Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
By
Hayder S. Hameed
Supervised by
Prof. Dr. J.H. Alwash
March 2014
Acknowledgement
First of all, I give my thanks forever to Allah Who Have Enabled me to
complete this work.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisors
Prof. Dr.J. H.Alwash and Dr.Hanan M.Habbi for their great help,
kind advice, guidance and encouragement during their supervision for this work.
I would like to thank my family who has given me support throughout my
academic years. Without them, I might not be the person I am today.
A special thanks to my wife for her kindness and support and without here
heartening I couldnt finish this work.
Also, I would like to thank the staff of the department of Electrical
Engineering of University of Baghdad for their assistance and support.
Finally ,I would like to acknowledge all kind people who help me to complete
this work .
Hayder Salim
ABSTRACT
Direct Torque Control (DTC) is a control technique used in AC drive systems
to obtain high performance torque control. The conventional DTC drive contains a
pair of hysteresis comparators, a flux and torque estimator and a voltage vector
selection table. The torque and flux are controlled simultaneously by applying
suitable voltage vectors, and by limiting these quantities within their hysteresis
bands, de-coupled control of torque and flux can be achieved. Conventional DTC
drives utilizing hysteresis comparators suffer from high torque ripple and variable
switching frequency.
Several techniques have been developed to improve the torque performance.
In this thesis, Proportional-Integral (PI) controller has been presented to improve
the system performance which gives better torque and flux response and also
reduces the undesirable torque ripple. The most common solution to high torque
ripple and variable switching frequency is to use the space vector pulse width
modulation (SV-PWM) that depends on the reference torque and flux. The
reference voltage vector is then realized by using a voltage vector modulator.
The conventional DTC and DTC with PI controller are implemented using
Xilinx System Generator (XSG) for MATLAB/Simulink environment through
Xilinx blocksets. The design was achieved in VHDL, based on a
MATLAB/Simulink simulation model.
The Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) method is used to verify the functionality
of the Xilinx FPGA estimator. The results are obtained and compared with
MATLAB/ Simulink results considering the implementation of the proposed model
on the Xilinx NEXYS2 Spartan 3E1200 FG320 Kit.
The simulations of the DTC-SVPWM
MATLAB/ Simulink simulation package.
were
carried
out
using
ii
List of Contents
List of Contents
Title
Page
Acknowledgements ........i
Abstract .........ii
List of Contents ...............iii
List of Abbreviations .....vi
List of Symbols ........vii
Generator
2.1 Introduction ......13
2.2 The Conventional DTC... .....14
2.3 DTC Development ... ........16
2.3.1 Mathematical Model of Induction Motor.........16
2.3.2 Flux and Torque Estimator.......21
2.3.3 Torque and Flux Hysteresis Comparator .........23
2.3.4 Lookup Table....26
2.3.5 Three-Phase Voltage Source Inverter(VS27
2.4 Modified DTC Scheme .29
2.5 Classic PI Controller......30
2.6 Direct Torque Control With Space Vector Modulation (DTC SVM)........31
iii
List of Contents
2.7 Principle of Space Vector PWM ..33
2.7.1 Step 1: Determining V d , V q , V ref , and Angle () ..36
2.7.2 Step 2: Determining Time Duration T1, T2, T0 .38
2.7.3
Step
Determining
the
Switching
Time
of
Each
Transistor(S1toS6) ..39
2.8 Types of Different Schemes .40
2.9 Field Programmable Gate Array .44
2.10 Hardware in the Loop 44
2.11 Usage of Xilinx System Generator in the Controller Design 44
2.12 System Modeling Using the Xilinx System Generator ..45
2.14 Integration in Xilinx Environment .46
List of Contents
3.5.6 Switching Table Using Xilinx Mcode Block ...61
3.6 Modified DTC Scheme using Xilinx/SIMULINK ...62
3.7 Hardware/Software Co-Simulation ..63
3.8 Experiment Setup and Instrumentation.66
3.9 Simulation Results for Conventional DTC....67
3.10 Simulation Results of DTC with Conventional PI Controller 71
3.11 Simulation Results of DTC-SVM ..73
3.12 Simulation Results for CDTC Using Hardware/Software
Co-Simulation
List of Abbreviations
List of Abbreviations
Abbreviation
Description
AC
Alternating Current
CLB
DC
Direct Current
DSP
DTC
EV
Electric Vehicle
FL
Fuzzy Logic
FOC
FPGA
HDL
HIL
IM
Induction Motor
JTAG
LUT
Look Up Table
mmf
MOSFET
PI
Proportional-Integral
PID
Proportional-Integral-Derivative
PWM
SPWM
SVM
SVPWM
THD
VHDL
vi
List of Symbols
List of Symbols
Symbol
d,q
Description
Rotating reference frame axes
d s ,q s
ia ,ib ,ic
i qs , i ds
i qr , i dr
Kp
Proportional Gain
Ki
Integral gain
Lm
Mutual inductance
Lr
Ls
Modulation index
Number of Poles
Rr
Rotor resistance( )
Rs
Stator Resistance ()
Stator variable
T1, T2, To
Te
TL
Ts
V a ,V b ,V c
1T
vii
List of Symbols
Symbol
V dc
Description
Supplied DC Voltage (V)
V o .V 7
v qs , v ds
v qr , v dr
Xs
Stator reactance ( )
Xr
Rotor reactance ( )
Xm
Magnetizing reactance ( )
dr
qr
ds
qs
Rotor angle(deg)
sr
viii
Chapter One
Chapter One
Introduction and Literature Survey
1.1 General Introduction
U
Chapter One
speed
drive
high
efficiency and high reliability [5]. The effective way of producing variable
induction motor speed drive is to supply the induction motor with three phase
voltages of variable frequency and variable amplitude. A variable frequency is
required because the rotor speed depends on the speed of the rotating magnetic
field provided by the stator. A variable voltage is required because the motor
impedance is reduced at the low frequencies and consequently , the current has to
be limited by means of reducing the supply voltages. A variable-frequency drive
(VFD) is a specific type of adjustable-speed drive .
The control of the speed is achieved by controlling the frequency of the
electrical power supplied to the motor drives. There are three major types of
variable frequency control techniques of IM: scalar control, vector control and
field acceleration method [6,7] as shown in Figure 1.1 .
2
Chapter One
Chapter One
FOC is based on maintaining the amplitude and the phase of the stator current
constants, avoiding electromagnetic transients. FOC involves controlling the stator
currents represented by vectors. FOC method is based on projections which
transform a three phase time and speed dependent system into a two co-ordinate
(d and q co-ordinates) time invariant system [12].
DTC main features are as follows:
Direct control of flux and torque by selecting the appropriate inverter state.
Indirect control of stator currents and voltages.
Approximately sinusoidal stator fluxes and stator currents.
High dynamic performance even at stand still.
The main advantages of DTC are:
Absence of co-ordinate transforms.
Absence of voltage modulator block, as well as other controllers such as PID for
motor flux and torque.
Minimal torque response time, even better than the vector controllers.
However, some disadvantages are also present such as:
Possible problems during starting.
Requirement of torque and flux estimators, implying the consequent parameters
identification.
Inherent torque and stator flux ripple.
One of the major applications of DTC is in the Electric Vehicle (EV); electric
vehicles are an important step towards solving the environmental problems
produced by cars with internal combustion engines. Another advantage of the EV
is its devoid of pollution and high energy efficiency. Indeed, an electric motor
4
Chapter One
provides very fast response and can be controlled in a much better way. Therefore,
EV has definite advantages over the Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) driven
vehicles. The input of the IM controller is the reference speed, which is applied by
the vehicle pedal [13].
DTC control technique in its basic construction suffers from two major
problems: 1) variable switching frequency and 2) high torque ripple
The conventional DTC algorithm using the hysteresis-based voltage switching
method has relative merits of simple structure and easy implementation. Some
drawbacks such as large torque ripple in the low speed region and switching
frequency variation according to the change of the motor parameters and the motor
speed are exhibited. If the hysteresis bands of the torque and flux comparators
become relatively wide for high power applications with the low inverter switching
frequency, the resulting torque ripples are enlarged to an undesired level [14] .
In conventional DTC, the voltage vector selection is based on the torque and flux
errors, but small and large errors are not distinguished by the hysteresis controllers.
The voltage vectors are applied for the entire sample period; even for small errors,
resulting large torque overshoots in steady-state regime [15] .
In steady state with constant load, the active switching state causes the torque
to continue to increase past its reference value until the end of the switching
period. Then a zero voltage vector is applied for the next switching period causing
the torque to continue to decrease below its reference value until the end of the
switching period. That results in high torque ripple as shown in Figure 1.2 [16] .
Chapter One
implementation
or
sensors,
the
torque overshoot
and
The positive
slope is high at low speed, which will increase the possibility of the torque
touching the upper band. In Figure 1.3(b), fixed switching is employed but
with the whole sampling period applied with a single voltage vector. This
technique will result in a high torque ripple with all additional torque
oscillation [17,18] .
Chapter One
Chapter One
Induction Motors (IM) fed with a three-level Voltage Source Inverter (VSI). This
type of inverter has several advantages over the standard two-level VSI, such as a
greater number of levels in the output voltage waveforms, lower dV/dt, less
harmonic distortion in voltage and current waveforms and lower switching
frequencies. In the new controller, torque and stator flux errors are used together
with the stator flux angular frequency to generate a reference voltage vector.
Ismail, 2005 [7] studied, evaluated and compared the various techniques of the
DTC-SVM applied to the induction machines through simulations. The simulations
were carried out using MATLAB/SIMULINK simulation package. Evaluation was
made based on the drive performance, which includes dynamic torque and flux
responses, feasibility and the complexity of the system.
Paturca, et al, 2006 [15] presented a simple solution, which consists in the
modulation of the nonzero voltage vector duration over a sampling period,
according to the instant values of the torque and stator flux errors. The introduced
duty ratio is calculated using a relation containing terms proportional to these
errors. The presented results show the torque, flux and current ripple reduction
obtained by using the proposed method. Its main advantage is that it requires an
insignificant additional computation, preserving the simplicity of the conventional
DTC.
Kostic, et al, 2009 [21] presented different direct torque and flux control of
induction motor schemes (DTC). Classical DTC method, its modifications for
torque and flux ripple reduction, as well as modified DTC method with PI
controllers (PI-DTC) based on space vector modulation (SVPWM) are considered.
For each method, theoretical principles and experimental results, at laboratory
condition using dSPACE development tool realized, are presented.
8
Chapter One
Chapter One
of
many
mathematical
operations concerning
control
and
Chapter One
Sekhar , and Chandra, 2013 [31] presented a fuzzy logic duty ratio control
(FLDRC) and Space Vector Modulation (SVM) techniques to reduce torque ripple
in conventional DTC using a versatile simulation package, MATLAB/SIMULINK.
Sutikno, et al, 2013 [32] presented a novel direct torque control (DTC) approach
for induction machines, based on an improved torque and stator flux estimator and
its implementation using field-programmable gate arrays (FPGA). The DTC
performance is significantly improved by the use of FPGA, which can execute the
DTC algorithm at higher sampling frequency. The design was achieved in VHDL,
based on a MATLAB/Simulink simulation model. The Hardware-in-the-Loop
method is used to verify the functionality of the FPGA estimator. The design,
which was coded in synthesizable VHDL code for implementation on Altera
APEX20K200EFC484-2x device.
The presented work differs from the foregoing survey by the following:
1) The IM model, CDTC, and DTC- PI controller are designed with
MATLAB/ Simulink environment using m-file blocks which will make the
system design simple when implemented with Xilinx/Simulink because it
does not need to write the code in VHDL language.
2) The Hardware-in-the-Loop method is used to verify the whole system of
DTC algorithm without writing
11
Chapter One
12
Chapter Two
Chapter Two
Chapter Two
code.
In
The structure of the conventional DTC was shown in Figure 2.1 which
consists of two hysteresis comparator, torque and flux estimators, voltage vector
selector and voltage source inverter (VSI) [29].In this method, the best voltage
vector should be chosen to maintain the stator flux and torque within a hysteresis
band around the proper flux and torque magnitudes by the selection of proper
inverter switching state. The hysteresis band is used to control the flux
14
Chapter Two
and torque of the motor directly. So the drive system affected by the range of
hysteresis band control [14].
Torque hysteresis
Te* +
Vdc
ETe
Look up
Sa
Sb
Table
2HBT
Sc
VSI
Flux hysteresis
s*
S(K)
+
-
2HB
Te
ia,ib
Sector, Flux
and Torque
Estimators
V_abc
IM
Figure 2.1: Block diagram of conventional DTC
The configuration is much simpler than the vector control system due to the
absence of coordinate transforms between stationary frame and synchronous
frame and PI regulators. It also does not need a PWM and position encoder,
which introduces delay and requires mechanical transducers respectively [4,34].
DTC based drives are controlled in the manner of a closed loop system without
using the current regulation loop.
15
Chapter Two
Chapter Two
17
Chapter Two
vds = R s ids +
dqs
dt
dds
dt
+ e ds
(2.1)
e qs
(2.2)
vdr = R r idr +
dqr
dt
ddr
dt
+ ( )dr
(2.3)
(e r )qr
(2.4)
The flux linkage expressions in terms of the currents can be written from figure 2.4
as follows:
qs = Ls iqs + Lm iqs + iqr
(2.5)
qm = Lm (iqs + iqr )
(2.7)
(2.6)
(2.8)
(2.9)
dm = Lm (ids + idr )
(2.10)
Using the two-axis notation and the matrix form, the voltage equations can be
represented by[9]:
R s + pLs
vqs
e Ls
vds
v =
pLm
qr
vdr
(e r )Lm
e Ls
R s + pLs
(e r )Lm
pLm
pLm
e Lm
R r + pLr
(e r )Lr
18
iqs
e Lm
pLm
ids
(e r )Lr iqr
R r + pLr idr
(2.11)
Chapter Two
The arbitrary reference frame rotates with electrical angle velocity of rotor (r );
therefore, the electrical equation of the squirrel-cage induction motor becomes:
vqs
R s + pLs
vds
r Ls
v =
pLm
qr
vdr
0
r Ls
R s + pLs
0
pLm
pLm
r Lm
R r + pLr
0
iqs
r Lm
pLm
i
ds
0
iqr
R r + pLr idr
(2.12)
In order to have fast simulation, the above equation should be represented in state
space form with currents as state variables as in the following [39]:
p[ ] = [L ]1 ([] + r [ ])[ ] + [L ]1 []
(2.13)
Where,
Rs
0
[ R] =
0
0
Ls
0
[L] =
Lm
0
0
Lm
0
0
0
Ls
0
Lm
Lm
0
Lr
0
0
Lm
,
0
Lr
0
[ ] = Ls
0
0
Ls
0
0
0
Lm
0
0
0
0
Rs
0
0
0
0
Rr
0
0
0
0
Rr
Now the current equation of an induction motor in the two-axis stator reference
frame can be written as [40]:
19
Chapter Two
ids
L
s
i
qs = 0
=0
idr
Lm
iqr
0
0
Ls
0
Lm
0 1
Lm
0
Lr
Lm
0
Lr
0
Rs
vds
0
vqs
0
vdr
vqr
P
2 r Lm
P
2
0
Rs
r Lm
0
0
0
Rr
r Lr
2
0
0
ids
i
qs
P
r Lr idr
2
i
R r qr
(2.14)
(2.15)
The speed r cannot be normally treated as a constant .It can be related to the
torques as :
R
Te = TL + J
de
Where
dt
= TL +
dr
(2.16)
dt
d: direct axis
q: quadrature axis
s: stator variable
r: rotor variable
L s :stator inductance
R
L m :mutual inductance
R
L r :rotor inductance
R
20
Chapter Two
P: number of poles
J: moment of inertia
T e : electrical output torque
R
T L : load torque
R
The basic principle of the conventional DTC is to control the torque and the
modulus of the stator flux linkage directly by controlling the inverter switches
using the outputs of the hysteresis comparators and selecting the correct voltage
vector from the optimal switching table. Flux and torque estimators are used to
determine the actual value of torque and flux linkages. The VSI voltage vector
transformed to the d-q stationary reference frame.
The voltage across the stator coil can be expressed as follows [41]:
vqs = R s iqs + Ls
vds = R s ids + Ls
diqs
(2.17)
dt
dids
The terms Ls
dt
dids
dt
(2.18)
, Ls
diqs
dt
Chapter Two
vqs = R s iqs +
vds = R s ids +
dqs
(2.19)
dds
(2.20)
dt
dt
The estimate of the stator q and d axis flux linkages are an integral of the
stator EMF which can be written by solving (2.19) and (2.20) for (qs , ds ) to
give the following equations
qs = (vqs R s iqs )
(2.21)
ds = (vds R s ids )
(2.22)
s = qs 2 + ds 2
(2.23)
s = tan1 (
qs
ds
(2.24)
The developed electric torque is calculated from the estimated flux linkage
components and the measured stator currents in the two-axis stationary reference
frame.
P
(2.25)
According to (2.24), the stator flux angle is used to divide the electrical revolution
into six sectors denoted from Sec 1 to Sec 6 as shown in Figure 2.3.
R
22
Chapter Two
Degrees
In the DTC, there is no fixed switching frequency but the average switching
frequency is controlled with flux linkage and torque hysteresis bands. The
hysteresis bands are controlled by the reference switching frequency to achieve the
desired average value. In the DTC, there is no predetermined switching pattern
either, and the frequency component content of the voltages is not known
beforehand [24]. The IM stator voltage equation can be written by:
vs = R s is +
ds
(2.26)
dt
Where v s , i s , and
R
s = vs t
(2.27)
23
Chapter Two
controllable if a proper selection of the voltage vector is made. In Figure 2.3, the
stator flux plane is divided into six sectors where each one has a set of voltage
vectors.
H = 1
For
H = 1
For
H = 1
H = 0
H = 1
E + HB
(2.28)
E HB
For
(2.29)
ETe + HBTe
(2.30)
For
For
(2.31)
ETe HBTe
(2.32)
are the
acceptable predefined flux and torque errors and 2HB and 2HB Te are the total
R
hysteresis band width of the flux and the torque control [31].
24
Chapter Two
The flux error which is due to the difference between the estimated and
desired stator flux is fed to the 2level hysteresis comparator which in turn
produces the flux error status. The error signal is processed in a comparator. If the
actual flux is smaller than the reference value, the comparator output is at state 1 ,
or else it will be at state -1. The states for Flux are shown in Figure 2.4.
state
1
-1
Figure 2.4: Flux hysteresis states.
The instantaneous electromagnetic torque is a sinusoidal function of the
angle between the stator and rotor fluxes as given in the following equation:
Te =
3 P Lm s r
sin sr
2 2 Ls Lr
(2.33)
Chapter Two
Torque is controlled within its 3-level hysteresis band as shown in Figure 2.6
[41,18].
state
0
-1
Figure 2.6: Torque hysteresis states .
The stator flux angle in addition to the torque and flux hysteresis status are
used to determine the suitable stator flux sector in order to apply the correct
voltage vector to the induction motor operating under DTC. The selection of the
appropriate voltage vector is based on the switching table given in Table 2.1. The
input quantities are the stator flux sector and the outputs of the two hysteresis
comparators. [41].
The feedback flux and torque are calculated from the machine terminal
voltages and currents. The signal computation block also calculates the sector
number S(k) in which the flux vector s lies. There are six sectors each
angle
wide. The Look up table block in figure 3.1 receives the input signals H , H Te and
R
S(k) and generates the appropriate control voltage vector for the inverter by a look
up table, which is shown in Table 2.2.
26
Chapter Two
-1
H Te
S(1)
S(2)
S(3)
S(4)
S(5)
S(6)
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
V1
V0
V7
V0
V7
V0
V7
-1
V6
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V3
V4
V5
V6
V1
V2
V7
V0
V7
V0
V7
V0
-1
V5
V6
V1
V2
V3
V4
If the stator flux lies in sector k with the motor rotating in counter clockwise,
active voltage vector V S,k+l is used to increase both the stator flux and torque.
R
Voltage vector V S,k+2 is selected to increase the torque but decrease the stator flux.
R
The two zero voltage vectors (V S,7 and V S,8 ) are used to reduce the torque and at
R
the same time, freezes the stator flux. Reverse voltage vector V S,k-2 is used to
R
decrease the torque and flux in forward braking mode. Whereas V S,k.1 will reduce
R
The VSI synthesizes the voltage vectors commanded by the switching table.
In DTC, this is quite simple since no pulse width modulation is employed, the
output devices stay in the same state during the entire sample period.
27
Chapter Two
There are many topologies for the voltage source inverter used in DTC
control of induction motors that give high number of possible output voltage
vectors but the most common one is the six step inverter[8,42]. A six step voltage
inverter provides the variable frequency AC voltage input to the induction motor in
DTC method. The DC supply to the inverter is provided either by a DC source like
a battery, or a rectifier supplied from a three phase (or single phase) AC source.
The switching devices in the voltage source inverter bridge must be capable of
being turned off and on. The power metal-oxide semiconductor field effect
transistors (MOSFETs) are used because they have this ability and in addition they
offer high switching speed with enough power rating. Each MOSFET has an
inverse parallel-connected diode. This diode provides alternate path for the motor
current after the MOSFET is turned off [43,16].
Each leg of the inverter has two switches; one is connected to the high side
(+) of the DC link and the other is connected to the low side (-). Only one of the
two can be on at any instant. When the high side gate signal is on, the phase is
assigned the binary number 1, and assigned the binary number 0 when the low side
gate signal is on. Considering the combinations of status of phases a, b and c, the
inverter has eight switching modes (V a V b V c =000-111): two are zero voltage
R
vectors V 0 (000) and V 7 (111) where the motor terminals is short circuited and the
R
others are nonzero voltage vectors V 1 to V 6 . The waveforms of the branch voltage
R
28
Chapter Two
discrete values because every state has been changed after an interval of (60o) [44].
P
29
Chapter Two
scheme.
Figure 2.8.
Torque Hysteresis
Wr*
PI
Controller
Te*+
ETe
Look
up
Table
2H
Wr
Vdc
Sa
Sb
Sc
VSI
Flux hysteresis
s*
S(K)
ia,ib
2HB
Te
Sector, Flux
and Torque
Estimators
V_abc
IM
RP
and K i , which are responsible for the sensitivity of speed error and for the speed
R
30
Chapter Two
system in order to simulate a digital signal processor (DSP) drive system. Its block
diagram is shown in Figure 2.9, where T is the sampling time of the controller.
performance. High values of the PI gains are needed for speeding-up the motor and
for rapid load disturbance rejection. This results to an undesired overshoot of
motor speed. A solution is to use a variable gain PI speed controller. However, in
the case of using a variable gain PI speed controller, it is also necessary to know
the behavior of the motor during start up and during load disturbance rejection in
several operation points in order to determine the appropriate time functions for PI
gains. This method is also time-consuming and depends on the control system
philosophy every time [45].
31
Chapter Two
vector
with
high
sampling
frequency
different
switching can be possible. The reference voltage vector is then realized using a
voltage vector modulator. There are various types of direct torque control-space
vector modulation (DTC-SVM) schemes that have been proposed. Each scheme
will perform the different control technique but its aims are still similar, which are
to attain the constant switching frequency and to reduce the torque ripple. The
differences between various DTC-SVM are on how the reference voltage is
generated the reference voltage is then implemented using SVM. Space Vector
Modulation is used to define the inverter switching state or voltage vector positions
different from six standard positions [7,37].
The SVPWM has been widely used in three phase inverter control system
because it has a higher utility efficiency of DC-side voltage than the sine pulse
width modulation (SPWM). Although the SVPWM has many advantages, it is
difficult to implement. The most difficult factor is calculating the duty cycles for
each power switch, as well as determining the vector sector and pulse sequence in
each switching cycle. The duty cycle calculation for the three phase 2- level
inverter was presented in many papers, and the vector sequence can be determined
in many ways (for example, the center-aligned method, which can be easily
implemented in MCU platform) [46].
32
Chapter Two
q
SV PWM
33
Vdc
Vdc
d
Vdc
Sine PWM
Chapter Two
Figure 2.10: Locus comparison of maximum linear control voltage in Sine PWM
and SVPWM.
Vk
R
4. Find the time intervals T 1 and T 2 and T 0 based on T z , and the angle .
R
5. Determine the modulation times for the different switching states [47] .
To implement the space vector PWM, the voltage equations in the abc
reference frame can be transformed into the stationary dq reference frame that
consists of the horizontal (d) and vertical (q) axes as depicted in Figure 2.11.
q axis
b
a
d axis
Figure 2.11: The relationship of abc reference frame and stationary dq reference
frame.
From this figure, the relation between these two reference frames is shown as:
34
Chapter Two
fdq0 = K s fabc
(2.34)
1
1 2 2
2
3
T
T
3
Where, K s = 0
, fdq0=[fd fq f0] , fdq0=[fa fb fc] , and f denoted
3
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
2
either a voltage or a current variable.
P
result, six non-zero vectors and two zero vectors are possible. Six nonzero vectors
(V1- V6) shape the axes of a hexagonal as depicted in Figure 2.12,and feed electric
power to the load. The angle between any adjacent two non-zero vectors is 60
degrees.
q axis
V3 (010)
(1/3,1/3)
(2/3)Vdc
V2 (110)
(1/3,1/3)
2
Vref
V0 (000)
V4 (011)
(2/3,0)
V7 (111)
V1 (100)
(2/3,0)
6
5
1
( , 1/3)
3
1
( , 1/3)
3
V5 (001)
V6 (101)
d axis
Chapter Two
Meanwhile, two zero vectors (V0 and V7) are at the origin and apply zero
voltage to the load. The eight vectors are called the basic space vectors and are
denoted by V0, V1,V2, V3, V4, V5, V6, and V7. The same transformation can be
applied to the desired output voltage to get the desired reference voltage vector Vref
in the d-q plane. The objective of space vector PWM technique is to approximate
the reference voltage vector Vref using the eight switching patterns. One simple
method of approximation is to generate the average output of the inverter in a
small period; T is to be the same as that of Vref in the same period. Therefore, space
vector PWM can be implemented by the following steps:
Step 1. Determine Vd, Vq, Vref, and angle ()
Step 2. Determine time duration T1, T2, T0
Step 3. Determine the switching time of each transistor (S1to S6)
From Figure 2.13, the Vd, Vq, Vref, and angle () can be determined as
follows:
V = V V 60 V 60
(2.35)
V = 0 + V 30 V 30
(2.36)
= V V V
2
= V +
3
V
2
1
v
2
v =
3
q
0
2
3
2
3
V
2
1
van
2
vbn
3
vcn
2
(2.37)
ref | = V 2 + Vq 2
|V
(2.38)
36
Chapter Two
= tan1 = = 2 f ,
q axis
Vq
ref
a, d axis
Vd
Degrees
0 < 60o
37
Chapter Two
The duty cycle computation is done for each triangular sector formed by two
state vectors. The magnitude of each switching state vector is 2Vdc/3 and the
magnitude of a vector to the midpoint of the hexagon line from one vertex to
another is Vdc/3 .
From Figure 2.14, the switching time duration can be calculated as follows:
Switching time duration at sector 1
T
T1
T1 +T2
V2 + T Vo
0 Vref = 0 V1 + T
T +T
1
(2.39)
ref is
For sufficiently high switching frequency, the reference space vector V
assumed constant during one switching cycle. Taking into account that the states
V1 and V2 are constant, one finds (see Figure 2.14):
Vref T = V1 T1 + V2 T2
2
3
cos(/3)
2
1
ref | cos()
T1 V + T2 V
= T |V
3
sin(/3)
sin()
0
(2.40)
(2.41)
(where , 0 60o)
P
T1 = T
T2 = T
sin( )
(2.42)
sin()
(2.43)
sin( )
sin( )
T0 = T (T 1 + T2 ), where, T =
and =
38
ref |
|V
2
V
3
Chapter Two
T1 =
=
|Vref |
3 T
sin
V
3
ref |
3 T |V
sin
V
3
1
3
|Vref |
3 T
sin(
V
3
. cos .
3
1
|Vref |
3 T
sin
3
V
T2 =
=
ref |
1
3 T |V
.
V
3
sin
1
3
. cos
(2.44)
(2.45)
Chapter Two
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
V0 , [000]
V0 , [000]
0 , [000]
V
0 , [000]
V
V0 , [000]
V0 , [000]
2
V1 , [100]
V3 , [010]
3 , [010]
V
5 , [001]
V
V5 , [001]
V1 , [100]
Switching Segment
3
4
5
V2 , [110] V7 , [111] V2 , [110]
V2 , [110] V7 , [111] V2 , [110]
4 , [011] V
7 , [111] V
4 , [011]
V
4 , [011] V
7 , [111] V
4 , [011]
V
V6 , [101] V7 , [111] V6 , [101]
V6 , [101] V7 , [111] V6 , [101]
6
V1 , [100]
V3 , [010]
3 , [010]
V
5 , [001]
V
V5 , [001]
V1 , [100]
7
V0 , [000]
V0 , [000]
0 , [000]
V
0 , [000]
V
V0 , [000]
V0 , [000]
There are two modes of operation available for the PWM waveform:
symmetric and asymmetric PWM. The pulse of an asymmetric edge aligned signal
always has the same side aligned with one end of each PWM period. On the other
hand, the pulse of symmetric signals is always symmetric with respect to the center
of each PWM period. The symmetrical PWM signal is often preferred because it
has been shown to have the lowest total harmonic distortion (THD). Output
patterns for each sector are based on a symmetrical sequence. There are different
40
Chapter Two
schemes in space vector PWM and they are based on their repeating duty
distribution. In order to reduce the switching loss of the power components of the
inverter, it is required that at each time only one bridge arm is switched. After reorganizing the switching sequences, the switching pulse patterns of six different
sectors in Figure 2.15 are shown for the upper and lower switches of a three-phase
inverter.
It is obvious that in the odd sector the active state sequence is in ascendingdescending order; whereas, it is in a descending-ascending order in an even sector.
For example:
1. In an odd sector 1, the state sequence of space vectors is in the order
V0 , V1 , V2 , V7 , V7 , V2 , V1 , V
0 .
2. In an even sector 2, the state sequence of space vectors is:
0 , V
3 , V
2 , V
7 , V
7 , V
2 , V
3 , V
0 .
V
V0 V1 V2 V7 V2 V1 V0
2
3
4
5
6
V0 V3 V2 V7 V2 V3 V0
0 V
3 V
4 V
7 V
4 V
3 V
0
V
0 V
5 V
4 V
7 V
4 V
5 V
0
V
V0 V5 V6 V7 V6 V5 V0
V0 V1 V6 V7 V6 V1 V6
41
Chapter Two
Figure 2.15 shows space vector PWM switching patterns at each sector.
(a)Sector 1
(b)Sector 2
(d)Sector 4
(c)Sector 3
(e)Sector 5
(f)Sector 6
42
Chapter Two
S1=2(T1+T2)+T0
S3=2T2+T0
S5=T0
S4=T0
S6=2T2+T0
S2=2(T1+T2)+T0
S1=2T2+T0
S3=2(T1+T2)+T0
S5=T0
S4=2T2+T0
S6=T0
S2=2(T1+T2)+T0
S1=T0/2
S3=2(T1+T2)+T0
S5=2T2+T0
S4=2(T1+T2)+T0
S6=T0
S2=2T2+T0
S1=T0
S3=2T2+T0
S5=2(T1+T2)+T0
S4=2(T1+T2)+T0
S6=2T2+T0
S2=T0
S1=2T2+T0
S3=T0
S5=2(T1+T2)+T0
S4=2T2+T0
S6=2(T1+T2)+T0
S2=T0
S1=2(T1+T2)+T0
S3=T0
S5=2T2+T0
S4=T0
S6=2(T1+T2)+T0
S2=2T2+T0
43
Chapter Two
Chapter Two
keeping the traditional SIMULINK blocksets, but at the same time automatically
translating designs into hardware implementations that are faithful, synthesizable,
and efficient.
Here in this study, a direct field and torque controlled induction machine
driven by a Voltage Source Inverter (VSI) is analyzed by using a MATLAB
SIMULINK model. The control signals for the VSI in the related model are
generated by the Xilinx FPGA chip. But, the FPGA chip needs Very-high-speed
Hardware Description Language (VHDL) codes to generate the control signals for
the related controller. Normally, MATLAB SIMULINK Package does not provide
an interface for the VHDL needed for the controller to be embedded in the FPGA
chip. However, the Xilinx System Generator Tool provides such an interface; i.e., a
control algorithm developed Xilinx System Generator Tool convenient to be used
with traditional Simulink blocksets can be translated to the VHDL codes needed
for the controller to be embedded in the FPGA chip. The following section briefly
introduces system modeling using the Xilinx System Generator Tool.
Chapter Two
+1
s=
1z1
(2.46)
Ts
In Equation (2.46) ,Ts is the sampling interval. Let the clock frequency of the
FPGA be 0.2 MHz and consequently the sampling interval be 5* 10-6 sec.
P
46
Chapter Two
+1
= 1z1
Ts
+1
1z1
+1
5x106
5x106
1.000005z1
+1
, it is obtained:
4.999975x106
10.999995z1
(2.47)
[] = 0.999995y[n 1] + 4.99x106 []
47
(2.48)
Chapter Three
Chapter Three
System Implementation and Simulation Results
3.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with the implementation of DTC and examination of the
performance of DTC using different controllers (Conventional and modified
DTC by PI controller and SVPWM technique).
In this work, two types of controllers were used to enhance the conventional
DTC system for controlling the speed and torque of IM; these controllers are the
Conventional PI controller (trial and error) and SVPWM techniques.
DTC_SVPWM techniques were carried out using MATLAB/SIMULINK
simulation package only, but the conventional and modified DTC by PI
controller were implemented using both MATLAB/SIMULINK simulation
package and the FPGA by designing the proper software using Xilinx blocks.
48
Chapter Three
the
set
of
Equations
(2.14),(2.15),and(2.16)
in
Chapter Three
Figure 3.2: MATLAB SIMULINK function model of sector ,flux and torque
estimators
Figure 3.3 : The flux controller using MATLAB SIMULINK function block
50
Chapter Three
Chapter Three
Chapter Three
Chapter Three
Chapter Three
The SIMULINK part responsible for generating and calculating the values
of Vq, Vd, V ref and is shown in Figure 3.11
55
Chapter Three
The generation of the switching signals is done by using the model shown in
Figure 3.12.
Chapter Three
but also the realization of the controller using FPGA. Xilinx blocksets used in
the design obtained by the Xilinx System Generator can be added to the
MATLAB SIMULINK library and used by the Simulink Software. The block
diagram
of
complete
system
model
including
the
controller
in
Chapter Three
function becomes the input and output ports of the block. The m-code that the
block uses is translated in a straightforward way into equivalent behavioral
VHDL/Verilog when hardware is generated. Some design rules has to be
followed when writing the MCode; for example, all block inputs and outputs
must be of Xilinx fixed-point type and all blocks must at least have one output
port [33].
Chapter Three
Adopted binary format, quantization, and sampling time are amongst the key
factors.
1) Binary Format Representation: In this implementation, twos complement
fixed-point representation is used during all of the operations, except for the
square root calculation. In this particular case, unsigned fixed-point
representation is applied, since its operand and its results are always positive.
2) Quantization: The determination of word size (word length) is one of the
critical parts in FPGA implementation. On one hand ,the use of an insufficient
number of bits may reduce the precision or cause a calculation error, which can
destabilize the whole system. On the other hand, the use of larger words may
increase the hardware implementation area.
3) Sampling Time: The sampling time is limited to 5s . Therefore, all of the
operations involved in this model are performed within this sampling time.
The block diagram in Figure 2.17 represents the operator
+1
with
elementary operations such as the time delay, sum and scaling, which use the
minimum memory storage. It can be used in our real-time application. The
integrator in Xilinx /SIMULINK is shown in Figure 3.14 .
Chapter Three
Figure 3.15 : Sector number, the flux magnitude ,the torque estimators and
Clarks transformation using Xilinx/SIMULINK.
The subsystem block was built to implement the sector, flux and torque
Chapter Three
Chapter Three
62
Chapter Three
Figure 3.22: The SIMULINK model of modified DTC scheme using Xilinx
SIMULINK
Chapter Three
Figure 3.23 : The conventional DTC model with the hardware Co-simulation
block.
64
Chapter Three
Figure 3.24 : The PI_DTC model with the hardware co-simulation block.
Now the design is ready for Co-Simulation. Click the Start Simulation
button in the model window toolbar to start the Co-Simulation. The System
Generator will first download the bitstream associated with the block
dtcxilinx1515 hwcosim ,aaDTCXilinx2014 as shown in Figures 5.38 and 5.39.
When the download is complete, System Generators read the inputs from
Simulink simulation environment and send them to the design on the board using
the JTAG connection. System Generator then reads the output back from JTAG
and sends it to Simulink for displayed.
65
Chapter Three
switching
(HEF4017BP).The
control
table
system
programed
is
through
connected
to
an
the
integrate
real
motor
the whole
components from the Iraqi market cause to incomplete the proposed system.
Figure 3.25 : Experiment Setup and Instrumentation and test for VSI with real
three phase IM
66
Chapter Three
for discrete implementation. The starting torque is equal to 11.8 N.m which is
depended on the reference torque value . Figure 3.30 shows both the stator
currents in phase a, b and c , which are nearly sinusoidal , and the waveforms
67
Chapter Three
of stator currents in d-q axis. It is noticed that the phase shift between them
is equal to 900.
Chapter Three
69
Chapter Three
Figure 3.30:d-q axis stator currents and three phase stator currents.
70
Chapter Three
71
Chapter Three
72
Chapter Three
73
Chapter Three
74
Chapter Three
Hardware/Software
Co-Simulation by Xilinx blocks. The graphs in Figure 3.36 and 3.37 depict the
response
of
the
for no load at
(0-0.1)sec.,
Figure 3.35:d-q axis stator currents and three phase stator currents.
75
Chapter Three
The peak to peak ripple values in the torque response are 3 ,3,2.8 at no load,7.4
N.m ,and 3.7 N.m ,respectively. The starting torque is equal to11.9 N.m.
Chapter Three
DTC
with
conventional
PI
controller
using
Hardware/Software
77
Chapter Three
Chapter Three
Chapter Three
Chapter Three
Tables (3.1,3.2) demonstrate the values of torque ripple for rated speeds and
different loads.
Table (3.1) Torque responses of conventional DTC
No load
7.4 N.m.
3.7 N.m.
Controller
CDTC
MATLAB/SIM.
CDTC Xilinx
FPGA
CDTC
MATLAB/SIM.
CDTC Xilinx
FPGA
CDTC
MATLAB/SIM.
CDTC Xilinx
FPGA
Torque ripple
N.m.(peak to
peak)
2.7
2.8
2.65
2.8
7.4 N.m.
3.7 N.m.
Controller
PI-DTC
MATLAB/
SIM.
DTCSVPWM
PI-DTC
Xilinx
FPGA
PI-DTC
MATLAB/
SIM.
DTCSVPWM
PI-DTC
Xilinx
FPGA
PI-DTC
MATLAB/
SIM.
DTCSVPWM
PI-DTC
Xilinx
FPGA
Torque
ripple
N.m.(peak
to peak)
0.68
0.6
0.69
0.68
0.5
0.7
0.62
0.6
0.68
Table 3.3 The ripple reduction in the torque at full load condition.
CDTC MATLAB/SIMULINK
2.8
Torque ripple
N.m.(peak to
peak)
Controller
PI-DTC
MATLAB/SIM.
DTC-SVPWM
PI-DTC
Xilinx
FPGA
PI-DTC
MATLAB/SIM.
DTC-SVPWM
PI-DTC
Xilinx
FPGA
Torque ripple
N.m.(peak to
peak)
0.68
0.5
0.7
0.68
0.5
0.7
75%
77.33%
Ripple
75.71%
reduction
82.14%
81
83.33%
76.66%
Chapter Three
ia(A)
ib(A)
vb(V
va(V
vac(V)
vbc(V)
Figure 3.43 : The stator currents and voltages.
82
Chapter Four
Chapter Four
83
Chapter Four
3)
4)
84
References
References
[1] Andrzej M. Trzynadlowski, Control of induction motors, Academic Press,
San Diego, 2001.
[2] Fathalla Eldali, A comparative study between vector control and direct
torque control of induction motor using matlab Simulink ,thesis, Department
of Electrical and Computer Engineering ,For the Degree of Master of
Science,Colorado State University,Fall 2012.
[3] Altaf Ahmad Syed,Applied fuzzy logic controls for improving dynamic
response of induction machine, Youngstown State University ,Youngtown,
Ohio, August, 2008.
[4] I.Takahashi, T. Noguchi A New quick-response and high efficiency control
strategy of an induction machine , IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 22, pp. 830832, 1986.
[5] Mr. Aung Zaw Latt, Dr. Ni Ni Win, Variable Speed Drive of Single Phase
Induction Motor Using Frequency Control Method, International
Conference on Education Technology and Computer, IEEE, 2009.
[6] Ali S. Ba-thunya Rahul Khopkar Kexin Wei Hamid A. Toliyat,Single Phase
Induction Motor Drives - A Literature Survey, Electric Machines & Power
Electronics Laboratory, IEEE, 2001.
[7] Zool Hilmi Ismail, Direct Torque Control of Induction Motor Drives Using
Space Vector Modulation (DTC-SVM), Master thesis, University
Technology Malaysia, 2005.
[8] Takahashi, I and Ohimori, Y., High-Performance Direct Torque Control of
an Induction Motor, IEEE Trans. Industry Applications, Vol. 25, pages 257264, March 1989.
[9] Bimal K. Bose, Modern Power Electronics and AC Drives, Prentice Hall
PTR, 2002.
[10] M. Depenbrock, Direct Self-Control (DSC) of Inverter-Fed Induction
Machine, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 3, No. 4. October,
1988.
[11] Giuseppe S. Buja, and Marian P. Kazmierkowski, Direct Torque Control of
PWM Inverter-Fed AC Motors - A Survey, IEEE Trans On Ins Electronics,
50(4) 744-577 August , 2004.
85
References
[12] Peter Vas, Sensorless Vector and Direct Torque Control, Oxford University
Press, 1998.
[13] M.R.Hachicha, M.Ghariani, and R. Neji, Induction Machine DTC
Optimization Using Artificial Intelligence for EV's Applications, 8th
International Multi-Conference on Systems, Signals & Devices, IEEE, 2011.
[14] Kyo-Beum Lee, Joong-Ho Song, Ick Choy, and Ji-Yoon Yoo ,Torque Ripple
Reduction in DTC of Induction Motor Driven by Three-Level Inverter With
Low Switching Frequency, IEEE transactions on power electronics, VOL.
17, NO. 2, march 2002.
[15] Sanda Victorinne PATURCA, Aurelian SARCA, Mircea COVRIG A simple
method of torque ripple reduction for direct torque control of PWM inverter
fed induction machine drives ,Annals of the University of Craiova, Electrical
Engineering series, No. 30, 2006.
[16] G.Venkata Rama Krishra , Torque ripple reduction in DTC IM Drive by
using Fuzzy controller, thesis, 2007.
[17] Y, Li, J. Shao,. and B. Si, Direct torque control of induction motors for
low speed drives considering discrete effect of control and dead time of
inverters, in Conf. Rec. IEEE-lAS Annual Meeting, pp. 781-788,1997.
[18] Chuen Ling Toh, Nik Rumzi Nik ldris, Senior Member, IEEE and Abdul
Halim Mohd Yatim, Senior Member, IEEE ,Torque Ripple Reduction in
Direct Torque Control of Induction Motor Drives, IEEE National Power
and Energy Conference (PECon) ,2003 .
[19] J. Rodriquez, Jorge Pontt, C Selva and H. Miranda, A Novel Direct Torque
Control Scheme for Induction Machines With Space Vector Modulation,
IEEE Trans Power Electronic pp 1392-1397, 2004.
[20] X. Garcia, A. Arias, New DTC schemes for induction motors fed with a
three-level inverter, AUTOMATIKA, 46(2005), 1-2, 73-81.
[21] Vojkan Kostic, Milutin Petronijevic, Nebojsa Mitrovic, Bojan Bankovic ,
Experimental verification of direct torque control methods for electric drive
application , Facta Universitatis Series: Automatic Control and Robotics
Vol. 8, NO.1, pp. 111 - 126, 2009.
[22] Tsoutsas , Designing a Sensorless Torque Estimator for Direct Torque
Control of an Induction Motor,Thesis, Naval Postgraduate
School
Monterey, California, September 2009.
86
References
[23] Prof. V. S. Kamble, Prof. D. S. Bankar, Direct Torque Control of Induction
Motor with fuzzy logic for minimization of torque ripple, Proceedings of
International Conference on Energy Optimization and Control (ICEOC-20 I
0) December 28 - 30, 2010, Aurangabad, Moharashtra, India .
[24] Lassi Aarniovuori , Induction motor drive energy efficiency simulation and
analysis, Thesis, Lappeenranta University of Technology,Lappeenranta,
Finland on the 27th of August, 2010, at noon. ISSN 1456-4491
[25] Yongchang Zhang , and Jianguo Zhu , Direct Torque Control of Permanent
Magnet Synchronous Motor With Reduced Torque Ripple and Commutation
Frequency , IEEE Trans. Power Electron., VOL.26, NO. 1, Jan. 2011.
[26] Tole Sutikno, Nik Rumzi Nik Idris, Aiman Zakwan Jidin, Mohd Zaki Daud ,
FPGA Based High Precision Torque and Flux Estimator of Direct Torque
Control Drives, IEEE, Applied Power Electronics Colloquium (IAPEC),
2011.
[27] A. Alwadie,High Performance Predictive Direct Torque Control Of
Induction Motor Drives System, A. Alwadie / International Journal of
Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) ,Vol. 2, Issue 6, pp.501512,November- December 2012.
[28] Er. H.G.Shah, Er.H.M.Karkar, Er. Mukesh K Kumawat, Induction Motor
Drive DTC Based FPGA , International Journal of advancement in
electronics and computer engineering (IJAECE) ,Volume 1, Issue1, April
2012, pp.51-55, ISSN 2278 1412.
[29] M.Sunil Kumar ,A.V.Naresh Babu , Implementation of Direct Torque
Control based on space vector modulation for induction motor, International
Journal of Emerging trends in Engineering and Development , Issue 2, Vol.6
(September 2012).
[30] K .Gopala Krishna, T. Kranthi Kumar, and P. Venugopal Rao, Better DC
Bus Utilization and Torque Ripple Reduction by using SVPWM for VSI fed
Induction Motor Drive, International Journal of Computer and Electrical
Engineering, Vol.4, No.2, April 2012.
[31] Obbu Chandra Sekhar ,Dr.Koritala Chandra,Torque ripple reduction in direct
Torque control Induction Motor drive using SVM and FLDRC,
SEKHAR,RECENT,Vol.14,no.1(37),March,2013.
[32] Tole Sutikno, Member, IEEE, Nik Rumzi Nik Idris, Senior Member, IEEE,
Auzani Jidin,Member, IEEE,and Marcian N. Cirstea, Senior Member, IEEE,
87
References
[33]
[34]
[35]
[36]
[37]
[38]
[39]
[40]
[41]
[42]
[43]
[44]
References
[45] Adamidis Georgios, and Zisis Koutsogiannis , Direct Torque Control using
Space Vector Modulation and Dynamic Performance of the Drive, via a
Fuzzy Logic Controller for Speed Regulation, IEEE, 2001.
[46] Vieri Xue, MCU SAE Team, Center-Aligned SVPWM Realization for 3Phase 3- Level Inverter, Application Report SPRABS6, October 2012.
[47] Phuong Hue Tran, MATLAB_Simulink Implementation and Analysis of
Three Pulse-Width-Modulation (PWM) Techniques , Master thesis, Boise
State University, May 2012.
[48] M. Giesselmann, H. Salehfar, H.A. Toliyat, and T.U. Rahman, Modulation
Strategies, CRC Press LLC, 2002.
[49] Heinz Willi Van Der Broeck, Hans-Christoph Skudelny,and Georg Victor
Stanke, Analysis and Realization of a Pulse width Modulator Based on
Voltage Space Vectors, IEEE Transaction on Industry Applications ,Vol.
24,No.1 ,January/February 1988.
[50] E.Hendawi, F. Khater, and A. Shaltout, Analysis, Simulation and
Implementation of Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation Inverter,
International Conference on Application of Electrical Engineering, pp. 124131, 2010.
[51] B. Wu., High-Power Converters and AC Drives, IEEE Press, John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 2006.
[52] Ozkan Akin,Irfan Alan, The use of FPGA in field-oriented control of an
induction machine, Turk J Elec Eng & Comp Sci, Vol.18, No.6, 2010.
[53] D. Seyoum, D. McKinnon, M. F. Rahman, & D, Grantham, Offset
Compensation in the Estimation ofFlux in Induction Machines, Industrial
Electronics Society, vol. 2, November 2003, IEEE0-7803-7906/03.
[54] Adam John Wigington , A Comparison of Induction Motor Starting Methods
Being P owered by a Diesel-Generator Set , Electrical Engineering Theses
and Dissertations. Paper 8,(2010).
[55] N. R. N. Idris and A. H. Yatim, Reduced torque ripple and constant torque
switching frequency strategy for induction motors, in Proc. IEEE APEC00,
2000, pp. 154161.
[56] Ibrahim Rakad Nusair, Comparison Between PWM and SVPWM ThreePhase Inverters in Industrial Applications ,Master thesis, Youngstown, Ohio
December, 2012.
89
References
[57] Xilinx
system
generator
user
guide.
Website,December
2009 http://www.xilinx.com/support/documentation/sw_manuals/xilinx11/sys
gen_user.df.
[58] Muhd Zharif Rifqi Zuber Ahmadi, Auzani Jidin, Mohd Razali Mohamad
Sapiee*, Md Nazri Othman, Ravin Nair P.Nagarajan, M.H Jopri*, Digital
Implementation of Direct Torque Control of Induction Machines, IEEE 7th
PEOCO,Langkawi,Malaysia.3-4June 2013.
90
Appendix A
IM design parameters
Appendix-A
A.1 SquirrelCage Induction Motor, 3-phase, 400 volt, 50 Hz, 1.1 KW.
U
Item
Value
Rated power
1.1 Kw
Nominal frequency
50 Hz
400 V
Rated speed
1410 rpm
Stator resistance
9.25
Rotor resistance
4.51
Stator self-inductance
306.6 mH
Rotor self-inductance
306.6 mH
Mutual inductance
290 mH
Moment of inertia
DC voltage
600 V
Rated torque
7.4 N.m
Appendix A
IM design parameters
va
2
vb
3
vc
2
2
3
2
v =
q
sin
sin v
v
is the angle of rotation, and is calculated as the integral of the rotational speed
where 0 is the initial angle offset
: = dt + 0 (rad)
R
The instantaneous values of stator and rotor currents in three-phase system are
estimated by using the following transformation:
i =
sin
sin id
1
0
1 3
ia
i
2
i b = 2
2
i
3
1
3
ic
2 2
Appendix B
Appendix-B
B.1 The IM Parameter code
U
clear;clc;
vdc=600;f=50; wb=2*pi*f;we=wb;Sb =0.055;
rs=9.25;rr=4.51; Ls=306.6e-3;Lr=306.6e-3;Lm=290e-3;P=4;J=0.01;
wbm = 2*wb/P;
Xls=wb*Ls;Xlr=wb*Lr;Xm=wb*Lm;
xM=1/(1/Xm + 1/Xls + 1/Xlr);Rs=rs;Rr=rr;
Xls = wb*Ls; Xlr = wb*Lr; Xm =wb*Lm;
H = J*wbm*wbm/(2*Sb);Domega =0.0025;B=Domega;
a=[rs rr Ls Lr Lm P/2 J];
Ts=5e-6;Ts_DTFC=10*Ts;
kp=2.2;ki=0.001;
fs=1/Ts;kpt=145;kit=0.0008;kpf=5000;kif=0.0004;
Appendix B
II
1.The MATLAB function used to generate the sector number ,stator flux
and electromagnetic torque is:
function[sector,Flux,Te]= SFT_estimators(Fq,Iq,Fd,Id)
P=4;
Te=(3*P/4)*(Fd*Iq-Fq*Id);
Flux=sqrt(Fq*Fq+Fd*Fd);
sector = 0;
theta=(180/pi)*atan2(-Fd,Fq);
if theta > -30 && theta <= 30
sector = 1;
end
if theta >30 && theta <=90
sector = 2;
end
Appendix B
III
= TORQUE_CONTROLLER(Ete)
d=0;T_bw=0.35;
if Ete >= T_bw/2
d=1;
end
if Ete<= -T_bw/2
d=-1;
end
if Ete<=T_bw/2 && Ete>-T_bw/2
d=0;
end
dT=d;
end
Appendix B
IV
The following m-file code of the MATLAB SIMULINK function block is used
for the look-up table
function [Sa,Sb,Sc]=SWITCHINGTABLE(dT,dF,Sector)
%function
[S1,S2,S3,S4,S5,S6]=SWITCHINGTABLE(dT,dF,Sector)
vector=0;Sa=0;Sb=0;Sc=0;%S2=0;S4=0;S6=0;
switch dF %dF = 1
case 1
switch dT
case 1
switch Sector % dF = 1, dT = 1
case 1
vector = 2;
case 2
vector = 3;
case 3
vector = 4;
case 4
vector = 5;
case 5
vector = 6;
case 6
vector = 1;
end
case 0
switch Sector % dF = 1, dT = 0
case 1
vector = 0;
case 2
vector = 7;
case 3
vector = 0;
case 4
vector = 7;
case 5
vector = 0;
case 6
vector = 7;
end
case -1
Appendix B
V
switch Sector % dF = 1,dT =-1
case 1
vector = 6;
case 2
vector = 1;
case 3
vector = 2;
case 4
vector = 3;
case 5
vector = 4;
case 6
vector =5;
end
end
case -1 %dF =-1
switch dT
case 1
switch Sector % dF =-1, dT = 1
case 1
vector = 3;
case 2
vector = 4;
case 3
vector = 5;
case 4
vector = 6;
case 5
vector = 1;
case 6
vector = 2;
end
case 0
switch Sector % dF =-1, dT = 0
case 1
vector = 7;
case 2
vector = 0;
case 3
vector = 7;
case 4
vector = 0;
case 5
vector = 7;
Appendix B
VI
case 6
vector = 0;
end
case -1
switch Sector % dF =-1,dT =-1
case 1
vector = 5;
case 2
vector = 6;
case 3
vector = 1;
case 4
vector = 2;
case 5
vector = 3;
case 6
vector = 4;
end
end
end
% Select switch positions
switch vector
case 0
Sa=0;Sb=0;Sc=0;%S2=1;S4=1;S6=1;
case 1
Sa=1;Sb=0;Sc=0;%S2=0;S4=1;S6=1;
case 2
Sa=1;Sb=1;Sc=0;%S2=0;S4=0;S6=1;
case 3
Sa=0;Sb=1;Sc=0;%S2=1;S4=0;S6=1;
case 4
Sa=0;Sb=1;Sc=1;%S2=1;S4=0;S6=0;
case 5
Sa=0;Sb=0;Sc=1;%S2=1;S4=1;S6=0;
case 6
Sa=1;Sb=0;Sc=1;%S2=0;S4=1;S6=0;
case 7
Sa=1;Sb=1;Sc=1;%S2=0;S4=0;S6=0;
end
Appendix B
VII
Appendix B
VIII
to=Tz-Ta-Tb;
To=to/2;
T1=(sect==1)*(To+Tb+Ta)+(sect==6)*(To+Tb+Ta)+(sect==2
)*(To+Ta)+(sect==3)*(To)+(sect==4)*(To)+(sect==5)*(To
+Tb);
T2=(sect==6)*(To)+(sect==1)*(To+Tb)+(sect==2)*(To+Tb+
Ta)+(sect==3)*(To+Tb+Ta)+(sect==4)*(To+Ta)+(sect==5)*
(To);
T3=(sect==6)*(To+Ta)+(sect==1)*(To)+(sect==2)*(To)+(s
ect==3)*(To+Tb)+(sect==4)*(To+Tb+Ta)+(sect==5)*(To+Tb
+Ta);
Sa=0;Sb=0;Sc=0;
if T1>=ramp
Sa=1;
end
if T2>=ramp
Sb=1;
end
if T3>=ramp
Sc=1;
end
Sa;
Sb;
Sc;
Appendix C
Appendix-C
C.1 Setup photo
U
(a)
(b)
(b) ON
Appendix C
II
(a)
(b)
(c)
Appendix D
Appendix-D
D.1 Software Co-Simulation
U
The ISE steps to transform the models built using Simulink into hardware
shown below :
1.Step1
2.Step2
Appendix D
3.Step3
4.Step4
II
. DTC ( hysteresis
) comparators ) . ( voltage vector
hysteresis bands .
) (DTC
) .(switching .
) (PI
.
) (space vector
. ) (voltage vector
).(voltage vector modulator
) (DTC
) (FPGA MATLAB/ Simulink XILINX
. blocksets DTC XILINX FPGA
DTC . VHDL
MATLAB/ Simulink.
.XILINX FPGA .
.
XILINX FPGA
DTC
DTC-SVM .MATLAB/ Simulink
.
MATLAB/Simulink
2014