Table Showing Digestion Actions of Enzymes Along the Alimentary Canal

REGION OF
ALIMENTARY
CANAL

JUICE PRODUCE

ENZYME IN JUICE

CLASS OF FOOD
ACTED UPON

SUBSTANCE
PRODUCED

Mouth

Saliva

Salivary Amylase

Starch

Maltose

Stomach

Gastric Juice

Pepsin

Protein

Peptides

Renin

Milk protein

Coagulates milk protein

None

Fats

Emulsifies fat/splits up fat

Duodenum

Liver

Bile

into tiny droplets

Ileum

Pancreas

Pancreatic Juice

Pancreatic amylase

Starch

Maltose

Tripsin

Peptides

Polypeptides

Lipase

Fats

Fatty acids & glycerol

Intestinal juice or succus

Maltase

Maltose

Glucose

entericus

Sucrase

Sucrose

Glucose & Fructose

Lactose

Lactose

Glucose & Galactose

Peptidase

Polypeptides

Amino acids

Lipase

Fats

Fatty acids & Glycerol

THE DIGESTION OF BREAD AND CHEESE

stomach) which emulsifies or splits up fat into tiny droplets.

In the mouth the bread and cheese is masticated or chewed by the

Lipase acts on fat droplets converting them to fatty acids and

teeth and moistened by saliva. Enzymes salivary amylase acts

glycerol.

on the starch in the bread converting it to maltose. The tongue

rolls the bread and cheese into balls (called bolus) which is
swallowed.
The bolus passes down the gullet by peristalsis. Digestion of
starch continues within the bolus as it passes down the gullet.

Digestion of Starch starts again. Pancreatic juice acts on starch in

bread and change it to maltose. Tripsin acts on peptides and
polypeptides converting it to amino acids.
In the ileum maltase acts on maltose and converts it to glucose.
Lactase acts on lactose and converts it to glucose and galactose.

The cardiac sphincter opens to admit bolus into the stomach. The

Peptidase acts on polypeptides and converts it to amino acids.

stomach churns bread and cheese into a semi liquid state called

Lipase acts on fat and converts it to fatty acids.

chyme. Renin coagulates milk protein from cheese and pepsin

acts on protein converting it to peptides or polypeptides.
N.B: - Digestion of starch in bread stops temporarily because in
the stomach is too acidic.

Proteases

Amylases

Pepsin

Salivary amylase

Trypsin

Pancreatic amylase

Peptidase

maltase

Renin

lactase

The pyloric sphincter relaxes and allows the chyme to pass into
sucrase
the duodenum. Liver produces bile (contains sodium carbonate
that makes it alkaline that will neutralize the acid from the

MOVEMENT OF FOOD THROUGH THE

fibre such as cellulose is useful in the diet which helps to

ALIMENTARY CANAL

prevent constipation.
The Stomach

Swallowing

Food enters the stomach from the oesophagus. The pyloric

sphincter at the other end of the stomach retains the food in

Food is passed from mouth to the oesophagus by the action

the stomach until it is in a digested form, which is liquid

of swallowing. The food is rolled into a ball called a bolus

(chyme). A sphincter is an opening controlled by circular

and is pushed to the back of the mouth (pharynx) by the

muscle, which allows food to pass through when relaxed. A

tongue. Food then enters the oesophagus. The glottis is

meal rich in protein or fat may remain in the stomach for one

partly closed and the epiglottis prevents food going down the

to three hours. Muscles contract to churn food in the

trachea.

stomach.

Peristalsis

The stomach wall secretes gastric juice that contains dilute

The tubes of the gut have circular and longitudinal muscle

hydrochloric acid and the enzymes pepsin and rennin. This

cells in the walls that contract and relax alternately, to force

acid stops the action of the salivary amylase and makes acid

the food along. These muscles are specially arranged so that

surroundings needed for the other enzymes.

the passage and churning of food can take place. This

N.B: Salivary amylase works best at a neutral pH. The

movement is similar to that by which you would move a

protease in the stomach is called pepsin and works best at an

large bread through a rubber tube by squeezing the tube

acid pH.

behind it and is called peristalsis.

Gravity helps liquids down the oesophagus. Bulk is needed
in the food in order for peristalsis to take place thus dietary

Proteins are broken down into polypeptides, the large chains

of amino acids, and then into smaller chains called peptones.

The other enzyme in gastric juice is called rennin and it is

suspended in liquid. This enables the enzymes to reach the

particularly important in young babies, where it clots the

molecules of fat more easily.

soluble protein casein and converts it to insoluble

caseinogen. This separates the fats in milk from the proteins.

Pancreatic juice - pancreatic juice is also alkaline due to

the presence of sodium bicarbonate. The pancreatic juice

The hydrochloric acid also destroys some harmful bacteria in

passes down a duct from the pancreas to the duodenum.

the stomach. The pyloric sphincter then relaxes to allow the

This duct joins with the bile duct before entering the

liquid food to enter the duodenum.

duodenum.

The Duodenum

Pancreatic juice contains the enzymes amylase, lipase and

The duodenum is the first part of the gut known as the small
intestine. The small intestine can be up to eight metres long.
The bile, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice are poured on
the food in the duodenum.

more proteases (trypsin). The amylase completes the work

of saliva for further digesting starch to make maltose. The
lipase breaks the emulsified fats into glycerol and fatty acids.
Proteases such as trypsin split up the peptones into smaller
units called peptides. These have smaller numbers of amino

Bile - Bile is made in the liver. It is stored in the gall

acids in the chain. Some separate amino acids can be split

bladder and passes from the ball bladder down the bile duct

from the peptones.

unto the food in the gut. Bile contains sodium bicarbonate

that neutralises the acid from the stomach and makes the
food alkaline.

The intestinal glands - the intestinal glands in the wall of

the small intestine secrete intestinal juice. It contains
maltase that converts maltose to glucose and peptidase that

Bile does not contain enzymes but contains bile salts that

converts the peptides to amino acids.

emulsify fats. This means that bile lowers the surface

tension of fat, so that it breaks down into very tiny drops

A lipase enzyme further digests fats. Enterokinase is also

secreted and is needed to activate trypsin.

NB: The food has now been broken down into its basic units.
Carbohydrates have been broken into glucose, proteins to
amino acids and fats to fatty acid and glycerol. Most of the
food in the ileum is in this digested form.

With these adaptations and the length of the intestine, it has

been estimated that something like 300 square metres of
surface area available for absorption. This greatly increases
the rate of absorption that is brought about by diffusion. The
epithelial cells also speed up absorption of some nutrients by

Absorption in the Ileum

active transport.

Even though some digestion is completed in the Ileum, its

Structure

Feature

Function

most important function is absorption of food. This is the

villus

Tiny finger like

Very large surface

passage of the digested foods, salts, vitamins and water

projections brush

area for absorption

through the walls of the guts into the transport system.

like tufts only visible

under the microscope

A very little absorption occurs in the stomach. Certain drugs

such as aspirin and alcohol take effect quickly because they
are partly absorbed by the stomach walls. However, most

lacteal

Blood capillaries

absorption occurs in the ileum that is specially adapted to

increase the surface are for this process.

epithelium

Passes fats to lymph

Absorbs fatty acids

vessels

and glycerol

Lead to hepatic

Absorb glucose and

portal vein

amino acids

Single cell layer

Allows diffusion and

some active transport

Firstly, the inner surface of the ileum is shaped into finger

of digested food

like folds called villi (singular villus). There are up to 40 of

these surface area. But, in addition, the actual surface area of
the villus as seen under an electron microscope has many
projections from each cell, called micro villi. The micro
villi are also called the brush border.

Mucus cells

In epithelium

For food passage

Table Showing Structure and Function of Villi

The glucose and amino acids pass through the epithelial cells

The glucose is also carried to cells where it is oxidised to

into the blood vessels, which form a dense network within

release energy during respiration. Excess glucose is

the villus. These blood vessels are the capillaries.

converted to glycogen in the liver and muscles, where it is

The fatty acids and glycerol, and some very small undigested

stored.

fat droplets, pass across the wall of the villi into vessels

Some of the fatty acids and glycerol re form into fats

called lacteals. These lacteals are part of the lymphatic

within the lacteals. All are carried in lymph within the

system. Blood and the lymphatic system are the two

lymph vessels. These vessels transport the fats to the neck

transport system of the body.

where they pass into the blood.

End products of Digestion

The fats may be oxidised to release energy, or they may be

stored in such places as the skin or around other body

The glucose and the amino acids travel in the blood plasma

organs.

along the veins leading from the villi to the hepatic portal
vein. This vein takes glucose and amino acids to the liver.

The Liver

The amino acids cannot be stored. They travel in the blood

The liver is the largest glandular organ in the body. It has a

to the cells in the body that build them up into new proteins.

number of functions:

The build-up of materials into the protoplasm of cells is

Deamination of amino acids: amino acids are broken

called assimilation.

down into ammonia and a carbohydrate, which is used in

Any amino acids not used for growth and repair are changed

respiration; the ammonia combines with carbon dioxide to

to carbohydrates by removal of nitrogen in the liver. This is

form urea.

called deamination. The nitrogen group is changed to urea,

which is excreted by the kidneys in urine.

Fat metabolism: lipids are removed from the blood and

broken down, e.g. cholesterol is excreted in bile.

 Storage of glycogen: excess glucose in blood is converted

to glycogen and is stored in the liver cells: glucose is
returned to the blood when needed.
Production of bile: which is passed to the gall bladder for
storage
Destruction of red blood cells: phagocytic cells of the
liver break down the haemoglobin to form the pigments

The colon (large intestine)

The small intestine joins the large intestine near the caecum
and appendix. The most important function of the colon is
the absorption of water so that it is not lost from the body.
Salts are also absorbed here. This leaves the undigested
food parts called the faeces that are stored for a short period
of time.

excreted in bile
Production of plasma protein: e.g. albumins, and
fibrinogen (used in blood clotting)
Storage of vitamins: A, D and B12. Vitamin B12 is needed
for red blood cell formation in the red bone narrow
Destruction of toxins: harmful substances are chemically
changed, e.g. alcohol and other drugs are broken down
Elimination of hormones from the blood
Storage of heat: heat is made by the many metabolic

Defecation of faeces Undigested food materials including

dietary fibre (roughage) make up the bulk of faeces.
Cellulose from plants will form a large part. Faeces are said
to be egested, because the contents have never been part of
the body. They have not been made by metabolism. Bile
pigments and salts cause the brown colour of faeces.
Because these have been made by metabolic activities, they
are excreted.

reactions in the liver and this is transferred to the large

Bacteria are also present in the healthy gut and also form a

volume of blood stored there

part of faeces. Bacteria may partly digest some of the fibre

and some bacteria make vitamin K. The presence of

In the dissection the liver is found just below the diaphragm

and overlapping the upper part of the stomach. It is divided
into right and left lobes that are further subdivided. Blood
from the intestines is passed to it by the hepatic portal vein.

bacteria shows the importance of thoroughly washing hands

after defecation. Pressure in the rectum causes the process
of defecation, which faeces are passed out via the anus.

Constipation - this is the inability to pass faeces. Although

Structure

Function (in digestion only)

it can be caused by a blockage, it is more frequently caused

mouth

food is ingested; sense organs detect sweet, sour, salt,

bitter

by a lack of the roughage that is needed for peristalsis to

occur. A diet with plenty of dietary fibre generally prevents

salivary glands

secrete saliva containing salivary amylase (enzyme)

and mucus

constipation.
oesophagus

carries food from mouth to stomach

Diarrhoea - this is the continual defecation of faeces

stomach

muscular wall churns food and secrete gastric juice

usually in a liquid in form. Diseases such as dysentery,

liver

produces bile

typhoid, food poisoning and many others may cause

gall bladder

stores bile

diarrhoea. The danger is that the body become dehydrated

bile duct

carries bile to duodenum

owing to the continual loss of water in the faeces. Oral

pyloric

muscle controlling exit of food from stomach

rehydration by much drinking may not provide enough

sphincter

fluid. Saline drips where fluid is directly put into blood

pancreas

makes pancreatic juice with digestive enzymes

vessels are often needed.

pancreatic duct

carries pancreatic juice to duodenum

duodenum

secretes intestinal juice with digestive enzymes

ileum

absorbs digested material through the epithelial wall

caecum

absorption of some water

appendix

no function in humans

colon

absorption of water and salts

rectum

stores faeces

anus

faeces are egested

Gastroenteritis - this is the inflammation of the intestines

mostly caused by disease pathogens. Bacteria enter in
unhygienically prepared food and damage the walls of the
intestines, causing diseases such as typhoid.

Table showing the functions of parts of the digestive system

Table Showing the Fate of Nutrients Eaten Until They Pass Out the Body
Food

Digested to

Absorbed in villi

Carried by

Function

Excess

Removal from body as

Blood

Provide energy in

Stored as

Carbon dioxide and

respiration

glycogen and fat

water

Form proteins for

Forms urea

urea

growth

deaminated

into
Carbohydrates

Proteins

Glucose

Amino acids

Blood capillaries

Blood capillaries

Blood

enzymes, etc.
Fats

Fatty acids,

Lacteals lymph

glycerol

vessels

Lymph

Provide energy in

Stored as fat

Carbon dioxide and

respiration

adipose tissue

water

egested

same

Form part of
membranes, etc.
Roughage

Not digested

Not absorbed

Remains in
gut

Bulk for peristalsis