop it wobbling around out of control and the necessary movements of the wrist and fingers
are seriously inhibited. The forearm should be kept in line with the tool so that the fingers, and the wrist,
can easily rotate the tool around its axis.
In carrying out a cut movement must take place. But, as far as is practical, the movement should be
confined to the body rather than the hands or arms. In carrying out the planing cut, for example (see
Chapter 11) the tool is traversed along the work piece by means of a sideways movement of the complete
body.
Let's take a detailed look at the situation of a right-handed person making such a cut from right to left.
The feet are positioned so that the body is in the oblique position with the right side furthest from the
lathe. At the commencement of the cut the weight of the body is shifted onto the right foot with the body
leaning slightly to the right. As the cut is made, and the tool is moved along the wood, the weight of the
body is transferred from the right foot onto the left so that the body is leaning in that direction. Whilst
this action is being carried out the body should not be allowed to twist and the upper arms should
maintain a constant position in relation to the trunk. The movement of the lower arms and the hands
should be limited to the extent of keeping the tool in the necessary attitude.
It must be emphasised that the above description is only meant to give an approximate indication of the
required stance and accompanying movement. Each turner should take up a stance which he finds
comfortable. This description has been applied to turning between centres but the general idea behind it
also applies to end grain and bowl turning - that is to say, in these activities as well the body must do as
much of the work as possible. Generally speaking the stance should also be compact but bowl gouges
have long handles and the turner may stand somewhat further away from the lathe. Then the right hand,
holding the end of the handle, may be allowed to rest on the body somewhere in the region of the hip.
6.3 The grip

This leads to the question of the grip. In the case of the left hand there are two basic ways of holding the
tool: the overhand grip and the underhand grip. I tend to alternate between one and the other according to
circumstances. It is difficult to specify what these circumstances are but they are not critical. The novice
should experiment to see which seems to be the most comfortable in various situations.
With the overhand grip the hand is on top of the tool and normally all the fingers are wrapped around the
blade with the thumb underneath and the palm facing downwards. With the underhand method there are
two possible grips. One is similar to the overhand grip but with the hand underneath and the palm facing
upwards. In the other, which is used when more sensitivity and control is required, the hand is positioned
underneath but the blade is held just by tip of the forefinger and the thumb. As the tool is manoeuvred
the tips of some of the other fingers may come into play.
In the case of the right hand there is a similar choice between the palm grip, where the fingers are
wrapped around the handle and the palm is in contact with it, and the finger grip, where the handle is
held between the tips of the fingers and the tip of the thumb. The finger grip is mostly used on spindle
work when sensitivity and control are required for the more delicate work, such as cutting a small bead.
This grip is difficult to master and the novice is advised to use the palm grip.
6.4 Controlling the cut

Having looked at the stance and the way the tool is gripped we now need to look at the position in which
the tool should be held so as to produce a clean cut. Wood cuts best when the fibres are severed cleanly
and not ripped out of the wood. This is achieved by keeping the bevel of a sharp cutting tool in contact
with the wood, i.e. keeping the bevel rubbing in short. As will be shown later it is important to cut with
the grain as much as possible.
How is the contact between the wood and the bevel maintained? Diagram 6.2 shows a properly ground
tool with the underside of the bevel correctly positioned, flat on the wood. In this position the bevel is
said to be 'rubbing'. As shown in the diagram there are two forces acting on the tip of the tool. Force A
represents the resistance of the wood to be cut which has the effect of pushing down the cutting edge into
the wood. Force B represents the resistance of the wood to the flat of the bevel.
Diagram 6.2 The tool in the cutting position

In many circumstances, if the tool is maintained in the attitude shown, force B and the downward
component of force A and will be virtually equal and the tool will cut smoothly with the turner having to
do little other than push the tool along. It is often possible for an experienced turner to make a cut using
only one hand (on the handle). At other times, however, because of the uneven consistency of the wood,
the tool may have a tendency to bounce. In this case the turner may have to apply some downward force
in order to keep the bevel in contact with the wood.
How is the correct attitude of the tool maintained? Let us think first of all about the situation faced by a
woodcarver who is pushing the tool along with his hands. It can be seen from Diagram 6.2 that if the tip
of the handle is moved down in the direction of arrow C the tool will pivot about point Y (the heel of the
bevel), the cutting edge will lift, and the depth of cut will be reduced. If, on the other hand the handle is
raised, point Y will lift off and the cutting edge will go deeper into the wood, so taking a bigger cut. If
this process is not terminated the edge will continue to bury itself in the wood. In order to regain the
control the carver will have to lower his hands until point A is again in contact with the wood and the
bevel is rubbing. In moving his hands up and down to control the depth of cut the carver is in effect
using the heel of the bevel as a fulcrum.
The situation is very much the same for the turner except that he has to use the tool rest to help him to
control the tool. Because of this control is exerted not just be raising or lowering the handle but also by
making small adjustments to the amount of the tool extending over the tool rest. The latter adjustments
are very subtle and tend to be performed automatically by the experienced turner. The way to gain this
skill is not to think about the position of the tool in relation to the tool rest but, instead, to focus attention
on the use of the bevel.
6.5 Problems caused by a badly sharpened tool

On all cutting tools the bevel must either be flat or concave (ie hollow ground); it must never be convex.
Two of the problems created by rounding off the bevel of a tool when sharpening are illustrates Part A in
Diagram 6.3. One is that the effective bevel angle is greatly increased, so reducing the efficiency of the
tool; the other is that there is a very good chance that when the major part of the bevel is rubbing the tool
will not cut at all. Part B of this diagram shows that in order to get the tool to cut the heel of the bevel
will have to be lifted well clear of the surface. In this position the cutting edge has very little support
from the bevel and is likely to force its way into the wood, producing a 'dig in'. Clearly, unless the bevel
of the tool is either flat or hollow ground the tool will be difficult to control.
Diagram 6.3 A badly sharpened tool
6.6 The concept of the rubbing bevel

In the foregoing I have referred to the need to keep the bevel flat (ie, rubbing) on the wood. For
convenience it has also been assumed that the wood is flat. On a flat section of wood either the whole of
the bevel must rub or none of it. But on a curved piece of wood (and most surfaces of a piece of turnery
are curved) it would seem to be impossible for the whole of the of the bevel to rub. On an inside curve, e.
g. on the inside of a bowl, there will be contact at two points, on the cutting edge and on the heel. In
theory, on an outside curve only a small part of the bevel, that adjacent to the cutting edge, can be in
contact with the wood. Nevertheless, it can be argued that the concept of the rubbing bevel is one of the
most important in the woodturning process.
Some years ago there was a debate in one of the woodworking magazines (in the UK) between two
experienced turners; one of them insisted that the bevel must rub all of the time the other disagreed
strongly.
The crux of this argument depends, not surprisingly, on what is meant by the bevel: is it the whole of the
bevel or only a small portion of it? On an inside curve the two points referred to above, ie the edge and
the heel, should be in contact. On an outside curve the bevel should lie on the tangent to the surface at
the point being cut (see Diagram 6.4). In such a case the bevel is providing less assistance to the control
of the cut.
Diagram 6.4 The bevel rubbing on an outside curve

As a consequence it is easy for the beginner to lapse into a scraping action, particularly with the
roughing gouge. For this reason, when spindle turning it is often found beneficial to hold the cutting
edge of the tool at an angle to the axis of the lathe whilst moving the tool in the direction in which it is
pointing (see Section 10.3). This has the effect of flattening the curvature of the wood; as consequence
the bevel has more support.
There is, however, a practical aspect of this which needs to be considered. This is that the wood is often
soft enough to deform slightly under the force of the cut. As a consequence if the curvature of the wood
is not too great the bevel is pressed into the wood, so making greater contact. The effect of this can often
be seen in the way the wood is burnished smooth. Sometimes the smooth finish will be slightly marred
by scratches made by the heel of the bevel where it has been pressed into the wood. This is proof (if any
is required) that the bevel has been rubbing along all of its length.
Some qualification of the term 'rubbing' is required - what it really means is keeping the bevel flat on the
wood. It does not mean that it should always be pressed down hard on the wood. Sometimes it is
necessary for the bevel to just brush the wood.

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Woodturning - Grain and other factors
Home | Intro to WT
7.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, in thinking about the way the tool cuts, three important factors were temporarily
ignored. These are :
the question of grain and its direction

the rotation of the work-piece
the fact that the cutting edge is often held at an angle to the direction in which the wood is
moving (the slicing cut)
7.2 The concept of grain

The cells of the wood, which take the form of hollow cylinders, join together to form strands of fibres
which lie in a uniform direction which is more or less axial either to the trunk or to its offshoots. The lay
of the fibres is commonly referred to as the 'grain'.
Diagram 7.1 Primary forms of cut

Diagram 7.1 shows a block of wood in which the grain is running longitudinally. Three tools are shown
as if about to make cuts in the directions indicated by the arrows. These illustrate the three primary forms
of cut; as defined in the common expressions of:
cutting along the grain (A);
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cutting across the grain (B);

cutting end grain (C).
In practice of course, particularly in woodturning, there is an infinite range of variations on these cuts.
Not only can any number of intermediate positions between those shown be taken up but the edge of the
tool does not necessarily have to be held at 90 degrees to the direction in which the wood is moving. It
should be noted that in Diagram 7.1 the wood is assumed to be stationary and the tool to be moving.
Often, in woodturning both the wood and the tool are moving, but with the wood moving faster than the
tool. For the purposes of analysis, in this particular context, this does not matter; all that we are
concerned with here is the movement of the wood and the cutting edge in relation to each other.
7.3 Cutting along the grain

Anybody who has worked wood with a hand plane will know that it is desirable to plane with the grain.
Diagram 7.2 illustrates the common situation in which the fibres of the wood lie at an angle to the edges
of the wood block.
Diagram 7.2 Planing with and against the grain

When the wood is planed with the grain any splitting between the fibres takes place above and in front of
the cutting edge, which subsequently severs the fibres neatly, so leaving a clean surface, as shown in
Diagram 7.3.
Diagram 7.3 Cutting with the grain

If an attempt is made to plane against the grain the cutting edge picks up the ends of the fibres, lifting
them out of the wood, so that they break off in an irregular manner leaving a rough finish. This is
illustrated in Diagram 7.4.
Diagram 7.4 Cutting against the grain
7.4 Cutting end grain

When an attempt is made to cut end grain the cutting edge is forced across the ends of the fibres and
there is a danger that they will be disturbed below the cut surface before they are severed (see
Diagram 7.5). If the tool is allowed to pass beyond the edge of the work-piece, where the fibres have no
support, a piece of wood may splinter off. When cutting end grain fine cuts need to be taken to minimise
this problem.
Diagram 7.5 Cutting end grain
7.5 Cutting across the grain

When cutting across the grain the wood fibres will lie parallel to the edge of the tool. As the tool
penetrates the wood the fibres do not always separate cleanly in front of the edge of the tool (as
illustrated in Diagram 7.6). Some of the fibres may be lifted out of the surface below the cutting edge
leaving a series of parallel furrows. This affect can often be easy to see; one instance is when a parting
tool has been used to cut a groove.
Diagram 7.6 Cutting across the grain
7.6 The way the work is held on the lathe and the terminology
The different ways in which the work piece can be held on the lathe affect the way the grain runs and
have important implications for consideration of the way in which the wood is cut.
There are three main ways of holding the work-piece in the lathe:
between a drive spur in the headstock and a centre in the tailstock

by one end only
by one face only
The first of these two is commonly referred to as turning 'between centres'. The term 'spindle turning'
also refers to 'between centres' work but usually in relation to a relatively slender work-piece such as a
chair leg or a lamp column. Generally, however, these terms are interchangeable. It should be noted that
the techniques used in spindle turning can, and frequently are, applied to a work-piece held by one end
only. The stem of a goblet is a good example.
Bowl turning is usually carried out with the work piece held on one side only; nevertheless it is possible
for some, if not all, of the operations to be carried out with the bowl-blank held between centres. Also,
although bowls are usually made from a work-piece in which the grain is orientated at right angles to the
axis of the lathe they can also be made from a piece in which the grain runs parallel to the axis. We need
to use some terminology which will cover all the combinations which these possibilities allow.
When the inside of a bowl, a goblet, or any similar object, is hollowed out with the work-piece held by
one end, or one side, and with the grain parallel to the axis of the lathe, this is commonly referred to as
'end grain turning'. As far as I am aware there is no common term applied to the same operation carried
out where the grain is at right angles to the axis (ie on a 'normal' bowl). The term I apply to this is 'face
turning'. If any of the operations on a bowl are carried out between centres then these would be described
by that term, that is as work carried out 'between centres'.
7.7 The implications of rotation

If we look at a cylindrical work-piece held between centres in the lathe we may, for example, see the
grain running through it at an angle as shown in the piece of wood illustrated in Diagram 7.2. Then if we
rotate the work-piece half-a-turn (ie 180 degrees) the grain will, in effect, be running in the opposite
direction. Thus, when turning a cylinder, the grain, as it is encountered by the cutting edge of the tool
will continually be changing its direction. Whether the tool is moved from left to right, or from right to
left, the cut will alternately be made with and against the grain.
Diagram 7.7 Uphill and down hill - between centres

As soon as any shaping of the work piece takes place, however, the situation changes. Consider the vase
shape shown in Diagram 7.7; for convenience, in this case, it is assumed that the grain is running parallel
to the axis of the lathe. Cuts made in the direction marked 'downhill' will invariably be made with the
grain and those marked 'uphill' against the grain. The terms 'uphill' and 'downhill' have been used
because they have become part of the Woodturner's vocabulary. In this context, however, the terms 'up'
and 'down' do not necessarily refer to tool movements related to the centre of the earth but to their
relation to the work-piece. Thus a cut made downhill, ie with the grain, on a spindle turning is one made
towards the central axis of the turning.
Diagram 7.8 Uphill and downhill - cutting on the rim of a bowl

When a face turning, such as a bowl is considered the situation changes. This is illustrated in Diagram
7.8, where the grain is assumed to run at a right angle to the axis of the lathe. The arrows show that when
a cut is made around the rim of a disk the grain direction is continually changing, eg (1) end grain, (2)
against the grain, (3) along the grain, (4) with the grain. When the bowl shape is being formed the
question of uphill or down re-emerges as shown in Diagram 7.9. Whether a cut is made uphill or
downhill depends on the direction of the slope of the surface on which it is made (in relation to the axis
of the lathe) and whether it is made on an inside or outside curve.
Diagram 7.9 uphill and downhill - shaping a bowl

Similar consideration apply to an end grain turning, such as a goblet. A cut made towards the axis on the
inside of the cup will be uphill, ie against the grain. A cut made on the outside of the cup, also towards
the axis will be downhill, ie with the grain.
At some point, when a bowl with a well rounded shape is being turned, the effects shown in Diagram 7.9
may be outweighed by those shown in Diagram 7.8, and when the gouge is encountering end grain it
may begin to pick up the fibres of the wood. Even for experienced bowl turners this can create a
problem. We will look at some methods which can be used to minimise the tearing of end grain on bowls
when bowl turning is considered in detail in a later chapter.
7.8 The slicing cut

In Diagram 7.10 shows a work-piece held between centres with the grain running parallel to the axis of
the lathe. Two square nosed chisels, A and B, are shown positioned with their bevels in the rubbing
position. It is convenient, but not important, to assume the chisels to be square nosed, but B could, in
fact, be skewed. What is important is that it is assumed that the edge of chisel A is held parallel to the
axis whereas that of A is held at an angle. Unless chisel A is narrow, like a parting tool, it will be very
difficult, if not dangerous, to hold in that position. The reason for this is that not only will the cutting
edge be in contact with the wood along its full length, it will also be parallel to the fibres of the wood; ie
it will be cutting across the grain. Since both ends of the edge will be below the surface of the wood the
fibres will have to be torn away at these extremities. Even if the cut can be maintained the surface left
will tend to be very rough.
Diagram 7.10 The slicing cut

The case of chisel B is very different. Because it is held obliquely to a curved surface only small portion
of its edge is in contact with the wood and so it will take a relatively narrow shaving. It should also be
noted that the fibres at the edges of the shaving are severed by the tool.
There is yet another factor to be considered. The direction in which the shaving is travelling is shown by
the arrow in Diagram 7.10 B. It can be seen that the edge of the tool is at an oblique angle to the
direction in which the shaving is travelling. This means that the wood fibres are moving along the cutting
edge so producing a slicing cut. The fibres are very fine and if they and the edge of a sharp tool were
greatly magnified (on a similar scale), the tool would be seen to have a jagged edge like that of a saw.
The saw-like action severs the fibres still more cleanly.
In the instances I have been looking at in the above paragraphs the chisel has been positioned so that it
has been cutting along the grain (ie parallel to the grain). It should be noted, however, that the slicing
effect is enhanced when the cutting direction is downhill, ie when the cut is being made with the grain.
When a slicing cut is combined with cutting with the grain the possibility of lifting the fibres out of the
surface below the cutting edge is considerably reduced and very clean cuts are possible even on awkward
material.
It should also be noted that cuts in which the edge of the tool is oblique to the direction in which the
wood is moving, ie slicing cuts, can also be made with gouges in which ever circumstances they made be
used, eg when cutting a cove or forming a bowl.

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Spindle turning
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8.1 The basic cuts
When I am teaching students on my courses I always teach spindle turning before end grain or bowl
turning. The reason for this is that it provides a pattern of learning in which the student proceeds in a
short series of simple, easy to understand, steps. These steps pretty well programme themselves and
provide a structured introduction to the discipline of woodturning. When they come to bowl turning
students can then be shown how to adapt the principles they have learned to the new form.
There are only a small number of basic cuts used in spindle turning. Once the turner has learnt to
perform these correctly he can, in principle, turn anything between centres.
Assuming that we are starting with a square blank these cuts are as follows:
Roughing down to a cylinder

The smoothing/or planing cut
'V' cuts
Forming a Bead
Forming a cove
Blending beads and coves
Squaring the end
Rounding the end
Cutting pummels
8.2 Roughing down

Let us look at these cuts in sequence so that the reader knows where he is going. The first job to be done
when undertaking a piece of spindle turning is to 'rough' down the square blank to a cylinder. This is
done with a large gouge normally used only for this particular operation. Not surprisingly it is called a
'roughing out gouge' (or roughing gouge). The operation gets it name from the fact that the gouge leaves
a rough surface; it can also be a fairly crude and brutal operation. For professional, for example, it is a
job which needs to be done as quickly as possible so that the interesting work can start.
8.3 The planing cut

The planing cut is analogous to the use of the smoothing plane in general woodwork. It is done with a
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Spindle turning
chisel immediately after roughing down. the skew chisel is used to produce a good surface which should
require little sanding.
8.4 The 'V' cut

As the reader will anticipate the 'V' cut is used to make a 'v' shaped depression in the work piece (see
Diagram 8.1). Such a cut may be made for its own sake, as part of the decoration of the work piece; but
often is made as the first step in the cutting of a bead or similar operation.
Diagram 8.1 'V' cuts
8.5 The bead

A beaaning cutd is a form of decoration running round a piece of turning which is roughly semicircular
in cross-section (see Diagram 8.2). It is upstanding like a hill.
Diagram 8.2 Beads
8.6 The cove

A cove is the opposite of a bead. It is also roughly semicircular in cross-section but forms an indentation
like a valley (see Diagram 8.3).
Spindle turning
Diagram 8.3 Coves
8.7 Blending beads and coves

As suggested above the profile of a true bead or cove approximates to an arc of a circle, very often, but
not always, approaching the full semicircle. They are often applied as a form of decoration. In other
cases, however, the form of the the item being made will call for more gentle bumps or hollows. Often
these will flow together. One example is the handle of a turning tool (see Diagram 8.4). Blending bumps
and hollows together calls for an extension of the skills used for cutting beads and coves.
Diagram 8.4 Blending a bead and a cove to form a handle shape
8.8 Squaring the end

Sometimes it is necessary to cut the end of the work piece square with a perfectly clean cut, that is, one
without any torn fibres. This cut is similar to that for a 'V' cut but many turners find it rather more
difficult.

There are occasions when it is necessary to make the end of the work piece completely round. This is not
dissimilar to cutting a large bead but it is useful to consider it as a separate exercise because there are
come additional points which can be made.
8.10 The pummel

At times, when making items such as table or stool legs, it is necessary to leave sections of the work
Spindle turning
piece unturned and in the original square condition. This, therefore, requires making a transition from the
square section to the round. The section which is left square is called a pummel (see Diagram 8.5)
Diagram 8.5 The pummel.

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Spindle turning - setting up for practice
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9.1 The blank
The most convenient timber to practise on is some kind of softwood. This has the advantage that it is
cheap and readily available. The wood does not have to be of good quality. Old pallet wood, for
example, will do nicely, and offcuts of floor joists can often be picked up on building sites. It is,
however, best to avoid knots as much as possible because they are hard and create wild grain; as a
consequence they are relatively difficult to turn.
Whatever wood is used, It should be cut to provide a blank about 2 in square by 12 ins long. Some
turners, I believe, like to cut the corners off of a square to be used for spindle turning with a power saw
or by planing. Normally, this is not necessary. Someone, I think it was Peter Child, said: "there is a
machine designed to take the corners off, it's called a lathe".
9.2 Mounting the blank

Fit the practice piece between centres on the lathe. A two-prong or four-prong drive centre can be used at
the headstock end. It does not greatly matter which, although I favour the two-prong. Alternatively, the
suggestions I made in Chapter 5 (section 13) when referring to safety can be followed. If either four
prong, or a ring centre, is used to drive the work care should be taken to ensure that the end is cut square
so that the points or the ring will be in full contact with the wood. If a cone point, or a ring centre, is used
then it will be necessary to use a revolving centre in the tailstock.
If a spur drive is used a fixed centre can be used in the tailstock but, if so, a blob of light oil must be
dropped on the work-piece where the point will penetrate. This relieves the friction and prevents burning
of the wood.
If the fixed centre is used care must be taken to tighten it up from time to time as the work progresses as
may become a little loose in the early stages. If this is not taken care of the work-piece could fly off the
lathe and cause injury; in any case it needs to be held firmly if turning is to proceed satisfactorily.
9.3 The rest

Before the rest is fitted for the first time the top edge should be examined carefully to make sure it is
smooth and free from paint, grooves or notches which might impede a tool which is slid along it. If it is
not free from these defects it should be filed smooth. It should be remembered that a chisel or beading
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tool will probably have a relatively square corner which can catch quite easily. To allow chisels to slide
more easily it is a good idea to round off any sharp corners with a stone.
Once the work-piece has been mounted the tool rest must be set in position. It should be placed where it
will be about 1/4 in clear of the revolving corners of the work-piece and a little below its centre. It is not
possible to be very specific about the latter distance. I am often asked how high the rest should be; my
answer is "where it is comfortable". The reason for this is that it depends on the height of the turner in
relation to the height of the lathe. However, about 1/4 in should be about right to start with (see Diagram
9.1)
Diagram 9.1 The position of the rest for initial exercise

The point is that the rest should be in such a position that a cut can easily be taken whilst retaining the
recommended stance (see Chapter 6). This should not create any heartaches as the position is not that
critical. After a couple of passes of the tool the beginner should begin to get the feel of where the rest
should be.
In carrying out the exercises described below consideration should be given to the length of the rest.
Ideally it should be about 8 ins long. Anything less than 6 ins will mean that it will have to be moved
frequently. Anything more than 10 ins and it may become unwieldy and, if it is not strongly made, it may
flex at the ends. But the beginner will probably have to use whatever rest is supplied with the lathe.
9.4 Turning speeds

It is also necessary to consider the selection of speeds. When I am demonstrating I am often asked what
speed I am using. That is a reasonable question but it is one to which I do not necessarily know the
answer. When I was using my Coronet Major all the time I would not think about speed as such but I
would consider the size of the work-piece and then decide which of the five pulleys was appropriate.
Occasionally, perhaps because the work-piece was a little out of balance, or for some other reason, I
would decide that the speed was wrong and then move up or down a pulley. Now that I am using a lathe
with an electronic variable speed I simply turn the control knob until I judge that the lathe is turning at a
suitable speed. Then, again, I may decide that some adjustment is required.
So where does this leave the beginner. It should be noted that the "correct" speed is determined by a
number of features of the work-piece, such as the diameter, the width or length, the weight, the hardness
and density, and the fibre structure. To add to this there is the variability of turners' techniques and the
choice of tools and bevel angles. Even if there was such a thing as a "correct" speed, the actual choice is
likely to be a compromise when there may be only three speeds available.
Please note, though, that even if it is not possible to choose the "correct" speed it is quite possible to
choose the wrong speed. This is more likely to be too fast than too slow. I think it possible that many
novices consider that high speeds (or the fastest practical speeds) are desirable. It is in fact much better
(it is certainly safer) for the novice to err on the low side when choosing a speed. If that seems too slow
he can then move up to the next speed.
The tendency to choose too high a speed not helped by the fact that some lathes on the market (or which
may be purchased second hand) have a totally inappropriate range of speeds. (See the comments about
lathes in Chapter 2.)
As he gets to know his machine, and his material, the turner begins to know almost instinctively how fast
it should be rotating for a particular job. Often the sound alone will provide sufficient information.
Consequently the experienced turner seldom thinks in terms of rpm or of cutting speeds. However,
particularly in the case of the exercises described below, I will indicate the speed that should be used,
where I think this is appropriate.

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Woodturning - roughing down
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10.1 Setting up
As explained earlier (see Chapter 8 Section 2) the first job to be done when undertaking a piece of
spindle turning is to 'rough down' the square blank to a cylinder.
For the first exercise a piece of two by two is fitted in the lathe as described in the previous chapter, the
tool rest is positioned, and the lathe set to a suitable speed. For this exercise I would suggest that 2000
rpm is about right.
10.2 Preliminary exercise

As preliminary exercise it is a good idea to try out the tool position, and the way it is to be manipulated,
with the lathe switched off. To begin with the work-piece is revolved by hand so that one of the corners
is pointing roughly at the turners chest. A roughing gouge is then positioned, with the flute uppermost, so
that it is supported by the rest and by the corner of the work-piece. The cutting edge of the gouge should
protrude about 1in beyond that corner (see Diagram 10.1).
Diagram 10.1 Initial position of roughing gouge

With the tool in this position the turner should check that he will be able to take up a comfortable stance
(see Chapter 6 Section 2). If the position is not comfortable the rest should be adjusted accordingly and
the need for any other changes considered.
Next, the gouge should be slid back towards the turner, whilst maintaining contact with the rest and the
work-piece, until the heel of the bevel comes in to contact with the corner, when the movement is
stopped. (See Diagram 10.2) This action should be done several times to get the feel of the required
movement.
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Diagram 10.2 Second position of roughing gouge
10.3 Making the cut

Now the lathe can be switched on. A point on the work-piece is chosen about 6 inches from the left hand
end, the recommended stance is taken up, the grip checked, and the action described above is carried out
slowly and calmly. The gouge should make contact with the rest first and then the handle is raised until
the blade just touches the corners of the work-piece as they come round.
Then the gouge is drawn back until the heel of the bevel is just touching the corners. But now, instead of
stopping, the gouge is withdrawn a little more until the cutting edge just comes into contact with the
work-piece and begins to take tiny shavings off of the corners. The gouge is now at the position where
the bevel can be said to be just rubbing (see Diagram 10.3).
Diagram 10.3 Position of roughing gouge at start of cut

It should be noted that if this is done slowly and carefully there is absolutely no danger of anything
untoward, dangerous, or worrying, taking place. So the turner should stay relaxed, but alert and in
control; the way a confident car driver would be in light traffic.
We are now in the position where the gouge has taken a few small shavings off the corners of the workpiece. If that position is held the gouge will stop cutting and the turner will be able to see a slight
depression in the blur made by the revolving corners. If the gouge is slid to the left, and the attitude of
the tool is maintained, then the edge will again begin to take shavings. When the end of the work-piece is
reached care should be taken to ensure that the cutting edge does not dip into the driving spur.
It should be noted that as the gouge is slid along the rest the initial cutting attitude must be maintained. If
it is not then either the tool will stop cutting or the size of the shaving will increase. The main way to
keep the tool in the right attitude is by moving the trunk of the body rather than by separate movements
of the arms or hands; but, whilst doing this, it may also be necessary to control the size of the shaving by
slightly raising or lowering the handle of the gouge.
10.4 Repeating the cut

When the first cut is completed the tool is returned to the initial position and the cut is repeated again and
again until this part of the work- piece is reduced to a cylinder which has no flats left on it. As the cuts
are repeated it will be found that, at the initial point, a sloping shoulder will be created. Although it is
possible to make roughing cuts to the left or to the right it is not practical to go up a shoulder. Because of
this it will be found necessary to start a little further to the left of the initial point each time and to work
away from the shoulder.
As this section of the work-piece approaches the cylindrical form the gouge can be turned through an
angle of approximately 45 degrees (as seen from overhead) so that it is pointing in the direction it is
moving (see Diagram 10.4). This change in approach enables the bevel to rub more effectively thus
providing more control of the tool. It also provides a slicing cut which produces a smoother finish.
Diagram 10.4 Cuts must be taken away from the shoulder
10.5 The sequence of operations

As soon as all the flats (that is, the sides of the original square) have been removed on this section the
lathe is stopped. The rest is moved to a new position (if necessary) and the untouched part of the workpiece is roughed down in the same manner as before. This may be done in a number of steps, depending
on the length of the work-piece (see Diagram 10.5).
Diagram 10.5 Sequence of operations

When the roughing down has been completed, and there are no flats left on the work-piece, the profile
should be reasonably straight and parallel so that a cylinder is formed. This is best achieved whilst the
roughing down is taking place by trying to prevent the creation of bumps or hollows. It is particularly
necessary to try to avoid hollows when the roughing down is in its final stages. Whenever a hollow is
formed the rest of the surface will eventually have to be taken down to its lowest level.
As soon as a reasonably true cylinder has been formed, with no flats, the turner is ready to move onto the
next exercise. The surface left by the roughing gouge in the foregoing operations will probably be quite
rough. It now needs to be made nice and smooth with the planing operation (see next chapter).
10.6 The direction of the cut

I have suggested that the roughing cut should be made by moving the tool to the left. this is because I
think that the beginner will find it easier to control when working in that direction. Nevertheless, it is not
much more difficult to make the cut from left to right, and this does have the advantage that the shavings
are then shot away from the turner.
Brian Clifford (August 1999)

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Spindle turning - the planing cut
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11.1 Introduction
Many novice turners seem to think that the packaging on a new skew chisel should carry a Government
Health Warning. Perhaps, because they have adopted the wrong approach, or because they have used an
unsuitable tool, or because someone else has told them worrying stories, there are those who pick up the
skew chisel in trepidation of something unpleasant occurring. This is very unfortunate and totally
unnecessary. There is nothing to be afraid of. If the instructions given below are followed closely then
nothing untoward should occur.
11.2 The chisel

It is customary to use a skew chisel to make the planing cut but a square end chisel can also be used. The
skew angle does make it easier to hold the chisel in the correct cutting position. When first attempting
the planing cut the novice will need a wide chisel; it is recommended very strongly that a 1 in. chisel
should be used. This width makes it much easier for the turner to keep the tool cutting in the safe part of
the edge. This will be discussed further below.
In addition the chisel must be sharpened correctly. This is very important. Many of the problems which
people experience with the skew chisel are probably due to a badly ground tool. As a consequence I must
repeat some of the points I made when discussing sharpening in Chapter 4. It is essential that the bevel of
a chisel is ground either concave or, at worst, flat. I believe it will also help if the bevel angle is made
fairly large; I would, in fact, recommend a bevel angle approaching 45 to start with.
Another point worth making, although it does not affect safety, is that the chisel should slide smoothly
along the tool rest. It will slide more readily if the corners of the blade, which come into contact with the
rest, are rounded off slightly. If it has not already been done by the manufacturer, the arris should be
rounded over with a stone.
11.3 The attitude of the chisel

As a preliminary to the planing operation it is necessary to consider the attitude in which the chisel is
used. This is illustrated in Diagram 11.1: the chisel is inclined at an angle so that the cutting edge is at
about 45 to the axis of the lathe when seen from the view point of the turner (we can call this the angle
of attack). This is the position for a right handed person who is making the cut by moving the tool from
right to left, that is, towards the headstock. Note that the long point of a skew should be at the top.
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Diagram 11.1 The attitude of the chisel

Note: a square end chisel is shown in these diagrams.
Whether a square end or a skew chisel is used does not matter.
It is the position in which the edge is held which is important.
11.4 The cutting point

Ideally, the position on the edge, at which cutting takes place, should be about one third of the width of
the edge above the short (or lower) point. For convenience, we can call the position at which cutting
takes place the 'cutting point' (see Diagram 11.2). In practice it will be difficult to maintain this position
precisely but every effort should be made to prevent the contact point rising above the middle point of
the edge.
Diagram 11.1 The cutting point

What has to be emphasised is that the upper corner of the cutting edge must never be allowed to come
into contact with the work-piece; if it is allowed to do so the tool will dig in and, at best, will ruin the
job. Fortunately, by following the procedures described below this is easy to avoid and there will be no
danger.
Although the lower point should not be allowed to come into contact with the work this does not create
the same hazard. If it happens the cut will continue but a rough surface may be produced.
11.5 Preliminary exercises

With the lathe switched off procedures similar to those which I described as a preliminary exercise for
the roughing down operation should be carried out. The correct stance should be taken up and the height
of the tool rest adjusted so that a comfortable position can be maintained. The chisel is laid across the
tool rest and the work-piece and then slid rearwards, along its own axis, until the heel of bevel is in
contact with the wood. It can then be withdrawn a little further until the bevel itself is in contact with the
work-piece.
At this point, with the lathe still switched off, some practice can be had in manipulating the attitude of
the chisel. By making appropriate movements of the handle the turner should be to be able to do two
things:
1. adjust the angle of attack; and
2. adjust the position of the cutting point on the edge of the tool.
The necessary movements should be repeated a number of times. As they are made the bevel should be
held flat on the work-piece. When the lathe is running this will be when the bevel is rubbing (see Chapter
6 Section 6). Also, of course, the edge of the tool must maintain contact with the rest.
To control the tool whilst a cut is in progress the turner must be able to combine these movements. This
necessitates quite subtle adjustments of the tool which on paper may seem very difficult. After a little
practice, however, they are performed without conscious thought on the part of the turner. It is a little
like learning to ride a bicycle: one moment the learner is wobbling all over the road and then, suddenly
he has control of balance and direction.
The movements described are actually easier to make when the cut is in progress than they are with the
work-piece stationary. The small amount of vibration created by the cutting action makes it easier to
slide the tool into the required positions. In addition, the resistance of the wood against the cutting edge
provides some resistance, which the turner can use, to help to provide the control required. With the
some practice the planing cut can readily be made with just one hand, holding the skew by the handle.
11.6 Trying out the cut

It is now time to try out the planing cut for real (ie, with the work-piece in motion) starting from the
situation where roughing down has just been completed. For the time being the speed is left unchanged ,
ie about 2000 rpm. It may be necessary to reduce the speed later but the reasons for this will be
explained in due course. The following instructions are for a right handed person.
Before the lathe is switched on think about how much of the work-piece should be planed in the first
stage. It not advisable to attempt to plane the whole length in one go. In any case the tool rest may well
be too short too permit that. It best to do about 6 ins at a time, starting that distance in from the left-hand
end. Having chosen this position take up the recommended stance and make sure that the feet are placed
in a suitable position.
The procedure to be followed in making the first cut is as follows:
1. the first contact the tool makes is with the tool rest - the tip of the tool should be raised above the
work-piece;
2. the tip is lowered until the blade just touches the revolving corners of the wood;
3. the tool is withdrawn so that the heel of the bevel makes contact with the corners;
4. from this position the chisel is slowly manipulated so that the bevel is rubbing and the edge
begins to cut; and then:
5. the chisel is slid sideways to the left along the rest, taking a light cut to the end of the work-piece;
6. This movement is produced by the body rather than the hands (see sections 6.2 and 11.7).
Care should be taken when the end is reached that the tool does not dip into the drive spur. Throughout
this procedure the contact between the tool and the tool rest must be maintained.
This procedure is repeated until the work-piece has been reduced to the required diameter over this first
section. When this has been achieved the adjacent section is tackled, and so on, until the right hand end
of the work-piece is approached. When working to the left the last section should be started an inch or
more to the left of the right hand end. This leaves a small section at the right hand end which must be
tackled in a different way.
The planing cut should not be attempted with the chisel off the end of the work-piece. This means that
the cut must now be made in the opposite direction, that is, moving from left to right. The cut can now be
made either right handed or left handed. Either way the tool must point to the right in the same attitude
as before. Performed right handed this is a little awkward: the body must be twisted round so that it is
between the handle of the tool and the lathe.
When the cut is performed left handed everything must be a mirror image of the attitude described
above. The right hand holds the tool on the rest and the left hand holds the handle. This may seem a
terrifying idea but in practice most novices do not find it too difficult. The key to success is to take it
slowly and carefully. The chisel is applied to the wood so that the heel of the bevel is rubbing, slowly
manipulated until the edge begins to take a fine shaving, and the cut is made to the end of the workpiece.
11.7 Possible problems

I have taken pains to stress in the foregoing the importance of keeping the bevel rubbing. Allowing the
bevel to come off the work is the primary cause of all problems in turning. Whenever something seems
to be going wrong the turner should check whether or not the bevel is rubbing.
The turner may find that although he can start the planing cut correctly, and maintain it for a short
distance, he has difficulty in keeping the bevel rubbing. A common reason for this is that the upper body
is being allowed to twist as the hands are being moved to the left. When this happens there is a tendency
for the left hand to be pulled away.
The correct way to perform the cut is to keep the hands as still as possible with the elbows tucked into
the sides of the body. The attitude of the tool is controlled by the hands but it is moved sideways by
moving the whole of the trunk. The trunk is moved by transferring the weight of the body from the right
leg to the left and allowing the pelvis to shift from above the right foot to above the left foot. As this
happens the trunk, arms and hands are moved sideways en bloc, without changing their relative
positions.
Another problem can be caused by the tool lifting slightly off of the rest. Sometimes this is revealed by a
slight chattering of the tool and/or a slightly irregular cut. It possibly happens because the turner is
concentrating so hard on keeping the bevel rubbing that he is not paying sufficient attention to other
things. So, the bevel should be kept rubbing and the tool kept in contact with the rest.
11.8 Spiral ribbing

There is one problem which can occur with the planing cut even by experienced turners who, it seems,
are doing every thing right. The most common manifestation of this is that a series of spiral ribs are
formed on the work-piece. This can be difficult to eliminate. I have come across a number of suggestions
for alleviating this problem but have neither seen nor heard an explanation of what causes it.
I have my own theory about this. On many timbers there is a difference in the hardness of the early (or
spring) wood, which is laid down when the sap is rising strongly, and the late (or autumn wood) when
growth is slow. In ring porous timbers, such as ash and oak there is also a difference in the cellular
structure of early and late wood. It is these differences which give rise to the appearance of the annual
rings. In most cases the darker wood in the annual ring is harder, or cuts less readily, than the lighter
areas.
When a work-piece is held between centres with the grain running axially then the annual rings will tend
to run from one end to the other. When the wood is being cut a thicker shaving is taken out of the less
dense wood and the work-piece goes slightly out of round. The denser, darker, wood is usually much
narrower than the rest and tend to stand up as a series of ridges around the work-piece. When this effect
is pronounced the ridges cause the tool to bounce slightly which in turn leads to variations in the depth of
cut to form a spiral pattern.

To overcome this the natural tendency of the turner is to speed the lathe up. Certainly this was my
reaction when I first encountered the problem. In fact increasing the speed of the lathe exacerbates the
problem. What happens is that the increased kinetic energy in the work-piece is transferred to the tool
making it bounce even more. To put this another way: because the ridges on the work-piece are moving
faster they give the tool a harder kick. As a consequence one way of dealing with this problem is to slow
the lathe down.
After reducing the speed of the lathe it may be necessary to remove the bumps and hollows previously
created. In this case the roughing gouge should be passed over the work again to return it to the round
state. Then the planing cut can be tried again.
In some timbers, where the difference in density between the early and late wood is very pronounced, the
tendency to make spiral ribs may still be evident after the speed is reduced. In this case the turner should
try the following suggestions: set the rest as close to the work-piece as possible; hold the chisel more
firmly than usual and, whilst making sure the bevel continues to maintain contact (ie to rub), allow it to
just brush the surface.
If, after trying all these things there is still some ribbing, I have no further suggestions to make as far as
the the chisel is concerned. When the exercises being described here are being followed a perfect surface
is not necessary. If, when the turner has progressed and is attempting to make a specific object, it proves
impossible to plane a satisfactory surface it may ultimately be necessary to resort to some very light
scraping and sanding.
Some turners may find it difficult to accept that the answer to the problem of ribbing is to slow the lathe
down. But remember this: no-one has to take my word for it. People can try it out for themselves and
draw their own conclusions.

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Woodturning: the 'V' cut
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Chapter 12: The V cut
12.1 Introduction
Having roughed down and planed the practice piece the next step is to tackle the 'V' cut. This cut is made
with the corner of a chisel. Because it is made with the corner, it can be made with a chisel of almost any
width. This includes the 3/8 inch square beading and parting tool which can be used as a chisel for this
operation. Many turners may find a narrower tool, such as this, somewhat easier to use. Nevertheless,
when I am teaching I start with the 1 1/4 inch skew. I do this primarily to help to overcome any lingering
fears the student may have concerning this tool.
A chisel has two corners, which are often called points (as they will be here). If the chisel is ground
square, like the beading and parting tool, it does not matter which of the points is used for the 'V' cut; but
if it is a skew then the points are formed at different angles (see Diagram 12.1). In that case the long
point should be used.
Diagram 12.1 Naming the points of the skew chisel

There are two main methods of making the 'V' cut. I call these the 'push' method and the 'swing' method.
In practice these can be used in combination to form a hybrid of the two methods. I consider the swing
method to be the 'proper' way of making this cut because with practise it is more natural and effective.
The novice should be encouraged to persevere with it because it helps to hone skills which are required
for other operations, such as forming beads, which will be described in the next chapter.
12.2 The swing Cut

To begin this cut a very small notch is made, at the position where the 'V' is required, using the long
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point of the skew chisel. To prepare to do this the chisel is held with the long edge on the rest, the blade
vertical, and the point well up on the work piece but just clear of the wood. The handle is lifted so that
the point swings into the wood to make a small mark and then lowered to withdraw the point (see
Diagram 12.2).
Diagram 12.2 Marking the position of the 'V'

Subsequent cuts are made with the chisel leaning to either side. The top edge is leaned to the left for a
cut on the left side and to the right for the right side (see Diagram 12.3) Whilst the cuts are being made
the slope of the cutting edge indicates the direction in which the cut should be made.
Diagram 12.3 Leaning the chisel when making a cut

At the beginning of the cut the bevel should be held at a tangent to the surface of the work piece (see
Diagram 12.4).
Diagram 12.4 Position of the tool when starting a cut

Assuming a cut is being made on the left side of the 'V' the handle is swung up and to the left in a
straight line so that the point cuts a straight line down the side of the 'V'. In doing this the rest, of course,
is used as the pivot point. This being so, it is a matter of straightforward geometry to observe that the
handle must sweep through a plane which is inclined at the same angle as the side of the 'V'.
Diagram 12.5 The movement of the tool

This is shown pictorially in Diagram 12.5. As the cutting point is moved from A to B the tip of the
handle must move from C to D. All four points, A, B, C, and D, and the shaded area in between, lie on a
single plain. Note that point D is well above point C.
The reader may think that I have laboured this point and it may seem obvious on paper, but I have found
that beginners have difficulty in translating theory into practice. What often happens is that, when
observed from behind by the instructor, the tip of the handle can be seen to move in a kind of reversed 'J'
movement instead of a straight line. The result is that the form of the 'V' leaves something to be desired.
The beginner should try to avoid this.
Diagram 12.6 forming the 'V'

Successive cuts start just to the side of the previous cut. Very small amounts of wood are removed with
each time (see Diagram 12.6). It is customary, but not absolutely necessary, to make successive cuts on
alternate sides of the 'V'. This not only enables the turner to cut away the waste cleanly but also helps to
keep the 'V' in the required position. The turner should try to make each cut in a continuous sweep from
the entry point to the bottom of the 'V' taking only a thin shaving. If an attempt is made to remove too
much wood the point may catch. Good lighting and good eyesight are required for this. Turners wearing
glasses with bifocal (or varifocal) lenses should ensure that they focus properly at the required distance.
12.3 Points to note

As the 'V' gets deeper a number of points must be observed. The first is that there must be some
clearance between the cutting edge of the chisel (above the cutting point) and the wall of the 'V'. This is
illustrated in Diagram 12.7 which shows a view from the back of the lathe looking towards the turner. If
this clearance is not maintained the edge may catch on the part of the work piece marked Point A in the
diagram. The result may be an ugly spiral gash in the wood.
Diagram 12.7 The clearance angle

When Diagram 12.7 is given careful consideration it will be noted that only the lower edge of the bevel
can be made to rub on the side of the 'V' (see Diagram 12.8). But this is enough to allow the turner to
maintain control of the tool.
Diagram 12.8 The bevel

It should be noted that in order to keep the corner of the bevel rubbing on the side of the 'V' the tool must
be pointed at an angle to the work piece. Diagram 12.9 Shows the position for the left-hand side of the
'V'.
Diagram 12.9 The angle at which the tool is held for the swing cut
This angle is the opposite to that which many beginners expect. For a cut on the left-hand side of the 'V'
the handle should be held to the right of the cutting point so that the edge of the bevel is more or less at a
right angle to the axis of the workpiece. This can be seen by careful consideration of Diagram 12.9.
12.4 Summary of points to watch when making the swing cut

1. Start the cut with the bevel rubbing (see Diagram 12.2).
2. When making a cut ensure that the tool is held at the correct angle to the axis of the workpiece
(when seen from above, as in Diagram 12.9).
3. Keep the bevel rubbing on the wall of the 'V' (see Diagrams 12.8 ang 12.9).
4. Maintain the clearance angle (see Diagram 12.7).
5. Move the tip of the handle in a straight line (see Diagram 12.5)
12.5 The push method

Before this cut is commenced the tool rest is positioned so that the top edge is level with the axis of the
workpiece. The first cut is a small notch which is made with the long point of the skew, as was done for
the swing cut. Then the tool is held in a horizontal position and, when observed from above, at an angle
to the axis of the workpiece, as shown in Diagram 12.10.
Diagram 12.10 The angle at which the tool is held for the push cut
This angle determines the slope of the side of the 'V'. To make the second cut the tool is simply pushed
into the workpiece slightly to one side of the notch and penetrating a little deeper. The third cut is a
repeat of the second cut but is made on the other side of the notch. These cuts can then be repeated with
each successive cut on opposite sides.
12.6 A comparison of the swing and push cuts

The reader may have noted that although the swing and the push cut produce very similar results the
techniques applied are very different.
If diagram 12.9 and 12.10 are compared it will be seen that, to cut the same side of the 'V', the tool is
held at opposite angles. Also, whereas for the push cut the tool is held in the horizontal plane, for the
swing cut the tip of the handles is held down so that the cut can be started with the bevel at a tangent to
the surface of the workpiece.
When teaching beginners I find that many tend to slip into the push cut because they do not start the cut
high enough on the work piece, that is, with the bevel rubbing. However, as long as the cut is made
successfully, without the tool catching and ruining the work, that is not really a problem. But I do draw
their attention to what is happening. It will have been noticed that the push cut is very much easier to
describe than the swing cut. In practice, however, it will not necessarily be found easier to perform. The
beginner should try both methods to see which is best for him, although, as I said earlier I try to
encourage students to use the swing cut.
12.7 Problems and accidents

It should be noted at this point that many novices find learning to cut both 'V's and beads difficult and, as
a consequence, have many 'accidents' along the way. In this context, by an 'accident' I do not mean
something which is physically threatening, or dangerous, to the turner, but something which damages the
work. What can happen in trying to perform a 'V' cut or roll a bead, is that the tool catches, it then spirals
out of the cut and along the workpiece forming a horrible ragged gash in the wood.
Such an accident is part and parcel of the process of learning to turn. The beginner should accept this
philosophically and just keep trying. With practise these problems should occur less and less frequently.
It is often difficult to understand precisely what mistake has been made in causing this to happen. Most
often it is probable that the heel of the bevel has been allowed to lift from the rubbing position. As a
consequence the cutting point has penetrated too far and buried itself in the wood. As the wood continues
to revolve, and the tool is supported by the rest, something has to give. That something is the wood. The
edge of the tool catches and then acts as an efficient screw-cutting device, leaving the ragged spiral
referred to above.
Why do beginners have problems of this kind? One reason is that the turner has to try to watch a number
of things, such as keeping the bevel rubbing, maintaining the clearance angle, and controlling the speed
and the direction of the cut, all at the same time. This is difficult at first and practice is required to get it
all together.
If an accident does happen and a spiral is cut into the work the turner should immediately start again on
an undamaged part of the workpiece. If an attempt is made to continue working on the damaged portion
the point will probably catch again, in one of the accidental grooves, making still more of a mess.
Brian Clifford (October 1999)

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Woodturning: cutting a bead
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13.1 Which tool?
A bead can be cut with several different tools, namely: a skew chisel, a square end chisel, a beading and
parting tool, and a spindle gouge, each in a number of different sizes. The problem in cutting a bead is
that it is easy to get a catch; when this happens the tool is thrown back whilst cutting an ugly spiral
groove in the workpiece. In this respect a spindle gouge is easier to control and less prone to produce a
catch. But it does have one disadvantage, this is that the width and thickness of the tool makes it more
difficult to get to the bottom of the cut without fouling the adjacent surface. Because of this instruction
will begin with the use of a chisel. (For notes on the use of a spindle gouge see paragraph 13.9 below)
A skew chisel of virtually any size over inch can be used to cut a bead. Either the long point or the
short point (see Diagram 12.1 in previous Chapter) can be used. When I was learning to turn I used the
long point because that was what the book I was following told me to do. The use of the short point
provides a slicing cut which produces a cleaner surface; but, as the tool is rolled over in making the bead,
the long point can obscure the view of the cutting point. In time I would recommend the novice to
experiment with this tool trying both points.
Initially, however, I suggest that a beginner should use 3/8 inch square beading and parting tool. In effect
this is a narrow, but relatively thick, square ended chisel. If this is not available a narrow square ended
chisel can be used. I feel that a smaller tool is less daunting. But whichever tool is used the technique is
much the same.
13.2 The nature of the cut

When a relatively wide chisel (eg 1 inch) is used there are two ways in which the cut can be. The
reader may have noticed that when discussing chisels in the above section I have referred to the points
(or corners). It is important to note that a bead can be cut either by using the corner of the chisel or by
using a position on the cutting edge between the two corners, ie as when performing the planing cut.
When performed by an experienced turner the use of the cutting edge produces a very clean result. (This
method is shown by Richard Raffan in his video.) However, in my experience beginners are more likely
to get a catch when performing the cut with the edge. As a consequence I always encourage beginners to
learn the cut with the use of the bottom corner. This is described below.
13.3 The procedure
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Let's start with the beading and parting tool and cut the right hand side of the bead. A piece of softwood,
similar to that used in previous exercises, ie two by two by twelve inches long, is fixed in the lathe and
the speed set to around 2000 rpm. The square is then roughed down and planed smooth. Two 'V' cuts are
then made about 1 inch apart. These set the width of the bead and provide room for the subsequent cuts.
First one side of the bead is cut and then the other. The side of a bead is made in stages starting near the
edge of the 'V' and the top surface. ie point A in Diagram 13.1.
Diagram 13.1 Making a series of cuts to form a bead
13.4 The bevel must rub

It is very important to note the bevel must rub throughout the cut. However, in this exercise, what I am
calling the bevel is actually only the right hand edge. This is illustrated in Diagram 13.2. (This only
applies when cutting with the right hand corner of the chisel on the right hand side of a bead. When
cutting on the left hand side of a bead the opposite is the case.)
If a catch occurs when a bead is being cut the most likely reason is the failure to keep the bevel in the
rubbing position.
Diagram 13.2 The rubbing bevel
13.5 The first cut

The first cut is the easiest one. The starting position can be checked with the lathe switched off. The tool
is placed on the rest with the cutting edge horizontal. It is then rotated, slightly clockwise (just a few
degrees), around its axis and positioned with the right hand corner of the cutting edge just to the left of
point A and the bevel in the rubbing position (see Diagram 13.3).
Diagram 13.3 The position of the tool for the first cut
Having switched the lathe on the first one or two cuts cut can be made just by rotating the tool around its
axis. Diagram 13.4 shows that when the tool is rotated the cutting point will describe an arc. This feature
can be used to cut a small radius on the corner.
Diagram 13.4 The arc described by the cutting point
13.6 Forming the bead

After a few cuts it will be found necessary to raise the handle and slide the tool along the rest, whilst
rotating the tool. The bevel is maintained in the rubbing position by pushing the tool very slightly
forward. These later cuts are all performed in a similar manner as follows.
At the start of each cut the right hand corner of the cutting edge is placed just to the left of the position at
which the previous cut was started with the bevel in the rubbing position but not quite cutting. Once in
this position the tool is rotated around its axis so that it will begin to cut. As soon as the it begins to cut
the tool is slid to the right and the handle raised, whilst the rotation is continued. The objective now is to
maintain the cut until it runs out into the side of the 'V' (see Diagram 13.5).
Diagram 13.5 Position of tool at beginning and end of cut
13.7 The tool must slide along the rest

Diagram 13.5 shows the position of the tool at the beginning and end of a cut on a fully shaped bead,
starting in position A and finishing at position B. When it reaches position B the tool should be in the
same position as it would have been at the end of a cut on the left hand side of the 'V' (when using the
swing cut). This shows why the tool must be slid along the rest; it cannot get from A to B without doing
so. Beginners are apt to try to perform the cut by swivelling the tool at one point on the rest. When doing
this it is impossible to form a well shaped bead.
13.8 The problems to be faced

The difficulty for beginners in cutting a bead is that a number of separate actions have to be coordinated
in the correct combination. The tool has to be rotated about its axis, the handle raised and pushed slightly
forward (to keep the bevel rubbing) and the tool slid along the rest. With practice these actions become
automatic but to begin with it can all seem rather difficult and it may take a little time to achieve success.
The following analysis may help the beginner to appreciate what is required.
Diagram 13.6 Illustrates the progression of the cut in three stages, moving from A to D through B and C.
1. The lines w, X, Y and Z represent the position of the edge of the chisel cutting at points AA, BB
and so on. The cutting edge is at a tangent to the surface of the wood at these points. The attitude
of the cutting edge at each of these points shows that the relative speed of rotation of the tool is
constant throughout the cut.
2. From A to B the horizontal movement (achieved by sliding along the rest) is considerably greater
than the vertical movement (achieved by raising the handle).
3. From B to C the horizontal movement and the vertical movement are very similar.
4. From C to D the vertical movement is greater than the horizontal movement.
In practice the rotational and sliding movements may be made at a constant rate whilst the handle is
raised at an accelerating rate.
Diagram 13.6 The stages in cutting a bead
13.9 Using a spindle gouge

A spindle gouge is used in a very similar way to a chisel. The cut is made by the tip of the cutting edge.
To prevent the wings of the tool catching the far wall of the 'V' cut it will be necessary to raise the handle
higher than is necessary with a chisel. It also helps if the wings of the gouge are ground well back.
Providing these precautions are taken it will probably be found that the gouge is the safest tool to use
particularly when a catch, resulting in torn wood, would be a disaster.
Diagram 13.7 The wings on a spindle gouge
13.10 Try, and try again

For most people learning to cut a well shaped bead with a reasonable success rate is one of the most
difficult tasks for the newcomer to woodturning. To begin with catches may occur frequently. Indeed, a
number of attempts may have to be made before the first success is achieved and the bead is cut without
a mishap. The reader may find it useful to re-read the comments in Section 12.7 of the previous chapter.
Whatever happens keep trying, don't give up, it will come in the end. When it does it is very satisfying.

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Introduction To Woodturning: Chapter 14
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14.1 Preparation
A piece of softwood, similar to that used in previous exercises, ie two by two by twelve inches long, is
fixed in the lathe and the speed set to around 2000 rpm. The square is then roughed down and planed
smooth.
14.2 The tool

A spindle gouge of the appropriate size is used for this cut. To give some indication of the size: the width
of the gouge should be about one quarter of the width of the cove to be cut. So if the width of the cove is
to be 1 1/2 in. a 3/8 in. spindle gouge should be employed. A beginner, practising with a limited set of
tools, can make the width of the cove fit his tools, rather than the reverse.
14.3 The shape of the cove

When making actual objects coves may be all manner of shapes, providing they are some sort of hollow.
From a practising point of view what one should be looking for is a nice smooth curve approaching an
arc of a circle.
14.4 Marking the size of the cove

The great majority of the cutting of a cove is done with the spindle gouge but, as an initial step, it is a
good idea to mark the outer extremities with the point of a chisel. There are two reasons for this:
1. the marks define exactly where the cove is intended to be;
2. they help to prevent the gouge skidding out of the cove and so damaging the adjacent surface.
These marks can be made with the point of any chisel (including the beading and parting tool) held with
the cutting edge vertical (See Diagram 14.1). These cuts should not be very deep.
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Diagram 14.1 The cuts made to mark the edges of a cove
14.5 The first stage in making the cut

To start the cut on the left side: begin by laying the tool on its back just to the right of the left-hand
marking cut with the bevel rubbing (as shown in Diagram 14.2 A). Twist the tool clockwise around its
axis until the tip begins to cut. Slide the tool to the right whilst maintaining the cut with the bevel
continuing to rub. In order to keep the bevel rubbing it may be necessary to feed the tool forward. Stop
the cut at the position midway between the two marking cuts - in other words, in the middle of the cove
(Diagram 14.2 B). When this point is reached repeat the cut starting on the right-hand side. Repeat these
cuts on alternate sides, always stopping in the centre, until a shape similar to that shown in Diagram 14.2
is formed. Remember that on spindle work cuts made from a larger diameter to a smaller diameter go
with the grain. In this case going with the grain is cutting from the outside of the cove to the centre.
Diagram 14.2 The first stage in cutting a cove
14.6 The second stage in making cutting the cove

When the hollow of the cove has been partially formed by the method described above there comes a
point at which the tool may catch and be thrown backwards along the work-piece ripping a nasty gash in
the wood as it goes. This tends to happen when the sides of the cove are becoming relatively steep.
Consequently once a shallow hollow has been formed a change of tactics is required. The way to prevent
a catch is to ensure that at the commencement of each operation the cutting edge of the gouge is vertical
as it enters the wood. If it is not vertical it acts as an efficient screw cutting device and will wind itself
out of the cove. The correct attitude of the cutting edge can be achieved by watching it carefully as the
tool is manipulated into position. Many beginners, however, will have problems with this. Fortunately,
there is an easier way to achieving the required entry. This requires a little preparation.
14.7 Preparation for stage two

In preparation for the second stage of making the cove adjust the height of the tool rest so that when the
spindle gouge is laid on its side in a horizontal position the tip of cutting edge is level with the axis of the
lathe. Whilst the tool is held in the horizontal position, place a ruler across the flutes (as shown in
Diagram 14.4) and turn the tool so that the ruler is in a vertical position. When the rule is vertical the
cutting tip will also be vertical. This indicates the attitude in which the tool should be held at the
commencement of a full cut starting from the outside of the cove.
Diagram 14.3 Setting the height of the tool rest
14.8 Beginning stage two

To commence the cut the gouge is held in the horizontal position (as described above), with the bevel
aligned with the side of the hollow previously formed (see Diagram 14.4 A), and the tip is then entered
into the wood at the edge of the cove. Immediately after the tip enters the wood the tool should be
rotated around its axis, in an anti-clockwise direction, and slid along the rest towards the centre whilst, at
the same time, the handle is lowered - a twisting and scooping action. By the time the centre of the cove
is reached the tool should be flat on its back and more or less at 90 degrees to the axis of the lathe (see
Diagram 14.4 B). Throughout this procedure the bevel must continue to rub.
Diagram 14.4 Positioning the gouge
14.9 Practising the cut with the lathe switched off

Not every one will find this cut easy to begin with. One may for beginners to get the hang of it is to try
out the various positions of the tool with the lathe stopped. In preparation for this a cove of the required
shape should be made as well as possible. If necessary the shape can be trued up with a round nosed
scraper. Having done this the gouge should be moved carefully through the procedure checking that the
bevel is rubbing the whole time.
14.10 Some further considerations

Before leaving this chapter there are some further observations to be made:
1. A cut on the side of a cove does not necessarily have to be made in one continuous operation.
2. When cutting a cove (or indeed any shape with a spindle gouge) the cut should be made with the
leading edge of the tool.
3. When cutting at the centre of the cove the fibres of the wood may not be cut cleanly.
These matters are looked at in turn below.
14.11 Discontinuous cuts

As work progresses on a cove the shape may need to be adjusted. It may, for example, be too flat on the
bottom or, the opposite, too steep at the sides. In such cases material may only need to be removed from
part of the cove. When starting a cut part-way into a cove the gouge should be placed in the attitude it
would have been in at that point had the cut been started at the edge. That last sentence may need
thinking about. The point I am hoping to make is that the gouge should be placed in such an attitude that
it is pointing down the slope with the bevel rubbing.
14.12 Cutting with the leading edge of the tool

When cutting a cove the cut should be made with the leading edge of the tool. This is best explained with
the aid of a diagram.
Diagram 14.5 Cutting with the leading edge of the tool

In Diagram 14.5 the tool is being moved from left to right (down the slope) and is pointing slightly in the
direction it is moving. The leading edge is the section denoted in red. Cutting within this portion of the
edge has two benefits. One is that it provides a slicing cut which severs the fibres of the wood more
cleanly. The second, and more important, is that it helps to prevent a 'dig-in'. In order to cut with the
leading edge, in the attitude shown in the diagram, the tool must be twisted slightly. If, at this point, the
tool should be twisted the other way (ie anti-clockwise) and the trailing edge allowed to enter the wood
there will almost certainly be a nasty catch. I know this because I found out the hard way.
14.13 Cutting the wood in the centre of the cove

When the tool finishes a cut in the middle of the cove, as shown in Diagram 14.4 B, it will be cutting
directly across the grain. In some species of wood this will result in some tearing of the fibres and a little
roughness. In these cases a finishing cut be made by making a short pass over the area concerned with
the gouge held at a slight angle and cutting with the leading edge, as described above.

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Chapter 15: Spindle turning the final cuts
15.1 Introduction
This chapter describes how to perform the last of the cuts to which the reader was introduced in
Chapter 8. It covers the following:
Two methods by which to form a pummel.

How to create sections of waste wood at the extremities of the workpiece.
How the ends of the piece can be rounded over or, alternatively, cut square (when
required).
How to part off the waste.
15.2 Forming a pummel

As indicated in Chapter 8 (Section 10) it is sometimes necessary to leave a section (or sections)
of a spindle turning square. The most common reason for this is to form a leg of, say, a table or
a stool, which must be jointed with rails or other members of the assembly. In such cases it is
usual to plane the workpiece into a square before turning. Note that it is necessary to mount the
workpiece on the lathe very accurately so that the round section will be centred in the pummel.
Two main ways of cutting a pummel are described below.
15.3 Forming a pummel method 1

One way of forming a pummel is to start by making a V cut at the point where the transition
from the square to the round is required. The first step is mark a pencil line all round the
workpiece where the V cut is to be made. The V cut itself is made in exactly the same way
as a V cut in a round section (as described in Chapter 12). Making the cut in the square blank
is more difficult because the corners cannot be seen clearly. As a consequence there is a danger
of chipping the corners. It may help to put something white, such as a sheet of paper, on the bed
of the lathe behind the workpiece; this may help to make the corners more visible. Note that the
V must be stopped immediately the bottom of the cut forms a continuous circle around the
workpiece.
Having made the V cut the corners on the section of the workpiece beyond the pummel can be
removed with a gouge. In doing this care must be taken not to damage the corners of the
pummel.
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15.4 Forming a pummel method 2

Another method of making a pummel is to use a gouge. In this case the transition from square to
round is made progressively. It is done in the same way as cutting a cove but in this case only
one side is formed and instead of stopping the cut is carried through to the end of the piece.
Diagram 15.1: Forming a pummel with a gouge

The cuts are repeated until the section beyond the pummel is completely circular. The method
results in a differently shaped transition from the square to the circular section as compared with
the previous method.
15.5 Creating the waste

Usually, when making a spindle turning, it is desirable to remove the marks made by the
headstock and tailstock centres. To do this sections of waste must be formed at the extremities
of the workpiece. It is customary to form this waste at an early stage of the turning so that the
length of the piece can be determined accurately. In many cases forming the waste will be the
first operation after the square blank has been roughed down and planed smooth. It should be
noted that an allowance should be made for the waste when the blank is cut to length at the
outset of the job.
Diagram 15.2: Allowing for the waste
A section of waste is most readily created with a parting tool. First of all a nick can be made
with the corner of the tool at the required distance from the end of the workpiece. Then the tool
is placed on the tool rest with the cutting edge parallel to the axis of the lathe. The edge is
entered into the wood high up, so that the bevel will rub. As it cuts the handle is raised and fed
forward so that the bevel is maintained in the rubbing position.
Diagram 15.3: Maintaining the bevel in the rubbing position

The full width of the waste does not have to be removed in one operation. In order to maintain
control of the tool it is often necessary to remove the material in stages, as shown in Diagram
15.4.
Diagram 15.4: Removing the wood is stages

Having created a section of waste it will often be necessary, at some stage of the turning, to
round over the end of the piece. This is not difficult and is done in manner similar to that of
cutting the side of a bead. The only difference is that to get the fully rounded form the handle of
the tool has to be moved round farther when making the final cuts. This is because the bevel
must end up more or less square to the axis of the piece.
Diagram 15.5: The position of the tool at the end of the cut
15.7 Squaring the end the conventional cut

There are occasions when the end of the piece needs to left square and nicely finished. When
the waste has been created, in the way described in Section 5 above, it will be seen that the end
grain is very rough. This can be cleaned up with the corner of a chisel used in a similar manner
to that employed in a V cut. In this case, as the cut is to be made square to the axis of the
piece, the handle of the tool has to be held further round so that the bevel will rub. The position
of the tool is shown in Figure 15.6. The point is entered into the wood high up so that the bevel
will rub and, to keep it rubbing, the tool is fed forward as the cut proceeds. Note that it is the
lower edge of the bevel which should rub and that the cutting edge above this should lean away
from the face of the wood to create a clearance angle. As with the V cut only very small
amounts of material can be removed with each pass of the tool.
Diagram 15.6: The rubbing bevel and the clearance angle.
15.8 Squaring the end the Raffan cut

Viewers of Richard Raffans video will have seen that he uses a slightly different method for
squaring the end. In this case immediately after the point of the chisel has entered the wood the
handle is raised so that the wood is cut, not with the corner, but with the cutting edge (see
Diagram 15.7).
Diagram 15.7: The Raffan method

Using this method the edge of the tool cannot be allowed to lean away from the wood to form a
clearance angle as described above. Because of this I think most beginners will find it more
difficult than the conventional method particularly when performed with a skew with a straight
edge. It may have been noticed that Raffan uses an oval skew ground with a curved edge (see
Chapter 3, Diagram 3.5). The advantage of this, for this operation, is that the combination of the
oval section and the curved edge brings the points away from the wood. In effect this produces
small clearance angles above and below the position on the edge where the wood is being cut;
this reduces the danger of a catch.
15.9 The parting cut

In Section 15.2 above the way the waste is created was explained. Now it is necessary to
consider how the waste is removed. It is, perhaps, somewhat paradoxical that a tool known as a
parting tool is rarely used by an experienced turner for the final act of parting-off. Instead this is
commonly done with a chisel. My favourite tool for this job is the chisel with a square section
(also known as a beading and parting tool). Sometime, when space is very limited, I use small
skew chisel. These are personal preferences, however, and any chisel, skewed or square ended,
can be used.
The method, in a nutshell, is to make a V cut on the (imaginary) line which forms the end of
the piece. In many cases the side of the v which is on the end of the piece will need to be more
or less square to the axis. What it will need to do is conform to the required shape. (See
Diagram 15.8.)
Diagram 15.8: Parting off

When the waste has to be removed at both ends of the piece I always start at the tailstock. I
make the V cut as deep as I dare without risking the waste breaking off prematurely. If it does
break off at this stage it will mean that the waste at the headstock end will have to be sawn off
and there will be a lot of hand finishing to do.
How deep the V cut at the tailstock can be made without the waste breaking off is, of course, a
matter of judgement; but a lot depends on the species of wood. On many hardwoods the
material remaining can be reduced to a few fibres, but softwoods break more readily. A good
strategy is to cut the V as deep as possible whilst leaving enough material to be reasonably
certain that there is no danger of premature breakage. Then to go the headstock end and do the
same thing there. Having done that return to the tailstock end and remove a little more material.
The objective is to cut away enough so that when the piece is taken off the lathe the waste can
easily be broken off with the fingers. However, if the too much is turned away and the waste
does break off prematurely, there will not be quite so much handwork to be done on the
headstock end.
Now, assuming the work on the tailstock end has been completed without an accident the
waste at the headstock end can now be cut off completely. The V is made progressively deep
until the point is approaching at which the waste will break off. At this point the forward hand
(the left hand of a right handed turner) is placed loosely around the end of the revolving
workpiece. Using the tool one handed the V cut is continued until the wood breaks and the
piece drops into the hand waiting to catch it.
OK: to the novice the last few sentences should raise some doubts and a little apprehension.
Fear not; until such time as you have enough confidence to carry out this procedure just make
the V cut at each end as deep as you dare and then cut the waste pieces off with a saw. Thats
it.

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The Woodturners Workshop
Woodturning with Brian Clifford at

These pages are provided as a resource for woodturners. They will be
developed,and added to, as time goes on. (More information: about this site)
Ashley Iles
Ashley Iles turning tools can
be purchased on-line here.
I have been using Ashley

Iles tools for 20 years. In all
of that period I have found
their tools to be of the
highest quality and their
customer service to be
exemplary. So I am very
pleased to be able to offer
their tools on this site.
Brian Clifford
Browse the tool sales area
You can return to this page

whenever you wish.
Introduction To Woodturning
An e-book for beginners
Open
General articles
1. How dry is my wood?
How to determine the moisture
content of your wood without a meter.
2. Creative woodturning
3. Marketing woodturning skills
Introduction
Marketing turnery
Marketing other woodturning skills
Pricing woodturnery
A note on copyright
Useful reference information

1. A bibliography of woodturning
2. An interactive glossary of terms
used in woodturning
Widgets/gizmos
A bowl turning attachment
A folding tool rest
A thickness gauge
Bevel angle checkers
A sharpening system
The Galleries:
The author
Bowls and other vessels

Natural edge vases
Natural edge goblets
Other goblets
Composite hollow forms
Some boxes
Sculptural pieces
Clocks
Video clips
The 'V' cut
Cutting a bead.
Cutting a cove.
Squaring the end of a spindle turning.
Rounding the end of a spindle turning.
Go to video clips
My workshop
Visit my workshop
Useful
accessories
1. Sanding disk
2. Polishing mop
Projects
1. Natural edge goblets
2. A hand mirror
3. A simple box
4. A baby's rattle
5. Wind chimes
6. A Windsor stool
7. Roll holders & mug trees
8. Coffee mills
Most of the above arealso provided as pdf
files which are more suitable for printing.
PDF files
1. Introduction To WT
2. Projects etc.
General interest
Trees, wood and people
Some views about the
importance of trees - in
the past, today and
tomorrow.
General information
About this site
FAQs
Table of updates
What people say
Links
Copyright notice
Before making use of these files please read
the copyright notice. Failure to read this
notice does not exempt the user from the
conditions of use.
http://www.turningtools.co.uk/ (1 of 2)09-03-2006 18:48:32
The Woodturners Workshop
Last update: 7 Febuary 2005

This site was designed and created by Brian Clifford. (More sites by Brian.)
E-mail Brian
When emailing me please include "woodturning" in the subject line.
Otherwise your message may get lost in all the spam I am receiving.
http://www.turningtools.co.uk/ (2 of 2)09-03-2006 18:48:32
Home
About this site

The aim
The intention of this site is to provide newcomers to woodturning, and those who
are still developing their skills, with useful information. It may be thought of as an
on-line magazine. There are four main types of information:
1.
2.
3.
4.
General information relating directly to turning

Information not specific to turning but which turners may find interesting
Projects
Reference material
The site is still under development. I expect to go on adding material for some
time. The section of the "Introduction To Woodturning" on spindle turning has
just been completed; now all I have to do is the same for bowl turning. I also have
more ideas for projects, gadgets and other things.
Most of the information has been prepared for a British audience. It is not
practical to try rewrite it for an international audience so I hope that visitors from
other parts of the world take this into account and bear with me. When suggesting
suitable material, for instance, I can only recommend English woods. This can be
misleading. American readers, in particular, should note that common terms do
not always relate to the same species. American sycamore (Platanus accidentalis) ,
for instance, is known as plane in Britain. Conversely European sycamore (Acer
speudoplatanus) is, I think, known as plane in the US. Similarly, basswood (Tilia
americana) belongs to the Lime family (Tiliaceae) and is known as American lime
(or just Lime) in Britain. Butternut (Juglans cinerea) which is a member of the
Walnut family is very rare in Britain; but if it was available here from local
sources it would probably be described simply as walnut. Confusing, isn't it?
The presentation of the information
Because my aim is to provide information I have made little attempt to provide a
jazzy Internet experience. Most of the information is in the form of articles which
need to be read with some care. All of them can be read on screen but it will
probably be easier to print out those of particular interest and file the pages in a
four ring binder.
http://www.turningtools.co.uk./intronotes/intronotes.html (1 of 3)09-03-2006 18:48:45
The "Introduction To Woodturning" can now be downloaded in Portable

Document Format (ie pdf files, see Home page) for printing out. Other documents
will be converted to this format in the near future.
When printing in Internet Explorer make sure Medium is selected in theView/Text
Size menu. In other browsers it may be necessary to experiment a little to find the
optimum size of type for printing.
Screen resolution
The majority of my visitors use a screen resolution of 800 by 600. It makes sense,
therefore to design the pages with that in mind. I hope users with their screens set
to other displays will not find that too irksome.
The question of gender
In all of the texts I have decided to refer to the turner as a male in order to avoid
the tedious form of 'he or she' or some awkward circumlocution. I have noticed
that many writers now use the term 'she' (where relevant) to avoid being branded
as sexist. This is a neat way around this problem; however, because the great
majority of turners are men it would be dishonest to use that device in these
documents.
I would be very sorry if this was to discourage any woman from taking up
woodturning. I have taught a number of woman in my classes and I have no
doubts whatsoever that women are just as capable, if not more so, of becoming
good turners as men. It may also be noted that, In relation to the overall number of
men and women turners, there is a disproportionately large number of women in
the top flight.
I hope that, in time, far more women will come to appreciate the pleasure that
woodturning can provide. I would like to think that those women who come
across these pages will find them a source of interest and encouragement.
Brian Clifford
Home

(Last amended July 2001)
Choosing a lathe
CHOOSING A LATHE
Purchasing
A. New or second-hand
1. Second-hand
i. Well worth considering it will depreciate slower than a new one
ii. Check condition
a. Alignment of headstock and tailstock
b. State of bearings
2. New
i. You tend to get what you pay for but some better value than others
- shop around
Design and Construction

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
M.
N.
Weight
Rigidity
Strength of bearings
Distance between bearings in headstock
Power of motor
Is there a Morse taper in the headstock?
Diameter of swing
Length of bed
Has it a fixed head only?
Arrangements for bowl turning
1. Outboard
i. Direction of revolution
ii. Right-hand thread
2. Rotating headstock
3. Space requirements are different for 1 & 2 above
4. Additional cost of attachments for bowl turning
Speeds
1. Number (five is best, if speed is not continuously variable)
2. Speed range
3. Ease of changing speeds
Ease of adjustment to rest and tailstock
Portability (if important)
Spares and ancillary equipment
1. Availability
2. Nose spindle thread
http://www.a1studio.freeserve.co.uk/wtintro/shopkit/lathe.html (1 of 2)09-03-2006 18:48:46
Choosing a lathe
O. The final choice will be a compromise depending on:

1. Available cash
2. Working space
3. General requirements
4. Except for people doing miniature work a big lathe is preferable to a small
lathe - small items (eg lace bobbins) can be turned on a big lathe - big
items cannot be turned on a small lathe
5. No lathe is perfect!
http://www.a1studio.freeserve.co.uk/wtintro/shopkit/lathe.html (2 of 2)09-03-2006 18:48:46
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If you wish to have a visible counter on your site, we offer a number of ways to customise its
look to best suit your site's design. You can set the font size and color, the background color,
and whether to display pageloads or unique visitors. A visible counter will allow visitors to your
site view your total pageloads or unique visitors to date.
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Features
These stats are designed to show at a glance how many pageloads, unique visitors, returning
visitors and first time visitors your site has received to date. They can be configured to display
data of specific interest in a number of different ways. You can:
display summary stats per day, week, month, quarter or year
display summary stats for a specific date range or period
display summary stats using bar graphs or area graphs
toggle on and off pageloads/unique/returning/first-time data
So, for example, you can choose to view only pageloads for the period 13 Jan 2005 to 26 March
2005, or view pageloads, unique visitors and returning visitors for the Last 8 Weeks virtually
any configuration is possible. You can also save your favourite configuration so that it
automatically displays every time you login. Try out our summary stats using the demo here
we're sure you'll like them!
Click here for a Live Demo!
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Magnify User
Using the magnify tool, you can zoom in on individual visitors and get a detailed report on
where they are from, their system settings, and most importantly, what link reffered them to
your site and their navigation path through your site.
You can view recent visitors and click the magnifying glass beside each to zoom in on them:
You'll be presented with a plethora of information as follows:
Features
This kind of valuable detail is available to you as soon as you register a StatCounter account or
you can try out the demo here and have a look!
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Drill Down
Drill Down is a very powerful tool, and one of the most advanced features StatCounter offers. It
allows you to drill down on your stats and view visitors relating to them because you can drill
down on many of the stats StatCounter offers, it's difficult to provide a comprehensive example,
but here's one way in which this can be used:
If you go to Keyword Analysis for example, you'll be presented with something like the following:
We've marked the entry for the keyword hit counters - by clicking the upside down triangle
you drill down on that keyword to show all visitors who used that keyword in a search engine to
find your site:
And, of course, you can then click on the Magnify User icon to get a detailed report on the user
and their navigation path through your site!
This is just the tip of the iceberg. You can drill down on many stats, including Popular Pages,
Referring Links, Entry and Exit pages and so on. For example, you could drill down on a page of
particular interest like a checkout page and see the visitors who loaded that page, and
Features
subsequently magnify them to see how they got there. This kind of information is invaluable for
optimising your most important pages and driving traffic to them a combination of the drill
down and magnify tools is the wise webmaster's most potent ally!
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Popular Pages
This tool allows you to see the pages of your site ranked by popularity. This information is
important to allow you to identify the most heavily visited pages, and optimise them for
maximum impact. It can also help you discover potentially important pages which are getting
overlooked this could indicate poor navigation structure or linking to that page. Of course, you
can drill down on your Popular Pages to see which visitors loaded them, and magnify those
visitors for more detail.
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Entry Pages
An entry page is the first page a visitor arrives at when they visit your site. There are often a lot
more of these than just your homepage! It's important that the first page a visitor loads on your
site makes a good impression, and this tool can help you identify which pages are the most
commonly used entry pages. It can also highlight pages you did not expect to be entry pages,
which you can subsequently optimise to keep a visitor on your site and drive them to your key
pages. You can also drill down on your entry pages to show the visitors who entered on them,
and magnify those users to find out how they got there.
Features
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Exit Pages
Opposite to the entry pages, are exit pages pages your visitors use to leave your site. No
webmaster needs to be told the importance of knowing where their visitors are abandoning their
site! This tool shows you the most common Exit Pages, allowing you to optimise those pages to
keep visitors on your site.
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Came From
This is one of the most important stats for any webmaster. This tool allows you to see how your
visitors are finding your site, and where they are coming from. This can help you identify, for
example, links on other sites that are working and those that aren't, and help you trace where
people are referring to your website.
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Features
Keyword Analysis
Traffic from search engines is the lifeblood of most websites, and many webmasters are familiar
with the importance of ranking high in search engines for keywords relating to their site. This
tool allows you to view the keywords used to reach your site, ranked by their popularity. This
can help you identify keywords that are working, and those that aren't, so that you can optimise
accordingly. For example, if you know a particular keyword is generally very popular for your
type of site, but StatCounter indicates that it ranks low among the keywords used to reach your
site, then there is an opportunity there to optimise for that keyword and generate more traffic
from it.
You can also group keywords according to the search engine used, to focus in on results from
specific engines.
Of course, you can also drill down on a keyword to view specific visitors who used that keyword,
and magnify them for more detail.
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This tool features up-to-the-second reporting of keywords used to reach your site, the visitors
who used them, and what search engine was used. The most recently used keywords appear
toward the top. You can click the magnify button to view more detail on the visitor who used
that keyword.
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Features
Search Engine Wars
This tool allows you to see which search engines generate the most traffic for you. This can be
useful in determining if your site is performing as well as it should be in specific engines, or if
certain important engines are missing. For example, if Google made up only a small percentage
of search engine traffic to your site, it's a good bet there's room for improvement for your site
on Google!
You can also drill down on a specific search engine to view individual visitors that came from that
search engine and of course, you can magnify those visitors for more detail.
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Visitor Paths
This tool shows you recent visitors to your site, and the navigation path they took through your
site. You can use this to identify common visitor behaviour, or unusual navigation paths that
may indicate a problem with your site.
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Features
Visit Length
This tool shows you how long your visitors are spending on your site find out what percentage
of your visitors stay for various periods of time. This stat is important, as it can help you
determine how much pull your website has for visitors if your visit length is typically low, you
may wish to find improved ways to keep your visitors on your site for longer.
You can drill down on specific visit lengths to view those visitors who stayed for different periods
of time drilling down on short visit lengths and magnifying those visitors will show their
navigation path, which may help identify why they only stayed a short time.
Returning Visits
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Features
Every website ideally would like their visitors to come back again and again this tool identifies
what percentage of your visitors are returning (and how many times they've returned), and how
many are visiting for the first time. If a very low percentage of your traffic is from returning
visitors it may be useful to identify ways to encourage repeat visits and loyalty from your users.
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This tool shows you the latest, up-to-the-second pageloads on your website. It displays the most
recent pageloads, some details about the visitor that made them, and allows you to magnify for
even more detail on that visitor.
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Features
This tool is similar to Recent Pageload Activity, but instead of displaying recent pageloads, it
displays your latest visitors, who you can subsequently magnify for more detail.
Back to Top
These stats allow you to identify the geographical location of visitors to your site. Asides from
the fun of seeing all the different places your visitors come from, this tool can be useful in
identifying if you need to be catering more toward international visitors. For example, if a large
number of visitors are coming from another country, it may be worth investigating translated
versions of your site, or whether you should accepting that country's currency (if you're an
eCommerce website).You can also view the State or Regions of your visitors, and the cities they
come from.
Of course, you can also drill down on countries, states and cities to show and magnify individual
visitors from those places.
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ISP Stats
This tool shows you the ISPs used by your visitors, ranked by popularity. You can drill down on
an ISP and show visitors who use that ISP.
Browser Stats
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Features
This is an important tool that lets you see which browsers your visitors use to view your site,
and which are most popular. Your site may look great in one browser, but does it look good in
the browsers used most frequently by your visitors? See which ones you should be checking with
this tool.
As always, you can drill down on specific browsers for more detail on the visitors who use them.
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O.S. Stats
This tool shows you which operating systems your visitors use, and ranks them according to
popularity. This tool may be useful in determining the technical background of your audience by
the types of operating system they use.
You can also drill down on an operating system to view specific visitors who use it.
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Features
Resolution Stats
This tool identifies the display resolutions used by your visitors ranked by popularity. This can be
very useful in ensuring your site looks its best for the majority of your users. For example, if
most of your visitors are using 800x600 and your site is optimised for a 1280x720, it may make
sense to revise your site's design to accommodate the majority of your users on the lower
resolution!
Furthermore, you can drill down on specific resolutions to see and magnify indivdual visitors
using those resolutions.
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JavaScript Stats
This tool identifies the percentage of your visitors that have JavaScript enabled in their
browsers. JavaScript can be embedded in webpages to introduce dynamic content, but if some of
your users do not have JavaScript enabled, it may be worthwhile ensuring your site is still
accessible to them.
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Email Reports
Want to have summaries of your stats sent to your email account? We can send email reports
every week and every month featuring a summary of your pageloads, unique, returning and first
time visitor stats. You can have your report sent to multiple users on your account, or CCed to
other email addresses.
Upgraded members can also receive daily email reports featuring a summary of pageloads,
unique, returning and first time visitors for the previous day, as well as summarised Keyword
and Came From stats.
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Features

StatCounter offers the ability to manage multiple websites from one account no need to sign
up for different accounts for different websites! Just create new projects for each of your sites,
and you can manage your stats for them all from one account.
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User Access Management allows you to provide access to your account for multiple other users.
You can limit access to allow additional users to only view statistics for your projects, or only
specific projects.
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Blocking Cookie
A blocking cookie is a cookie that's stored in your own browser to prevent your own visits to
your websites from being logged by StatCounter - this ensures that your sites' stats are not
skewed by your own visits. This can be set and unset at will.
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Secure Tracking [Upgraded Members Only]

If you run a secure site using a secure sockets layer (SSL), you can choose an option when
installing your StatCounter code to ensure that it does not raise security alerts when visitors use
your website.
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Custom Branding Logo [Upgraded Members Only]

Upgraded members have the option to disable the banner ads on the StatCounter, and also to
replace them with their own custom banner. So, for example, if a number of people who work
for your site have access to your StatCounter account, you might want to put your own logo in
place of the banners.
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features StatCounter has to offer. We have created this guide to enable our new members to start
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Please give this knowledge base a thorough read. It is constantly being updated and answers 99% of
the questions we receive from members.
Do I have to display a banner ad on my website?Why is this service free? I don't free
services what are you getting out of it?
You absolutely do not have to put a banner ad on your site. We keep our overheads to a minimum then make our money from advertising when you log onto StatCounter to see the latest visitors to
your website. We do not put advertisements on your website! If your website is getting more than
250,000 pageloads a month, then you are outside this free model. Get in touch with us before adding
the code to your website and we'll be able to offer you better stats for an excellent price. You'll get
real value for money.
The primary goal behind StatCounter is to help webmasters succeed online, and we want to provide
the best possible website stats to the most amount of webmasters and site owners out there. What's
the point in designing a system that doesn't get used by anybody? We want as many webmasters as
possible out there to be using our system. But we will only provide the service on a sustainable basis
which is why websites getting over 250,000 pageloads a month either have to pay or remove the
code.
I can't register!
A few potential members are still having trouble with the registration form. Can you use the contact
us page to get in touch, and please specify exactly what pages you viewed on StatCounter first before
registering. What input values you used in the registration form. And what browser and operating
system you are using.
My visitors aren't being counted
Generally this means that either a) you have not installed the counter code onto your website or b)
your website has not had any visitors.
Where do I get the code to install?
Login to your account > click the 'installation & configuration' icon > click the 'install code' link.
Looking for support?
http://www.statcounter.com/help/ (1 of 2)09-03-2006 18:49:30
Help
We have designed an entire support section for members. Please login to your account and click the
'support' link to avail of this service.
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from to have it emailed to you.
Do you want to close your account?
We're very sorry to see you go. Here is the form to close your account.
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Yahoo boosts Freedom of Information awareness
03.03.06
The Cabinet Office is using paid-for search engine placements to promote public awareness of the Freedom of
Information Act.
Directgov, the governments central internet portal, has since the summer of last year been using Yahoos
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searches for the term Freedom of Information Act.
This information itself came to light following a Freedom of Information request made by Steve Wood, a lecturer at
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http://www.theinternetone.net/ (1 of 3)09-03-2006 19:06:22
In total, between July last year and February this year, 1917 click-throughs were registered to the page through
Overture sponsorship using the term freedom of information act and 1948 using freedom of information.
In total the government has spent 386.50 on sponsored links since last July.
And the number of views of Directgovs FOIA page has increased considerably since the Overture service began,
rising from 400 in July 2005 to a peak of over 6,700 in October last year. In January this year, 3,895 views were made.
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Last April eGov monitor revealed that Bristol City Council had become the first local authority to use pay-per-click
advertising to generate more web traffic when it launched a sponsored links through Google and Yahoo to attract
visitors to its e-democracy initiative, AskBristol.com.
Categories: Search Engines, Internet news
posted by Danny Wirken on 03.03.06 @ 9:38 pm | 0 comments
Google aims to build $100 billion company
03.03.06
Web search leader Google Inc. aims to become a $100 billion company and plans to put computer systems and other
investments in place to help reach that scale during 2006, executives said on Thursday.Ill leave it to you to judge
whether that is $100 billion in market capitalization or revenue, Google Chief Executive Eric Schmidt coyly said as
he outlined his 2006 priorities to Wall Street analysts at the annual Google Analyst Day meeting.
As of Wednesday, Googles market capitalization was already more than $100 billion, at $111.5 billion. For all of
2005, Google had revenue of $6.14 billion, up 92.5 per cent from 2004s $3.19 billion.
Three quarters of the way through a four-hour presentation, Google executives were relentlessly positive in detailing
the companys plans. They provided no further clues to comments by Chief Financial Officer George Reyes at an
investor meeting earlier this week that Google growth is bound to slow, which sparked a sharp sell-off in its stock.
(more)
Categories: Search Engines
Microsoft, EU Feud Heating Up
03.03.06
The long-running antitrust saga involving Microsoft and the European Union took another nasty turn as both sides
engaged in fingerpointing and tossing around accusations of misconduct.
The EU threatened to fine Microsoft some $2.4 million per day if it did not provide the information needed by thirdparty developers to interoperate with Windows products. Microsoft has called out the EU for withholding documents
related to the antitrust case, and accused the EU Competition Commission of colluding with Microsofts competitors.
Just another day in the life of the worlds biggest tech company, as AP reported on the latest developments in the EUs
antitrust case against Microsoft. (more)
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Free Invisible Web Tracker / Site Tracker / Visitor Tracker
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4 simple steps:
What exactly is a web tracker (also known as a visitor tracker or site tracker), and why do you need
one?
Register an account
Create a Project

website
Analyse your stats!
The idea behind a web tracker is very simple and has been around for many years. Essentially you
place a small piece of code on your website, when someone visits your website, that small piece of
code is executed and the visitor's public details (ip address, browser, operating system, referrer, page
title and url etc) are analysed and stored for reporting to you later.
The great advantage of web trackers are that they are better at tracking 'real people' as they track
browsers NOT server requests. This often means a web tracker will have a significantly lower count
than standard log file analysis. But it offers a more realistic figure of the visitors to your website and
far more detail. At StatCounter our web tracker is provided in real-time so it's even better still.
WELCOME
Reliable Web Tracker
Fast Hit Counter
Insightful Web Stats
How It Works
What Our Members Say
Why Is It Free?
A web tracker also records your visitors if they return to the same page twice or more. This does not
happen with log files. Your page would be already cached in your browser. No request would be sent
to the server. That user activity would go unreported. Thanks to web trackers and their use of a
random javascript number - your counter is forced to load each time and your visitor is tracked.
As web trackers only track 'real people', it is not able to tell you when a search engine spider is
indexing your website. For information like this you need a good log analyser.
StatCounter.Com can produce far different results to standard log file analysis. This is not surprising
as our system is designed to track browsers NOT server requests. This can result in a significantly
lower count than standard log file analysis. But it offers a more realistic figure of the visitors to your
website and far more detail and it is provided in real-time!
So how do they differ?
A big factor is the placement of the StatCounter tracking code. You can use StatCounter to only track
the pages you want by simply placing it on the pages you want to track. Log file analysis will track all
server requests by default.
If you have very large, slow loading pages it is recommended to place the tracking code closer to the
top of the page instead of the bottom. Or a visitor may exit your page before the page finishes
loading and the tracking script will never have been loaded.
Framed websites can cause a big problem for log file analysis resulting in an over-inflated count.
When a visitor visits a singe page that could often be recorded as 3 visits - loading the main frame, a
side frame and a footer. StatCounter does not have this problem.
Cached pages are another huge problem for log file analysis this time resulting in a very poor
undercount of visitors. Often your own local ISP will keep a cache of many websites you visit
regularly. This speeds up your use of the web - unfortunately no server request is made to your
website when this happens. And your visit will go uncounted. This does not happen with StatCounter
with the use of javascript and a random variable each time.
Web Proxies - many users, most noticeably AOL users access the web through a web proxy. Their ip
address can change on each request to your website so log file analysis could not accurately count
your unique visitors. StatCounter does both - we use a simple cookie and the user's ip address.
Robots - the requests made to your website by robots will be recorded in your log files but it will not
be recorded by StatCounter.
Overall StatCounter provides a far more detailed, accurate count and tracking of behavior of the 'real'
visitors to your website than standard log file analysis.
http://www.statcounter.com/free_invisible_web_tracker.html (1 of 2)09-03-2006 19:07:14
Of course the only way to experience our advanced web tracker for yourself is to register right now
for your free account.
http://www.statcounter.com/free_invisible_web_tracker.html (2 of 2)09-03-2006 19:07:14
Free Hit Counter / Web Counter
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4 simple steps:
Just how configurable are our free hit counters (also known as web counters), and why should you use
one? Firstly it is completely optional whether to display a counter or not. We track your visitors for free
and you can choose to go completely invisible. No ads!
Register an account
Create a Project

website
Analyse your stats!
Most members however, freely choose to display a hit counter because the level of configurability is just
so damn good. If you do go for the counter option - then that's all that will be displayed. Your perfectly
configured hit counter! We do not add on any of our own advertising to your counter. It's your website you know what works and looks good. We always prefer to give the control to you - the webmaster.
Begin your starting count at whatever number you wish - very handy if you are transferring over from
another web counter service. You can also 'lie' about the popularity of your website - but if you're going
to artifically inflate your count, then try to use a realistic number. Or your visitors won't believe you.
WELCOME
Fast Hit Counter
Choose between displaying unique visitors or page loads. Specify precisely the background and digit
color for your counter to blend in perfectly with your website. It gets even better than that - if you want
to place your counter over an image on your website, you can set your background or digits to be
transparent. Allowing the image on your website blend in very nicely with your counter.

How It Works
There are 5 different digit fonts to choose from, and you can instruct how many digits long you want
your counter to be! We are damn proud of the configurability we offer. Please show me someone else
who offers all this for free or even paid!?
Why Is It Free?
http://www.statcounter.com/free_hit_counter.html (1 of 2)09-03-2006 19:07:18
Of course the only way to experience this highly configurable counter interface for yourself is to register
right now for your free account.
http://www.statcounter.com/free_hit_counter.html (2 of 2)09-03-2006 19:07:18
Free Web Stats
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Free Web Stats

4 simple steps:
What web stats exactly does StatCounter provide?
Register an account
Create a Project

website
Analyse your stats!
WELCOME
StatCounter offers a plethora of various webstats that we are consistently improving and adding to. If
there is a stat you would like to see developed and included be sure to mention it in our feature
request forum.
At the moment StatCounter offers a breakdown of your current unique, returning and repeat visitors
over the lifetime of your website. We also offer browser, resolution, operating system, country,
search engine, keyword, referring link, drill down and magnify visitor analysis and reporting. The
easiest way is to simply click the 'demo' in the main navigation bar at the top of the page and see for
yourself.
Of course the only way to experience your own web stats in real-time is to register for your free
account.

Fast Hit Counter
How It Works
Why Is It Free?
http://www.statcounter.com/free_web_stats.html09-03-2006 19:07:21
Why Is it free?
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Why is it free? What is the catch!?

4 simple steps:
Good question! And every good question deserves a good answer.
Register an account
Create a Project

website
Analyse your stats!
WELCOME
Fast Hit Counter
How It Works
Why Is It Free?
RECOMMENDED
StatCounter is the culmination of 6 years of very hard work, and is different to everything else out
there and we're still working on it! The first 4 years were hard work done solely by myself (Aodhan
Cullen - The Webmaster) on one dedicated server, and we have seen such explosive growth in the
last year that I have expanded this to a team of 5 exceptional people and 30 dedicated servers (and
growing!). Now can I ask you, if you dedicated and sacrificed 6 years of your life to something, would
you want to keep it a secret, or would you want as many people as possible to use your service?
We are not out to make a quick buck. The reason StatCounter exists is to "help webmasters make
decisions, and be more successful online by understanding their visitors". We offer a truly
exceptional free service, because we want to help you grow. And as you grow, and as your needs
grow, we hope you'll upgrade. We don't impose an upgrade on you. You can use it for free for as
long as you like. The only catch is if you start to get over 9,000 pageloads each day you are outside
what we can sustain as a free business model and we will then ask you to either remove the code or
upgrade. It's as simple as that!
Will you put an ad on my website?

No, no, no ... NO! We do not put an ad on your website. We give YOU the webmaster full control over
how you want your website to look. You know what works best for you, we do not! You can have a
completely invisible counter, or check out our interface for what is probably the most configurable
free hit counter in the world as well as the option to JUST make the counter visible on the homepage,
and invisible on subsequent pages. We give you the maximum options we possibly can at all times!
Do you make any money on your free counters or are you a charity?
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We run all the free accounts not to make a profit but to break-even each month. When you login
to view your website stats we show you a banner ad at the top of your stats page, and in the left
menu we run Google Adsense and some text links for hand-picked advertisers that will convert well
with our members.
It is a financially tight balancing act, and we have to keep our costs under a very tight reign, but you
know we've done it for 6 years and we are going to keep on doing it. But rest assured we don't scimp
on servers or performance. We currently have 30 dedicated servers (ever expanding) to share the
load across to ensure instant response times. We also maintain a real-time backup, a daily-backup,
and an off-site weekly backup of all your data.
This all works great for us because it means we can get all your ideas for how you want to improve
the service in the forum. We expand our market to new heights each day, creating a demand for our
upgraded services and we get to help our fellow webmasters from all around the world to be more
successful, which at the end of the day is what it is all about!
Web Hosting
Now the only thing to do is to register for your very own truly free account and start tracking your
visitors within the next few minutes!
http://www.statcounter.com/why_is_it_free.html09-03-2006 19:07:25
What Our Members Are Saying
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Solid 5 out of 5 Award in All Professional Reviews

4 simple steps:
Register an account
Create a Project
Internet Magazine 5 Star Award
Tucows 5 Cows Award
October 2003
September 2004

website
Analyse your stats!

We're amazed at the power from Statcounter. We'll definately be passing your link on.. and on.. and
on..
WELCOME
Fast Hit Counter
How It Works
Now we know how many people are reading our site we're gettin kinda spooked.... who are they,
what do they think of it... are they all stalkers????? Yikes
Great stuff.
Thanks for the counter.
The Junkies (Soon to be the biggest name in music) - 2nd August 2005
Why Is It Free?
RECOMMENDED
JUST TO SAY THANKS X MILLION!
We are fortunate to have a 'web-master' so we leave the technical stuff to him. But as I am the main
'writer' & have a real reason & motivation for our site, I care very much about whether it is being:
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a) used &
b) possibly meaningful to some people.
Through your great services we can have some knowledge - even encouragement.
So I wasn't sure how to contact 'you' - but hope those responsible - for what to me seems a
marvellous service - is at least thanked.
It is really, really helpful & great in every way! - (You are so clever!)
Suzanna, G.O.Fellowship, & 'The Watchmans Post' - 27th July 2005
Internet Marketing
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Web Hosting
Dear StatCounter,
Thank you for the continued improvements, recently the customizable Summary Stats are excellent, I
like the many options available. Generally I have never been disappointed with StatCounter, I am
always surprised with new features and options you keep providing.
John Beres - 14th July 2005
Excellent improvement on the summary stat! Exactly what I have asked and hoped for! Thank you.
Per Karlsson - 13th July 2005
http://www.statcounter.com/what_our_members_are_saying.html (1 of 5)09-03-2006 19:07:30
Confessions of a StatCounter Junkie...

My name is Nathan and I'm a Statcounter Junkie...
As I seat myself at the computer, log in and check my website stats for the 7th time today, it
suddenly hits me. I'm addicted to StatCounter and I can't help myself.... I'm constantly amazed by
the variety of visitors that my site receives. From Turkey to Brazil, Saudi Arabia to Fiji (and all points
in between), there's something inherently fascinating about watching something that you've created
attract so much attention from around the globe.
The level of detail provided by StatCounter's logs is truly remarkable. I find that I'm constantly
refining and changing my pages to suit my visitors, their screen resolution, browsers and operating
systems. I still can't believe that they provide all of this for free with no requirement to provide a
visible link to their site.
So thank you StatCounter. I extoll the virtues of your services to anyone who cares to listen and I'll
continue to do just that!
Nathan Smith, NetPhoneDirectory.com - 12th February 2005
I run websites for a number of voluntary organisations. Primary criteria for anything I use is that it
must be minimum cost - preferably free. When I stumbled across StatCounter I was cautious. I spoke
with some professional colleagues who all asked the same question whats the catch we still cant
find one.
In the week Ive been running StatCounter Ive learned that I need to re-size my pages to give access
to all of those still running 800x600 screen resolution, what the favourite pages are, where my
visitors come from 10% from the USA! even one from Greece. 99% of my visitors use Internet
Explorer and they spend between 5 seconds and 30 minutes on my site. And all without popup adds
or graphics that dont quite match you dont even mind that I hide the counter!
Thank you for producing a really useful tool.
Tony Bell, Press Officer, Suffolk Basketball - 20th September 2004
I LOVE this service, LOVE IT! I'm so impressed with you guys, you have no idea. I'm a small business
and StatCounter.Com is helping me make everyday decisions in real time! I am able to figure
out what is working for my new websites and my new business immediately after I implement a
change. I can't thank you enough.
Every small business owner that doesn't have the cash at first to purchase tracking add ons for their
Websites should WORSHIP you! Your helping me on my way to earning revenues, I'll certainly be
upgrading my service soon to pay back for the help you provided a small guy like me in the
beginning. Big thanks from a small company CEO. Thanks again for your wonderful, wonderful
product!
Colin McGrath, President/CEO DSL-Experts.com - 17th July 2004
I received the long-awaited email, saying that StatCounter were taking new projects on board and I
hastily got my account up and running.
It's easy to read testimonials with a cynical viewpoint, but for once I have to agree; this service is
rather exceptional. I first went looking for an alternative hit counter because my hosting service was
reporting some rather bizarre statistics that flew in the face of what I'd researched (apparently
everyone out there in Cyber-world uses Netscape 4.0).
So onto Google I went, and stumbled across StatCounter. It was free, it said (but only if you want the
absolute minimum of stats, I thought). It could be invisible, it said (but only if you pay a premium, I
thought). It didn't asphixiate your site with pop-up windows, it said (yeah right, I thought, where's
the catch?) Well it turned out I was wrong and that all the testimonials were quite right.
At a time when the Internet is getting cynical and over-commercialised and is being villified by the
media, it's so refreshing to see a site that just wants to deliver a free and high-quality product. Thank
you, StatCounter, I stand corrected!
Carmen, North Wales - 11th Feb 2004
I just wanted to say that I am absolutely blown away that StatCounter is free!! (now don't decide you
oughta charge cause of these kinds of comments! ). I am so very impressed and want you to know I
appreciate it sooo much! You offer so many features. The invisible counter is just what I've been
looking for and the option to disable logging my own visits is great! I'm telling everyone I know to
check you guys out. I had a problem and visited your "support" page and immediately found what to
do about it, and it worked perfectly. (Can you tell I'm pleased with your service?
rekw, Missouri, USA - 23rd June 2004
Am I dreaming. Is this for real?

After 2 weeks of searching for a service that would give me the statistics I needed from my sites
visitors, I stumbled across your site. There it was in front of me, everything I needed and more and
FREE! As I type this I am uploading my pages with the code. I've viewed the demo pages and have
no doubt that this is exactly the tool I need to track how my affiliates are going. I can not thank you
enough for offering a much needed service at the right price to small website owners with NO budget.
Seems I was wrong. Not everyone is out to make a quick buck off those trying to get somewhere.
Thank you.
Ann, Queensland, Australia - 12th Feb 2004
Dear Aodhn,
I have been really bragging about your product! In addition, the quarterly meeting for our Board of
Trustees and the Foundation was last week and the two groups were given a review of the updates to
our website including the web counter and statistics I had printed from the StatCounter site. They
were "blown off their socks" (their words, not mine) impressed with the product and what it was able
to track. One person has already added it to their site and several others copied the information I had
printed so they could look at your site later.
They were also very impressed with the cost! We were given bids from a local webhosting service for
the creation and maintenance of the site that included a hit counter (which I now do internally from
our agency) and they wanted to charge a ridiculous fee for this service! We are a non-profit child
welfare agency and anything we can do to keep our costs down is of great value!
Thanks again!
Sue Tode, Marketing Coordinator, Chaddock - 1st Dec 2003
Hi,
I must tell you that I'm stunned by the high level of this site. You have truly a done a wonderful job
here, and there is no doubt that this is the best COUNTER site of the web.
KEEP ON THE GOOD WORK!
GOOD LUCK and THANKS.
Oren, Paragon Creations - 17th Nov 2003
Dear Aodhn
I never believe in free service as free service normally have all sort of problem and disadvantages.
But I was wrong when I found statcounter; this is the best stats tracker service that I have ever
found in my whole entire internet marketing experience!! Not only it's free, it is equip with features
that other company are charging!
Aodhn, You are doing a great favor for the online marketer. Keep up the good work!!
Patric, Infopreneur, eSuccess Mastery - 16th Nov 2003
Which site stats tool is the best? (conclusion)

So, which free traffic analysis tool should you choose? Should you go for log file analysis or a hosted
tracking service? All the approaches we've looked at can give you useful information about your site's
traffic, but some are more appealing than others.
Analog has been doing traffic analysis for years and it's great that something so powerful is still
available for nothing. Unfortunately, it's not the most beautiful or user-friendly bit of software you'll
come across, and even the addition of Report Magic's pretty graphs aren't enough to make the log
analyser an attractive option. We preferred the good looks and simplicity of WebLog Expert Life--it
might not be configurable, but it should give most small site owners all the traffic information they
need.
The trouble with log file analysis is that you need access to your server logs. Some hosting companies
might not be happy to give you these files, but even if your logs are available you might find that
downloading them becomes a bit of a chore. Log file analysis h much better if you can install the
software directly onto your own server.
The four traffic monitoring services we've covered don't require any software installation or access to
log files. They offer up to the minute information about the people that visit your site, and you only
have to log in to a Web-based interface to see your stats.
The features offered by these hosted services vary--most offer limited functionality for free,
demanding money to release the really juicy stuff.
FreeStats was particularly poor, giving site owners little useful information for free and asking them to
add a monstrous banner ad to their lovely pages for the privilege. Of course, companies don't want to
give away all their best stuff for nothing, but a better basic service might encourage more people to
give FreeStats a try.
If someone could nudge Extreme and remind the developers that it's 2003, then perhaps they'll get
around to updating their service. It might be popular, but there are much better alternatives around
these days. Site Meter could also do with a facelift, but at least it provides you with detailed
information about your visitors. The email reports are good too, and there are a couple of other
original features that make it a decent choice. Once again, though, the free service is designed to lure
you into paying for something better, and that can be frustrating if you're not prepared to fork out.
But StatCounter is totally free--and what's more, it offers loads of features that you'd only expect to
find on expensive commercial services. Its friendly site provides plenty of help to get you started, the
online interface is clear and simple, and the option to use an invisible counter is a teat bonus if you
don't want anything interfering with your carefully laid out design. It might not go into the kind of
depth offered by the likes of WebTrends, but StatCounter is an excellent free service that we'd highly
recommend.
COPYRIGHT 2003 EMAP Media Ltd.
Internet Magazine in its Oct 2003 edition reviewed 6 free traffic analysis tools, recommend
StatCounter above the rest and awarded us its maximum 5 star award. Thank you Internet Magazine!
This was the conclusion of the article.
These were just a few of our favourite quotes from our members. Take a look in our live forum to see
more of what our members are saying about the service on a daily basis.
StatCounter Privacy Policy
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At StatCounter we are heavily committed to your privacy. We despise spam. We believe people who
send spam should spend time in prison for wasting the world's time. Maintaining the privacy and
integrity of your account is of paramount importance to us. If you would like to see our privacy policy
include something else, then please get in contact with us.
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StatCounter.com respects the privacy and rights of its visitors. No effort is made to identify
individuals without their knowledge.
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When a visitor requests pages from the StatCounter.com site, our Web servers automatically
log the browser's domain name, and IP address. This information is collected solely for
statistical purposes and is not used to identify individuals.
To enable StatCounter.com to track your unique visitors we send a cookie to your visitors'
computer. This information is collected solely to improve the service we offer to you and
statistical purposes and is not used to identify individuals.
StatCounter.com maintains a strict "no-spam" policy. Your e-mail address will not be sold to a
third party.

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http://www.statcounter.com/privacy.html09-03-2006 19:07:33
StatCounter Terms and Conditions
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StatCounter - Terms and Conditions
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1. We reserve the right to change these terms and conditions without notice by posting the
changes to our Web site.
2. We or you may terminate your account and remove your site from our database at any time
for any reason.
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3. The following types of sites are NOT allowed to participate in StatCounter.com: sites
encouraging illegal activity or racism, sites providing instructions or discussions about
performing illegal activities, sites that promote or utilize software or services designed to
deliver unsolicited email, or any other sites we deem to be inappropriate.
4. You agree not to change the StatCounter.com counter code that you will insert on your site.
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5. You have read our copyright notice and terms and conditions and you agree to them.
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6. Users acknowledge and agree that their Web site information (site name, URL, traffic counts,
etc.) may be utilized by StatCounter.com. Possible uses include (but are not limited to) a
directory of the sites using our service, general promotional uses, etc.
Website Submission
7. You agree to use our services at your own risk. Our services are provided on an "as is" and "as
available" basis. You agree that you have made your own determination regarding the
usefulness of the service. We disclaim all warranties including, but not limited to, warranties of
merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose.
8. We are not liable for damages, direct or consequential, resulting from your use of the service,
any failure to provide service, suspension of service, or termination of service. We do not
guarantee the availability of the service. You agree not to hold us responsible for data loss or
interruption of service of any kind.
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9. We retain ownership and all rights to StatCounter.com logos, trademarks, software, trade
secrets, databases, reports, and Web site.
10. If this agreement is terminated by us or by you for any reason, you agree to remove our code,
logos and trademarks from all of your Web sites and other items.
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11. YOU AGREE TO DEFEND, INDEMNIFY AND HOLD US HARMLESS FROM AND AGAINST ANY AND
ALL CLAIMS, LOSSES, LIABILITY COSTS AND EXPENSES (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
ATTORNEY'S FEES) ARISING FROM YOUR VIOLATION OF THIS AGREEMENT OR ANY THIRDPARTY'S RIGHTS, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO INFRINGEMENT OF ANY COPYRIGHT,
VIOLATION OF ANY PROPRIETARY RIGHT AND INVASION OF ANY PRIVACY RIGHTS. THIS
OBLIGATION SHALL SURVIVE ANY TERMINATION OF THIS AGREEMENT. OUR LIABILITY WILL
NOT EXCEED THE PURCHASE PRICE OF THE SERVICES.
12. We both own the data regarding visitors to your Web site that we collect. You can use the data
we provide for any legal purposes. We will use the data in compliance with our privacy policy.
13. This Agreement will be construed and enforced in accordance with the laws of Republic of
Ireland without regard to its conflict of law principles. Venue for any dispute under this
Agreement will be Dublin, Republic of Ireland.
StatCounter - Copyright Notice

You may print and download portions of material from the StatCounter.com website. We retain
ownership and all rights to StatCounter.com logos, trademarks, software, trade secrets, databases,
reports, and Web site.
If this agreement is terminated by us or by you for any reason, you agree to remove our code,
logos and trademarks from all of your Web sites and other items.
YOU AGREE TO DEFEND, INDEMNIFY AND HOLD US HARMLESS FROM AND AGAINST ANY AND ALL
CLAIMS, LOSSES, LIABILITY COSTS AND EXPENSES (INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO ATTORNEY'S
FEES) ARISING FROM YOUR VIOLATION OF THIS AGREEMENT OR ANY THIRD-PARTY'S RIGHTS,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO INFRINGEMENT OF ANY COPYRIGHT, VIOLATION OF ANY
PROPRIETARY RIGHT AND INVASION OF ANY PRIVACY RIGHTS. THIS OB in any media now known or
hereafter developed. You also grant to StatCounter.com the right to use your name in connection
with the submitted materials and other information as well as in connection with all advertising,
marketing and promotional material related thereto. You agree that you shall have no recourse
http://www.statcounter.com/terms.html (1 of 2)09-03-2006 19:07:37
StatCounter Terms and Conditions
against StatCounter.com for any alleged or actual infringement or misappropriation of any proprietary
right in your communications to StatCounter.com.
http://www.statcounter.com/terms.html (2 of 2)09-03-2006 19:07:37
Ashley Iles tools
Ashley Iles Woodturning Tools

Welcome to the shop
We have more than 350 woodturning tools
for you to choose from.
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Please select the region to which purchases are to be sent.
It is important to choose the correct region because there are
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may result in delays in the processing of orders.
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Brian Clifford
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Woodturning activites
I took up woodturning in 1982. A lot has happened since then. I have been a member
of the Association of Woodturners of Great Britain since its inception. I have served on
its national committee and as chairman of the its Training and Education Steering
Group. I have been instrumental in setting up two woodturning clubs and am past
chairman of both the Hertfordshire and the Lincolnshire Associations of Woodturning.
In January 2005 I was honoured by the Lincolnshire Association who appointed me as
"the first Honorary President and Life member of the Association".
For a period I was editor of the 'Woodturner' magazine (published by Craft Supplies
Ltd). I also wrote articles for the magazine on woodturning projects and associated
topics and have had a number of articles published in 'Practical Woodworking'
magazine. I have regularly taught night-school classes and weekend schools, given
lessons in my own workshop, lectured and demonstrated from time to time.
I began this website sometime in the latter part of 1998. It has grown considerbly since
then and, fate permitting, I intend to develop it further. I am happy that it has provided
me with an opportunity to pass on the knowledge I have gained from my years of
woodturning and a lifetime spent in the pursuit of knowledge.
Other experience
The first 11 years of my working life were spent as a draughtsman in the engineering
industry where my apprenticeship took me through a wide range workshops and
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Brian Clifford
provided a wealth of experience. Following this I returned to full-time education,

winning a state mature scholarship and a place at an Oxford college. After leaving the
university I became an economist. I have a number of years experience as a lecturer in
adult education, ten years as an economic advisor at the National Economic
Development Office and have carried out research at Warwick University and the
Engineering Industry Training Board.
I live in Lincolnshire, England.
Brian Clifford
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How dry is your wood?
Home
How dry is my wood?

The answer to the question: "how dry is my wood?" is one of the most important things for a
woodworker to know. For a woodturner making such items as bowls or lamp bases, where a certain
amount of distortion is acceptable, it may not be very critical. But when he is making items which will
have parts inserted in them, such as ceramic tiles, or lids, or anything where excessive movement is
likely to be a source of embarrassment, it becomes very necessary to ensure that the wood is sufficiently
dry.
The standard measure for the dryness (or wetness) of timber is the moisture content (abbreviated to MC).
This is found by expressing the weight of the water in a sample of wood as a percentage of that sample
when it is completely dry. A simple and effective way of carrying out this measurement is to take a small
sample of wood, then:
1.
2.
3.
4.
weigh it carefully;
bake it in an oven at a temperature of around 100C;
weigh it at intervals until there is no further loss of weight;
remove it from the oven and record its final weight. (This is known as the "oven dry" weight).
The moisture content can then be obtained from the following equation:
MC%
(initial weight - oven dry weight) x 100

oven dry weight
The moisture content can be found with the aid of a meter but meters are expensive and few of us have
access to one. There are also limitations on the accuracy which they can achieve.
There are two types of meter:
1. one measures the electrical resistance of the wood between two probes;
2. the other measures the dielectric properties of the wood between two probes.
Even with long probes the resistance meters can only measure the MC of a piece of wood on its outer
surface. Most pieces of timber will have a moisture gradient between the inside and the outside.
Consequently a meter reading taken on a board which has been hanging around for some time can be
misleading; this is why meter readings should be taken only on a freshly sawn surface. In contrast the
field of a dielectric meter will penetrate deep into the wood - here the difficulties are created by
variations in the dielectric properties of the wood. Due to the differences in the characteristics of the
various species of wood great care must be taken when using any type of meter to ensure that the results
are interpreted correctly.
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The oven method also has certain disadvantages. The biggest drawback is that it results in the destruction
of the sample of wood being measured. It also needs some equipment; namely an oven and a sensitive
pair of scales for weighing the sample. However, the equipment can be made quite easily and the sample
need not be very large, say 100-150 grams in weight.
For example, when I am making a clock (which is to have a ceramic tile face inserted) I usually cut the
circular blank from a square piece of board. This leaves four waste corner pieces which become my
sample. Incidentally, several small pieces of wood will dry more quickly than one large piece; there is no
reason why the sample should not be cut up - as long as this is done before it is weighed.
The sample can be dried in the domestic oven but as it takes several hours even for small pieces this is a
waste of heat. As the oven need only be small it is easy to make one from a tin of a suitable size with an
electric light bulb to supply the heat. My own oven was made from a discarded 5 litre oil can fitted with
a 100 watt bulb.
Fig 1: An oven made from an oil can
Sensitive scales can be expensive but with a little ingenuity they too can be home made. Mine were
made from a length of 3/16" diameter aluminium tube, a couple of pieces of bent coat hanger wire and
two tin lids (for the pans). Although it may look primitive, there is no reason why such a balance should
not be reasonably accurate. For a 100 gram sample the degree of accuracy needs to be about plus or
minus 1/2 gram (i.e. 1/2 per cent).
In addition to a set of scales, some weights are required. If a set of commercial weights is not available
more ingenuity will be required. It should be noted that the samples do not necessarily have to be
weighed in conventional units such as grams or ounces - therefore, any small metal objects which come
in standard sizes, such as washers, nuts, bolts or wood-screws, can be utilised as the basic unit of weight.
The balance can then be used to find a suitable larger object which is equal to, say, 10 of the basic units;
and still larger ones to equal 50 or 100 basic units.
Having found a means of determining the actual MC of a sample of wood it is necessary to consider
what the desired MC should be. When a 'wet' piece of wood is put in a 'dry' environment its MC will fall
as the water in it evaporates. At a certain point, determined by the relative humidity (RH) of the
surrounding air, the evaporation of the moisture will cease. The wood will then be said to have reached
its 'equilibrium' MC (EMC). After that the MC will rise and fall as the RH of the air rises and falls - with
the change in MC so the wood will expand and contract.
The relative humidity is the ratio of the amount of water vapour present in the air to that which it would
hold at saturation at the same temperature. Cold air holds less water vapour than warm air; as a
consequence when cold air is admitted into a centrally heated environment the humidity falls to a low
level. In a test made in Wisconsin (USA) indoors in the winter, the MC of a wood sample fell to 3%.
This is very extreme, however, and in the UK it is customary to think in terms of a minimum MC of 10%
as a national average. Due to the equable climate of the UK, neither the seasonal nor the regional
variations are as great as in other parts of the world.
There is, however, one other factor which must be considered. The minimum MC attained by a piece of
domestic turnery, will depend on where it is placed in the house. For instance, a clock put on the wall of
the lounge over a radiator will get much drier than one in an unheated hallway. One of the problems to
be faced by the maker is that he does not know where one of his products will end up.
Although one should be aware of all the factors affecting the movement of the wood, in practice it is
necessary to adopt a rule of thumb. A reason for this is that however carefully the procedures described
in this article are carried out, the variability of timber means that the results will not be perfect and the
desired MC will not be achieved with absolute precision. Nevertheless, they will be good enough to
ensure that one has the situation under control. In those circumstances where the movement of the wood
might lead to damage, my method is to aim at an MC of 10% to 12%. If the wood I have selected is not
dry enough then I dry it some more by the methods discussed below. Then when I turn it I make sure that
there is sufficient clearance in the important places to take care of any further movement.
As a rough guide to the amount of clearance that should be allowed it is found that most common
timbers will shrink by 1.5% to 2% across the grain with a fall in MC of 5%. If, for example, I am making
a clock to take a 150mm (6 inch) diameter ceramic tile insert I allow for a maximum fall in MC of 5%.
As a consequence I have a gap of l.5mm all round the tile, this gives a total allowance of 3mm (or 2%)
across the width of the tile.
Timber which has been kiln dried will probably have an MC of 12% to 15% and will, therefore, be
suitable for most purposes. It should be remembered, though, that it will begin to pick up moisture as
soon as it comes out of the kiln unless it is stored in a place with low humidity. Air dried timber on the
other hand, usually has an MC in the region of 18% to 20% and, for the kind of purposes being
considered here, may well have to be dried further - this further drying is known as conditioning. If there
is no need for haste the simplest way of conditioning timber is to place it in an environment similar to
that which the finished piece will occupy. Unfortunately, this is seldom practicable and so to speed up
the process some way has to be found to create an environment which is warmer and drier than normal.
It need hardly be said that timbers vary enormously in their response to drying methods. I have found,
for example, that ash is very forgiving - even when samples are baked dry in the oven they often do not
split. Others, such as yew, have to be treated with great care. Trial and error, experience and the
exchange of information with others, are the only guides.
My own experience of the conditioning process is based largely on the ash which I use for clocks. In
winter I have found that a considerable number of clock blanks can be conditioned quite quickly over a
storage heater. I stand them on edge with a gap between each one - they are, of course, raised above the
heater as well - and I rotate them through 90 every day. In summer the blanks can be placed in a box
with a low wattage heater (eg a couple of 100 watt light bulbs). A place favoured by many turners for
small quantities (if their partner does not object) is the airing cupboard, which is available summer and
winter. I tried a microwave oven for small pieces with some success. If you want to have a go I suggest
you use the oven on the defrost setting starting with short periods.
Whatever method is used for the conditioning process it is necessary to follow a regular procedure to
ensure that the desired level of MC is attained. My own procedure is as follows. First I find the MC of a
reasonably representative sample of the batch of timber I am going to use. When taking this sample I
avoid the end of a board (as this may be drier than other parts) and untypical pieces such as a large knot.
It must also be weighed immediately after it is cut. Having found the MC of the sample I assume that the
rest of the batch will have the same MC. I then cut up the rest of the timber into blanks as soon as
possible. Then every blank is immediately weighed and the weight marked on it. Once that is done the
pieces can be conditioned at leisure - they will probably start to lose some weight (i.e. water) as soon as
they are cut.
After a blank has had its initial weighing the target weight (ie the weight it will need to be to attain the
required MC) can be calculated and that too, marked on the blank.
The formula for calculating the target weight is as follows:
Required weight =initial weight x
(100 + required MC)

(100 + initial MC)
Once the required weight of a blank has been calculated it will be possible to monitor the MC at any time
by weighing the blank. If the blanks are weighed at regular intervals, then as soon as any blank has
reached the target weight it can be withdrawn from the conditioning process.
Brian Clifford (April 1999)

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Creative Woodturing
Home
Creative Woodturning
Introduction
Once an aspiring turner has mastered the basic techniques, and made the customary assortment domestic
articles, the way forward may not be all that clear. One answer to this problem may be the adoption of a
more creative approach. There are other reasons, too, why a more creative approach should be
encouraged. Thinking about design, exercising the imagination, coming up with new ideas, and using the
craft as a means of self-expression, all enhance the pleasure which the turners can get from their activity.
In addition, as Dale Nish has suggested, woodturners who wish to build a reputation need to "make a
determined effort to develop a style of their own".
What is creativity?
What do we mean by 'creativity'? This question poses a bit of a problem because it is an elusive concept
and one which is difficult to define in a way which will satisfy everybody. One view is that creativity can
only be expressed in work which is not a slavish copy of that of other makers. Originality alone,
however, is not enough; not everything which is original is 'good'. So, as well as being original, a
creative piece of work needs another quality. This quality is the ability to stimulate a special or life
enhancing reaction in the viewer, such as the experience of, beauty, pleasure, excitement, surprise or
amusement.
To be creative a piece of work does not have to be violently different and sometimes an object is given a
'lift' by relatively subtle effects. Also, many different types of turning can exhibit creativity when they
are recognised as being very good of their kind. The word 'style' comes to mind when we encounter
objects of this kind. A piece of work has 'style' when it is immediately perceived as looking 'right'. The
beholder thinks "yes, that's got 'it'". It's like recognising sex appeal.
This leads to the concept of a personal style as referred to by Dale Nish. To have a personal style is to
create a look which is characteristic of your work; a look which is as personal as your signature. This is
much sought after. Since the achievement of a personal style means producing work that has distinctive
characteristics then it must exhibit originality and, by my definition, it must be creative.
In search of creativity
If it is accepted that creativity is a good thing, how do we become more creative? To begin with most
turners, quite rightly, will wish to improve and develop their technical skills. The better a turner's
technique the more avenues there are for exploration. Providing the turner is correctly applying the basic
principles, technical skills can only be increased by practice, and yet more practice, and by gradually
increasing the difficulty of the projects which are tackled.
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Creative Woodturing
Very often, however, the desire to attain a high level of technical skill, and to be able to emulate the
performance of experts, can blind the turner to the need to acquire other attributes. There is a deadly
danger in putting too much emphasis on skill and technical virtuosity. This emphasis can lead to a
tendency for more attention to be given to the way in which an object is made than to the qualities of the
object itself. The means becomes more important than the end. Contrast this with the attitude of those in
the art world (where the crafts come under the heading of the decorative arts). Here the stress is put on
imagination. This has led to a concern with innovation and the 20th century notion that 'art' can be
created without the use of skilled technique.
There are, therefore, two aspects to creative woodturning; one is craftsmanship, the other is imagination.
Most turners will need to draw a line somewhere between the two extremes. We do not, however, all
have to draw the line in the same place. What is imaginative to one person may be weird to another. But,
in general, we do need to be more open minded about where the boundary of acceptability is drawn.
So, technical ability is one thing, imagination is something else. We may feel the need to develop the
latter aspect of our creative ability, but how do we achieve it? For most of us creative skills are not
innate, nor are we likely to develop them by accident. When considering all the elements that go into the
design of a creative piece of woodturning (see below) it will be noted that most of them involve vision.
Visual skills, like other skills have to be developed; to help this process I have compiled the following
list of suggestions . I will call them the four 'L's : look, listen, learn and labour.
Look
Look at, and handle if possible, as much good woodturning as you can. If this is not possible look at
photos. This is very much second best but very much better than nothing. Look at (and read) books on
design. Visit museums and galleries and look at work in other media, not only at ceramics, pottery and
glass, which have affinities with turning, but also at sculpture.
Look at the world around you - at the natural world - in the garden and countryside, on the beach, or
wherever you happen to be. Inspiration may be found in the shape and texture of a flower, of a seed
head, of a shell, or in something else quite unexpected.
Listen
What is meant by listening in this context is paying attention, and being receptive, to the views of others
even when you disagree. Seek out opportunities to discuss design with other turners, and crafts people in
other media, and listen to what they are saying.
Labour
Work at it. Keep thinking about it and looking for ideas. Brainstorm, with others if possible, if not try it
on your. Consider ideas even if at first sight they do not seem promising. Do not expect ideas to come
Creative Woodturing
fully fledged but let one idea lead to another. Keep records so that you do not forget the ideas you have
had. Make sketches - this does not require great skill in drawing. It helps to learn some elementary
technical drawing skills (see under design below) which are easy to acquire. It may also be useful to take
a short course in another discipline, such as sculpture, in order to look at design from another viewpoint.
Above all, be prepared to experiment and take risks. We need to take risks in order to get closer to our
individual form of expression.
Other skills
As well as developing visual skills, and applying these with our conventional turning skills,
complementary techniques can be considered, eg, shaping, carving, texturing and colouring. These might
include one or more, but probably not all, of the following: wood carving tools and techniques; the
router; the chainsaw; the Arbotec tool, or similar devices, which can be used on an angle grinder;
engraving tools, such as the Minicraft drill; punches, drills, the wire brush, and other texturing tools;
sandblasting; and painting techniques and airbrushing.
The analytical tools

In order to develop one's appreciation or to have a meaningful discussion of the aesthetic or artistic value
of the turned object the necessary analytical tools have to be acquired. When considering turnings which
you admire ask yourself this question: why do they have that power over me? In considering this
question the following elements can be considered:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Form
Line
Decoration
Texture
Colour
Contrast or harmony
Dynamics
Composition
Tactile qualities
Volume and weight
Fragility
Selection of material
Beauty of the wood
Technical virtuosity
Style
There are couple of points to be made about these headings. In this context, the term form refers to the
overall three dimensional aspects of the object. Line is a two dimensional concept which can be provided
both by the profile of the piece and by decoration.
Creative Woodturing
When considering the beauty of the wood itself there is a question which needs to be asked: to what
extent can we, or should we, rely on this? Even when the wood is beautiful the above factors are still
important, particularly form, tactile qualities and style. The wood itself may supply elements such as
decoration and colour but all these qualities must be brought into a harmonious whole. It must be said,
too, that not all wood is inherently beautiful; when this is the case the turner must make up for its
deficiencies by techniques such as those suggested earlier.
Design
Up to this point there has been little mention of the concept which, ultimately, is the most important of
all, that of design. Design is the process by which ideas, and the products of such ideas, are developed to
the stage that they can be expressed in a physical form. In a sense design is unavoidable. Even the most
crude pieces of work do not emerge by accident; the people who made them must have had some idea
about what they were trying to achieve.
Prior to putting a piece of wood in the lathe and switching on the power the turner may produce some
preliminary drawings or, as is common, may hope to proceed directly from a mental concept to the
physical form. Unless the design is similar to pieces made in the past, or the turner has an exceptional
visual imagination, the latter is likely to result in a flawed piece of work and a considerable waste of time
and material. The lack of clarity in the preparatory process is often betrayed in the results.
Under the heading of 'labour' I made some suggestions about making drawings and keeping records. It is
worth trying to sketch ideas. These are an important aid to preparation and the development of ideas.
Sketches do not have to be brilliant works of art to be useful and one's skill improves with practice.
Drawing instruments can help. Recourse can be made to the obvious implements such as a pair of
compasses, a ruler and set squares. Straight parallel lines can be drawn by sliding a set square along a
straight edge such as a ruler. As most of the lines are not straight the French curve is an indispensable
tool. A small collection of these curves should be acquired. Most good stationers stock them.
Turnings are symmetrical; drawing both sides to look the same can be a problem. This can be overcome
by drawing one half of the profile, folding the paper along the centre-line, holding it against a window
(or a light box) and tracing the original lines onto the blank half.
In trying to judge if the shapes produced by these methods are satisfactory cut them out of black, or
brown, paper; the cut-outs give a better impression than just lines on paper. If the design has more than
one element, such as a pedestal bowl, then different ideas for the various parts can be cut out and tried in
alternative arrangements. It should be borne in mind though, that a piece of turnery is a three
dimensional object which is not usually observed in profile. As a consequence shapes conceived on
paper in two dimensions may have to modified during the turning process as the form becomes clearer.
As far as the aesthetics of design are concerned there are some basic principles of which every turner
should be aware. These are often called 'rules' but in practice they should be regarded more as rules of
Creative Woodturing
thumb, as guides, which should not be followed slavishly. An example of such a concept is the 'Golden
Mean'. There is no need to go into these any further here because they, and other suggestions, are
competently covered in the chapter on form in Richard Raffan's book on 'Turned Bowl Design'.
Another book which provides an excellent introduction to these matters is a little volume by G. T James
with the title 'Woodturning Design and Practice'. This was published in 1958 and will have been out of
print for ages; however the local library will probably be able to find a copy. I will leave James with the
last word. Design is the heading of the first chapter in this book. He makes no apology for this because,
as he says ".... an essential prelude to making any piece of craft-work is to have a clear idea of what one
is trying to do.... technique is only a means to an end ..."

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http://www.turningtools.co.uk/marketing/marketing-intro.html
Home / Marketing turnery / Marketing other skills / Pricing turnery / Copyright
Marketing Woodturning Skills

1. Introduction
Once they have become competent, and found out how much they enjoy their activity, some woodturners
may think about transforming their hobby into a full-time career. It need hardly be said, however, that
this is a big step, which should not be undertaken without considerable thought. In these notes I will look
at the ways in which well-established marketing techniques may help prospective professional
woodturners approach the problem of selling their skills.
There are a number of ways in which turners may use their skills to create an income. The chief of these
are:
Selling their work

Teaching
Demonstrating
Writing
Making and selling videos
Most successful professional turners will be involved in more than one of these activities but only a few
will participate in all five. In a typical case a professional will start his career by selling his work and
then find that some combination of the other activities listed above pay better. Unfortunately, although
those activities may pay well, they will not always provide a full-time income; as a consequence many
professional turners may still have to spend part of their time making and selling their work.
It may have been noted that a distinction can be made between the selling of turnery and the other
activities. The first concerns a physical product; the latter are methods by which turners can augment
their incomes by passing on their skills and knowledge to others. Because of this, and because pricing
can be considered as a separate issue, it is convenient to split this document into three parts:
1. Marketing turnery
2. Marketing other woodturning skills
3. Pricing woodturning
In Part 1 I have concentrated on the way in which general marketing principles may be used to help
prospective professionals sell their turnery. In Part 2, which I am currently writing, I will consider how
marketing principles can be applied to the other four activities referred to in the second paragraph above.
I will also provide detailed guidance on the planning and performance of these activities. Whilst pricing
is dealt with as a separate topic in Part 3 it is important to recognise that a pricing strategy should be an
integral part of a marketing plan.
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Please note that I am writing from the viewpoint of a turner in the UK. However, I think that turners in
North America and elsewhere will have no problem in relating these notes to their own circumstances. I
should add that I believe there must be a lot more to say on these topics but I am offering these thoughts
as a starting point.
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http://www.turningtools.co.uk/marketing/marketing-part1.html
Home/ Introduction / Marketing other skills / Pricing turnery / Copyright
Marketing and Pricing Woodturning Skills

Part 1
Marketing turnery
1. The importance of marketing
Many prospective professional turners may think, that once they have become proficient and can work
quickly and accurately, they are well on their way to making the transition from hobbyist to full-time
professional. But it is not quite as easy as that. Some twenty-odd years ago when I first set out to sell my
woodturning a fellow exhibitor at a trade show said to me "any fool can make things, it's selling them
thats the problem". I was a somewhat offended by that at the time but over the years I have come to
realise that, in essence, the man was right. Marketing is the primary problem. So, if you to want to
embark on a career as a woodturner, or even if you just want to sell a few pieces from time to time, you
need to give this some hard thought.
Marketing is a problem not just to a budding woodturner but also to the biggest companies in the world.
Because of such widespread concern "marketing" has become a discipline in its own right with its own
knowledge base and professional practitioners. Unfortunately, the marketing literature is full of
marketing-speak and jargon. It abounds with phrases such as: SWOT analysis, the USP, the marketing
mix, market offerings, marketing strategies, marketing plans and so on. This can be somewhat daunting
but in fact, once the thicket of jargon is penetrated, it begins to look more helpful.
Marketing principles apply equally to firms of all sizes but the way they are interpreted in particular
instances may be somewhat different. It is important to recognise that small businesses, such as those of
self-employed crafts people, have very limited amounts of time at their disposal. As a consequence their
marketing activities have to be inexpensive and simple.
However, compared with large firms they have certain advantages. They are in close contact with their
customers and they should be able to spot changes in the market and in their customer's needs without
delay. Because they are not hamstrung by bureaucratic structures, and have flexible production methods,
they should be capable of a rapid response to such changes. Furthermore they can experiment and handle
non-standard orders with ease. It must be said that whilst these factors provide real benefits they do have
a downside. Such small firms can easily fall into the trap of indulging in too many activities and trying to
satisfy the requirements of too many types of customers. To avoid this trap small firms need to
concentrate their marketing efforts.
It may be thought that hard work and common sense are the chief ingredients for a successful career as a
woodturner. It is true that these will take one a long way. Nevertheless less, the combination of these
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attributes with a disciplined marketing approach should lead to more successful solutions to selling
problems.
2. The marketing process

Marketing is often seen just as advertising and promotion. These activities may well be part of the
marketing process but they are not necessarily the most important elements. The essence of a marketing
approach is that it involves a continual matching process between the makers resources and the
customers requirements. Diagram 1 illustrates the process. If you are thinking about becoming a fulltime turner you (The Maker) need to take a really hard look at yourself, and your skills. You need to look
at the opportunities available to you and at the obstacles that may stand in your way. And, you will have
to think about the type of the type of turnings you will make and relate these to the customers to whom
you hope to sell (The Market).
Diagram 1: The marketing process
There are a number of other things you must do to get your customers interested in your products. These
form a group of activities that I have called The Package. In marketing terminology this is often
referred to as the total offer or the marketing mix. These activities can be summed up as the four Ps:
product, place (the distribution channels), promotion, and pricing. It is very easy to underestimate the
amount of time and money these functions take to implement. If you are going to be successful you must
look at this very carefully. You can start with a SWOT analysis of your situation as a maker. SWOT
stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. Having done that we can consider the
components of "the package".
3. The maker - strengths and weaknesses

Before going any further with your plans you need to ask yourself some searching questions relating to
your strengths and weaknesses. These might well include the following.
Are you sure you have the necessary woodturning and design skills?
Are you properly prepared?
Have you a suitable workshop and the equipment you will require?
Have you space for materials and work in progress?
If you intend to work from home have you checked with the planning laws?
What support do you have?
Are your family willing to help and encourage you?
Have you friends you might call on for advice and assistance?
Have you the right personal characteristics?
Are you a self-starter, do you have any trouble motivating yourself?
Are you totally committed?
Are you good at planning your time?
Are you prepared to work hard?
Do you think you will be able to acquire some business acumen and selling skills?
Are you clear about why you want to do this and what you hope to achieve?
Is your health good?
Think about these questions. Ask yourself: where am I strong and where am I weak? What can you do
about your weak areas? Is there any remedial action you can take? If not, can you work around them?
When considering these factors you should recognise that being self-employed and your own boss can
bring many rewards but for a turner it can be a lonely business. It requires self-confidence, an element of
risk taking and a considerable amount of self-discipline. You can expect to have to work long hours for a
modest income. The plus side is that working as a professional woodturner can provide a very satisfying
life-style.
4. The maker - opportunities and threats

If you are thinking about taking up woodturning on a full-time basis you may have sold some pieces
already. This will have given you some idea of the opportunities available to you. But there may be
others you have not considered. Are there any other kinds of turning you might undertake? The number
of different objects that you could produce is considerable so it is clear that you must specialise to some
degree. Some turners are highly specialised and concentrate on a very narrow range of products. Others,
whilst producing a wider range of objects, may give more prominence to particular products. It is
desirable to specialise as much as possible because this leads to the refinement of designs and greater
speed of execution. Possible markets should be examined with care to see where effort should be
concentrated. What threats might you face? You will need to think about the nature of the competition in
your prospective markets. Your competitors will not necessarily be other woodturners. There are likely
to be many alternative products for people to spend their money on.
Foreign competition is a major problem. Imports of giftware and craft products from third world
countries come in to the UK at absurdly low prices. Another threat will come from swings in the state of
the economy; these have an exaggerated effect on discretionary expenditure.
One problem, as perceived by many turners, is the publics attitude to wood and how much or, rather,
how little, people are prepared to pay for it. Many people say they love wood but, only too often, they do
not value it. Many fail to appreciate how labour intensive woodturning is and how much time is put into
the work.
You must continually keep a watchful eye for such threats, and any others that you may identify, so that
you can counter them, if at all possible. The assessment of your strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and
threats, should be ongoing.
5. The market
The term "the market" can be used to refer to a particular physical location where people congregate to
buy and sell products. It can also be used as an abstract collective term, which is concerned with the
activity of buying and selling wherever, or however, that activity may be performed. Thus when any two
or more people negotiate a transaction by any means, such as the telephone or the Internet, that action
takes place within the market.
People enter markets because they have a need, or needs, they wish to satisfy. For a seller the primary
need will often be money but satisfaction can also be taken from other aspects of the transaction. For
example, if I sell a turned bowl the money I get for it may well be of great importance but I may also get
pleasure from the belief that it confirms my status as a particular type of craftsman. I have met people at
craft markets who have been thrilled to make a sale because it is confirmation that their work has
reached a certain standard: "somebody has paid money for it so it cannot be too bad".
When people make purchases it is not necessarily because they have to, as when they acquire those
things we call "basic necessities", such as a minimum amount of food. When we buy leisure clothes, for
example, our budgets will probably allow us to choose from a wide range of items. What we choose will
be determined not just by "good value" but also by a range of personal considerations, which determine
the amount of satisfaction we derive from our purchases. What satisfaction are people looking for in
your turnings?
Since people will not enter the market unless they have some expectation of a degree of satisfaction we
can widen our definition of the market. We can say that a market is composed of people who wish to
satisfy a need. Before they enter the market that need does not necessarily have to be a conscious need,
nor does it have to be rational. Sometimes, for example, people have to be persuaded that they need
something and others may not be aware they have the need until they are confronted with it.
At its widest the market would embrace the whole world and all the people in it. However, this concept
of the market is too broad to be of any use to any but the very largest of international companies. So it is
necessary to break the market down into relevant manageable parts, or segments, according to the nature
of the business. Geographically we can do this in terms of smaller divisions of the world such as:
international, national, regional, and local. Within these localities we can consider people in terms of,
say: language; age; sex; social status; spending power; where, how and why they buy; their attitudes; and
tastes.
However, besides those general characteristics listed above there will be many more specific
considerations, which will depend on the nature of the products being exchanged. Woodturnery can have
a number of uses: architectural; domestic furniture and furnishings; decoration: kitchen and table ware;
garden furniture; jewellery; toys and games; and tools of various kinds. Such items may be purchased to
satisfy a variety of personal needs. When considering specific products it is desirable to try to identify
the type of people who might buy them and the satisfaction they hope to achieve from the purchase.
Consideration of such factors should help us to identify the 'position' we should occupy in the market.
That is to say: what we should produce, what type of customer we should be aiming at, where and how
to sell it and what price to sell it at. All these factors are closely inter-linked.
6. The package - the product

In a marketing context the product can mean different things to different people. As the maker you
should look at the product not just as a piece of woodturning but as all the things you have to do to make
a sale. These include sourceing materials, making the goods, finding a sales outlet, and ensuring that they
meet the customers requirements. If you fail to consider all these things then you may be concentrating
all your attention on making objects that, on the one hand, you cannot produce in quantity or, on the
other, that you cannot sell.
If you intend to sell your work through a retailer you need to make a distinction between the customer
and the consumer or end-user. Your customer, the person you sell to, is the retailer; but the retailer will
require a product that satisfies both her own and her customers needs. She has to identify her market
and attract the right type of clientele into her shop. So the retailer will only be interested in products that
are compatible with her other stock and her position in the market place. To the retailer the product is
more than a piece of woodturning. She may need other things from you that are equally important to her
such as suitable packaging, quick delivery and continuity of supply.
The goods you make will probably be easier to sell if they have some distinctive features, which add to
their attraction. In marketing speak this is a unique selling proposition (USP). Generally,
differentiation means looking at design. With the exception of bespoke turnery, design is important in all
types of markets but, it is such a big subject, it is not possible to deal with it in any detail here. However,
it does not necessarily take a brilliant designer to obtain a USP. Sometimes a bit of lateral thinking will
do the trick. Take the humble light pull. I know of one turner who makes his much larger than normal in
highly polished exotic woods, and another who stains his bright colours. Or think of pepper and salt
mills; most of us make them in common designs, which will take standard mechanisms; but there is a
turner who makes very tall mills. He has made a profitable niche market by targeting restaurants.
For a turner working to commission or providing bespoke turnery, e.g. architectural work, it should not
be very difficult to pinpoint the customer and to determine the customers needs. It should be noted,
however, that from the customer's point of view the product is not just the item they commission but also
a satisfactory relationship with the maker.
How do turners compete if they specialise in bespoke turnery? They cannot compete on design or
differentiate the product, because those elements are controlled by the customer, and they may not wish
to compete on price. But they can differentiate in the service they provide. Such a turner can, for
instance, try to get a reputation for reliability as one who can be trusted to get jobs done in an acceptable
amount of time. Or he might provide an emergency service and, let it be known that he his prepared to
work all night if necessary.
7. The package - place

We can think of the 'place' as the distribution channels through which goods are sold. For woodturnings
these include craft markets, gift shops, galleries, turners own shops, craft centers, craft co-operatives
(running their own shops or craft markets) and trade shows. Then there are various ways of selling direct
to the public such as hosting woodturning parties in friends or relatives houses, taking commissions, and
the Internet.
Craft markets vary enormously. They range from those held in the local village hall to the Chelsea Show.
Some markets will last just for a few hours, others may take up several days. The more up-market the
show the more difficult it will be to be accepted as an exhibitor. The spending power of the visitors will
be greater but the fees will be higher. However, higher fees do not necessarily correlate that closely with
the exhibitor's return. So you need to choose the markets which are most suitable for you.
As far as the UK is concerned there is little doubt that the geographical location of a market affects the
level of sales and the prices that can be charged. Not only are some regions of the country more affluent
that others but, even within regions, it will be found that some towns and, possibly, some venues are
better for the exhibitor than others. Some organisers, too, are more successful than others. There are a
number of possible reasons for this. Sometimes it is the result of more, or more effective, advertising,
sometimes it is because of careful selection of exhibitors and sometimes it is a combination of these.
Usually it also takes time to develop a really successful market.
Many of the exhibitors at run of the mill craft markets are hobbyists. Some are there basically to show
off their work to the public and are quite content it they cover their stall fees. Others are a little more
ambitious and will be hoping to take enough to help cover the costs of their equipment and materials.
These are perfectly reasonable attitudes and but for such makers many craft markets would not take
place. Nevertheless, the fact that neither of these groups charge for their time means that the general
level of prices tends to be very low. The advantage of this is that it attracts people to these markets. The
disadvantage is that it makes life very difficult for the budding professional because of the difficulty of
competing with low prices. When I attended markets I expected to find a number of other woodturners
there but I did not look upon them as the competition. Most often his was because we all had different
stock that attracted different customers. Basically the competition was all the other exhibitors. As a
general rule, though, the higher the fees for exhibiting the fewer the number of hobbyists. Most of the
customers at run of the mill markets are women with families possibly on a somewhat limited budget.
What kind of products will they be looking for? Bear in mind that a visit to a market is often a form
entertainment so to some extent many purchases will be impulse buys. Even if people are hoping to buy
gifts, as for Christmas, it is unlikely that they will be looking for something specific. In fact, when
visiting a market, it is very difficult to know what will be found there, so it is difficult to plan on buying
specific items.
When planning what goods to take to a market all of the above considerations must be taken into
account. There is a finite limit to what can be transported and to what can be displayed. At any fair, even
one, which has been attended before, it is difficult to know which lines will sell best, so multiple
examples of each will have to be taken. When I went to markets I took a range of relatively inexpensive
items ranging from light pulls to wall clocks plus a selection of bowls. The number and type of bowls I
took varied according to the nature of the market. I found that even at the most up-market fairs I attended
the inexpensive items formed a large proportion of my sales.
A common mistake made by newbies is that they make items which incorporate relatively expensive
bought in components, such as pen holders, box lids, clock inserts and many of the other things you can
see at the back of Craft Supplies catalogue. The problem with doing this is that a high proportion of one's
sales revenue is going to a supplier and making money for them rather than oneself. For a long time I
made the mistake of making clocks incorporating expensive dials and glass fronts with brass bezels. I
eventually designed some clocks for which I only had to buy in a movement and hands.
Thought and attention should be given to the stand itself. In the UK stand space is commonly sold in
units of 6 feet because this is conceived as the length of a typical table. In fact tables vary considerably
in length and width so I always took my own. Display space on the surface of a table is very limited so it
is desirable to use shelves to build upwards. The stands will probably have to be collapsible to fit into the
vehicle. Good lighting is essential so this should also be incorporated in the assembly. A well made and
attractive stand contributes to an impression of professionalism and helps to give the public the
confidence to buy.
When considering craft markets as a means of selling your products you should evaluate them in terms
of time and money. The time taken in loading and unloading your vehicle, erecting and manning your
stand, and travelling should be assessed at your normal hourly rate. The financial costs will include the
fee for the stand space, fuel and running costs for the vehicle and, possibly, food and accommodation.
The cost in time and money can then be expressed as a percentage of the sales revenue from the event.
There are benefits to be gained from attending craft markets that are difficult to put a figure on. One
benefit is that it provides an opportunity to meet other crafts people, to exchange experiences, and to
network. Another is the opportunity to advertise training courses and a willingness to undertake
commissions. Appropriate brochures should be prepared and displayed in a prominent position.
If you decide to sell through retailers there are a number of points to consider when making your choice.
These include: the retailers position in the market; whether your products will fit into the retailer's range;
and how this might affect your own portfolio of products. The retailer's position in the market will be
determined not just by the physical location, although that may be important, but also by the price, the
type and quality of the goods, the quality of the decor and the display. These are all things which we tend
to notice sub-consciously when we enter a shop, but if we are hoping to sell by this means we need to
make a careful, conscious, assessment.
Whether or not you think a specific retail outlet might be suitable will depend on how it fits in with those
you already use and the portfolio of products you have devised for that market. If a retail outlet look
particularly promising you may have to be prepared to modify that portfolio. At the end of the day,
however, the final word will be with the retailer.
Continuity of supply is important to most retailers, and may be of particular concern to large companies
such as departmental stores. As well as keeping the retailer happy the maintenance of a presence in
outlets is also in your interests as this means that customers will know where to find your work. So some
kind of check must be applied to the numbers of outlets, which you employ to prevent you becoming
over-stretched. In discussion with a retailer it may be desirable to consider where and how the products
will be displayed. For example, it is not a good idea for turnery to be placed in a sunny window. Nor will
you want it at the back of the shop where it will not be noticed.
A clear understanding of the terms of payment is also desirable. A small supplier, such as a crafts person
is in a very weak position in relation to a large store. It is not unusual for large stores to delay payment
for excessive periods. By doing so the store is improving its cash flow and reducing its borrowing
requirements (or earning interest as the case may be) at the expense of the supplier.
Sometimes craft people are horrified at the size of the retailer's mark-up. However, I think it should be
accepted that a mark-up in the region of 100% is not unreasonable. Gift shops and galleries have many
expenses to meet that are not immediately apparent. That they have problems is revealed by the fact that
many of these concerns have a short life.
The costs and benefits of selling through retailers should be considered in a similar way to those of craft
markets. Time will be consumed in packaging and, possibly, in transporting the goods. Financial costs
will be incurred in packaging materials and transportation or carriage.
If you have suitable premises in a suitable location, and can obtain planning permission, you may think
about having your own shop. First of all you will need to evaluate the time and costs of setting it up.
Then you will have to think about your position in the market in the same way as any other retailer. You
will also have to think about how you will man the shop. If it is adjacent to the workshop you could take
time out from turning to serve customers but this will have a cost in lost production time. This must be
compared with the cost of hiring staff. Very often in such circumstances the turner's partner will man the
shop. In this case that person's time should be given at least a nominal evaluation - the partner could be
earning money elsewhere.
In some cases turners who own shops sell goods produced by other people. This may, or may not, be
restricted to turnery. But in either way time will be taken up with dealing with prospective suppliers and
other tasks involved in retailing. Some turners have combined shops and retail areas in craft centres or
small retail 'villages'. These are usually in tourist areas. Very often they are purpose built and have
adjacent car parks. For these reasons rents and taxes (e.g. rates in the UK) will probably be high.
Sometimes groups of crafts people get together to run their own craft markets or their own shop. There is
not a lot that needs to be said here about running such craft markets. In many cases they are relatively
infrequent - perhaps twice a year. If you consider taking part in, or even initiating such a venture, you
need to consider how much of your time will be taken up with helping to organise the affair.
If you participate in the setting up of a joint shop there are a number of things to consider. The group will
have to confront all of the issues, which other retailers have to contend with. These include the location
of the premises, rent, taxes, running the shop and overall management. A problem, which may arise, as
this is a group project, is that it may be difficult to establish a clear position in the market. There may
also be problems in sharing the space between members of the group and allocating display positions.
Clearly, on all of these issues there is considerable room for disagreement and partners in such a project
should be chosen with great care. Nevertheless, some co-operatives make a success of the venture.
Most professional turners will be approached from time to time by members of the public who need
something turned that is not in the turner's normal range. Such requests may come from a number of
sources. Some will be from people in general who need to replace damaged items in their homes, such as
stair spindles or chair spars. Some will be from antique restorers who need replacement parts for
restoration work. Some will be from builders who are renovating old buildings who need such items as
replacement finials. Sometimes they will be from architects, or others, who need components, such as
porch posts, for new buildings. Some will be from bespoke furniture makers who need turned parts such
as table legs.
In most cases, with such work, the customer will wish to know how much it will cost before placing the
order. The turner who deals with such request infrequently may find it difficult to estimate how much
time it will take to source the material and to carry out the work. Because the material may not be to
hand, or the techniques required are outside the turner's accustomed range, it is very easy to make the
price estimate too low. I well remember a lesson from my early days: I priced a small job on the basis of
how long I thought it would take me to make it. I then found that it took me all the time I had allowed
just to find a suitable piece of wood. So, in effect, I did the turning for nothing!
One thing to bear in mind about such requests is that whilst the customer 'needs' the item you don't have
to make it. Therefore the price estimate should be pitched at a level that ensures that the work is done for
a satisfactory return. With time, of course, it should become easier to make realistic estimates and so
avoid rejecting work, which might have added to one's turnover. Another aspect of this is that, as the
price of such work can be raised because the customer needs it, some turner's find it a profitable area in
which to specialise. In such cases it is necessary to build up the right contacts and, if necessary, to
advertise in specialist publications, or send out fliers. The first port of call may be the yellow pages.
All of these methods of selling incur costs, in time or money, which should be evaluated and compared,
as far as this is possible. To carry out the evaluation some research will be required. Your time is at a
premium, and you must keep the cost down, so whatever you do you must do it efficiently. You have to
decide what information you need and where you can find it. It might be as simple as studying the
yellow pages and making a few phone calls. If you have decided to sell through craft markets, gift shops,
or galleries, you might schedule a series of visits to those to see whether they would be suitable outlets
for your type of work. Before you make visits or phone calls, you should be clear in your mind about
what you want to see, what questions you should ask, and what information you wish to convey. When
visiting shops or galleries, unless you intend to take actual products with you, photographs will be
required. Bear in mind that the way in which you behave on your initial contact may be important in
determining the final outcome. Be brisk and business-like. These things are all part of the way in which
you promote your goods.
8. Promotion
Many people think of promotion as advertising and the type of literature that comes through our
letterboxes. In marketing terms, however, promotion is the result of any form of communication about
the maker and the makers products. This can include unintended negative messages that have the effect
of clouding the image you wish to project. Presentation, both in personal terms and in those of the
product, is very important, but is often neglected.
As a professional turner you should think about the image you are presenting to the world by your
demeanour and the various forms of communication you have with your customers. At the very least you
should have some nicely designed headed paper, business cards, and complimentary slips. In addition
you should create a portfolio of photographs and biographical material. Look for a distinctive logo,
which can be centred on your name. If you are going to craft markets build yourself an attractive stand.
When at craft markets have your portfolio and training course details to hand. Generate a 'house' style by
ensuring that all your literature has a consistent look that is commensurate with the image you are trying
to project.
Remember that you need to create a name for yourself. Other activities by which you sell your skills,
such as writing and demonstrating will help to get your name known. Get as much public exposure as
you can. Try to get a profile in your local paper. Have a standard press release available. Network.
Participate in your local and regional craft organisations.
9. Price
Pricing is an integral part of the marketing mix. The relationship between the type of turning you decide
to specialise in and the prices you set for it will determine your position in the market place. To all
makers there is a range of prices within which they can operate. The lowest price at which they can sell
(if they wish to make a living) is set by the costs of production; the highest level is the price the market
will bear. The way in which these levels are determined will be examined at length in Part 3.
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Marketing and Pricing Woodturning Skills

Part 2
Marketing Other Woodturning Skills
In the general introduction to this series of articles I mentioned a number of ways in which turners could
augment their incomes by marketing their other skills. The chief of these are:
Writing
Teaching
Demonstrating
Making and selling videos
Participation in one or more of these activities is well worthwhile because it increases the 'visibility' of
the turners engaged in them. As a result the activities are mutually reinforcing, the turners' names
become better known among the woodturning fraternity and their services should become more sought
after. So the more of them turners engage in the more likely they are to be financially successful.
As well as having woodturning skills turners who wish to make a success of these ventures will have to
develop new areas of expertise. I hope the following notes will be of some assistance along the way. As I
indicated in the general introduction I will not only be offering some general comments on the way in
which marketing principles can be applied to these activities, but also some suggestions regarding their
execution.
To begin with writing. The most important areas I will be concerned with here are writing and selling:
(a) articles for magazines, and (b) books. I will deal with magazine articles first.
Writing for magazines

It may not be readily apparent that marketing principles (as set out in Part 1 of this document) can be
applied to articles on woodturning. But a brief account of the steps that a writer, such as myself, must
take to get an article published will show that this is so.
When I have an idea for an article (ie, a product) I think I could sell the first thing I have to do is
consider which magazines might take it and the type of articles they publish (ie, I have to research the
market). These will be either general woodworking magazines or those specialising in woodturning. I
will probably direct my attention at magazines in the UK but I should not forget those elsewhere in the
English speaking world. Then I have to decide which part (or segment) of that market I should focus on.
Having picked a magazine in which I will try to place the article I have to ensure that my article will be
different to those it has published in the recent past (ie, a unique selling opportunity). Having done that I
can approach the editor to see whether he is willing to consider my offering and how much he is willing
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to pay me. If he is interested, and the terms are acceptable, I can go ahead with the writing.
When writing an article I have to remember that it must capture, and hold, the reader's interest. Not only
must it have an interesting subject, but it must be well crafted (designed and executed). The first person I
have to impress is the editor. He is the 'gatekeeper'; if I cannot get past him then my article will never be
read by its intended audience. I have to bear in mind that he is a busy man and when my article lands on
his desk he will be more inclined to give it his attention if it is well 'packaged'. It needs to be neatly typed
out in the required format rather then scribbled on odd scraps of paper. My submission may also include
some details of my woodturning experience and previous published work. Having put it all together my
next task is to decide how I will deliver it. Will I post it, use a messaging service, send it over the
Internet, or deliver it by hand.
It will be seen that these steps entail the application of a number of marketing concepts such as: the
nature of the product, researching the market, segmenting the market, differentiating the product by
creating a unique selling proposition, pricing, packaging promotion and delivery. It should now be
apparent that an article on some aspect woodturning should be marketed in a similar way to any other
product. That being so we can now look at the way this can be approached in more detail. To start with
we can perform a SWOT analysis. Remember that SWOT stands for strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats. Following that we can look at the market and the four P's (product, place,
promotion and price) which make up the package.
Strengths and weaknesses

If you are considering writing an article your main weakness may be your inexperience of writing and
the fear that it is too difficult. Writing is a skill and, like other skills, the development of proficiency
requires effort and practice. Although to many people the idea of writing for a magazine may be a
daunting prospect it is not so very difficult providing that the techniques described below are applied
diligently. If you can write an intelligible letter to a member of your family or to a friend you should be
able to manage an article. It is possible that your attempts at an essay at school may have put you off
writing. Although it is a long time since I went to school I well remember struggling to put together
some words about a subject I knew little about and was not interested in. But if you have an idea for an
article relating to woodturning you will know a lot about your subject and probably have a passionate
interest in it. That is you strength.
Opportunities and threats

Your opportunities will lie in finding some aspects of turning that have not been written about in the
recent past. I say in the recent past because there is a tendency for particular subjects to be written about
time and time again. Some years ago I had the opportunity to look through the bound copies of a British
woodworking journal that has been in publication over many years. What struck me was the way in
which each generation came up with its own slant on the same themes. I wonder how many times, and in
how many ways, the turning of a bead has been described? So you have to look for a different 'angle' on
a technique or a product, or a slightly different approach to something which has been done before,
which you think will be of interest to the reader.

The biggest threat, or obstacle, is that writing takes time to produce. Time taken up by writing is time
taken away, either from turning or from leisure activities. If it is done at times when you could be
turning, or other tasks related to the business, then you have to be satisfied that it is financially worth it.
If you do it at times when other jobs are not possible, in what would be leisure time, then it can be a way
of augmenting your income. And, as one turner once said to me, "a professional has to get as many pay
days as possible". This means that writing becomes yet another job that for which time has to be found.
So unless it is something that you enjoy it could become a source of stress.
The package
As we saw in Part 1 of these notes the Package is comprised of the four P's: place (the market), product,
promotion and price. In this case, as mentioned earlier, the product will be dealt with not just in
marketing terms but considerable attention will be given to the ways in which it is created. Promotion,
too, will be handled rather differently - here I will be primarily concerned with the way in which the
article is presented to the editor of the chosen magazine. In this context price needs little consideration.
Some magazines have set rates for all articles; so then it is a question of take it or leave it. With others it
is a matter of negotiating a rate that you feel is satisfactory. It is important, however, to establish the rate
that you will receive before releasing the article for publication. When selling anything it is desirable to
agree a price before parting with the goods and to establish which of the customers will give the best
return. It is also necessary to ensure that the remuneration is sufficient to repay the time and effort put in.
The market
There are at present two types of magazine that form your market: magazines that cover all types of
woodworking and those that are dedicated to woodturning. It should also be borne in mind that the
number of magazines being published on the Internet is steadily increasing. In the future it may be
possible to obtain payment from these sources. In the meantime those turners with their own web sites
may wish to include some articles. There are a number of reasons for this: 1. to make the web site more
attractive; 2. to provide a service to other woodturning enthusiasts; 3. to raise the author's profile and as a
form of advertising for other turning activities; 4. a combination of the above. Whether writing for
magazines or for the web the techniques will be the much the same but in the following I will mostly be
writing with magazine articles in mind.
Most general woodworking magazines contain at least one woodturning article per issue. These will
probably cover the same range of topics as the dedicated turning magazines. Obviously, over a given
period of time, an individual general magazine will publish only a fraction of the number of turning
articles published by a specialist magazine. However there are more general magazines than specialist
and, as a consequence, the general magazines should not be overlooked.
Since these notes are written for an English-speaking readership I think it is reasonable to assume that
any articles my readers write will also be in English. So, if you are thinking of selling an article it could
be aimed at a magazine anywhere in the English-speaking world. An Australian, for example, can have
an article published in 'Fine Woodworking' in the USA, or an American can have one published in
'Woodturning' in the UK. Potentially, therefore, there is a large market. Another consideration is that
only a few of these magazines have a readership outside of the country in which they are published. As a
consequence it should be possible to sell the same article, with only minor adjustments, to more than one
magazine.
The product
When selling turnery through retailers we have to consider the needs of both the shopkeeper and the end
user. Similarly, when looking at selling to an article to a magazine we should consider needs of the both
the editor and of the magazine reader. The editor of a successful magazine will be a busy person and will
give more attention to writers who make things as easy as possible for him. Most magazines will supply
a set of author's guidelines that will set out their basic requirements. These will be considered in more
detail under the heading of 'presentation' below.
Most magazines have a house style, which reflects the editor's (or the publisher's) view of the tastes and
attitudes of their readers. It is desirable, but not always possible, to read a few issues of a magazine you
are writing for so that, when necessary, the style of writing can be adjusted. However, because few
copies of most woodworking magazines are published outside a particular region (or country) and are,
therefore, not available elsewhere, it is not always possible to research the international market in any
detail.
What are the needs of the readers? First of all it should be borne in mind that woodturners are, of
necessity, practical people and may not be avid readers. Many of the students who have come to me for
introductory lessons have said, "you can't learn turning from a book". However, magazines do sell so
some turners must like reading about their activity. Nevertheless, the editor of a magazine (and therefore
the writer too) will need to ensure that the articles are made as easy to read as possible. To this end the
text should be kept clear and simple. It is often said, "a picture is worth a thousand words" so the article
should be illustrated by well-chosen and well-produced diagrams or photographs. Graphic designers also
like to use illustrations to break up the text. This not only makes the text look less formidable but also
improves the appearance of the page.
Design and structure

When writing about the product in Part 1 of these notes I assumed that the readers were accomplished
woodturners. In this part I am taking the view that they are, probably, not fully confident of their ability
to put together an article. Even if the reader has experience of writing it may be of interest to see how
another person approaches the activity. As a consequence much of the following will be concerned with
practical suggestions on how to produce a clear and well-structured piece of work. 'Well-structured'
means that the text should flow from one point to another in a logical, coherent, and easily understood,
manner.
When thinking about structure the most general point that can be made is that an article should have a
beginning, middle, and an end. The beginning, which may only be a few words, should capture the
reader's attention. The middle sets out the story you wish to tell. If it is a 'how to make it' piece it can just
be a chronological description. The end, which can also be short, should tie up any loose ends, round the
piece off, and come to a positive conclusion. The piece should not come to a dying fall, it should end
with a 'bang not a whimper'.
When writing an 'how to do it' piece it is often a good idea to make an example on the lathe and to take
copious notes of the procedure. It is important when writing a piece of this kind that no important steps
in the narrative are omitted. It is also important to ensure that events are described in the correct order. I
once read an article in a woodworking magazine where, towards the end the writer said, "oh, there is
something I ought to have said earlier". That was very sloppy, the writer ought to have rewritten the
article and put the information he had omitted in the correct place. The way to get the general structure
right is to create a plan. A plan is to writing as design is to a piece of turnery. Good design and good
planning both require a lot of thought. If the writer has an exceptionally good memory it may not be
necessary to write it down; most people, however, will have to set it out carefully on paper.
When planning an article care needs to be taken that it will not be too long for the magazine it is
intended for. If it is too long, however good it is in other respects, the editor will reject it. A quick check
of some magazines I have to hand suggests that the upper limit is usually four pages per article.
Occasionally five page articles will be used providing the subject matter warrants it. Sometimes it may
be possible to split an article, into a series of parts to be spread over consecutive issues of a magazine. In
this case, however, each part will have to be more or less self-contained so that it will stand up on its
own.
The number of words for a full page of text (with no illustrations) for the magazines I mentioned above
was be approximately 1250. In practice the number and size of the illustrations that will accompany
them will reduce the number of words employed on each page. In addition, the heading and, possibly, an
editorial introduction will take up some space on the first page. Some leeway is provided by the fact that
editors adjust the size of the illustrations to fit articles into a set of full pages. Occasionally they will use
advertisements to fill space on a page. Taking all of this into consideration it is apparent that only a
rough estimate of the number of words available for a specific article can be made, Nevertheless, it is
necessary to decide on a figure to use as a guide.
When the first draft of you article has been completed you will need to know how many words you have
used. If a word processor is used to produce the article it will probably have a facility for a word count, if
not it will be necessary to count the words manually. As only a rough estimate is required it is
unnecessary to count every word. The way to do it is to select a block of typical text, count the number
of lines and the number words in the block, and then calculate the average number of words per line.
This number is multiplied by the number of lines in a typical page and then by the number of pages, to
give an overall figure for the article.
Creating a plan
One way of producing a plan is to jot down your ideas as they come to you on a piece of paper. These
jottings should be as brief as possible - just sufficient to act as a reminder. Very often just two or three
words, that form a heading, will be sufficient. At this stage the mind should be allowed to roam freely.
When satisfied that you have entered all your ideas on the subject you can start to rearrange them into a
structure. Number your points in what seems to be the best order and then rewrite them accordingly. As
this is done it may throw up further thoughts that can be incorporated. You may find that you have to go
through this process a number of times before you are satisfied. Another way is to write your initial ideas
on small pieces of paper. A jotter pad is ideal for this. The pieces of paper can then be set out on a table
and moved around until a satisfactory arrangement is found. Then, as with the previous method, the list
can be written out.
Before computers came along this is how writers, such as myself, had to go about producing a plan. Now
that we have computers there are programs that enable the process to be carried out more efficiently.
These programs fall into two types; outliners and mindmaps. In an outliner a series of headings and subheadings can be produced in the following form:
Main heading
Sub-heading
Sub-heading
Sub-sub-heading
And so on
Sub-heading
Sub-heading
Sub-sub-heading
And so on
The beauty of an outliner is that if a heading is dragged into a new position, all of its sub-headings are
dragged with it, and the whole set of notes will be renumbered. Similarly a sub-heading and its children
can be dragged to a different heading. A similar thing can be done in a word processor by highlighting
and dragging headings but it is by no means as convenient as using an outliner. Word for windows has a
built in outliner but I have found that even after a lot of re-configuration it is awkward to use.
In the days of DOS there was a programme called PC-Outline that was, and still is, excellent. Some
years ago a Windows version of PC-Outline was produced but, apparently, this was very 'buggy'. It
seems that both versions of PC-Outline are now unavailable but is a copy of the DOS version can be
found (it used to be issued as shareware) it is still very useful. It will run on versions of windows prior to
XP. However, although outliners are very useful a more recent development in computer programs is
that of mindmaps.
Mindmaps
A layout of a mindmap for these notes made using a computer program shown in Diagram 1. It looks
very different to an outline but works in a similar way - the heading and sub-headings can be dragged
around at will. Compared with an outliner I find that a mindmap conveys a better overall impression. It
also encourages non-linear thinking and the production of ideas. It may have been noticed that a
mindmap is a little like arranging pieces of paper on a table, but is much more convenient. Most
mindmap programs for computers enable the map to be printed out in the same form as an outliner. This
can be useful when writing up your notes.
A programme called eMindMaps was, for some time, provided free on the cover disks of magazines in
the UK. For some reason, unknown to me, it seems to have been withdrawn. To my taste this programme
had a somewhat crude presentation, but it worked very well. A similar program, which recently appeared
on a cover disk, is MindGenius Home. This has a much cleaner interface than eMindMaps. It seems to
work well although, as of yet, I have not used it to any extent. A free evaluation copy can be downloaded
from www.mindgenius.com/. However, I have recently found a free, open source, mindmap that does
everything I need. Diagram 1 was produced with it. The program can be downloaded from http://
freemind.sourceforge.net/.
Diagam 1: The layout of a mindmap
Style
Having considered the structure it is necessary to think about the style of writing to adopt. Some
magazines have a 'house style', a distinctive tone of voice. Some also make clear distinctions about the
levels of skills of the readers. At the time of writing one magazine actually colour codes the articles on
the basis of beginner, inter-mediate, and experienced. However, as a general guideline the aim should be
to keep your writing clear and simple. Sentences and paragraphs should be short and there should be
frequent sub-headings. The amount of detail given should depend on the assumed knowledge of the
reader. Intermediate turners, for example, will not expect to be told how to turn a bead but they might
need to be told how the work-piece should be held on the lathe. Generally you should write how you
speak using words you would use in conversation with another turner. Having said that there are some
reservations to make. Cliches, hackneyed expressions and colloquialisms, should be avoided, as these
may make your prose dull, uninteresting and, possibly, irritating.
Some people, these days, think that spelling is unimportant. I doubt that your editor will take that view he will not relish having to mark up your copy with corrections to spelling mistakes. Run your magnum
opus through a spell checker but beware; make sure it is set to the region you are writing for. Is it set to
English, or American English? A problem with spell checkers is that they cannot determine the meaning
of words. A word may be spelt correctly but have the wrong meaning in the context is which it is used.
Some obvious examples are 'here' and 'hear', and 'their' and 'there'; but there are many more.
Getting grammar and punctuation right is more difficult to achieve than correct spelling. Keeping
sentences short will help. If you are worried about this ask somebody, such as a friend or relation, to read
through your piece. The most important thing is to take care that the meaning is clear. If it is easy to read
then the grammar and punctuation will probably be OK. The article is for turners not members of the
local Literary Society!
Writer's block
Sometimes you may have an idea for an article but find it difficult to get started. In some cases this may
be because you have not got the subject quite clear in your mind. What I do when I have this kind of
writer's block is not to try to start at the beginning but scribble down anything that comes to mind that
seems relevant to the subject. Doing this I may end up with a number of disjointed pieces of text but very
often this process unlocks the mental block. The pieces of scribble I have produced may not appear in
the finished piece but they will have performed a useful function. I liken the process to that of an artist
who makes a series of sketches before proceeding to the full-scale work.
Re-writing
Speaking for myself, I never regard the first attempt at an article as the finished product. It is just a first
draft, probably the first of many drafts. I read the piece through looking for rough passages where I have
not expressed myself clearly, or have been more elegant, and mark in the corrections. Often I go through
this process a number of times until I think I have got it right. When possible I find it advantageous to
put the piece to one side for a period so that I can come back to it later with fresh eyes.
Before computers re-writing was a tedious process entailing a much re-typing and quite literally 'cutting
and pasting' the revised sections together. However, with a computer, once the text has been entered into
a word processor the drudgery is taken out of the process and there is no excuse for not getting one's
article as perfect as possible. Someone, I forget who it was, once came up with the aphorism: "Easy
writing, hard reading. Hard writing, easy reading." In other words good clear writing is the result of
putting in the effort. Asked to suggest three ways of ensuring a well-written article I would say: "revise,
revise, revise".
Presentation
Having polished the text of your article to the best of your ability the next thing is to prepare it for
submission to a magazine. If possible consult the author's notes. It is customary to type, or print out, the
manuscript (or 'typescript') in double spacing with wide margins. I always put a header on every page
with my name, the date, a short title, and the page number.
For the UK market the article should have a cover sheet. This should have the name and address of the
author, the type of rights you are offering the publisher, the number of words, and the date. I recommend
that you offer 'First British Serial Rights'. This means you will retain the copyright after it has been
published in the magazine.
In some circumstances it may be useful to include with your submission a resume or CV (Curriculum
Vitae) relating to your experience as a woodturner. Finally you will need a covering letter. If the article
has been compiled in a word processor the publisher will appreciate having the file provided on disk.
This needs to be in the appropriate format, such as a Word .doc file, an RTF file, or a simple text file
(without line endings). A self-addressed, stamped, postcard can be included that acknowledges receipt of
the article. The editor should appreciate that as it will save him work. If you would like to have the
manuscript returned in the case of rejection, you should include stamps to cover the postage.
The assemblage of typescript, illustrations, and computer disk should be securely packaged in a strong
envelope, possibly reinforced with plastic tape. It should be posted recorded delivery. Make sure you
have made a secure back up on your computer and/or kept a hard copy. If you have produced the article
on a typewriter I think it will be permissible to send a photocopy and to retain the original. Then if the
article is rejected another copy can be made and submitted to another magazine.
If at your first attempt you receive a rejection notice do not despair and do not give up. Either try another
magazine or try to see how the article could be rewritten to make it more acceptable. Remember that the
first of J K Rowling's Harry Potter books was rejected by a number of publishers before it was accepted
by Bloomsbury. I should think she is glad she persevered.
Home / Introduction / Marketing turnery / Marketing other skills / Copyright
Marketing and pricing woodturning skills

Part 3
Pricing Woodturning
Introduction
In the first two sections of this series of articles I looked at the activities which woodturners must engage
in to sell their skills successfully. In this article I look at the factors which must be taken into account
when fixing price levels.
The limits to prices
To any maker there is a band of selling prices in which they can operate. The lowest price at which they
can sell (if they wish to stay in business) is determined by the costs of production. In brief these are the
cost of materials, overheads, and wages. The highest price at which they can sell is that price which will
result in the maximum level of turnover. This is often referred to as the price the market will bear. It
may be that the price the market will bear is lower than the costs of production. In this case there is no
opportunity for a viable business. Many would-be entrepreneurs find this out too late. This is why a
pricing policy should be an integral of a marketing plan. If the sums do not match-up, ie if projected costs
exceed projected revenue then it may be possible to adjust the product (and the associated costs), modify
the marketing strategy, or do both of these things.
The ticket we put on an item also sends out a message. It not only tells the customer the price but also the
value that I attach to the piece. Some years ago Gerald Ratner became infamous when he publicly
described the cheap jewellery he sold as crap. This was also the message his price labels were giving
out. If I put too low a price on my turnings I will be giving out the same message. I will also be helping to
devalue the market for wood and woodturning as a whole. At the top end of the market the price ticket
puts out a very different message. A high price says: Im very exclusive. Only people who have great
taste and a high income will own me. Unfortunately only a very few woodturners who have established A
NAME for themselves with collectors will be able to price on that basis.
Most woodturners will need to position themselves somewhere between these two extremes. Exactly
where will depend on what they see as their market. Once a decision has been made on the range of
products to make there are a number of methods I can use to determine the appropriate price levels. One is
to look at what other turners are charging for similar work. Another is to look at the prices of other goods
in the chosen sales outlets. Another way might be to set up a small focus group by gathering together a
number of friends or relations and asking them how they value my work and what they think would be
reasonable prices. A method used by many businesses is cost-plus pricing. This is described below. By
using such methods I should be able to get a feel for the right level of prices. This will be refined with
experience.
Cost-plus pricing
The relationship between price and demand has to be such as to give a sufficient volume of sales to
achieve the break-even point by the end of the relevant financial period. The break-even point is where
sales revenue is equal to the costs of production plus wages. Therefore I need to know what is the absolute
minimum that I should charge for my products if I am going to make a living. This is done by dividing the
total costs incurred in making, and selling ones products, by the total number of hours worked. This gives
the hourly rate that is then multiplied by the time taken to make an individual piece.
The result is the minimum unit price. If I cannot clear all my stock at this price then I am in trouble. If, on
the other hand, I have difficulty in keeping up with demand and I have a growing order book the
implication is that my prices are below what the market will bear and that I should increase prices. As it is
not easy to make a living as a woodturner I may well find that the minimum unit price is the price I have to
sell at to get a sufficient volume of sales.
Financial costs
For the one-man band turning is a form of piecework so, basically, a turner is selling time. But as well as
the cost of the turners time the price of the piece must include an element that will cover other costs
incurred in its production. These costs take two forms. On the one hand, there are costs that are unique to
that piece and can be identified as such. Such costs may include those of wood and bought in items such as
pepper mill mechanisms, pen and pencil parts, knife blades, and box lids. On the other hand, there are
costs, such as that of electricity, that are difficult to allocate to individual items. These are usually treated
as overheads and are averaged out over the output.
Productive and non-productive time
When looking at the time that goes into making and selling a product it will be seen that some aspects are
similar to those in the financial area. Notice the emphasis on selling. When a turner is self-employed every
minute of time taken to get a product into the hands of a customer has to be accounted for. It is convenient
to divide a turners time into two elements: productive time and non-productive time.
Productive time is that which can readily be allocated to a particular piece. In the following calculations it
is taken as the time spent making the piece; this is the time taken in turning plus other post-lathe time
required to complete it, such as the fitting and assembly of parts, decoration, and finishing operations.
Non-productive time is that which cannot be tied to any particular item. Although the term nonproductive time has negative connotations it is an essential element of business activity and must be built
into the price structure. It is essential to keep track of this time because it is often more than many makers
realise.
Financial overheads
The precise composition of financial overheads will depend on the nature of the business. Nevertheless,
some of the most common costs incurred can be outlined, as shown in Box 1. In addition to these the cost
of some consumables, such as tools, abrasives and finishing materials, are difficult to allocate to individual
pieces, and are best averaged out over the range of products.
Box 1:
Financial overheads
Rent
Business rates (or similar taxes)
Electricity and other fuel
Telephone
Interest on loans
Tools, machinery, vehicles, etc.
Depreciation and maintenance of equipment
Insurance: personal, third-party and product liability
Accountants fees
Subscriptions to professional bodies
Fees for courses and seminars
Technical literature, books, plans, etc.
Marketing
Exhibition fees Travelling and accommodation
Health care/insurance
Non-productive time overheads
To some extent the non-productive time overheads mirror the financial overheads. For example,
attendance at a seminar may not only incur a fee but it will take up a significant amount of time. Like
financial overheads time overheads will differ according to the nature of the business. Some of the time
consuming activities that are likely to be relevant to a professional turner are shown in Box 2.
Box 2:
Time overheads
Procuring materials
Preparing materials
Business planning
Developing skills and knowledge
Developing new products
General administration
Preparation of accounts
Customer relations
Marketing
Setting up and manning exhibitions
Travelling
Packing and delivering goods
Inter-personal interaction
Personal needs: comfort breaks
Doctor, dentist
Illness
The hourly rate
Now it is necessary to translate these factors into a pricing policy that will provide a decent wage. (Do not
forget that this is the minimum price, it may be possible to charge more, depending on what the market
will bear.) The most convenient way of doing this for a craftsperson is to base prices on an hourly rate.
Many professionals in the service sector use this method. I suggest a woodturner should formulate his
hourly rate on the basis of how much time is taken on the lathe to make the piece plus any post-lathe
operations (such as those mentioned earlier) as this time relatively easy to measure. So the price will be
calculated as the time taken, multiplied by the hourly rate, plus the cost of the materials unique to that
piece.
The most convenient way of showing how the hourly rate is determined is by means of a hypothetical
example:
First we need to know the required level of turnover:
Projected annual salary 15,000
Financial overheads
3,000
Total: required turnover 18,000
Then, we need to work out how many hours are available after allowing for time off:
Number of working weeks in year = 48
Hours worked per weeks
= 40
Total hours per year
= 48 x 40 = 1920
From the total hours per year we need to deduct the time overhead (ie, the non-productive time). Let us
assume that this is 25% of the total. This will leave 1440 hours of productive time. Next, we have to divide
the required turnover by the number of productive hours:
18,000 divided by 1440 hours = 12.50 per hour
We can now see how this might be applied to an actual piece: a nutcracker bowl. (This is a bowl with a
mechanism for cracking nuts fixed in the centre.) I have taken the prices of the parts from the current Craft
Supplies (UK) catalogue. The bowl is made from an ash blank 12 ins. x 1 1/2 ins. Lets say, just for the
purposes of illustration, that it takes an hour to turn and finish. It will take some time to fit the nutcracker
to the bowl. So, this time, say 6 minutes, should be included. The price is calculated as follows:
The hourly rate multiplied by the time spent making it:
Time taken x hourly rate = 1.1 x 12.50 = 13.75
Plus
Cost of the bowl blank

= 6.40
Cost of ships wheel nutcracker = 12.95
Minimum selling price
= 32.85
Conclusion
Some experienced professional bowl turners have been known to use a simple formula, based on the
dimensions of the bowl, as a means of setting prices. This may be as simple as the following:
Price = Diameter of bowl x Height of bowl x C x The hourly rate + The price of the wood
This does not mean that their method is different in any essentials from that which I have outlined above.
It is simply that they know from experience that the size of the bowl is a good indicator of the time
required to make it. The value C is a constant which is used to convert the volume of the bowl into a time
in minutes. Another way of putting this is that HxDxC is a proxy for the time required to turn the bowl. It
is possible, too, that if they were asked, they would deny having calculated the hourly rate in the way I
have described. It may just be a figure they know works for them. Nevertheless, I would suggest that
however their figure has been arrived at it must cover the type of costs identified in this article.
http://www.turningtools.co.uk/marketing/copyright.html
Home / Marketing turnery / Marketing other skills / Pricing turnery
A note on copyright
An author who puts his work into the public domain needs to have some knowledge of the law of
copyright for two reasons:
(a) to protect his own rights (if necessary), and
(b) to avoid infringement of the rights of others.
I put together the following notes to help myself to understand the law. I have set them out here in the
hope that others may find them useful. I should warn readers that the law of copyright is complex and
that these notes may contain errors. There are certainly many areas of the law that they do not cover.
Before delving into the law of copyright it is useful to briefly consider the relationship between
plagiarism and fraud, and the position on patents. In the UK infringement of copyright is a civil offence
and the remedy has to be found in the civil courts. Fraud, which involves deception or misrepresentation
to gain an advantage or to injure the rights of others, is a crime for which the perpetrator can be punished
by a fine or by prison. In the USA the position is slightly different, there the wilful infringement of
copyright for commercial advantage or private gain may also lead to a fine or imprisonment. This
illustates the fact that the line between the breech of copyright and fraud is very narrow. The protection
of rights by patent is also closely related to that of copyright. Governments grant patents to inventors to
give them ownership rights for a limited period. To be patentable an invention must be totally new and
capable of being used in some kind of industry.
Most advanced countries have their own copyright laws and following notes are principally concerned
with the position in the UK. But there are international conventions, which create a degree of
conformity. One of these is the Berne Convention, the other is the Universal Copyright Convention
(UCC). The former has higher minimum standards than the latter but neither, I think it is fair to say, is as
universal as some in the West might like! Both of these conventions were brought up to date at a meeting
in Paris in 1971. The main principle behind the conventions is the creation of reciprocal rights for the
nationals of a member state in the other member states. Under the UCA copyright lasts for the life of the
author 25 years after his death. Under the Berne Convention it lasts for 50 years after the death of the
author. Some countries improve on these provisions. For example, in the UK, EU and the USA,
copyright protection lasts for 70 years after the death of the author.
Copyright law affords protection to a range of categories of work. Those with which I an concerned here
are "original literary and artistic works". What that phrase means, in this context, is that the work is the
result of the skill and effort of the author. It does not necessarily have to be innovative or have artistic
merit. With two major exceptions the initial owner of a work is its author (that is, the person who created
it). An exception may occur when the work produced by someone in the course of his employment. For
example: some years ago some writing I did, when employed by a body funded by the Government, was
published - I had no rights in relation to that work, nor did I expect to. In certain circumstances, such as
when working to a commission, the author may transfer the copyright of a work. This is usually done at
the commencement of a project.
http://www.turningtools.co.uk/marketing/copyright.html (1 of 3)09-03-2006 19:08:20
There are a number of ways in which the author may transfer the rights to a third party. The rights may
be licensed to another person for a period of time, for a particular geographic region or to a particular
publication. For example, in the UK the author of an article may sell the First British Serial Rights to a
magazine. This means the magazine has the first use of the article but as soon as it has been published
the rights revert to the author. The author can then sell the rights in any way he/she pleases. I believe a
similar arrangement exists in the USA. I have always sold my articles on this basis. No authors should
sell the whole of the rights of articles unless they are satisfied that the fee is sufficient to take that into
account.
In contrast to articles the copyright in a book is usually licensed to the publisher either for a fee, for
royalties or, sometimes, both. Usually the license will be restricted to a particular geographic area. It may
also be restricted to specific applications; thus the rights may be split between such things as hardback
and softback books, translation into other languages and film or television.
Copyright gives authors the ownership of their works and the right to sell, or otherwise dispose of them,
in the manner described above. This enables the author receive some recognition for his/her work and,
possibly, to obtain some financial reward. Without this right there would be little incentive to produce
the work. In the case of articles relating to woodturning infringement of this right will usually be the
result of plagiarism (i.e., copying). Proof of copying is usually substantiated by showing that there are
close similarities between the alleged copy and that claimed to be the original. In the case of the written
word this means that permission from the owner of the rights should usually be obtained even for
relatively short quotations. Photographs, drawings and plans are protected in a similar manner. There are
certain exceptions to this. In many countries these are concerned with the concept of fair use. This
means that permission may not be required for limited use for such things as non-commercial research,
private study, teaching, criticism and reportage.
It should be noted that copyright protection is concerned with the form in which an author expresses his
ideas, but it does not protect the ideas themselves. So, for example, if I write an article on how to turn
beads and coves the form of the words I use would be protected but not the idea of such and article. If
this was not the case then my article would infringe the rights of others as such an article has been
written many times.
In the UK copyright does not protect industrial (as opposed to artistic) products although it may protect
the drawing from which the article is made. Thus, it seems that copying an artistic work such as a piece
of sculpture would be an infringement of copyright, but copying an industrial design for something, such
as a new bicycle, would not. However, the legislation does provide for a design right. This applies to a
design which is original and not commonplace. Like copyright, it is an automatic right, but it is effective
for only a very limited period. A design right can be registered with Patent Office for a small fee. This
extends the protection and the time for which it lasts.
As far as written work is concerned the position in regard to copyright is relatively clear. What is much
less clear in the UK (and probably elsewhere) is the status of woodturning techniques and objects such as
a piece of turnery. It seems that in the woodturning world that as soon as new techniques or new forms
are introduced they quickly become widespread. There seems to be little that the originator can do (if he/
she so wishes) to retain the rights. In woodworking magazines I have noticed that an author will
sometimes state that the readers have the right to make one copy of the article described providing it is
not for sale. Such restrictions will, however, be difficult to enforce. This being the case I think that most
authors of instructional articles for making specific objects have to accept that readers might make
multiple copies and, possibly, offer them for sale.
Unless a criminal offence has been committed, such as fraud, the remedy for infringement of copyright
has to be found in the civil courts: (a) to put a stop to the infringement and (b) to obtain compensation.
The problem for most woodturners is that the cost of such an action, and the uncertainty of the result,
would mean that it would not be worth undertaking. However, it might be worthwhile to have a solicitor
send a letter to the copier that made it clear that the author was aware of the infringement and demanding
that the copying be terminated. In the case of published works such as books the publisher, being the
owner of the copyright, may decide to take action.
In most countries copyright exists as soon as a work has been recorded in an appropriate medium; as a
consequence it is not strictly necessary to put a copyright notice on a written work. Nevertheless, it is
advisable. In the first place it may act as a deterrent to copying. In the second place, if damages should
be sought, the absence of a copyright notice might mean that the compensation awarded would be
reduced. The copyright notice should be comprised of three elements: either the copyright symbol or
the word copyright; (b) the name of the owner of the copyright; and (c) the date of first publication.
Woodturning Bibliography
Home
Bibliography: Woodturning
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z.
American Craft Council
The Art of Wood Turning
Ashby, Peter; Ashby, Thomas
Woodturner's Wooden Clock Cases (Plans)
Woodturner's Wooden Clock Cases : Designs, Plans and Instructions for 5
Bell, R.C.
Fun at the Lathe
Blandford, Percy
The Woodturner's Bible
Twenty-four Woodturning Projects
Woodturning
Boase, Tony
Woodturning Masterclass: Artistry, Style, Imagination
Boesel, Jim
Lathes and Turning Techniques
Bowen, Hilary
Woodturning Jewelry
Decorative Techniques for Woodturners
Bridgewater, Alan; Bridgewater, Jill
Woodturning Traditional Folk Toys
Brown, Emmett and Brown, Cyril
Polychromatic Assembly for Woodturning
Brown, Sam
Getting the Most Out of Your Wood Lathe
Cain, Tubal
Workholding in the Lathe
Milling Operations in the Lathe
http://www.turningtools.co.uk/booklist/booklist.html (1 of 8)09-03-2006 19:08:22
Chapman, Bob
Woodturning: A Fresh Approach
Child, Peter
The Crafstman Woodturner
Christensen, Kip; Burnigham, Rex
Turning Pens and Pencils
Conover, Ernie
The Lathe Book - A Complete Guide for the Wood Craftsman
Turn A Bowl With Ernie Conover
Turning for Furniture
Cooper, Carolyn
Shaping Invention
Cox, Jack
Beyond Basic Turning
Ditmer, Judy
Basic Bowl Turning
Turning Wooden Jewellery
Darlow, Mike
The Fundamentals Of Woodturning
The Practice of Woodturning
Woodturning Methods
Duce, William R.
The Fine Art Of Small Scale Woodturning
Dunbar, Michael
Woodturning for Cabinet Makers
Edic, Martin
Profitable Woodworking (Spindle Turning)
Evans, John
Ornamental Turning
Fine Woodworking On:
Spindle turning
Faceplate Turning
Lathes and Turning Techniques
Francis, David
Turning a Bobbin
Frayling, Christopher
David Pye: Woodcarver and Turner
Gustavson, R
Creating in Wood with the Lathe
GMC Publications
Faceplate turning
Further Useful Tips For Woodturners
Essential Tips for Woodturners
Intermediate Woodturning Projects
Practical Tips for Woodturners
Practical Tips For Woodturners and Carvers
Spindle turning
Useful Woodturning Projects
Woodturning: Bowls, Platters and Hollow Forms
Woodturning Techniques
Woodturning Tools and Equipment Test Reports; Bk.1
Hobbs, Robert
Mark Lindquist: Revolutions in Wood
Hodges, Lewis
The Woodturning Handbook with Projects
Hogbin, Stephen
Woodturning: the Purpose of the Object
Re-Turning
Holbrook, W
Contemporary Lamps
Holtzapfell, John Jacob
The Principles and Practice of Hand or Simple Turning
The Principles and Practice of Ornamental or Complex Turning
Hopper, Ray
Multi-centre Woodturning
Hunnex, John
Illustrated Woodturning Techniques
Woodturning: A Source Book of Shapes
Ingham, Bob
How to make a treadle operated wood-turning lathe
Irons, Phil
Woodturning
Jacobson, Edward
The Art of Turned Wooden Bowls
Jacobson, James
Small and Exciting Woodturning Projects
James, Gerald
Woodturning - Design and Practice
Jones, Bill
Notes From the Turning Shop
Bill Jones' Further Notes from the Turning Shop
Kauffman, Henry
Easy-to-Make Wooden Candlesticks, Chandeliers and Lamps
Key, Ray
The Woodturner's Work Book
Woodturning and Design
Woodturning with Ray Key
Klenke, William
Art of Woodturning
Lawrence, Terry
Turning Wooden Toys
Leier, Ray; Peters, Jan; Wallace, Kevin
Contemporary Turned Wood
Lincoln, William A
Complete Manual of Wood Turning
Lindquist, Mark
Sculpting Wood
Lukin, James
Turning Lathes
Macbeth, A
Woodturning for the Beginner
Marsh, Bert
Bert Marsh: Woodturner
Martin, Terry
Wood Dreaming, Spirit of Australia Captured in Woodturning
The Jane and Arthur Mason Collection
Turning Wood Into Art
Mortimer, Stuart
Techniques of Spiral Work
Nish, Dale
Artistic Woodturning
Creative Woodturning
Master Woodturners
Northcott, Henry
A Treatise on Lathes and Turning
O'Donnell, Michael
Turning Green Wood
Woodworker Guide to Woodturning
Ogden, Warren
Notes on the History and Provenance of Holtzapffel lathes
A Bibliography of the Art of Turning and Lathe and Machine Tool
O'Neill, Hugh
Woodturning - A Guide to Advanced Techniques
Woodturning - Manual of Techniques
Pain, Frank
The Practical Wood Turner
Phillips, Anne; Phillips, Bob; Yates, John

Make Money from Woodturning
Understanding Woodturning
Peters, Geoff
Woodturning
Plant, Oliver
Woodturning
Pye, Chris
Carving on Turning
Pracht, Klaus
Woodturning
Raffan, Richard
Turned-Bowl Design
Turning Boxes
Turning Projects
Turning Wood
Rebhorn, E
Woodturning
Regester, David
Great little Things to Make on a Small Lathe
Turning Bowls - Step-by-Step
Turning Boxes and Spindles - Step-by-Step
Woodturning - Step-by-Step
Woodturning - an individual approach
Roszkiewicz, Ron
The Woodturner's Companion
Rowley, Keith
Keith Rowley's Woodturning Projects
Woodturning: A Foundation Course
Woodturning Projects
Sainsbury, John
The Craft of Woodturning
John Sainsbury' Guide to Woodworking Tools and Equipment
Turning Miniatures in Wood
Sanders, Jan
Colouring Techniques for Woodturners
Seale, Roland
Practical designs for Woodturning
Sherwin, Reg
Pleasure and Profit From Woodturning
Sing, Dick
Pens From the Wood Lathe
Unique and Unusual Pens From the Wood Lathe
Useful Beauty : Turning Practical Items on a Wood Lathe
Wood Lathe Projects for Fun and Profit
Slater, David (ed.)
Woodturning Made Easy
Small, Tunstall and Woodbridge, Christopher
Mouldings and Turned Woodwork of the 16th, 17th and 18th Century
Southern Highland Handicaraft Guild (USA)
Rude Osolnik: A RetrospectiveRude
Spielman, Patrick
The Art of the Lathe
Springett, David
Woodturning Wizardry
Adventures in Woodturning: Techniques and Projects
Turning lace bobbins
Stokes, Gordon
Beginner's Guide to Woodturning
Manual of Woodturning
Modern Woodturning
Woodturning for Pleasure
Thorlin, Anders
Ideas for Woodturning
Time Life
Wood Turning
Walshaw, T.D.
Ornamental Turning
Weldon, David
Shapes for Woodturners
Woodturning Centre (USA)
A Selection of Papers from the 1993 World Turning Conference
International Turned Objects Show - Lathe Turned Objects
Woodworker Magazine(?)
"Woodworker" Book of Turning
Wooldridge, W
Woodturning
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Home
Glossary of Woodturning Terms
Home
A Glossary of Woodturning Terms

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z.
Air-dried
See seasoning
Anisotropic
Not possessing the same properties in all directions (the opposite of isotropic). Because
of its fibrous structure wood is anisotropic.
Bast
The inner bark. The carbohydrates, formed in the leaves by photosynthesis, flow down
through the cells in the bast to feed the life processes of the tree.
Backsteady
A means of supporting a long thin spindle to help to stop it flexing in the centre.
Banjo
The part on the lathe which slides along the bed and supports the T rest.
Bead
A rounded raised portion running around a spindle turning.
Beading tool
A small chisel (often square in section) used to form a bead.
Bed
The horizontal part of the lathe which connects the headstock and tailstock
Bevel
The part of the tool which is ground to form the cutting edge.
Birdseye
Numerous small areas on the surface of the wood in which the fibres are distorted so as
to produce elliptical forms somewhat similar to bird's eyes. Found in maple and
sycamore, rare in other species.
Blank
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The blank is the form the piece of wood takes when it has been prepared for turning.
Typically this will be a round disc for a bowl or a similar face turning, or a relatively
slender 'square' sectioned piece for turning between centres.
Bowl gouge
A gouge with a deep flute and a heavy cross-section. Its primary function is for face
turning but it can also be used for spindle turning. It is most commonly ground with a
40- 60 bevel angle.
Bruzze
A rare tool (Sometimes known as a bruzz or a buzz) which has a 'V' section. A turner's
bruzze has the bevels ground on the outside, whereas a carpenter's bruzze is ground on
the inside.
Built-up work
A workpiece which is made by gluing together two or more pieces of wood.
Burl
The American term for a growth on a tree which we in Britain call a burr. See also: burr
(1)
Burnishing
Polishing by friction. In woodturning this is usually carried out by holding a handful of
shavings against the revolving workpiece. The shavings should come from the work
being burnished.
Burr (1)
A large wart-like growth, with twigs sprouting from it, found on the trunk of a tree.
Internally the wood tissue is very confused and usually contains numerous dormant bud
formations. The wood cut from a burr usually shows very attractive figure and is very
highly prized by turners.
Burr (2)
A fine upstanding strip of metal left on the edge of a tool after grinding or the use of a
ticketer. (It is sometime called a wire edge.) This can be honed off but many turners
make use of the burr on a scraper to produce a very fine finishing cut.
Callipers
A measuring tool consisting of two curved arms connected at one end by a hinged type
joint. In their simplest, traditional, form they can be used for both inside and outside
measurements. In their modern form the hinge is sprung and the arms are connected
midway by an adjustable screw. In this form inside and outside callipers are separate
devices.
Cambium layer
A thin layer of specialised cells which lies between the inner bark and the sapwood. It is
here that the growth of the tree takes place. New sapwood cells are formed on the inner
side of the cambium, and new bark is formed on its outer side.
Centres
The parts in immediate contact with the workpiece when it is held in the lathe by both
ends. Hence the expression 'turning between centres'. See also: cone centre, dead centre,
drive centre, live centre and ring centre
Centrifugal force
The force with which a body revolving around a centre tends to fly away from that
centre. The force which causes pieces to fly off when work is revolving on a lathe.
Check
See split.
Checkered work
See laminated work
Chisel
A woodturning tool with either a square or a rectangular cross-section which is ground
with a double bevel. See also skew chisel and square nose chisel.
Chuck
A device which holds the workpiece on then lathe. A chuck can take many different
forms. See, for example, cup chuck, precision combination chuck, screw chuck, and
scroll chuck.
Collets
The movable metal parts in a chuck which grip the tool or the workpiece.
Cone centre
A live or a dead centre with a cone shaped point in the tailstock used to support the
workpiece. See also centres
Cove
A semicircular hollow running round a spindle turning.
Crotch wood
Wood which lied immediately below the fork of a tree. When this wood is sawn
lengthways (ie parallel to the pith) it can produce exceptionally beautiful, fan shaped,
figure. Because of its beauty crotch figure is greatly prized.
Cup chuck
A chuck with a deep recess into which a spigot on the workpiece can be driven.
Cup shake
A split formed by the separation of the wood fibres around a growth ring.
Dead centre
A cone centre which does not revolve with the work. See also centres
Deep fluted gouge
See bowl gouge
Dividing head
See index plate.
Drive centre
This is attached to the drive shaft in the headstock by either a morse taper or a thread. It
both supports the wood and transmits the drive to it. Usually it has either two prongs or
four prongs which are driven into the workpiece. See also centres
Dovetail recess
A recess with an undercut edge cut in a workpiece to accept the jaws of a chuck.
End check
A split on the end of a board.
End grain turning
Turning in the end of a workpiece, which has the grain running parallel with the axis of
the lathe, the other end of which is held by a screw, or other type of chuck.
Exotic timber
Imported timber of a type not indigenous to Britain.
Faceplate
Circular plate held on the headstock spindle to which the workpiece is attached by
screws.
Face turning
Turning workpiece held on a faceplate, or a chuck when the grain of the wood runs at
right angles to the axis of the lathe.
Fiddleback
Figure which is produced by wavy grain when quarter sawn. It appears as a rippled
effect on the surface, eg ripple maple/sycamore. The term has come into use because
such wood with this figure has traditionally been used for the backs of violins.
Figure
The pattern on the surface of the wood caused by the combination of such features as
grain, growth rings, rays, tissue structure, colour, knots, burr, and, sometimes, defects.
Filler
Used to fill the grain when a smooth finish is required. It is applied after the primary
sanding operation. The work may be sanded again after the application of the filler and
before the final polishing .
Filling
The application of filler.
Fingernail
The shape of the ground end of a spindle gouge.
Finishing
The final treatment of the work after the tool-work has been complete, eg sanding,
filling and polishing.
Flitch
A section of timber cut lengthwise from the trunk of the tree,
Fluted parting tool
A tool with a wedge shaped section which has a flute on the wider of the two edges.
Forstner bit
Forstner bits are similar to sawtooth bits but they are guided by their rims and do not
have a centre point. As a consequence they cut flat bottomed holes which can overlap
each other or the edge of a board. they do not cut as well as a sawtooth bit in end grain.
Four jaw chuck
A self-centreing chuck similar to the engineering type but with four jaws instead of
three. These chucks are often known as scroll chucks because of the internal spiral
grooves which move the jaws.
Gouge
A cutting tool with a 'U' shaped cross-section used with the bevel rubbing. There are
three main types: the roughing gouge, the spindle gouge and the bowl gouge. For the
latter two of these some turners prefer the terms shallow fluted gouge and deep fluted
gouge respectively. The reason for this is that bowl gouges can be used for spindle
turning and spindle gouges can be used on face work.
Grain
The alignment of the cells relative to the long axis of the tree, straight, diagonal,
interlocked and wavy grain.
Growth rings
Each of these rings is the result of one year's growth. The rings are often easy to
distinguish because the wood produced in the later part of the year is darker than that
produced when the sap rising.
Headstock
The assembly fixed on the left-hand end of the bed of the lathe which provides the drive
for the workpiece.
Heart shake
A split running radially away from the pith.
Heartwood
The fully developed wood which surrounds the pith. It is often darker in colour and
harder than the sapwood which surrounds it. The cells in the heartwood are dead and
have ceased to transport sap.
High speed steel (H.S.S.)
High speed steel; this is about 6 times harder than carbon steel. HSS tools should be
ground on a 'white' (aluminium oxide grinding wheel).
Hone
To sharpen a tool by hand on a stone.
Honeycomb
An interior split, or group of splits, in a block of wood - usually only found in larger
sections. Probably due to over-quick drying. Unfortunately, often not discovered until
work is in progress.
Hook gate
See Sizing tool
HSS
See high speed steel
Inboard turning
Face turning which is carried out over the bed of the lathe, ie on the right-hand of the
headstock.
Index plate
A plate used to lock the drive-shaft into a series of pre-set regular positions. The plate is
sometimes built into the lathe and sometimes is a separate attachment used for specific
jobs.
Jacob's chuck
Originally a proprietary name for a type of drill chuck which can also be held in the
headstock or tailstock of a lathe. It can be used to hold a small workpiece instead of a
drill.
Kiln-dried
See seasoning
Lace bobbin drive
A drive centre with a recess in the outer end to accept a lace bobbin blank.
Laminated work
A workpiece constructed from glued-up blocks. It should be allowed to dry thoroughly
after gluing and then turned with sharp tools at a slow speed because centrifugal force
can cause the pieces to separate.
Live centre
A centre in the tailstock which revolves with the work. See also centres
Mandrel
A means of holding a workpiece (or workpieces) by use of a rod of wood or metal
running through a central hole, as for toy wheels and napkin rings.
M.C.
See moisture content.

MDF
Medium density fibre board - a man made material used as an alternative to wood.
Medullary rays
Bundles of cells which run radially between the pith to the cambium layer. They are
much more easily seen in some woods, such as oak, than others. The tree uses these
cells for the storage of nutrients.
Moisture content
The weight of the water in a sample of wood expressed as a percentage of the weight of
that sample when it is completely dry. Often abbreviated to the M.C. of wood.
Moisture meter
An electrical instrument for determining the moisture content (MC) of wood. There are
two types of meter. One type measures the electrical resistance of the wood, the other
measures the dielectric property of the wood.
Morse taper
A standard taper on a drill chuck or lathe drive centre which enables the device to be
removed from. or attached to, the relevant machine quickly and easily. Abbreviated to
M.T.
M.T.
See morse taper.
Natural edge
The lip of a bowl or a goblet which shows the outside of the tree - often with the bark in
place.
Ogee
An elongated 'S' shaped curve.
Outboard turning
Face turning which is carried out on an extension of the drive-shaft on the left-hand side
of the headstock, ie the opposite side to the bed. Relative to the turner the workpiece
will revolve in the opposite direction as compared with turning over the bed; as a
consequence the drive spindle and attachments, such as a faceplate, require reverse
threads.
Parting tool
For parting off, ie cutting off the waste, or dividing the workpiece into sections.
Pin chuck
A chuck with a wooden or, more usually, a metal pin which is jammed into a hole
drilled in the workpiece.
Phloem
See 'Bast'
Pith
The narrow channel in the innermost part of the tree, its trunk, each branch and twig,
Polyethylene Glycol (PEG)
A pharmaceutical product which is sometime used by wood workers to stabilise
unseasoned timber. It is available in several grades - PEG 1000 is the grade used by
wood workers. When unseasoned wood is submerged in a solution of PEG 1000 the
PEG is drawn into the wood by the process of osmosis and replaces the water. Given
sufficient time the PEG will replace all the water in the wood. After the wood is
removed from the solution the PEG will set in the pores to prevent shrinking cracking
and distortion.
Precision Combination Chuck
A popular proprietary chuck with attachments which can perform many of the functions
performed by the chucks listed here. It work on the basis of expanding or contracting
collets. Nowadays, scroll chucks are preferred.
Pummel
A section of the workpiece in spindle turning which is left square, eg when turning legs
for chairs or tables.
Rest
See tool rest.
Ring centre
A live or a dead centre in the tailstock which has a small point set in the middle of a
ring. The point locates the centre whilst the ring bears on the surface of the workpiece
thus limiting the penetration of the wood. This helps to prevent splitting and is
particularly useful for built-up or split turnings. See also centres
Ring shake
See cup shake.
Roughing out gouge (or roughing gouge)

Used in spindle turning for reducing square stock to round section. It has a semicircular
section and is ground square across. The bevel angle should be around 35 to 45. A
roughing gouge is for spindle work and should not be used for face turning, eg on bowls.
Ripple
Figure found in wood which has wavy grain, eg ripple sycamore. See also fiddleback.
Rough turning
There are two possible meanings for this expression.
The reduction of a square piece of timber to a round section. This is done with a
roughing gouge.
The preliminary work on turning a bowl. A beginner should never use a roughing
gouge for this.
Sapwood
This surrounds the heartwood. It transports the sap from the roots to the leaves.
Saw cuts
When a log is converted to boards it may be cut in a number of ways. The three terms
most commonly encountered are:
back sawn.
through and through, and
quarter sawn.
When back sawn the log is converted in such a way as to provide the maximum number
of cuts tangential to the growth rings.
When quarter sawn the log is converted in such a way as to provide the maximum
number of cuts radial to the centre of the log. Quarter sawn wood is usually more stable,
ie less prone to warping, shrinking and splitting, than that produced by other cuts. Often,
it also has a more attractive figure because of the oblique way in which the medullary
rays are cut, particularly in oak, sapele, London plane (lacewood), and sycamore
(fiddleback).
Through and through (often abbreviated to T & T or T/T) refers to boards produced by
simply sawing through the log in a series of parallel slices. A log sawn this way will
produce some back sawn boards, some quarter sawn boards, and some in between.
Sawtooth machine bit
A special type of bit only used for drilling wood. It makes a hole with a flat bottom
except for a small centre mark. Sawtooth bits will cut end grain and cross grain.
Screw chuck
A chuck with a single screw fixed in the centre to which the workpiece can be attached.
Scroll chuck
A four-jaw chuck, now very popular amongst woodturners. So named because the teeth
on the underside of the jaws engage in a raised spiral (ie scroll) on the back-plate.
Movement of the back-plate causes the jaws to move in or out in unison.
Sealing
The first step in the finishing process. A sealer is applied to the bare wood to act as a
barrier to the ingress of moisture and dirt. It also serves as a grain filler and as a base for
further finishing coats.
Seasoning
Drying green wood to a serviceable level.
Air dried: dried by exposure to the air without the use of artifical heat.
Kiln dried: dried in a kiln (or oven) with the aid of artificial heat.
Segmented work
See laminated work.
Shake
See split.
Shallow fluted gouge
See spindle gouge.
Shell augur bit
Used for drilling long holes on the lathes, eg in electric lamp stands.
Sizing tool (or Hook gate)
A hook shaped attachment to a square parting tool which enables the workpiece to be
sized to a pre-set dimension. This is particularly useful when an operation of this sort
has to be performed repeatedly.
Skew chisel
A chisel on which the cutting edge is not square to the sides of the tool.
Spalted wood
Wood which is in the first stages of fungal decay, ie rot. Very often it is made manifest
by irregular dark, or black, lines which run through the material. It is most common in
beech but is found in many other hard woods. The fungae require damp conditions in
which to grow; when the wood is dried (below about 20% MC) the fungae die and the
process ceases.
Spigot
A parallel projection on the end of a workpiece which is made to fit into a recess of
some kind, eg a socket in a chair seat or in a spigot chuck.
Spigot chuck
See cup chuck.
Spindle gouge
Used for shaping spindle work, eg for turning beads and coves. It has a cross section
with a shallow arc; so is sometimes referred to as a shallow fluted gouge. The cutting
edge is usually ground to a finger nail shape with a 30 - 40 bevel angle.
Split
A longitudinal fissure in the wood. Terminology may vary from place to place but there
can be said to be two types of split: namely, shakes and checks. Shakes can occur in
three main ways:
in the living tree, possibly due to wind stress;
at the time of felling, due to impact; and
shrinkage in the log before conversion.
Checks occur after conversion of the log and are due to shrinkage whilst the material is
drying. See also: cup shake, heart shake, star shake, end check, surface check, through
check and honeycomb.
Split turning
A technique used where two identical semicircular items are required. One method is to
make a complete turning from solid stock and then saw the piece in half. A better way is
to glue two pieces of stock together with a leaf of paper in the joint and then make the
turning. When the turning is complete the paper allows the pieces to be separated.
Square (wood)
A sawn piece of timber which is roughly square in section and ready to be used in
spindle turning.
Square nose chisel
A chisel on which the cutting edge is square to the sides.
Star shake
A group of splits running away from the pith in the form of a star.
Surface check
A split on the surface of the wood.
T&T (or T/T)
See saw cuts.
Tailstock
The movable assembly to the right of the headstock which slides along the bed.
Tang
The tapered end of a woodturning tool which fits into the handle.
Through check
A split which extends through a board from one surface to the other.
Ticketer
A round piece of metal used to form a burr.
Tool rest (or T rest)
Adjustable part of the lathe (usually a 'T' shape) which fits into the banjo and supports
the turning tool whilst work is in progress.
Waney edge
A natural edge left by the outside of the tree on a sawn board.
Wire edge
See burr.
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Woodturning - LD bowl turning attachment
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Large diameter bowl turning attachment
This large diameter bowl turning attachment was

designed for a Poolewood PW28/40 lathe (see
drawing). Although designed for the Poolewood lathe
a similar device might well be used on other lathes
with a swivelling head.
Home
Brian Clifford (December 2000)
http://www.turningtools.co.uk/widgets/bowlbars/bigrest.html09-03-2006 19:08:44
Woodturning - folding tool rest
Home
A Folding Tool Rest

I have made hundreds of light pulls in my time. They only take a about 5 minutes each
to make; but soon after I began making them in quantities I found that taking the tool
rest out to sand and polish one, then putting the rest back to make the next, took a
significant amount of time. It occurred to me that it might be possible to use a folding
rest. So (around 1984) I knocked one up in a hurry and I have been using it ever since.
It's a very useful little gadget which no-one else seems to have come up with.
A sketch of the device is shown below. One point which does not show clearly is that
the upright piece, which forms a stop for the rest, should allow the rest to slope
forward, ie towards the work-piece, so that the rest will remain in place when it is in
the up position.
Not shown in this sketch is a post to fit into the banjo. When I made the rest I was
using a coronet major. I made it so that the top was at the correct height when it was
fixed to the banjo with a nut and bolt. When I changed my lath I had to add a post.
When I did that I made it out of wood and put a bolt down the centre extra strength.
The head of this bolt can be seen in one of the photos below. The bolt is probably
unnecessary - spigot on the top of the post fitting into a hole in the base of the rest
should be adequate. The photo also shows the metal strip I added when the wood at the
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Woodturning - folding tool rest
top began to wear.
Safety
It might be thought that this rest would be unsafe. I can only say that in 15 years of use,
and having made hundreds of lightpulls, I have never had a moments unease when
using it.
Home
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Woodturning - thickness guage
Home
Thickness gauge
This thickness gauge performs the same function as calipers. I made it in 1982 to
measure the wall thickness of the first bowl I ever made. I was totally ignorant about
woodturning at the time and I made the bowl with nothing but scrapers made from old
files. I still have the bowl.
The gauge is the first piece of turning equipment I ever owned. It is very useful and I
use it frequently.
This is another gizmo which is very easy to make. Probably, the most difficult thing is
finding a suitable piece of plastic tube to suit the available dowel.
Such a gauge can be made any size to suit the user and the wire can be bent into any
suitable shape. To give an idea of size: in the one shown above I used 1/4 in. dowel 7
ins. long. I joined the wire to the tube with epoxy resin.
Before the gauge can be used the dowel must be pushed up the tube so that it is in
contact with the wire; a pencil mark is then made on the dowel at the outer end of the
tube. The distance between the end of the tube and the mark on the dowel then
indicates the thickness being measured.
Home
Brian Clifford (December 2000)
http://www.turningtools.co.uk/widgets/gauge/gauge.html09-03-2006 19:08:52
Woodturning - bevel angle tester
Home
Bevel Angle Checkers

Here are two widgets to use for checking bevel angles:
1. A continuously variable bevel angle tester
2. A bevel angle tester with a series of fixed angles.
Widget A is composed of two parts: a movable pointer and a scale plate. Moving the
pointer casuses the gap a t 'A' to open and close. The two parts are joined by a pin (or
some form of rivet) at point 'B'. Illustrations of the widgets are shown below
Variable bevel angle tester
Fixed angle bevel angle tester
Patterns for both widgets are given on another page. These should print out at actual
size.
The easiest way to make the widgets is to glue the patterns on to some reasonably
strong card (such as that from a cereal packet) and cut them out with a pair of scissors.
The patterns could also be glued on to another material (such as aluminium or brass)
and used only as cutting guide. If ordinary PVA glue is used the paper can then be
removed by soaking in water.
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Woodturning - bevel angle tester
Home
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A sharpening system for woodturning tools
Home
A Sharpening System For Woodturning tools
This easily made sharpening system is made up of two jigs. One is a general jig for
sharpening the full range of turning tools. The other is a jig for creating a long grind on
gouges. The plans are made up of 12 pages of dimensioned diagrams, assemby views
and step-by-step instructions.
The contents:
A. An adjustable jig for general sharpening
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Contents page
General plan
Jig: assembly diagram - sheet 1 of 2
Jig: assembly diagram - sheet 2 of 2
Jig parts - sheet 1 of 2
Jig parts - sheet 2 of 2
Step-by-step instructions
B. A jig for creating a long grind on gouges
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1. Diagrams and instructions - 3 sheets

The diagrams mostly take up a full A4 page; an example looks like this:
The plans are supplied as a pdf file. Because this file contains a number of large
graphics (like that shown above) it comes out at 469 KB, so it takes a couple of
minutes to download. As a consequence it is best to download it direct to a folder on
your hard disk (rather than into Adobe Acrobat in the browser). In Internet Explorer
the file can be downloaded directly into the hard disk by right clicking on the link at
the beginning of this paragraph. (In IE 5.5 choose 'Save Target As ..).
Adobe Acrobat Reader 4 is required to access these pages. This can obtained from
www.adobe.com/acrobat
Before making use of these file please read the copyright notice. Failure to read this
notice does not exempt the user from the conditions of use.
Home
Brian Clifford (May 2001)
Woodturning gallery - bowls
[home] [natural edge vases] [natural edge goblets] [other goblets] [hollow forms]
[boxes] [sculptural pieces] [clocks]
Bowls and other vessels
'Nut Bowl' - wood unknown - 7 ins w. x 3.5 ins h.
Bowl - burr elm - 6.5 ins w. x 3 ins h.
Bowl - olive - 5.5 ins x 5.5 ins x 2.5 ins
Bowl - oak - 6 ins w. x 2.75 ins h.
Vessel - Xanthorea - 8 ins w. by 7 ins h.
Bowl - burr elm, natural edge
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Woodturning gallery - bowls
Cup - ash
Bowl - burr oak - 13 ins dia.
Standing bowl - thuya - 3 ins thick x 11 ins h.
Platter - spalted beech - 10 ins x 9 ins x 1.25 ins
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Woodturning gallery - natural edge vases
[home] [bowls] [natural edge goblets] [other goblets] [hollow forms]

Natural edge vases
Spalted hawthorn - 7 ins w. x 4.5 ins h.
Yew - 7.5 ins w. x 5 ins h.
Hawthorn - 6 ins h. x 7 ins w.
Wood unknown - 3.75 ins w. x 4.5 ins h.
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Woodturning gallery - natural edge vases
Yew - 5 ins h. x 5 ins w.
Wood unknown - 5.5 ins w. x 5 ins h.
Laburnum - 5 ins w. x 6 ins h.
Wood unknown - 3.75 ins w. x 3.75 ins h.
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Woodturning gallery - natural edge goblets
[home] [bowls] [natural edge vases] [other goblets] [boxes] [hollow forms]
[sculptural pieces] [clocks]
Ash - 5 ins w. x 5 ins h.
Yew - 7 ins w. x 5 ins h.
Yew - 6 ins h. x 5.5 ins w.
Laburnum - 4 ins w. x 5.75 ins h.
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Yew - 3.5 ins w. x 4.5 ins h.
Yew - 3.5 ins w. x 4.5 ins h.
Yew - 3.75 ins w x 4 ins h.
Wood unknown - 3.5 ins w. x 6 ins h.
Curly edge goblets
Woodturning gallery - goblets 2
[home] [bowls] [natural edge vases] [natural edge goblets] [hollow forms]
Other goblets
Holly - 4 ins w. x 5 ins h.
4 ins w. x 4 ins h.
Cherry - 5.5 ins w. x 6.5 ins h.

London Plane - 7 ins h.
spacer.
jpg - 631
Bytes
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Woodturning gallery - goblets 2
Cherry (painted) - 7 ins w. 6ins h.
Cherry - 7 ins w. x 6 ins h.
Holly - 4 ins w. 4 ins h.
Holly 4 ins w. x 6 ins h.
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http://www.turningtools.co.uk/galleries/hollowforms/vesselpage.html
[home] [bowls] [natural edge vases] [natural edge goblets] [other goblets] [boxes]
Composite hollow forms

These vessels are made in two or more pieces
Cherry and acrylic paint - 5.5 ins h.
Unknown wood and acrylic paint 6 ins h.
Ash - 6 ins h.
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Ash and mahogany - 6 ins h.
http://www.turningtools.co.uk/galleries/hollowforms/vesselpage.html
Softwood - 6 ins h.
This is a negative image of the piece on the left.

It is shown here just for interest.
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Woodturning gallery - boxes
[home] [bowls] [natural edge vases] [natural edge goblets] [other goblets] [hollow forms]
Some boxes
http://www.turningtools.co.uk/galleries/boxespage/boxespage.html (1 of 2)09-03-2006 19:09:54
Woodturning gallery - boxes
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Woodturning gallery - sculptural pieces
[boxes] [clocks]
Sculptural Pieces
'Discus', walnut - 18 ins h.
'Family group', apple - 22 ins h.
Egg on stand, yew - 15 ins h.
Wall plaque - 11 ins x 7 ins
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'Embrace', apple - two pieces 7 ins x 3 ins
Head, lime - 9 ins h.
Goblet with ball
Vase with ball
Woodturning gallery - clocks
[boxes] [sculptural pieces]
Some ideas for clocks

The methods used to make these clocks are described in the project for clocks
Pedestal clock in ash
Free-form clock No. 1: oak
(Height: 7.25 inches approx.)
(Size: 8 in. x 6.5 in. x 1.5 in. approx.)
Free-form clock No. 2: Yew
Free-form clock No. 4: Apple
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Woodturning gallery - clocks
(Height: 6.5 inches approx.)
Free-form clock No.4: Ash with

yew inserts
(Size: 8 in x 4.5 in x 1.25 in.)
http://www.turningtools.co.uk/galleries/clockpage/clockpage.html (2 of 2)09-03-2006 19:10:07
(Height: 5 inches)
Free-form clock No. 5: Teak

(Height: 6.5 inches)
The Woodturner's Workshop - Video clips
Home page
Video Clips
These videos clips have been provided to amplify the text in the Introduction To
Woodturning. They are meant to be adjunct to the text in the relevant chapters in the
Introduction and not a substitute. So I would urge users to read the text as well. I may
add more clips in the near future. I would be very interested to know whether or not
they are worth the trouble of downloading and whether any additional short videos
might be useful. The videos currently available are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The 'V' cut

Cutting a bead.
Cutting a cove.
Squaring the end of a spindle turning.
Rounding the end of a spindle turning.
Cutting a pummel.
The links to the videos and some notes on points to look for are set out below.
On all the videos the viewpoint is that of the turner making the cut.
Video files are very large in relation to the length of time they run. In order to
minimise the download times the clips have to be kept short. Using the best
compression methods I have been able to find (commensurate with quality) 20 seconds
of video require around 1,500 KB.
The files are provided in the mpg format. The best way to use these files is to
download them to your hard disk. They can then be played in a viewer as many times
as you like. In Internet Explorer the file can be downloaded directly into the hard disk
by right clicking on the button. (In IE 5.5, or higher, then choose 'Save Target As ..).
The file sizes and the duration of the clip are given in brackets .
I have been using Windows Media Player to view them on a PC. I regret I have no
suggestions as to what viewer Mac or Linux users can employ.
In Windows Media Player a video can be stopped at any point by clicking on the pause
button . Also, if the cursor is held over the slider , and the left button is held down, the
slider can be moved backwards and forwards with the mouse.
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The 'V' cut

Points to note
1. To begin with a very small notch is cut with the point of the tool.
2. Each cut begins on the outer surface of the work-piece just to the side of the
previous cut, ie to take off only a small amount of material.
3. See how the tool is rocked from one side to the other for each cut.
The 'V' cut (1,597KB, 20 secs)
Back to top
Cutting a bead
Points to note
1. The tool is held so that the trailing point of the tool is just clear of the wood
when the leading edge begins to cut.
2. The tool is held well up on the wood so that the bevel at the leading edge is just
rubbing.
3. Watch to see the position of the tool at the commencement of each cut.
4. See how the tool slides along the rest.
5. Note that the wood is slightly burnished by the bevel rubbing behind the cut.
6. I turned the bead with just 5 cuts. Do not be worried if you take a lot more than
that to begin with.
Cutting a bead (1,379KB, 17 secs)
Back to top
Cutting a cove
Points to note
1. Note how the attitude of the tool is altered just after 29 seconds of play. This is
described in paragraphs 14.7 and 14.8 of The to Woodturning.
2. Note how the light catches the burnished surface on the left-hand side of the
cove. This shows that the bevel has been rubbing.
Cutting a cove (1,379KB, 17 secs)
Back to top
Squaring the end

Points to note
1. The large amount of waste shown in the video was created to allow me to get
the camera in the correct position. Normally only enough waste is required to
enable the depression created by the tailstock centre to be turned away.
2. See how the trailing edge of the tool is leaned slightly away from the surface
being cut. If the video is paused towards the end this can be seen more clearly.
3. As usual the bevel must rub but, because of the above point, it is the lower
corner of the bevel that rubs. See Diagram 15.6 in The Introduction to
Woodturning.
4. Only a very small amount of material should be removed on each cut.
5. The description of this cut is in Section 15.7 (Chapter 15) of The Introduction to
Woodturning.
Squaring the end (494KB, 6 secs)
Back to top
Rounding the end

Points to note
1. I ought to have created a little more waste before commencing the cut!
2. This cut can be made with a chisel but it is easier with a gouge.
3. The technique is very similar to that used for cutting a bead . The only
difference is that in the final stages the tool handle must be moved further round
so that the bevel ends up more or less square to the axis of the lathe.
4. The description of this cut is in Section 15.6 (Chapter 15) of The Introduction to
Woodturning. (In this case the description does not add anything to what is
noted here.)
Rounding the end (2,791KB, 35 secs)
Back to top
Cutting a pummel
Sometimes it is necessary to leave a section (or sections) of a spindle turning square.
This is usually when the piece is to be joined to others, eg the rails on a table. This
square section is the pummel.
As with many things in wood turning there is more than one way of cutting a pummel.
Two of these are described in Sections 15.3 and 15.4 of The Introduction to
Woodturning
The method shown in this clip entails cutting a 'V' at the point where the transition
from the square to the round is required.
Points to note
1. The first step is to mark a pencil line all round the workpiece where the V cut
is to be made.
2. The V cut itself is made in exactly the same way as a V cut in a round
section (as described in Chapter 12 and shown in the video above).
3. Making the cut in the square blank is much more difficult because the edges
cannot be seen clearly. As a consequence there is a danger of chipping the
corners of the 'V'. It may help a little to put something white, such as a sheet of
paper, on the bed of the lathe behind the workpiece in the line of sight.
4. The V must be stopped immediately the bottom of the cut forms a continuous
circle around the workpiece.
5. Having made the V cut the corners on the section of the workpiece beyond the
pummel can be removed with a gouge. The shape of the side of the 'V' which
remains can be altered if required. (This is not shown here.)
Cutting a pummel (3,413KB, 43 secs)
Back to top
Brian's workshop
Home page
My Workshop
This is a general view of my workshop. The image is made up from 3 separate

photos that I have stitched together, if you look closely you can see the joins.
You can click on the image for a larger view.
The workshop is built into the end of my garage. It is small - only 10 ft by 12
ft - but behind the camera position there are double doors which can be
opened into the car space. This povides another 14 ft if required.
The following images and text bring out some of the features which might be
of interest.
Doors to the car space. The dart board can be taken
down when the doors are opened!
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Brian's workshop
Since I took the top photo I have altered the dust

extraction system. The hose from the bandsaw used to
be draped over the top of the bench behind the grinders.
Now it is boxed in at the front where it does not get in
the way. The hose from the extractor is plugged in at
the far end.
This photo shows the dust extractor hose plugged into

the Perform disk sander.
This photo shows the dust extractor hose plugged into

the collector on the lathe. The collector is attached to a
flat piece of wood - this assembly can be slid along the
bench behind the lathe.
Brian's workshop
Another view of the dust collector on the lathe. This

photo also shows one of the lamps which I use.
Good lighting is essential when turning. This photo

shows more lights suspended from the 'gantry' above
the lathe. The lights can be slid into the most
advantageous positions. I find this works very well.
Although I use flourescent lights for general lighting in
the shop I prefer tungsten lights over the lathe.
Some of the photos above show the tool racks. The

tools are held in place by magnetic door catches.
Shavings do collect on the batten holding the magnets!
Brian's workshop
This moveable drawer cabinet can be moved to the

most advantageous position. Note the tool tray on the
top. I knocked up this try quickly and it is very crude.
The next job is to make a better one.
This photo shows an old microwave oven tucked into

the top corner above the dust extractor. The oven is
useful for drying small pieces of wood.
Woodturning accessories - A sanding disc
Home page
A sanding disc
One of the most useful accessories in my
workshop is a large sanding disc. It has many
uses - these include sanding flat the base of
goblets and cleaning up the end of spindle
turnings where the waste has been parted off.
This disc, which I have used for many years, is
permanently attached to a spare lathe (see photo
on the right). Not everyone will have the luxury
of a spare lathe but it doesn't matter - a disc can
be attached to your lathe as required with the aid
of a proprietary chuck. Alternatively, those
mechanically minded might be able to knock up
a dedicated sander from an old motor and some
bearings. Or, a small disc could be attached to a
cheap grinding machine or an electric drill on a
stand.
For those with a chuck with expanding jaws fixing a disc to their lathe is simple. All that is necessary is a
flat disc of wood, plywood, chipboard or mdf, about inch (18 mm.) thick. The disc is mounted on a
screw chuck (on the lathe) and the face and edge trued up. This is easier to do if the screw does not go
right through the disk. The disk is then reversed on the screw chuck and the new face is trued up. Then a
recess is formed to suit the chuck. When an abrasive disc is attached to the other side it is ready for use.
When the discs are remounted it may be found that they don't always run true. This does not matter as
long as the wobble is not too severe. For those without a chuck, a faceplate can be used to hold the disc
but this is not so convenient. When a chuck is used a number of discs can be made up with different grits
on the abrasive. Perhaps this is another reason to save up one's pennies for a chuck.
What size should the disc be? I recommend the largest possible size up to a limit of 300 mm in diameter.
The user could cut the circular abrasive discs from sheet material but it is much more convenient to buy
them ready-made. I used to glue them onto the wooden disc with PVA glue but they are now available
(in the UK) in a self-adhesive form with a peel off backing in a range of sizes and grits.
Those with the money could, of course, go out and buy a
dedicated sanding machine. These used to be very expensive but
the price seems to have come down recently. The Perform brand
(available in the UK) does a 300 mm disc sander with a 1 hp
motor at what appears, on paper, to be a very reasonable price. A
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Woodturning accessories - A sanding disc
combined belt and disc sander could also be considered but I have
found a disc (the one shown above) has satisfied my needs.
However, I have recently purchased a small sander with a 25 mm
belt (shown on right) for a very specific purpose (which I may
reveal one day). In the absence of anything else it would,
however, be very useful for cleaning up the ends of spindle
turnings.
Brian Clifford (November 2001)
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Woodturning accessories - a polishing mop
Home page
A polishing mop
This tatty looking object (Figure 1) is a home made polishing
mop. It is used for polishing turnings off of the lathe. I made it
15, or more, years ago; it will last a few years yet - as long as I
need. It is very useful, very effective and I use it frequently. I
put it in my pedestal drill (Figure 2), but it could be used in a
Jacob's chuck held on the lathe. Commercially made mops are
commonly fitted on to bench grinders. I use mine mostly for
polishing the ends of items turned between centres. These have
to be hand finished and polished where the waste wood has
been parted off.
Figure 1
Figure 2
A polishing mop is made of circular leaves of a material such

as callico. They can be purchased but when the price of an
arbor is added the expense mounts up. If a commercial mop is
purchased it should be unstitched. I don't believe in spending
money if I can avoid it so I made mine from an old pair of
trousers. I am not sure what material they were but I think if
some material can be salvaged from an old pair of jeans that
should do very well. Commercial mops have some 50 leaves of
material but mine has only 30 and works well. To make one
you will need a cardboard disk (5 inches in diameter), a felt
pen, a pair of scissors, an old pair of jeans, a nut and bolt, two
large washers and a certain amount of patience.
Figure 3 shows my mop being rotated at top speed in the drill
press. The flash on the camera has stopped the motion but it
can be seen that the centrifugal force has thrown the material
outwards. When spun at 3000 rpm the mop becomes very stiff
but because the leaves are not stitched together it is possible to
force objects between them if required. A softer feel can be
produced by using a lower speed.
To use it I simply put my usual finish and polish on the piece
and then buff it up on the mop. I understand that special
polishing compounds can be purchased but I have not found
that necessary.
This is another piece of kit I would not be without
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Woodturning accessories - a polishing mop
Figure 3
Brian Clifford (November 2001)
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Making natural edge goblets
Home

(These notes are adapted from my article published in Practical Woodworking in March 1991.)
The challenge
Goblets made with a natural edge forming the lip of the bowl present an interesting challenge to the
turner and the opportunity to experiment. Because these goblets involve thin turning it may be thought
that they are not for the inexperienced or the faint-hearted; but don't worry, experimentation costs
nothing but time. The wood can be picked up, free, out of the hedgerow or somebody's firewood pile.
Dry wood is not required; unseasoned wood is easier to turn and, sometimes, as it dries it distorts into
interesting and attractive shapes.
The wood
Most people should be able to lay their hands on some suitable wood without too much trouble. My
favourite woods are hornbeam, holly, cherry and ash, but any close grained hardwood with a relatively
thin bark can be used satisfactorily. For a first attempt a select a small log 4 inches or so in diameter and
as circular as possible. As far as the length is concerned, I have found a good rule of thumb is to have the
height of the goblet equal to the diameter. To this must be added enough material for parting-off and for
the method of mounting.
Holding the work and starting to turn

The simplest way of holding the work-piece, for the bulk of the turning, is to use a spigot gripped in a
chuck in the compression mode. But, to begin with, the log is set up between centres. Mount the piece in
the centre of each end; if the pith of the wood is off centre this does not matter.
Rough the bottom end down to a bit over the required diameter for the base but leave the bark at the top
of the piece. This should not be taken off as it will form the natural edge. Now form the spigot.
The job is remounted on the spigot and work is begun on turning the bowl. The easiest shape to form for
the bowl, and one which gives very satisfactory results, is a shallow inverted cone. To make it easier to
deal with the irregular natural edge I partially shape the outside of the bowl before beginning the inside.
One can shape about three-quarters of the outside to begin with, this leaves enough wood to support the
bowl whilst the inside is worked on.
The inside of the rim of the bowl
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Now for the most difficult part: the turning of the inside of the natural rim. At this stage there are two
points which need to be remembered. The first is that the rim will be turned thin. The second is that the
thin wood dries out quite quickly and it may begin to distort before the job is finished. For both these
reasons it is necessary to work one's way down from the rim in stages.
As a start, some of the waste is removed from the inside of the bowl - say about 3/4 inch deep and
leaving a wall thickness of 1/8 inch. How deep one goes at this stage is a matter of judgement and
depends on how much out of round the work piece is; the variations in the diameter will cause the height
of the rim to undulate.
Having taken out some of the waste the rim can now be thinned down. For this a very sharp tool is
required - I use a inch high-speed steel bowl gouge with the shoulders ground back and a short bevel.
Another essential is good tool control. To help to achieve this the support for the tool should be close to
the work. Some commercial rests are so shaped that although the rest is close to the work the tool is
supported some distance away, see Figure 1. This is not helpful, a better set up is illustrated in Figure 2.
When working on the inside of a bowl with a small diameter, the top bar of the tool rest should either be
narrow or slope to follow the arc of the rim, see Figure 3. This may mean that either the rest must be
ground to a better shape or one must be specially made.
The reason for a short bevel on the gouge now becomes apparent. The shorter the bevel the closer the
support will be to the cutting edge, particularly when working inside the bowl. Remember the bevel must
be rubbing at all times. If necessary go back to first principles: allow the heel of the bevel to make
contact with the wood first and then move the handle until the gouge is just cutting. Needless to say, very
light cuts are taken.
In turning the inside of the bowl of these goblets I always cut from the outside to the centre.
Theoretically this is wrong because the cut will be made against the grain; but this is not a problem if the
grain does not tear. In my experience it never does.
The difficulty of turning the natural edge thin is compounded by the fact that because it is irregular it is
difficult to see. It may help to set up a tungsten lamp behind the bed and a little above the axis of the
lathe. This is manoeuvered until its light catches the extreme edge of the bowl. It also helps to position
the head so that one eye is looking down the inside surface of the bowl; the tip of the gouge can then be
aligned in relation to that surface. How thin one goes, or can go, is determined by a number of factors, eg
the condition of the bark, the nature of the wood, the degree of irregularity of the edge, and how brave
one is feeling. For ash, for example, 1/16 inch thick is often possible, holly can be made thinner still.
The inside of the bowl

Once the rim has been dealt with the rest of the inside of the bowl is reasonably straightforward. To help
prevent too much wood being taken out (ie cutting through the bowl) it helps to place the lamp behind it
so that the light shines through the bowl from the outside. Note, however, that this can be misleading
where there are marked colour changes in the wood, such as differences between heartwood and
sapwood in cherry or yew.
Because it is necessary to work down the bowl in stages it is not possible to take long sweeping cuts as
one would on a large bowl. Also, the gouge will tend to dip into the spaces when turning the irregular
edge. For both these reasons some ridges may be left which cannot be eliminated with the gouge. Then a
special technique is used. This is a variation on Dell Stubb's method of shear scraping.
A inch scraper, with a sharp burr on it, is held pointing well downwards, perhaps as much as 45 with
the burred edge at an angle to direction in which the wood is moving. The scraper is held not on the rest,
but on the fingers (which can be supported by the rest). The tool is pulled across the work, from the
centre to the rim, parallel to the top of the rest. This is not dangerous because, at the angle the scraper is
held, there is no possibility of a dig-in. When making these goblets I use a relatively slow speed. This
means that when performing this technique of shear scraping the tool will follow the work even if it has
already begun to distort and has gone out of round. Using this method on end grain it is possible to get a
very good surface which needs very little sanding.
The outside of the bowl and the stem
Having finished the inside of the bowl attention is now turned to the outside and to the stem of the
goblet. First, the lamp is moved so that it shines through from the inside of the bowl and the remaining
waste wood on the outside of the bowl is removed whilst gradually cutting towards the top of the stem.
Probably, it will be found that, because of movement of the wood, there is an obvious transition from the
new cuts and those made earlier. Before getting quite to the top of the stem the new and the old surfaces
can be blended together using the shear scraping technique described above. The outside of the bowl can
then be sanded, and finished.
The stem is shaped in successive stages, working from the bowl towards the base. No more of the waste
wood is removed than is necessary to provide room to work in, see Figure 4. How thin the stem is be
made depends on the thinness of the bowl. If the bowl is thin it will be very light and the centrifugal
forces will be small; then the stem can also be made thin without the bowl showing signs of wobbling
out of control as it rotates. If it does wobble then the lathe can be slowed down.
The base should also be made as thin as possible, consistent with good design, because of the danger that
it might split as the wood dries out. This depends on the nature of the wood and how wet it is. It
sometimes helps to dry the goblet in a microwave oven as soon as it is finished. If this is done it should
be set on defrost and run for about 10 minutes. It is also a good idea to put a cup of water in the oven at
the same time. But take care, one of my friends burnt through the stem of a goblet using the microwave.
A word of warning:
In my original article I suggested that, when working on the inside of the goblet, the fingers of the left
hand should support the wood on the outside. I have since found out (the hard way) that this is
potentially dangerous. One evening, when demonstrating at our club, the bowl broke leaving an ugly
jagged edge on the remaining wood. As I was attempting to support the wood at the time I was lucky to
get away with a superficial cut.

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Making a hand mirror
Home
A hand mirror
Introduction
Although rewarding, a hand mirror is not a very difficult item to make. It should be within the scope of
those turners with intermediate skills who have mastered the basic principles of spindle turning and
obtained a reasonable amount of confidence with a bowl gouge.
The piece is made from four parts: the head, the handle, a small piece of dowel to join them together, and
the mirror. (See graphic at end.)
The design
A hand mirror should not be too heavy or unwieldy so the parts should not be made any larger than
necessary. The general features of the suggested design are set out in accompanying diagram. There
must be many possible variations on this theme. The simple design illustrated has proved to be attractive,
judging by the comments I have heard, and the fact that people are willing to buy it. One aspect of the
design is determined by the method I use to drill the hole for the dowel in the head. The bead on the back
provides a bearing surface which facilitates clamping the piece vertically on to a jig (to be described
below).
The dimensions shown are for a mirror with a 5in. glass. If the maker wishes to use a bigger mirror glass,
say 6in diameter, then some of the dimensions will have to be scaled up. For the 5in mirror the blank for
the head needs to be a little over 6 3/4in by 1in. The handle should be about 6in by 1in.
The wood
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I have used ash for my mirrors; it turns nicely and it looks attractive. Whatever species is used, the blank
for the head must be chosen with care. The mirror glass is thin, fragile and inflexible. The possibility of
movement of the wood after the piece is finished must be reduced to the minimum. Because of this, the
blank should be quarter sawn, that is to say, when the end grain of a square blank is examined the annual
rings should run more or less vertical to the major faces. If you have a piece of wood in which there is
any sign of cupping I would strongly advise you to reject it for this purpose.
The blank must also be sufficiently dry. In technical terms this means that the moisture content must be
in equilibrium with that of air in a centrally heated room in the winter. 'Air dried' timber (which has been
dried outdoors) will be too wet for this purpose and will need to be dried further. Kiln dried timber will
be fine as long as it has not been too long since it came out of the kiln. Remember that as soon as wood
comes out of the kiln it starts to pick up moisture. If it has been left in a shed, or a similar damp place,
for a few months it may well have become too wet. (See also "How dry is my wood.)
If you have any fears that your wood may not be dry enough the safest thing to do, is to keep a some
blanks in a warm room in the house, or in the airing cupboard, for a few weeks. Clearly, for this job,
some forward planning is required.
Holding the work

We need to consider the question of how the work will be held on the lathe. There are no problems with
the handle but we do have to think about the head. I glue a piece of waste wood onto the back of the
blank for the head and then mount it on a screw chuck. The front face of the head is then turned.
Having done that we need some way of holding it so that the back can be turned. What I do is to turn a
secondary recess for the expanding jaws of a proprietary chuck in the middle of the recess which has
been made for the mirror. This will, of course, be covered by the glass. If the second recess is not made
more than 3 in. In diameter the gluing surface for the glass will be adequate.
Turning
When starting to turn the front of the head, it is usually a good idea to clean up the face, and the edge,
with a bowl gouge. After this the recess for the mirror is cut. This should be deep enough to allow for the
shaping of the bead and a fraction wider than the mirror (a bare 1/32in. all round) to allow for some
movement of the wood. Next, the rim to the outside of the bead can be formed with a small bowl gouge
followed by finishing cuts made with a scraper.
When forming the rim remember that the surface must be taken down far enough to leave an upstanding
fillet for the bead. The bead is then rounded with either a small scraper or, my preference, scraped with
the corner of a small skew chisel. This requires care and delicacy in swinging the handle of the tool in an
arc whilst holding the cutting edge almost stationary.
Now the recess for the expanding jaws can be cut. After that the front face can be sanded, sealed and
polished using the turner's preferred method.
The work-piece is then reversed onto the expanding jaws and the back is shaped. This is done mostly
with a bowl gouge but the surface adjacent to the bead will have to be cut down with a small shaper. The
bead is rounded in the same way as the one on the front. The edge of the work-piece, which is trued up
with a small bowl gouge, should end up 3/8in. wide. Finally the edge and the back are sanded and
finished.
The turning of the handle presents no special problems. For those still uncomfortable with the skew
chisel most of the shaping can be accomplished with a spindle gouge. The small details at the end can be
done with a 3/8in. square beading and parting tool.
When finishing the handle particular care needs to be taken to ensure that it is well sealed. If this is not
done it may start to look dirty with use.
Drilling and assembly

When shaping the back make sure that the bead stands proud of the general surface. This will facilitate
clamping of the mirror head to the jig for drilling the hole for attaching the handle. This jig is a very
simple device; it is merely a flat piece of wood screwed or glued to a block. The block should be big
enough to provide a degree of stability but not so high that it prevents the fixing of the clamp.
To ensure that the hole is pointing directly through the centre of the work-piece draw a line on the
surface which will be hidden by the mirror. This line should pass through the centre of the work-piece
and, if projected, through the entry point of the drill. This is accomplished quite easily simply by lying a
a ruler across the piece and lining it up by eye.
When the head is clamped to the jig (with a large G clamp) this line is made square to the base with the
aid of a small try square. The whole assembly (jig, work-piece and clamp) is then clamped to the drill
table. If a pedestal drill is not available a couple of assistants will be required to help to see that the hand
drill is held vertical. The hole is drilled to provide a nice fit on a piece of 1/4in. dowel.
Figure 1: Section through simple jig for drilling mirror head

This shows the position of piece. The clamp is not shown
Possibly, the most tricky job on the handle is ensuring that the hole for the dowel is drilled in line with
the axis of the piece. If a drill press is used, mark the spot on the table vertically below the point of the
drill, then place the bottom of the handle on the mark and drill as required.
Finally, the head and the handle are joined with a piece of 1/4in. dowel and PVA glue, and the mirror is
stuck in place. The mirror can be attached with Clam or any other tile cement specified for use on a
wood surface.
Parts of mirror
Home
Woodturning - a box
Home
A simple box
Introduction
Turning boxes can be a source of considerable satisfaction not least because they require
a certain degree of skill. There is the challenge of creating a satisfactory design, making a
well fitting lid, and finishing the box to the level required for an object which is likely to
be treasured by its owner for many years. Small boxes can be used for keeping many
things: stamps, pills, paper clips, buttons, as well as rings, and other small pieces of
jewellery, in short any of those small items which we all seem to accumulate.
Almost any hardwood may be used in the making of a box. The main thing is that it
should be well dried; if is not the the box may distort as it continues to dry out and the fit
of the lid may be spoiled. Air dried wood will require some further drying in a warm place, such as a
centrally heated room in winter or an airing cupboard (see 'How dry is my wood').
Method one
The easiest way to turn a box is one shown in some of the earlier turning manuals. The workpiece is held
by one end, either in a chuck with compression jaws, or on a screw. When the screw chuck is used a
piece of scrap wood can be glued on to save wasting more valuable material. The general arrangement of
the worpiece is shown in Diagram 1. This shows the position, and the orientation, of the lid and the body
as they will eventually be formed.
Diagram 1: General layout of box

Note that the first operation is to hollow out the inside of the lid and form the mouth. The lid is then
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Woodturning - a box
parted off leaving sufficient material to turn the knob at a later stage. The next step is to hollow out and
finish the inside of the body. Then a spigot is turned on the body and sized so that the lid will be a nice
fit. The lid is fixed on this spigot and the top is shaped and (see Diagram 2). The outside of the body of
the can also be shaped in a manner to suit the lid.
Diagram 2: Box with lid fitted and formed

The merit of this method of making a box is that the workpiece only has to be chucked once. The blank
is put on a screw chuck and does not have to be removed until the job is finished. Against this, it must be
admitted it has is a serious drawback. Because, in effect, the lid is turned upside down in relation to the
body, the grain, or figure, in the wood will not run in a continuous pattern from the bottom to the top.
Method two
There is alternative way of making a box which requires only one chucking, and does not require the lid
to be reversed, but this, too, has a drawback. This is that the lid cannot be hollowed out. This is fine if
the box is small but otherwise is unsatisfactory. The general arrangement for this is shown in Diagram 3.
In this case the top of the lid and a groove (to form a spigot on the lid) are formeded before the lid is
parted off.
Diagram 3: A box with a solid lid
Woodturning - a box
Note that the parting cut made to separate the lid from the body should be as thin as possible. Ideally the
grain in the wood should run through the body and into the lid in a continuous pattern. If the grain runs at
an angle, the greater the distance between the two parts, the more disrupted the pattern will be (see
Diagram 4). Losing some material in the formation of the spigot cannot be avoided.
Diagram 4: Disruption of grain caused by parting off and the formation of the spigot
Method three
Fortunately, it is not too difficult to modify the above procedures to cope with these problems. A chuck
with contracting collets (eg on a spigot chuck) is better for this method but I will also explain how it can
be done on a screw (see below).
When contracting collets are used the blank is roughed down to a cylinder between centres and a small
spigot turned on each end. It can then be divided into the two parts for the body and the lid. Figure 3
shows the workpiece fitted into the compression jaws of a chuck before being divided. The piece for the
body is parted off with the thinnest parting tool available. The workpiece could also be separated into
two parts with the aid of the bandsaw. In this case a deep groove is made with the thin parting tool whilst
it is still held between centres. This acts as a guide for the saw cut.
Woodturning - a box
Diagram 5: Another way of making a box
The inside of the lid

With the lid mounted in the chuck the inside can now be hollowed out. At this stage we need to consider
the way in which the body and the lid of a box are fitted together. The lid will be made first so it is
convenient to make the body of the box the male part. This facilitates the fitting of the lid to the body. It
is much easier to adjust a spigot on the body than it is to take wood from the inside of the body to accept
a spigot on the lid.
Note that the sides of the mouth and the spigot must be made to form a section of a perfect cylinder. If
this is not done they will not fit properly. Having formed the mouth of the lid, the remainder of the inside
should be shaped in a way which will conform with the intended shape of the outside. Much of this work
can be done with a small bowl gouge but some use of a scraper will be required. When the desired shape
has been achieved the inside of the lid is sanded and polished. When sanding, care should be taken not to
spoil the cylindrical shape of the mouth. The lid can now be removed from the chuck and replaced with
the blank for the body.
Hollowing the body

The first step with the body is to hollow out the inside. The reason why this is done first is that the
removal of the wood may release stresses which may cause some distortion to take place. If the lid is
fitted first this might spoil the fit. As much material as possible is removed with a small bowl gouge.
There is a limit to how much can be taken out with a gouge if the bevel is to be kept rubbing; the
remainder will have to be scraped out. As with the lid the inside of the body must reflect the shape which
will be given to the outside. If it is felt necessary templates can be made. If the body has square corners
at the bottom it may help to grind a scraper to a special shape. This is shown if Diagram 6. This scraper
can be used to clean up the side walls, the bottom and the corner iteslf.
Diagram 6: Shape of special scraper
The fit of the lid

Having partially hollowed out the body the short spigot, on which the lid will be fitted, can be formed.
As the lid will be held on the body in order to turn the top the fit needs to be reasonably tight. Getting a
good fit between the lid and the body is the most difficult part of making a box. Unfortunately there is
Woodturning - a box
not much one can say which will be of much help to the beginner. The best advice is to use a scraper in
the final stages whilst proceeding with extreme caution.
If too much material is inadvertently taken off it is often possible to hold the two together with paper
packing. When turning the outside of the lid with it held in this way the tailstock can be brought up to
support it. If the shape of the box will allow it, putting piece of masking tape around the join that may
also help.
The fit of the lid can also be too tight. When it has been turned and finished the lid has to be removed.
As I have found on a number of occasions this may be a problem. The lid will now be very smooth and
polished. If it has been fitted onto the spigot very tightly, it can be difficult to obtain sufficient purchase
on it to pull it off. As a consequence a compromise is required: it should be tight but not too tight.
Finishing the lid and the body

With the lid fitted in place in place in this way the outside of the lid can now be turned. After that the
outside of the body is shaped so that its form complements that of the lid. Then outsides of both the lid
and the body can be sanded and finished and the lid removed.
Before proceeding it may be necessary to ease off the fit of the lid. This may be required because the fit
was made tight enough to enable the outside of the lid to be turned on the body. When it is in use the
owner will want to take off the lid without difficulty. So a slightly looser fit may be by required; but how
loose? Opinions tend to differ about this: it depends to some extent on what the box is to be used for. It's
down to the maker's judgement.
When the inside has also been sanded and finished the body is parted off. The bottom of the body can
now be finished either by sanding on a disc, or a belt sander, or by turning. In the latter case a spigot is
turned on the waste left on the chuck so that it is a tight fit in the mouth of the body. With the box held
on this spigot (see Diagram 7) the bottom can be turned to the desired shape; it may, for instance, be
given rounded corners.
Diagram 7: Body of box reversed onto waste wood
Turning the box on a screw chuck

Woodturning - a box
If this type of box is to be turned on a screw chuck a square blank is selected which will have sufficient
waste wood at each end for fixing on the screw and for three parting cuts. Alternatively, some scrap
wood can be glued onto the ends of the workpiece to take the screw. In either case the ends of the blank
are cut as square as possible before proceeding. Diagram 8 shows the general layout of the parts.
The blank is fitted to the screw chuck, the tailstock is brought up in support and workpiece is roughed
down to a cylinder. With the tailstock withdrawn the outer end of the workpiece is squared up. This is
most easily done using a small bowl gouge taking very light cuts. Since this face will later be fitted on
the screw chuck it must either be dead square or slightly dished.
The tailstock is then brought up again to support the workpiece whilst a preliminary parting cut is made
to separate the two sections. The use of a narrow parting tool has the double advantage that it will not
only reduce the disturbance to the match in the grain (between the body and the lid), but will also reduce
the stress on the screw mounting. When the thickness of the wood has been reduced to 1/2 in, or so, the
tailstock is again withdrawn and the parting cut completed. The final act of separation may be done with
a saw if so desired. The section removed, which will be used for the body, is put to one side for the time
being. The piece remaining should be left on the screw (see Diagram 8).
Diagram 8: The layout of the blank when using a screw chuck

Later, when the body section is attached to the screw chuck, it is highly unlikely that it will align
perfectly with its original axis. As a consequence some material will have to be removed to make the
cylinder run true. To allow for this the diameter of the work piece left on the screw chuck for the lid
must be reduced. How much it is reduced is a matter for judgement; it depends on the dimensions of the
box and how inaccurate the re-chucking is likely to be; but it is much better to take off too much than too
little. In the latter case the only option will be to start all over again. This must be borne in mind when
determining the size of the blank at the beginning of the job.
Having turned the outside of the lid to the required diameter the inside can be hollowed out, sanded,
finished and parted off. The piece of waste wood left on the screw is then removed. The blank for the
body is drilled with a pilot hole for the screw on the mark made by the tailstock centre. Care must be
taken not to drill too deep, otherwise the hole may pierce the bottom of the box. The blank can now be
fitted onto the screw and trued up. From this point on the procedure is the same as that described above.
Woodturning - a box

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Woodturning - a baby's rattle
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Please see warnings at end of article
A baby's rattle
Introduction
This baby's rattle is based on the woodturners old trick of turning a loose ring on a stem or spindle - in
this case there are three rings and it is these which provide the sound effects. This rattle is an interesting
exercise in woodturning which makes an attractive object. I should explain that it is not my design; in
fact I think rattles of this type may have been around for generations. I have found, too, that versions of
it exist all round the world ( people I have talked to have seen them as far afield as New Zealand) made
out of indigenous timbers. Nevertheless, the great majority of people have never seen one. Those with no
knowledge of woodturning are often very puzzled as to how they are made. They examine them intently
looking for a join by which would enable the rings to be added.
Details of the design

The general shape and dimensions of the which I make are shown in the drawing. The dimensions need
not be followed slavishly but I think this must be the smallest practical size. There are two reasons for
this: one, the safety of the baby, the other, the method by which the rings are formed. In fact, before a
rattle can be turned, it is necessary to make a pair of miniature skew scrapers from masonry nails. Details
of how these are made are given at the end of the article.
In practice a drawing is not strictly necessary; I did not make one until I came to write this piece. What I
did, after some trial runs, was to mark off the relevant measurements on a strip of card.
Turning the rattle

When making the rattle I find it best to work in a set sequence. Once the blank has been turned to the
required diameter the card is offered up to the job and the divisions marked on the revolving wood with a
sharp pencil. Some of the waste wood is removed, and five grooves are cut, four to mark off the rings,
and another to set the width of the knob in the middle. These grooves are cut with a 3/16 in. parting tool
to a depth of 1/4 in. or so.
The next step is to turn the handle. Although the base of the handle may be made fairly thin it will
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provide adequate support whilst the rest of the job is being completed. After the handle is finished the
knobs are shaped and the outer edges of the rings are rounded over to a semi-circular form. The knobs
are done at this point to provide more room for the miniature scrapers when parting off the rings.
Cutting the rings

After the outsides of the rings have been sanded and oiled they can be parted off. To do this the
appropriate miniature scraper is introduced into one of the grooves at an angle of 45 (in the horizontal
plane) so that the point enters the side of a ring behind the rounded edge whilst the side of the tool very
nearly rubs against the adjacent ring. It is pushed in until it is estimated that the point has reached the
centreline of the ring.
When all three rings have been cut on one side the other sides are attacked in a similar fashion. If the
first cuts have been made deep enough then the rings will come free straight away. Sometimes, however,
it will be necessary to make another cut from the first side, and so on. If a ring is being obstinate it can
be useful to put a lamp behind it - when the cuts are close it will be possible to see an arc of light where
the wood is about to part. This will indicate the point at which the final cut should be made. Whilst these
operations are being performed it is necessary to ensure that cuts are not being made too far into the
wood which will become the central spindle.
When the rings come free it will probably be found that the inner surfaces are smooth enough not to need
further finishing, but at the point of the 'V' where the two cuts intersect there will be a ragged edge. This
is removed by rubbing it against the rough wood left in the middle of the piece - with the lathe running,
of course. To clean up the central spindle I use first a 3/8 in square parting tool and then a spindle gouge.
This part is a little tricky. It will probably be necessary to do some one handed turning using the left
hand to hold the rings out of the way and, in the later stages, to support the wood.
It will be found that a ring can be held between the left thumb and middle finger, the wood supported
with the forefinger, whilst simultaneously, the chisel is pinned to the rest with the thumb. If this sounds
complicated on paper it will not be found so in practice - it is largely a matter of doing what comes
naturally.
The final details

At this point the sides of the knobs may need their final cleaning up. This can be done with the long
point of a small skew chisel taking great care - this is definitely not the time to allow a chisel to catch. As
a final touch, which helps to add to the mystification of the unenlightened (as to how the piece is made),
I like to cut two grooves on the end face of the handle. This is made easier if a cone centre is being used,
if not it will be necessary to allow more waste wood when the piece is commenced. In either case the
procedure is the same; parting off is begun and is stopped when only just enough waste wood is left to
support the piece - say about 1/8 in. in diameter. Enough waste wood is then cut away to allow the two
grooves to be incised with the point of a miniature skew scraper. The piece can now be sanded and oiled.
Finally the waste is parted off.
The miniature scrapers

The miniature skew scrapers are made from masonry nails as these provide very hard steel in a form
which is easily acquired - the nails I used were the biggest I could find in the local hardware shop and
measured 3 inches in length and 9/64 in diameter. No doubt there are alternative materials which could
be used - an old chainsaw file, perhaps. My masonry nails were a little too thin and I found that it helped
to use the heads for the cutting points. These were ground in the conventional shape for a skew scraper
but I increased the angles a little with the result that the scrapers have somewhat exaggerated points. The
grinding was done in three steps: first, the head of the nail was made square, then the angle of skew was
ground and, finally, the cutting edge. It should not be forgotten that they must be for opposite hands, i.e.
a right and left skew. The handles, which are 7 in. long with a maximum diameter of 1in, are made from
ash and turned to the usual shape. The ferrules are made from 1/2 in. diameter copper tube.
Finishing
As it must be anticipated that a baby's rattle will eventually go into a baby's mouth, it is necessary to
consider very carefully the type of finish which is to be employed. This is important for two reasons,
namely the baby's health and the legal position of the maker. The wood can, of course, be left untreated
but although that would protect the maker I feel that an unsealed wooden surface is likely to pick up
harmful bacteria much more easily than one which has been treated satisfactorily. But what should one
use?
It seems that the relevant piece of legislation (in the UK) is the Consumers Protection Act (1974) which
enforces the Toy Safety Regulations. These refer to paint, varnish and similar materials, which must be
free from a long list of toxic or injurious substancess. The best known of these is lead, but there are many
others. In addition to these I feel that any finish which is affected by water, such as wax, or which may
flake off, such as polyurethane or cellulose (even if they are not proscribed) would be unaesthetic, to say
the least. For the latter reason my preference falls on some kind of oil.
Teak oil may seem a suitable choice but it is necessary to ensure that the brand to be used does not
contain any of the proscribed substances. The basic ingredients of teak oil are linseed oil and white spirit,
which are not harmful, but the product could become contaminated by a toxic substance during
manufacture. As a consequence teak oil should be avoided. My suggestions are olive oil or vegetable
(rape) oil.
Please note: in earlier versions of this article I suggested using a nut oil, such as walnut, for a finish. I am
indebted to Sam Roberts (a reader) who has reminded me that many people are allergic to nuts and can
go into shock if they get any nut related product on, or in, their bodies. Nut oils must definitely be
avoided.
I am greatly indebted to Tim Yoder for pointing out that the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Division has
published "Requirements for Rattles, 15 C.F.R. Part 1510". See:
http://www.cpsc.gov/BUSINFO/regsumrattle.pdf
Basically, if any part of a rattle can fit into a cavity with a diameter of 1.68 in (42.7 mm) and a depth of
1.18 in (30 mm) it is considered dangerous.
The dimensions given for the rattle described in my article do not meet these requirements.
I unaware of any similar regulations in the UK but it must be accepted that giving such a rattle to a baby
is most definitely undesirable.
I have left the article on my site as:
It serves as a warning about the danger of small turned objects to babies;
It is an interesting technical exercise which may have applications to other turned objects.
(July 2005)

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Woodturning - wind chimes
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Wind chimes
Introduction
Wind chimes are becoming increasingly popular pieces of garden
furniture. Although such chimes are not a new idea, and can be made in a
wide range of materials, there is a contemporary type which uses
aluminium tubes for producing the sound. Unfortunately, some of these
are very crude and even the best designs I have seen leave something to
be desired. Since these chimes are usually based on a circular form they
lend themselves to turning and I have developed some ideas which I hope
will appeal to readers.
Having used a set of these in my own garden there are a number of
general observations I would like to make before going into the details of
how they are made. First and foremost: the sound needs to be much
quieter than might be thought. What can be a very attractive tinkling
sound in moderation can become irritating if it is too loud or too
prolonged. I find the chimes work best in a light breeze; it follows from
this that some means of silencing them needs to be provided when the
wind freshens. In practice this can easily be achieved by catching the
vane, or the striker, on the hook from which the chimes are suspended.
My own experiments suggest that the desired tinkling effect is best
achieved by means of a fairly heavy striker and a very light vane. Also,
the larger the diameter of the tube the more sonorous and attractive the sound. I would not use anything
less than 1in diameter tube; this is what is used in the design shown here. However, if the design is
scaled up, much larger tubes can be used to good effect. Another point is that a better sound is produced
if the suspension point on the tubes is not at the very top but some distance down. The lengths of the
tubes I used go from 14in to 20 7/8in in 1 3/8in. steps. Those who have greater musical skills than me
may wish to try to tune the tubes to a suitable scale by adjusting their lengths.
A drawing is provided for guidance. The design can be copied in detail or variations can be made to suit
the whims of the maker.
The materials
Some comments on the materials used are also in order. The wood used for the turned parts, that is, the
knob, the cap, and the striker, should be material which will weather well, such as elm or oak, and not
Ash, which is unsuitable. However, a relatively dense piece of pine or, possibly, external grade plywood,
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could be used and painted if required. For the string retainer, which fits under the cap, and is merely a
flat disc, I used oil tempered hardboard. If any other material is used it should be something which will
stand up to the weather or which can be suitably treated. The vane should either be made out of thin
sheet of wood, 1/8 in. maximum thickness, or from some other light material. Oil tempered hardboard
will be all right; the rough side can be sanded smooth to improve the appearance.
To obtain the aluminium tube look up Aluminium Stockists in the Yellow Pages and ring around. I found
one who was prepared to sell small quantities over its trade counter. The tube comes in long lengths;
make sure the stockist will cut it, or take a hacksaw or a plumbers pipe cutting tool with you when you
go to collect it. For the strings, with which the tubes, the striker and the vane are suspended, I used thin
nylon cord (similar to that used on the bathroom light switch).
Turning the knob

Now we come to the turning. The knob is a relatively straight forward between-centres job, 1 1/4in in.
diameter overall. Some care needs to be taken with the spigot which will eventually be glued into a hole
drilled in the cap. It therefore needs to be cut to size with sufficient accuracy to provide a reasonable fit.
One way of cutting an accurate spigot is by careful use of callipers. A somewhat easier method is to use
a sizing tool; it may be found necessary, however, to set the size on a trial piece.
The cap
The cap is a straightforward piece of face turning. It should be 6 7/8 in. in diameter and, about, 1 3/8 in.
deep, when finished. Since it is going to be drilled in the centre with a 1/2 in. hole, to take the spigot on
the knob, it can be held initially on any screw chuck the turner has to hand.
The bottom of the cap is turned first. It has a recess to take the string retainer (see below) and inside that
a recess to accept the expanding collets of proprietary chuck. If the turner does not possess this type of
chuck the piece can be reversed onto the screw chuck. In this case, of course, the recess for the collets
can be omitted. Also on the bottom, just inside the perimeter, a groove is formed. This is intended to
prevent rain water running across the string retainer, ie, like a drip moulding.
Turning the top of the cap should present no problems. If it is to be refitted on the screw chuck there may
be a minor loss of concentricity. Should the latter be a cause of concern it can be disguised by the using a
slightly different design (see drawing). Because this design eliminates the recess for collets and is a
simpler shape it is also quicker and easier to make. Before the cap is finally removed from the lathe the
1/2 in. diameter hole to take the spigot on the knob is drilled. If a screw chuck is used it is better if the
screw does not go right through the blank; in this case the hole for the spigot can be started whilst the
piece is on the lathe. This will ensure it is positioned accurately on the drill press.
The striker
The striker, which is a simple shape, should be 1 1/4 in. deep and 3 in. in diameter when finished. I find
it hangs best with a piece of 1/4 in. dowel running through it. The strings by which the striker and the
vane are suspended are tied through holes in the end of this dowel. The hole for the dowel can be drilled
in the blank for the striker before the piece is made. It can then be turned using a fixed cone centre in the
headstock and a revolving cone centre in the tailstock. Alternatively it can be turned on a mandrel; this
can be made with a short piece of 1/4 in. studding held in a Jacob's chuck. A small depression is
punched. or drilled, in the centre of the face of the outer end to accept the point of a revolving centre. A
couple of nuts will also be required to hold the workpiece in place.
The string retainer

As described above, the string retainer is a flat disc; it is 5 3/4 in. in diameter. It has 3 holes drilled in it
for the screws which attach it to the cap; and 6 holes to take the strings which support the tubes. The
latter holes are equally spaced on a pitch circle diameter of 5 1/8 in. A saw cut is made from the edge of
the disc to each of these holes so that the strings can be looped across adjacent holes. A 1/2 in. hole is
drilled in the centre for the spigot on the knob to pass through.
The tubes
The lengths of the tube are given above. Two 5/32 in. holes, diametrically opposed, are drilled in each
tube 3 1/4 in. from the top end. Since 12 of these holes have to be drilled it is worth making a simple jig
which can be clamped onto the table of the pillar drill. This jig has a short piece of wood with a 'v' cut
into it to support the tube and a stop which ensures that all the hole are drilled at the same distance from
the end of the tubes.
The strings
The strings (nylon cord) are tied in such a way that the knot is hidden inside the tube. This is done by
threading one end of a piece of cord into one hole, and the other end into the opposite hole (from the
outside in both cases). The ends of the cord, being inside the tube, then have to be picked up with a pair
of tweezers, or long nosed pliers, pulled out of the tube and then tied. It is important that all the strings
end up the same length. Another very simple jig will make this relatively straightforward; all that is
required is a piece of wood with a couple of pieces of dowel inserted a suitable distance apart. The end
of the tube, with the loose ends of string hanging out of it, is held against one dowel and the string is tied
around the other. If nylon cord is used it is advisable to spot a dab of waterproof glue on all knots to
prevent them slipping undone.
The vane
As described above, the vane is made from a flat piece of material. The vane is a triangular shape with
the corners rounded off. The size is not critical but it should be approximately 7in. in height and 3in.
wide at the base.
Assembly
With the vane finished all the pieces should be ready for assembly. The knob is glued into the cap with
waterproof glue. The strings on the tubes are looped over the string retainer (see photograph)and this subassembly is fixed with three screws into the recess on the underside of the cap. Finally the striker and the
vane are attached with two strings. The vane should hang just below the bottom of the longest tube.

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Woodturning - Making a stool
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Making a Windsor Stool

The Windsor style
The Windsor style is the name a particular type of traditional English chair. Within this style there are a
variety of forms which can be seen in the many publicationss which illustrate these chairs. One of these,
which is particularly worth mentioning, is the excellent and inexpensive booklet by Ivan Sparkes in the
Shire Books range.
The defining characteristic of a Windsor chair is that it does not have a continuous 'backstand'; that is to
say, the back support and the back legs are separate pieces mortised into the upper and lower faces of the
seat. Strictly speaking, therefore, there can be no such thing as a Windsor style stool. Despite this
Sparkes describes the Windsor stool which he says was common in the nineteenth century. He says that:
'... the normal Windsor stool had a round top, sometimes with the handgrip cut in the centre of the seat.
The top was often not dished and the typical example had the leg turning of the 1870's with three rings
above the vase turning'. This is the type of leg which is used in this project.
The Windsor stool leg
The number of legs

This type of stool can be made with either three or four legs. A stool with three legs will stand firmly on
any surface no matter how rough it is, and it does not matter if the legs are not quite equal in length.
There is also a small saving in time and material. To offset these points a three legged stool has two
major disadvantages: it is relatively unstable and easy to tip over; and when viewed in such a way that
two of the legs are aligned it appears to be unsymmetrical with the seat overhanging one side more than
then other. The disadvantages of three legs tend to outweigh the benefits; as a consequence four legs are
recommended.
Making matching legs

Turning a set of legs is an exercise in copy turning. This is not too difficult as long as the right procedure
is adopted. This entails sizing the workpiece at key points and is best explained by working through an
example step-by-step. The first leg is the easy one. When it is completed it will form the pattern for the
rest. The secret of making good copies is to follow exactly the same procedure for every leg.
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However good the turner no two legs will be a perfect match; but, in practice, all that is required is a
reasonable match. When the stool is assembled the casual observer will find it quite difficult to see
differences in the legs which are obvious to the person who made them.
The dimensions
Suitable sizes for a child's stool would be 9 ins in diameter for the seat, with legs 10 ins long
(including the spigot at the top) and those for an adult 11 ins and 13 ins respectively. For full
dimensions see diagram. If other heights are required make the seat 80% of the length of the legs
(including the spigot). Other dimensions for the legs can be made proportionate to the those in the
diagram.
The wood
The woods I normally use are either ash or whatever softwood I have to hand. A problem encountered
when using using softwood is that it is difficult to obtain boards which are wide enough to make the seat
in one piece. I have never been comfortable with the idea of using a seat with a plain butt joint as I have
no confidence that it would be strong enough. If facilities are available to make a biscuit joint that is
likely to be satisfactory. Perhaps a dowelled joint could be tried. In any case ash is better, it looks nice, it
turns well, it can be obtained in wide boards, and it is not necessarily much more expensive than
softwoods.
The blanks for the legs

If this is the maker's first attempt at copy turning perhaps it will be a good idea to have some spare
blanks for the legs. In fact, if the time and the materials are available, it may be advisable to plan to make
enough legs for several stools. These can then be sorted out at the end of the exercise to get the sets
which match the best. In any event if you end up with a leg which is a bad match with the others, but is
otherwise satisfactory, do not discard it. Save it for another time when you can make another set to
match it.
To make copying easier, cut all the blanks to exactly the same size. The length needs to be about a in.
longer than the finished size. All the waste will be at the bottom of the leg. At the top end the marks left
by the spur drive centre will either be hidden in the socket in the seat . In order that the tenon may be
turned right up to the end the diameter of the spur drive must be less than that of the tenon.
Making the first leg

Step 1
The work piece is roughed down to a cylinder of the required diameter and planed smooth with a chisel
over the widest part of the leg (including the area where the three beads will be). After this the principal
divisions are marked with a pencil. In the case of the leg shown these are the three beads near the top, the
bead near the bottom and the waste at the bottom.
At this point it is necessary to make a template so that the rest of the legs can be marked accurately in the
same way. The method I use is to take a piece of hardboard about 1 in. wide and the same length as the
leg. The principal divisions are marked on this template to match those on the first leg.
Marking out the leg

Step 2
The top and the bottom of the leg are now sized to the required diameter. At the top of the leg (the tenon)
the sizing must be done particularly carefully so that the spigot will be a good fit in the socket to be
drilled in the top of the seat. There are various aids which can be employed here. The use of callipers is
the most obvious way but I have found it difficult to achieve the desired degree of accuracy with these.
One effective method is the use of a sizing tool (see Glossary). This tool can be set to size by making
some test on scrap wood before the work on the legs is started. Another method is to make a gauge out of
sheet metal. In fact several of these can be made to match saw tooth bits of various sizes.
At the bottom of the leg, only the in. which will be parted off as waste should be sized. The reason for
this will become apparent later. It is convenient to make this the same size as the tenon at the top.
The appearance of the workpiece after step 2

Step 3
The part of the leg below the bottom bead is sized with the aid of callipers.

Step 4
The three beads near the top of the leg can be formed in the conventional manner. If a beading tool of the
right size happens to be available this can be tried out; but it must be used with great care, because it is
easy to chip out pieces of the bead, particularly with soft woods.
Step 5
Having formed the beads the section of the leg above them is shaped. The curve has to be carefully
blended into the parallel section which will form the tenon. The length of the parallel section should be
made a little longer than the depth of the socket in the seat. This will enable the length of the leg to be
adjusted, if necessary, on assembly.
When this has been done it is not a bad idea to remove the work piece from the lathe to check the fit of
the tenon in a hole drilled in a piece of scrap wood.
If the tenon is too small there is not much that can be done but scrap the work and make another start.
However, should the tenon be too large the piece can be put back on the lathe and the necessary
adjustments made.

Step 6
Having made the tenon a good fit work can begin on shaping the middle section between the beads. The
diameter of the bottom part of this section is steadily reduced, whilst forming a nice curve, until it the
same as that of the lower part of the leg which was sized previously. The profile of the top part of this
section is curved down to the base of the adjacent bead.

Step 7
At this juncture the lower bead is formed and the curve on the middle section is completed.

Step 8
All that remains now is to shape the bottom section. The curve of the foot at the bottom is run down to
the waste piece which is already sized.

Step 9
Now the piece can be sanded and the finish applied.
Step 10
Finally, the in. of waste is parted off leaving the bottom of the leg slightly domed. The sharp break
line which is left should be radiuses so that it will not cut into the fibres of a carpet when the stool is in
use.
The finsihed leg
Matching the legs

As pointed out earlier, if the procedure described above is repeated exactly, no great problems should be
encountered in making matching legs. The key is the sizing operations. There should be no difficulty in
repeating the sizing operations and forming the upper three beads. Having done this the shaping of the
curves on the upper, middle and lower sections can be performed carefully with repeated comparisons
with the first leg. It will be found that with a little practice this becomes much easier than might have
been feared and can be done with much less reference to the first leg.
The seat
Turning the seat is straight forward. The method described here results in a seat which reveals no signs
of how it has been held on the lathe. The procedure is as follows.
A piece of scrap wood is glued to the side of the blank which will be the top of the seat. The scrap wood
needs to be large enough for the work piece to be attached to a face plate or to a large screw chuck. This
assembly is then mounted on the lathe and the face (which will be the bottom of the seat) is turned flat,
the corner radiused, sanding done, and the finish applied.
A neat trick
The next step is to take a plywood (or MDF) disc a little smaller in diameter than the work piece and
about in. thick, and to screw this to the work piece whilst the latter is still on the lathe.
The trick is to insert the screws into the area in the top where the holes for the legs will eventually be
drilled. To get the screw holes in the correct positions in both the plywood and the seat a simple paper
template can be made. Cut a piece of paper into a circle of the appropriate size, mark the position of the
holes, and prick through with a bradawl onto both the seat and the plywood disk.
When the plywood disk has been attached a recess for expanding jaws can be turned or the position for a
faceplate marked. In the latter case a very shallow recess could be formed to accept the faceplate as a
snug fit. this will ensure that concentricity is maintained for the following operation.
The work piece is removed from the lathe, reversed, and re-attached by whatever chucking method has
been selected. The top can now be turned, A suggested profile for the seat is shown in the diagram
below. After it is sanded and the finish applied it is removed from the lathe and the plywood detached.
The profile of the seat
Drilling the seat

The final step is to drill the holes to form the sockets for the legs. First, we need to consider the rake
angle of the legs. I find that an angle of 110 is about right; this is measured between two lines, one that
runs through the centre of the leg and another which runs from the centre of the hole forming the socket
to the centre of the seat. The latter line can actually be drawn on the underside of the seat to be used as a
'sight line' when drilling the sockets (see diagram).
The rake angle

The holes can be drilled with an electric hand drill, or a brace and bit, but this is not easy. If one of these
methods had to be used some kind of jig would have to be made to maintain the drill at the correct angle
and in alignment with the site line. It is worth noting that the important thing is to drill all the holes at the
same angle - what that angle is does not matter quite so much. It is recommended that the holes are bored
either on a drill press or on the lathe using a machine (or sawtooth) bit. This type of bit is desirable
because the wood will be entered at an angle. The holes are drilled as deep as possible without breaking
through the top.
Using the drill press

If a drill press is used it will be necessary to incline the seat at the required angle. If the table of the drill
press is adjustable, and the seat is small enough to fit onto it, the table can simply be set to the required
angle. When drilling the site line is aligned by eye so that it is pointing straight up the slope of the table
(another way of putting this is that the sight line should be perpendicular to the azis of tilt of the drill
table, as shown in the diagram.)
Aligning the sight line when using a tilting table on the drill press
If the seat is too large to fit on the drill table it will be necessary to make a jig from two boards hinged
together. The lower of these boards is bolted to the drill table with the hinge to the front. Another sight
line is drawn on the top board. This line is drawn at a right angle to the hinge line. The point of the drill
should be immediately above the sight line. The angle of the upper board is set by supporting it with a
block of wood of an appropriate size (see diagram below). When a hole is drilled the sight line on the
seat is lined up with the sight line on the board. The angle of the top board can be set with the aid of a
proprietary device or with a custom made widget. I use the latter.
A jig for boring holes on the drill press
Drilling on the lathe

When the holes are to be drilled on the lathe a jig will be required to hold the seat in the required
position. This jig will have to slide along the bed of the lathe and be pushed on to the drill by the
tailstock (see diagram). When drilling the sight lines should be vertical (if the jig is properly centred and
the hole positions accurately marked this will happen automatically).
A jig for boring holes on the lathe
Assembly
A dry run of the assembly should be made before the legs are glued in. The assembly is place on a
surface which is known to be flat, such as a piece of veneered chipboard. If it is found that the lengths of
the legs need adjusting this should be done by taking the necessary amount off of the top of the spigot of
the relevant legs.
Some sources of further information

Ivan Sparkes, The English Country Chair, Spur Books
Ivan Sparkes, English Windsor Chairs, Shire Books
Vic Taylor, Making Chairs, Argus Books
Jack Hill, Country Chair Making, David and Charles

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http://www.turningtools.co.uk/projects/mugtree/mug-roll-holder.html
Home
Roll holders and mug trees
Roll holders and mug trees make good projects for beginners to practise their tool
skills on. Making matching columns for a pair of items, and the pegs for a mug tree,
are particularly good exercises.
Note that the two rows of pegs on the mug tree are staggered. Access to a pillar drill to
drill the holes for the pegs will be necessary.
Plan for mug tree
Plan for roll holder
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http://www.turningtools.co.uk/coffee mills/coffeemill.html
Home
Coffee mills
Rummaging through my papers the other day I came across an article
on coffee mills which I wrote 17 years ago. I thought this might still
have some interest today so I decided to resurrect it. The article
covered two designs which looked identical from the outside (see
photo opposite) but were actually somewhat different.
(1) On one of them the mill was mounted on a base which was
hollowed out so that it would stand over a small dish.
(2) The other was made in the form of a box.
The first design is the easiest to make but I liked the design in the
form of a box best. I found they sold well at craft fairs.
Continue to article
Click for a larger image
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Introduction To Woodturning
The contents pages and chapters in pdf format
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conditions of use.
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obtained from www.adobe.com/acrobat
Click on the relevant button below to acquire the pdf file. There will
be a delay whilst Acrobat Reader is accessed and the file is
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Contents
Chapter 5: Safety
Chapter 9: Setting up for practice
Chapter 10: Roughing down
Chapter 11: The planing cut
Chapter 15: Spindle turning - the final cuts
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Woodturning projects - PDF files
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Projects and other articles

in PDF format
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Failure to read this notice does not exempt the user from the
conditions of use.
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obtained from www.adobe.com/acrobat
Click on the relevant button below to acquire the pdf file. There will
be a delay whilst Acrobat Reader is accessed and the file is
downloaded. You may prefer to download the larger files direct to a
folder on your hard disk (rather than into Adobe Acrobat in the
browser). In Internet Explorer the file can be downloaded directly
into the hard disk by right clicking on the button. (In IE 5.5 choose
'Save Target As ..). File sizes are given in brackets.
How dry is my wood? (36KB)
Creative woodturning (21KB)
Natural edge goblets (145 KB)
A Mirror (200 KB)
A Simple Box (47 KB)
A Baby's Rattle (28 KB)
Wind chimes (33 KB)
A Windsor Stool (156 KB)
A Sharpening System (458 KB)
Coffee mills (505 KB)
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Last modified: February 2002
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The Importance of Trees
Trees, wood and people

The following text is a summary of a 5,750 word document which examines
the issues in considerably more detail.
Introduction
Since they evolved trees have had a great influence on the shaping of the ecology of our planet and in
determining the present arrangements of life on earth. Of particular importance for us has been the role
of trees in the evolution of mankind and the development of human cultures and communities.
The origins of man

Some 65 million years ago, just after the demise of the dinosaurs, a small rat-like species of mammal
(now known as a prosimian) left the ground and took to life in the trees. Eventually after 50 million
years had passed, this creature returned to the ground as the ancestor of man.
The period spent in the environment of the trees was of great formative importance because it promoted
many physical changes. These changes included a massive increase in body size, the development of
paws into hands and 3D colour vision. The physical changes were mapped by an increase in the size and
the capability of the brain. Thus prosimian developed into simian.
The increase in stature led to changes in posture which enabled some simians to stand upright.
Eventually one of these species was able to walk on two legs.
It was these changes which led to the descent from the trees and eventually to homo sapiens. So it can be
seen that without trees the evolution of prosimian into man would never have taken place. Without trees
we would not be here.
The development of human civilization

The development of civilization has been dependent on wood based technologies. Where would we be
without such aspects of our culture as fire, agriculture, the wheel, the use of metals, spinning, weaving,
water and land based transport, building, and printing? Our technological culture could not have
developed without wood.
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The Importance of Trees
The wonder and the mystery

On many people trees exert a powerful emotional influence. To many of us a tree is a thing of spiritual
sustenance and renewal. The tree is the embodiment of mankind's condition: birth, life, death,
regeneration and rebirth. The rising sap is the spirit of life and seeds and fruit are the symbols of fertility.
The importance of trees

Trees are the largest and longest living organisms on earth. To grow tall the tree has become a miracle of
engineering and a complex chemical factory. It is able to take water and salts out of the earth and lift
them up to the leaves, sometimes over 400 ft above. By means of photosynthesis the leaves combine the
water and salts with carbon dioxide from the air to produce the nutrients which feed the tree. In this
process, as well as wood, trees create many chemicals, seeds and fruit of great utility to man. Trees also
remove carbon dioxide, the main greenhouse gas, from the air.
Trees are of continued importance to the environment. Tropical rain forests have of particular
significance; although they now occupy less than 6 per cent of the land surface of the earth they
probable sustain more than half of the biological species on the planet.
Notwithstanding the debt we owe to trees, their emotive power, and their importance to other forms of
life, the forested area of the earth is steadily being depleted. This is leading to the degradation of the
environment and the extinction of many species. There is now a real danger that in the not very distant
future man will destroy a large proportion of the present population of species on earth, create an
uninhabitable environment, and then die out himself. If this happens it will not be the first time that a
large proportion of the species on the earth have been extinguished.
Link to full document

http://www.turningtools.co.uk/trees/trees2.html (2 of 2)09-03-2006 19:11:37
Home
Frequently asked questions

From time to time I get an e-mail asking me for advice on some aspect of woodturning. I try
to answer these as best I can. It has occurred to me that where these answers are of general
interest it would be an idea to put them on a faqs page.
If you have a question e-mail me and I will try to help.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Seasoning wood for turning

Vibration on the lathe
Is it necessary to cut the corners off a blank before turning between centres?
What wood would you use for a baby's rattle?
Problems making a mini-scraper
Visualising how natural edge vases are made.
Bevel angles
Sharpening
FAQ 1
Question
I've just had to cut down a Laburnum and a Cherry and am thinking about seasoning the wood
for turning; any hints or tips?
Answer
This is quite a big subject, but I will try to boil it down. Timber shrinks most around the
annual rings; so when it is drying in the log form something has to give. In a section of any size,
ie over several inches in diameter, one or more 'V' shaped splits often open up. If you want to
reduce the splitting the best thing to do is to split the log longitudinally down the centre. Very
often I don't bother to split it - as wood in this form should be free, ie a gift (I wouldn't normally
buy it in this form) I just take my chance that something will be worth salvaging eventually.
When you use wood in this form you must expect some failures, ie splitting or warping after the
piece has been turned. It's worth noting that turner's often have these kinds of problems with
wood bought from the timber merchants.
The most important thing when storing your logs is to keep them cool. They must be kept in
the shade in the summer in a well ventilated place. Keep the sections of log as long as you can
subject to convenient handling and storage. The reason for this is that the ends of timber in the
round will probably split at the ends even if they are coated with something to slow down the
evaporation.
You may find that having taken these precautions even the thinner branches may split - I find
that some do and some don't - even when they are from the same tree. I don't believe it's possible
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to predict what will happen with any certainty.

Another question: how long does it take to dry? It is often stated that 1 year of drying should
be allowed for each inch in thickness, ie if the board is 3 inches thick then it should be allowed to
dry for 3 years. This is only a very crude rule of thumb - much depends on factors such as the
species and the storage conditions. As far as logs or limb wood are concerned it is no help at all it depends on what you want to use it for and the time of the year. As a rough guide small
branches a few inches across may be dry enough for some purposes after, say, six months in the
warmer part of the year. Sections larger than 6 inches or so may never get really dry.
Top
FAQ 2
Question
Sometimes when I am turning a piece I get a lot of vibration. What is the cause of this and is
there anything I can do about it?
Answer
First check the headstock bearings (and the tailstock revolving centre) to make sure there is no
play. They should revolve freely but there should be no sideways movement. Assuming there is
no problem with the bearings the following points may be considered.
No piece of wood is perfectly homogenous and even when it is turned down to the round a
workpiece may be out of balance, ie heavier on one side. If the workpiece is large in relation to
the lathe this can cause the lathe to shake. This is most likely to happen with bowls but it can also
occur with spindle turning.
The most obvious immediate remedy is to run the lathe at a slower speed. If the lathe shakes at
the slowest speed available there are two possible tactics. The first is to add weight to the lathe
stand using materials such as bricks or sandbags. The second possible solution is to add some
counter-balancing weights. A bowl blank, for example could be attached to a large disk - lead
weights are then fixed to the disk and adjusted until a reasonable balance is achieved. I have used
this method successfully.
In the longer term it might be a good idea to beef up the lathe stand and add some extra weight
permanently. One way of doing this is to build in a trough which can be filled with bricks or
sand. Sand is best because it has a higher damping effect on vibration.
Top
FAQ 3
Question
Is it necessary to cut the corners off a blank before turning between centres?
Answer
Not usually. Peter Child once said "there is a machine to do this., it is called a lathe" (or words to
that effect). The real question is which is the quickest - to set a saw up to do the job or do it on
the lathe?
There are circumstances in which I think it might be desirable to saw the corners off of a spindle
turning blank. One is where the blank is very large in relation to the lathe and might cause
vibration. In this case any reduction in weight might be beneficial. (See also FAQ 2 above.)
Another is where a batch of items are to be turned. In this case the time taken to set up the saw
can be spread over a number of items.
Top
FAQ 4 Question
What wood would you use for a baby's rattle?
Answer
I have always used ash for my rattles but I must say that I have not actually made a great many. I
made them for sale for a while but then decided that, with the kind of litigious climate we have
today, it was not worth taking any kind of risk. Having said that I would be quite happy to give
one to a grandchild (were I ever to have one). But note should be taken of what I have to say
about finishes at the end of my article.
Back to wood: I think ash, sycamore, beech, holly or any of the fruit woods should be OK; but
the best of these English woods may be beech because it splinters less than any other. I wouldn't
wish to take any chances with exotic woods. It seems that all the information regarding toxicity is
about the effects of dust. I have never seen any information about the toxicity of wood when it is
ingested, so it's an unknown area. Whichever wood is used I would rely on the good sense of the
parents to take one of these rattles away from a child if there was any sign that it was chewing the
wood away. I have never had any feedback from users at all, so I don't know if it is an issue or
not.
I have always had great fun making these rattles and I feel that they are very attractive objects in
themselves - like little sculptures. So making them can be its own reward. When I used to have
them on my stall at craft fairs people used to pick them up and examine them carefully looking
for the joins! The last one I made was as a demonstration at our turning club a few months ago.
Top
FAQ 5
Question
I have made your baby`s rattle with which I am quite pleased , but the mini scraper I made from a
masonry nail didn`t work very well. I made the handle and glued the masonry nail in and then
ground the head but I don`t think I got it right.Is there any chance of a diagram or photo of how it
should look when correct.
Answer
Figure 1 (above) shows three views of a mini-scraper for cutting the left-hand side of a ring.
Figure 2 shows a small photograph. The head of the nail is ground as shown.
Top
FAQ 6
Question
I am having trouble visualising how some of the natural edge vases in your gallery are made. Can
you help me?
Answer
The photograph above shows one of my natural edge vases. The photograph below shows the
piece of log left after I cut off the material for this vase.
The image on the right (in the above photo) is the view looking straight down on the log. The
cross in the middle of the circle is where I place my lathe centre. The points on the wood which
touch the circle will be the highest points on the turning, the places where the wood is furthest
from the circle will be the lowest points. To find the right place to put my centres I made a
polycarbonate (perspex) disk which has a series of circles scribed on it. There is a small hole in
the middle. I lay this over the end of the log so that one of the circles touches in as many places
as possible and then mark the centre.
So, with the centre positioned as shown, the points A, B, and C will be peaks (high points). The
places which I have marked valley will be low points. The one on the right will be the lowest
because the edge of the log at that point is furthest from the circle (or, closest to the centre). Point
D will form a minor peak because the wood on either side is farther from the circle. It will be
lower than A, B, and C.
How deep the minor peaks and the valleys are depends on: (a) the degree of irregularity in the
outline of the log; and (b) on the slope of the side of the vase. In practice, when the piece is
mounted on the lathe, the imaginary circle is described by the point on the rim which is furthest
from the centre point. I always try to get as many points as possible on the circle as I can but I
don't always get it right. So I may end up with one point higher than all the others.
I always mount the piece between centres to start with. I rough turn the bottom end and then turn
a spigot on it to fit my chuck. One way of gaining an appreciation of how the shape comes out,
without doing all the hollowing, is to mount an irregular shaped log between centres and turn the
outside shape. When doing this you will see the peaks and valleys forming.
Top
FAQ 7
Question
I have just begun turning and am at my wits end on the angles to sharpen my tools. If you can
spare a few minutes and give me some starting angles on the basic tools I would be grateful.
Answer I am assuming that by the angle to sharpen your tools you mean what I call the 'bevel
angle'. How the bevel angle is measured on differrent tools is illustrated in the diagram below.
The bevel itself is labelled in diagram.
In my opinion the bevel angle is not as important as many people seem to think. I have seen
anything from 25 to 45 degrees recommended for chisels. Anything in that range will cut
effectively. I sharpen mine at around 40 degrees. Similar considerations apply to bowl gouges.
Again for normal use I sharpen mine at around 40 degrees. When I want to keep the bevel
rubbing in the bottom of a deep bowl I use a gouge sharpened to 55 degrees. It still cuts but not as
well. The bevel angle on spindle gouges can be smaller than on bowl gouges - say 35 degrees.
The bevel angle on scrapers is not important. I grind mine at 55 to 60 degrees.
What is extremely important on chisels and gouges is the shape of the bevel. It must be
either flat or hollow ground. (Note: this does not apply to scrapers.)
There is some controversy about how tools should sharpened - in particular about what the grit
size should be on the grinding wheel and whether the bevel should be honed. I use a 60 grit wheel
and normally I do not hone. Sometimes I use a slip stone in the flute of a gouge to take the burr
off the top of the edge. Some pundits pour scorn on this method of sharpening - but it works well
enough for me (see my galleries).
Top
FAQ 8
Question
I purchased a cheap lathe a few years ago, along with some decent quality tools and
made pens, and some small trinkets to amuse myself. All I had to teach myself was
whatever books I could get my hands on, and from there it was pass and fail as I felt I
slowly improved. Then I found your videos and they hepled tremendously. Now, one of
my main concerns is how to keep an ultra sharp edge on my tools. Is it possible to do
without getting into expensive equipment?
Answer
It really isn't necessary to spend a lot of money on equipment for sharpening. A cheap
grinder with good quality wheels is sufficient. There are instructions on how to make a
jig elsewhere on this web-site but I think it worth trying to learn how to do most of one's
sharpening freehand. I taught myself how to do this when I first started turning and I
find it saves a lot of time. The only thing I need a jig for is the Ellsworth type of grind.
For high speed steel tools I use a 60 grit 'white wheel' (ie, aluminium oxide). For a
conventional gouge shape I put the heel of the bevel on the wheel first and then raise the
handle until the sparks just come over the cutting edge and then rotate the handle.
Remember the bevel must be either flat or concave (see FAQ 7 above). It is true that
many beginners find freehand sharpening difficult - but it should be accepted that it is a
skill which needs practice.
You may wonder why I made a jig if I don't need to use it! The answer is that when I
was teaching I found students were spending a lot of money on elaborate and expensive
commercial jigs - so I designed my jig for them.
I have looked at sharpening in a lot more detail in my 'Introduction To Woodturning'.
Top
Home
Brian Clifford (April 2001) Last amended February 2005
The Woodturner's Workshop - updates to pages
Home
Table of updates
27 January 2006
"Coffee mills" added to projects
12 December 2005
Document on "Copyright" added
6 October 2005
Document on "Marketing Other Woodturning Skills" added
7 July 2005
A warning regarding the size of babies' rattles added to article
13 February 2005
Document on "Marketing Woodturning Skills" added
7 February 2005
FAQ re:Sharpening added
11 January 2004
Project for roll holders and mug trees added
6 December 2003
FAQ re: Bevel angles added
2 November 2003
"Gallery - Composite hollow forms" added
2 November 2003
"My workshop" added
21 January 2003
FAQ re: natural edge vases added
19 January 2003
On-line shop for Ashley Iles tools added
6 January 2003
Video clip (cutting a pummel) added
13 October 2002
Gallery - Natural edge vases added
24 April 2002
The text of the project 'A baby's rattle' has been altered to make it clear that
nut oils must not be used as a finish. Many people are allergic to nuts and
can go into shock if they get any nut related products on, or in, their bodies.
2 March 2002
More video clips added
18 January 2002
Video clips added
16 November 2001
Accessories - A sanding disc - a new page added
16 November 2001
Accessories - A polishing mop - a new page added
2 October 2001
1 Gallery - Bowls & Natural edge goblets - images changed
9 September 2001
Project on clocks added.
9 September 2001
Gallery - Clocks added
4 September 2001
New page added: What people say about this site.
30 July 2001
Gallery - Bowls - images changed
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The Woodturner's Workshop - updates to pages
24 July 2001
Links page - some links added
24 July 2001
Gallery - Sculptural pieces - some images added
21 July 2001
Gallery - Natural edge goblets page revised with some new images
16 July 2001
PDF file added for A Windsor Stool A (PDF files/Projects etc)
15 July 2001
Links added
15 July 2001
Modification to information about this site regarding the target audience
http://www.turningtools.co.uk/updates/updates.html (2 of 2)09-03-2006 19:11:47
What people say
Home
What people say

From time to time I am heartened to receive appreciative emails about this site.
These help to reassure me that I am not wasting my time. Here are a few extracts:
*****
I am a new turner. Not having any previous experience with a lathe, I looked to
the usual sources of instruction, mainly books. Although I have gained knowledge
by studying the books, they lack an effective way to teach technique. I discovered
the Woodturner's Workshop where you have graciously provided "Introduction to
Woodturning". Those chapters have been a great help to me. It's probably the next
best thing to having an accomplished turner provide real time instruction.
(D.R. - Maui - August 2001)
*****
Thank you very much for the book on your website. I read lots of books before I
got a lathe, and I've been following several of them to master the techniques, but
none of them is as clear as yours.
(J.B. - New Zealand - January 2001)
*****
Your site does so much to explain and demystify the woodturning business - we
refer all our newbie members to it.
(J.M. - June 2001)
*****
Visited your web site today, I was impressed. I can see where you have spent a lot
of time and energy researching and compiling all this information into an
interesting and very useful site.
(J.B. - May 2001)
*****
Just to say I think your web site is extremely good. I first saw it mentioned in this
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What people say
months Woodturning magazine. I am most impressed it tells the right level of

information and in a form that can easily be printed off for later reading. Please
keep this site going it is one of the best I have come across for a long time.
(D.W. - May 2001)
*****
Thank you for your excellent site. I wanted to thank you for taking the time and
effort in compiling this wealth of information for other turners.
(H.B. - March 2001
*****
I just wanted to thank you for sharing your knowledge and experience in
woodturning with the rest of us. Your website is very informative and a pleasure
to visit.
(D.W. - USA - March 2001
*****
Its not often that I feel it necessary to write - but having just visited your website
again I feel I must. I have found it a most useful reference for me starting off as I
am in the woodturning game. You have quite simply put a lot of work into
producing a straight forward and well organised site.
(R.N. - March 2001)
*****
I stumbled onto your web site and reckon it is one of the best site yet on the topic
of woodturning. I am a retired trade teacher (25 years Carpentry and Joinery) and
have enjoyed woodturning for about 45 years, including teaching it.
(J.M. - Australia - December 2000)
*****
Enjoyed your manual on woodturning very much. You have explained the basics
of turning at a level that is very easy to understand for us beginners. Most books
never seem get to down to the user level in a manner that is useful or productive to
one new at turning. I've practiced the exercises and have found them to be very
helpful to me.
(D.F. - June 2001)
What people say
*****
I got your site address in a french turning magazine ("Cahiers techniques du
tournage"). I started turning a year ago now, and browsing in turning sites and
newsgroup few months ago. It's really a great site, which is very different from
what I've seen before. I especially appreciated the "introduction to woodturning",
as well as the video clips. Great idea for beginners: I've given your URL to friends
I've recently introduced to woodturning.
P. O. - Grenoble, France - August 2002
*****
A most delightful experience. It almost makes me want to use that treacherous
beading tool again.
Where were you 25 years ago when I first started turning? I could have used
EVERYTHING on your site then.
Thank you
A. C. - New Jersey - June 2003
*****
Wow What a site!! Thank you for providing me with so much information, in
plain language and clearly presented. Your website is a joy to behold and surf, and
as someone who knows a huge amount more about IT than Woodturning I
congratulate you. Your projects have inspired and encouraged me to look at
turning in a more 'creative' light and also to consider other things than bowls from
mail order blanks.
T. G-C. - Dorset UK January 2004
*****
I stumbled onto your site and I have learned more from my brief stay here than I
have learned from several rather expensive books on the subject. I am a beginner
at wood turning and it seems that everything written is aimed at the more
experienced turner. Your site is exactly what I needed..... I will be returning to
your site again and will recommend it to anyone I know who is interested in wood
turning.
E. S. - Pennsylvania, USA - February 2005
*****
I have been on many web sites for woodwork and turning. But your site is the best
I have ever seen. Thank you very much you are now my first stop for me when I
What people say
need information.
D. H. - UK - May 2005
Home
Links to other sites

Return to home page
___________________________________________________
Some links to other sites

Woodturning by Marshall Gorrow - Galleries and loads of links
Alan Green - More resources and links for woodturners
Richard Stapley (Laymar Crafts) - a really useful site
James Barley - Pleasure from turning
Kestrel Creek Gallery - A super site
Wood Resources - a massive compendium of links to all kinds of woodworking
Signs of Wood - Lots of links to many crafts, including woodturning
Jim Brown - Nottinghamshire Woodentops
Larry Hancock - Turned Treasures
Bob Pritchard - Out Of Control Woodturning
Steve Tiedman - Making Square Wood Round
Ruth Niles: Carpe Lignum - Torne Lignum
(the home of the international woodturner's logo)
Julie Heryet - Galleries with a varied collection of work
"The Debs" - Two ladies addicted to turning
Barbara Gill - A multi-talented lady turner who operates her own sawmill
Chris Wright - The Woodturners Resource the name says it all
Steve Barret - Stickmaker
Mike Swain Creative Woodturner
Don White take lessons with a master woodturner
Jack de Vos - a fine woodturner from Australia
Peter Charles Fagg - Peter's Platters
Mario Cliche - "Artisan tourneur" (Canada)
Woodturning Design magazine
Signs Of Wood
Stuart King - Artist craftsman in wood
Robin Wood - unique pole-lathe bowl turner
Woodworkers Auction
Something a bit different: stone turning
Some reciprocal links to European turners

La Tornitura Del Legno
An Italian woodturning site created by Alessandro Riva
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Tournage Sur Bois

A French site by Jean-Christophe Brochard
Tournage Sur Bois
A French site by Jean Claude
Jespers sider om tr og trdrejning
A Danish site created by Jesper Bay
Oyvind Riise's Woodturning Home Page
Oyvind lives in Lillehammer, Norway
Tournage Sur Bois
Another French site - this one is for Pascal and Aurelie
National Associations
The Association of Woodturners of Great Britain
The American Association of Woodturners
National Association of Woodturners of New Zealand
Irish Woodturners Guild
Canadian Woodturners, Association
Association of Woodturners of South Africa
AFTAB - the French Association of art-turning on wood (English version)
Clubs in England
Lincolnshire Association of Woodturners
Avon and Bristol Woodturners
Berkshire Woodturning Association
Chelmer Valley Woodturners
The Cornwall Association of Woodturners
East Surry Woodturners
Forest of Bere Woodturners
Hampshire Woodturners Association
Middlesex Woodturners Association
Northern Federation of Woodturning Clubs
Suffolk, Essex & Camb's Borders Woodturning Society
Surrey Association of Woodturners
West Midlands Woodturners
Wolds Woodturners Association
Clubs world wide

Fraser Valley Woodturners' Guild (Canada)
Valley Woodturners, Ottawa, Ontario (Canada).
Woodturners' Guild of Ontario(Canada)

Arizona Woodturners Association (USA)
Bay Area Woodturners Association (USA)
Central New England Woodturners (USA)
Coulee Region woodturners (USA)
Grey-Bruce Woodturners Guild (USA)
Gwinnett Woodworkers Association (USA)
Gwinnett Woodturners Association (USA)
Mid-South Woodturner's Guild (USA)
Ohio Valley Woodturners Guild (USA)
Rocky Mountain Woodturners (USA)
Southeast Georgia Woodworkers Guild (USA)
Triangle Woodturners of North Carolina (USA)
Peninsula Woodturners Guild (Australia)
Sydney Woodturners' Guild (Australia)
Western Cape Woodturners Association (South Africa)
Suppliers of tools
Ashley Iles - Woodturning and Woodcarving tools
Other
Alamo Woodworking
"The Shop You Have Always Wanted"!
Behemoth Woodturning Tools
Take the stress out of hollow turning.
Ask Tools
Woodturning, Routing and Carving. Window Industry Tooling specialists
_________________________________________________
Home page | About this site
Copyright notice
Visitors are invited to reproduce pages from this web site, in part or in full, subject to
the following conditions:
1. The information is not used for commercial purposes.
2. No changes are made to the text or images.
3. Both, the ownership of the copyright and the source (ie Brian Clifford at www.
a1studio.freeserve.co.uk) are clearly acknowledged.
Brian Clifford (April 2001, revised June 2002)
http://www.turningtools.co.uk/copyrite/copyrite.html09-03-2006 19:11:52
http://www.turningtools.co.uk/mysites/mysites.html
Web sites designed and created by Brian Clifford
Ashley Iles
Information for woodturners
Manufacturers of
Woodturning and Woodcarving tools
Woodhall Spa
Woodhall Spa Branch - RNLI
A popular tourist centre in Lincolnshire
Suppporting the Royal National Lifeboat Institution
Lincolnshire Association of Woodturners
http://www.turningtools.co.uk/mysites/mysites.html (1 of 2)09-03-2006 19:11:55
http://www.turningtools.co.uk/mysites/mysites.html
Brian at work on a site
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Curso de Torneria - Completo PDF

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Introduction to Woodturning

Some simple exercises in spindle turning

The gender issue

Chapter 11: Spindle turning - the planing cut

4.2 The type of wheel

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7.4 Cutting end grain

11.8 Spiral ribbing

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The Woodturner's Workshop

Learning to turn - introduction

About this site

General information relating directly to turning

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Learning to turn - introduction

The "Introduction To Woodturning" can now be downloaded in Portable

Learning to turn - introduction

Brian Clifford (July 1999)

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Home page | About this site

Brian Clifford (April 2001, revised June 2002)

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1.2 The learning curve

Diagram 1.1 The learning curve

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1.3 Developing skills

1.4 The basic principles

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The choice of the correct tools

1.5 The pleasure of woodturning

Brian Clifford (March 1999)

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The woodturning workshop

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The woodturning workshop

2.2 Moving equipment

2.3 A separate workshop

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The woodturning workshop

2.4 The electricity supply

2.5 The equipment

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The woodturning workshop

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The woodturning workshop

Brian Clifford (June 1999)

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Diagram 3.1 Attitude of scraper in use

Diagram 3.2 Some shapes for scrapers

Diagram 3.3 Bevels on chisels and scrapers

Diagram 3.4 Square and skewed edge chisels

(as in Diagram 3.5).

3.4 Parting tools

Diagram 3.6 Parting tools

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3.5 Bowl gouges

Diagram 3.7 Bowl gouges

Diagram 3.8 Measurement of size of HSS bowl gouge

3.6 Spindle gouges

Diagram 3.9 Shape of spindle gouge

3.7 Roughing-out gouges