1.

0 Introduction
A magnetohydrodynamic generator (MHD genera-tor) is a magnetohydrodynamic
device that transforms thermal energy and kinetic energy into electricity. MHD
generators are different from traditional electric generators in that they operate at high
temperatures without moving parts. MHD was developed because the hot exhaust gas of
an MHD generator can heat the boilers of a steam power plant, increasing overall
efficiency. MHD was developed as a topping cycle to increase the efficiency of electric
generation, especially when burning coal or natural gas. MHD dynamos are the
complement of MHD proposers, which have been applied to pump liquid metals and in
several experimental ship engines. An MHD generator, like a conventional generator,
relies on moving a conductor through a magnetic field to generate electric current. The
MHD generator uses hot conductive plasma as the moving conductor. The mechanical
dynamo, in contrast, uses the motion of mechanical devices to accomplish this. MHD
generators are technically practical for fossil fuels, but have been overtaken by other, less
expensive technologies, such as combined cycles in which a gas turbine's or molten
carbonate fuel cell's exhaust heats steam to power a steam turbine. Natural MHD
dynamos are an active area of research in plasma physics and are of great interest to the
geophysics and astrophysics communities, since the magnetic fields of the earth and sun
are produced by these natural dynamos.
In MHD generation, electrical energy is directly generated from hot combustion
gases produced by the combustion of fuel without moving parts. The conventional
electrical machines are basically electro mechanical converters while an MHD generator
is heat engine operating on a turbine cycle and transforming the internal energy of gas
directly into electrical energy. When an electrical conductor is moved so as to cut lines of
magnetic induction, charged particles in the conductor experience a force in a direction
mutually perpendicular to the B field and to the velocity of the conductor. The negative
charges tend to move in one direction, and the positive charges in the opposite direction.
This induced electric field, or motional emf, provides the basis for converting mechanical
energy into electrical energy. In conventional steam power plants, the heat released by the
fuel is converted into rotational mechanical energy by means of a thermo cycle and the
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mechanical energy is then used to drive the electric generator. Thus two stages of energy
conversion are involved in which the heat to mechanical energy conversion has
inherently very low efficiency. Also, the rotating machine has its associated losses and
maintenance problems.

Figure 1.1: - Basic view of an MHD

1.1 Plasma
Plasma is

one

of the

four

fundamental

states

of

matter,

the

others

being solid, liquid, and gas. Plasma has properties unlike those of the other states. Plasma
is an electrically neutral medium of unbound positive and negative particles i.e. the
overall charge of plasma is roughly zero. It is important to note that although the particles
are unbound, they are not free in the sense of not experiencing forces. When a charged
particle moves, it generates an electric current with magnetic fields; in plasma, the
movement of a charged particle affects and is affected by the general field created by the
movement of other charges. This governs collective behavior with many degrees of
variation. A plasma can be created by heating a gas or subjecting it to a strong
electromagnetic field applied with a laser or microwave generator. This decreases or
increases the number of electrons, creating positive or negative charged particles
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called ions and is accompanied by the dissociation of molecular bonds, if present. The
presence of a significant number of charge carriers makes plasma electrically
conductive so that it responds strongly to electromagnetic fields. Like gas, plasma does
not have a definite shape or a definite volume unless enclosed in a container. Unlike gas,
under the influence of a magnetic field, it may form structures such as filaments, beams
and double layers.
Plasma is the most abundant form of ordinary matter in the Universe (of the forms
proven to exist; the more abundant dark matter is hypothetical and may or may not be
explained by ordinary matter), most of which is in the rarefied intergalactic regions,
particularly the intracluster medium, and in stars, including the Sun. A common form of
plasma on Earth is produced in neon signs. Lightening and Spark are both everyday
examples of Plasma generation.

Figure 1.2: - Formation of plasma as temperature of the fluid

Increases
When ice is heated it above 0 degree Celsius it transforms in to water and if again
further heated it gets transformed in to steam at around 100 degree Celsius, when steam is
further heated to an elevated temperature of several thousand degree Celsius is required
to create cold plasma and millions of degrees for hot plasma.

Fully ionized plasma

Fully ionized plasma has a degree of ionization approaching 1 ie. 100%.
Examples include the Solar Wind, stellar interiors example, the Sun's core, fusion
plasmas

Partially ionized plasma (weakly ionized gas)

Partially ionized plasma has a degree of ionization that is less than 1. Examples
include the ionosphere, gas discharge tubes. The aurora may exhibition properties of a
weakly ionized gas and a weakly ionized plasma, If we observe an aurora in the night sky
we get a conspicuous and spectacular demonstration of the difference between gas and
plasma behavior. Faint aurora are often diffuse and spread over large areas. They fit
reasonably well into the picture of an ionized gas. The degree of ionization is so I low
that the medium still has some of the physical properties of a gas that is homogeneous
over large volumes. However, in certain other cases, the aurora becomes highly
inhomogeneous, consisting of a multitude of rays, thin arcs, and draperies a conspicuous
illustration of the basic properties of most magnetized plasmas.

1.2 Magneto-hydrodynamics

Magnetohydrodynamic is the physical-mathematical framework that concerns

the dynamics of magnetic fields in electrically conducting fluids, e.g. in plasmas and
liquid metals. The word magnetohydrodynamic is comprised of the words magnetomeaning magnetic, hydro- meaning water and dynamics referring to the movement of an
object by forces. Synonyms of MHD that are less frequently used are the
terms magnetofluiddynamics and hydromagnetics. It treats, in particular, conducting
fluids, whether liquid or gaseous, in which certain simplifying postulates are accepted.
These are, generally, that the Maxwell displacement current is neglected, and the fluid
may be treated as a continuum, without mean-free-path effects. It is distinguished from
the closely related plasma dynamics in which these postulates are relaxed, but there is
still a large intermediate area in which similar treatment is possible.

1.3 Faraday generator

The Faraday generator is named after the man who first looked for the eect in
the Thames river. A simple Faraday generator would consist of a wedge-shaped pipe or
tube of some non-conductive material. When an electrically conductive fluid flows
through the tube, in the presence of a significant perpendicular magnetic field, a voltage
is induced in the field, which can be drawn o as electrical power by placing the
electrodes on the sides at 90 degree angles to the magnetic field. There are limitations on
the density and type of field used. The amount of power that can be extracted is
proportional to the cross sectional area of the tube and the speed of the conductive flow.
The conductive substance is also cooled and slowed by this process. MHD generators
typically reduce the temperature of the conductive substance from plasma temperatures to
just over 1000 C.
The main practical problem of a Faraday generator is that dierential voltages
and currents in the fluid short through the electrodes on the sides of the duct. The most
powerful waste is from the Hall eect current. This makes the Faraday duct very inecient. Further refinements of MHD generators have tried to solve this problem. The
optimal magnetic field on duct-shaped MHD generators is a sort of saddle shape. To get
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this field, a large generator requires an extremely powerful magnet. Many research
groups have tried to adapt superconducting magnets to this purpose, with varying
success.
1.4 Hall Effect Generator
The most common solution is to use the Hall eect to create a current that flows
with the fluid. The normal scheme is to place arrays of short, vertical electrodes on the
sides of the duct. The first and last electrodes in the duct power the load. Each other
electrode is shorted to an electrode on the opposite side of the duct. These shorts of the
Faraday current induce a powerful magnetic field within the fluid, but in a chord of a
circle at right angles to the Faraday current. This secondary, induced field makes current
flow in a rainbow shape between the first and last electrodes. Losses are less than a
Faraday generator, and voltages are higher because there is less shorting of the final
induced current. However, this design has problems because the speed of the material
flow requires the middle electrodes to be oset to catch the Faraday currents. As the
load varies, the fluid flow speed varies, misaligning the Faraday current with its intended
electrodes, and making the generators eciency very sensitive to its load.

Figure 1.3: - Hall effect current transducer

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Principle of working
The Lorentz Force Law describes the eects of a charged particle moving in a
constant magnetic field. The simplest form of this law is given by the vector equation.

Figure 2.1: - Lorentz force notations

Where:
F is the force acting on the particle. Q is the charge of the particle,
V is the velocity of the particle, and B is the magnetic field.
The vector F is perpendicular to both v and B according to the right hand
rule

Figure 2.2: - A Simplified MHD Generator

In an MHD generator, electrically conducting gas at a very high
temperature is passed at high velocity through a strong magnetic field at right angles to
the direction of flow, there by generating electrical energy. The electrical energy is then
collected from stationary electrodes placed on the opposite sides of the channel. The
current so obtained is direct current which can be converted into ac by an inverter.
Ionized gas can be produced by heating it to a high temperature. On heating of a gas,
the outer electrons escape out from its atoms or molecules. The particles acquire an
electric charge and the gases passes into the state of plasma. However to achieve
thermal ionization of products of combustion of fossil fuels or inert gases extremely
high temperatures are necessary. Air becomes highly ionized at temperatures of 5,000 0
to 6,0000C. To have a reasonable value of electrical conductivity of gases at temperatures
around 2,000 to 3,000 K by reasonable ionization, the gases are seeded with additives of
easily ionizing materials (Alkali metals) such as Cesium or Potassium. The induced
current are collected by suitably placed electrodes and simplest system would carry direct
current to the external load.

Figure 2.3: - Principle of MHD generator showing the behavior of conductive

gases in the presence of Magnetic Field

2.2 Analysis
An induced electromotive force depends on the velocity of plasma and magnetic
field strength. If V is a velocity of the plasma and B is the strength of magnetic field at
right angles to it, the electromotive force E generated normal to the flow and normal to
the magnetic field is given by
E=V*B

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This is the well known Hall effect observed in solids and liquids, and also in gases under
suitable conditions. The output power per unit volume of such a system is given by

Where is the electrical conductivity of the gas and K is the load factor.
The load factor K is a measure of the emf E due to the flow of current through the circuit
and is given by

Closed Circuit Voltage

K=
Open Circuit Voltage
The recommended value of K=1/2 so the power output P per unit volume is given
by

V 2 B2
P
4

2.3 Electrode configuration of MHD generator

There are three possible arrangements of providing electrodes for MHD
generators.
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1. Segmented electrode configuration:

The electrode segments are separated by insulator segments so there will be no
current flowing in the direction. The electric field vector has a component both along the
channel and across the channel.
2. Continuous electrode configuration:
In this case the electric field is across the channel only; but he current has
components along the channel as well as across it. In this case the hall angle is minimized
and thus the losses are reduced.

3. Hall generator:
In this case the electrodes wrap up the channel all the way in segment. The
electric field becomes parallel to the channel axis. Due to this reason there cannot be any
potential difference across the channel.

Figure 2.4: - Electrode configurations of Segmented electrode, continuous electrode

and Hall Effect type Generators

2.4 Types of MHD generators:

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The MHD generators are classified into three groups as

1. Open cycle MHD
2. Closed cycle MHD
i. Seeded inert gas system
ii. Liquid metal type
2.41 Open Cycle MHD
In this system the gaseous fuel produced from coal gasification plant is
supplied to the combustion chamber where it is burnt in the presence of high pressure air
at around 5ata. The gases coming out at high temperature 2300C to 2700C after seeding
is passed through MHD at a velocity of 700 to 800m/sec. The interaction between the
flowing plasma and magnetic field produces electricity. The gas leaving the MHD still
contains large amount of heat and seed material. It is essential to recover the seed
material and the heat from the gases to economize the plant. The heat of the hot gases
coming out from MHD is used for steam generation before it is exhausted into
atmosphere. The generated steam is used in conventional steam power plants. The power
from the generator coupled to steam turbine and power from MHD after converting from
dc to ac is fed to the grid.
This arrangement gives overall efficiency of MHD steam plant higher than that of
the conventional steam plant. It is estimated that the thermal efficiency of MHD steam
plant of 500MW capacity would be around 50% and efficiencies upto 60% are expected
in future. The electrodes are usually made of graphite, the duct of Boron nitride or heat
resistance alloy e.g. inconel, with external water cooling.

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Figure 2.5: - Open cycle MHD couples with Steam plant to increase overall
efficiency
Any type of fossil fuel can be used in MHD generator but a direct coal fired MHD
generator has following advantages:
1. Slag from coal combustion coats the generator electrodes and protects from electrical
and mechanical corrosion.
2. Coal contains less hydrogen and therefore the sink for electrons in the flow created by
the presence of OH ions is reduced.
3. Char, having almost no hydrogen is better than coal even. It results in a 25% increase
in the performance of the generator.
2.42 Closed Cycle MHD
2.42.1 Seeded Inert Gas System
The closed cycle MHD using rare gases as working fluid is the most
promising system among all. The working of the system is exactly similar to Open cycle
MHD except the working fluid is continuously circulated in the cycle instead of
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exhausting to the atmosphere. As there is no loss of working fluid this can be chosen for
its better heat transfer and electrical properties. The noble gases with their low electron
affinity are most suitable. With the use of noble gas as working fluid it also becomes
economical to use calcium instead of potassium as seed material. The closed cycle MHD
retains the seeding element, gives pollution free operation and saves exhaust heat.

.
Figure 2.6: - Closed Cycle MHD generator coupled with steam plant
uses breeder reactor as heat source
2.42.2 Liquid Metal Type
The use of liquid metal instead of gas as a working fluid is proposed since
they have high electrical conductivity about 1 million times that of plasma. Such a
generator could be linked with thermal flux source such as breeder reactor. The major
difficulty in such a system is the production of the liquid flow with high kinetic energy
from a thermal power source. The liquid potassium coming out of the Breeder reactor at
high temperature is passed through a nozzle to increase its velocity before passing to
MHD generator. The vapours formed due to nozzle action are separated in the separator

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and condensed and pumped back to the reactor. The following are the advantages of
Liquid metal system:

The use of Nuclear energy as high temperature is not the requirement of this
system as in the case of a plasma converter.

It can easily provide AC power supply directly, whereas it is impossible to do so

in a plasma system.

The size of the system including that of magnets is comparatively smaller. This is
because of high power density.

2.5 Gas Conductivity

The Gas has to be made sufficiently conducting in order that it may be utilized as
a working fluid. In other words, it has to be ionized, a process in which electrons are
removed from an atom. Conduction is due to the free electrons and positive ins which
move under the effect of a magnetic field. There are several types of ionization , viz.
1. Thermal ionization;
2. Magnetically Induced ionization;
3. Radio-Frequency wave induced ionization;
4. Photo-ionization;
5. Flames;
6. Electron-beam ionization;
7. Seeding
1. Thermal Ionization
It is the best method of ionizing a plasma. Ionization is obtained by imparting
enough thermal energy to gas. This method of ionization is directly dependent upon
temperature. As the temperature of a gas is directly raised, the kinetic energy of its
constituents is increased. When the temperature has reached sufficient high value than an
electron can ionize a molecule with which it collides. Such electron-molecule collisions
thus produced more electrons, giving rise to what is called thermal ionization.
2. Magnetically Induced Ionization
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A D.C. voltage is applied across a gas at reduced pressure to create an electric

field which will supply energy to electrons.
3. Reduced Frequency waves
It can be used to produce low amount of ionization in gas. This is not effectively
enough for MHD generation.
4. Seeding
One way of increasing of the gas conductivity without the need of high
temperatures is by introducing the material in to the gas that ionization potential lower
than that of the gas atoms themselves. This means that seeded material will get ionized
more readily than that of the gas atoms itself and thus enhance electrical conductivity.
Main seeding materials include metals like sodium, potassium, cesium etc. This allows
the attainment of the suitable conductivity at much lowr temperature than actual.

2.6 Materials for MHD

2.61 Materials for electrodes
Electrodes with higher electrical conductivity contribute towards better charge
transfer across the electrode plasma interface. Most of the initial channel wall designing
involved metallic electrodes due to the oxidizing condition. But the cold surface creates
bcold boundary layer which generally promotes high thermal losses, low conductivity
and leads to considerable voltage loss in this region. The alkali seed condensation and
cold slag condensation degrades the properties of the electrode. Important aspects of any
practical electrode system for MHD generator are high reliability and long life of
operations app. 10000hrs and efficient in transferring current densities of 1-5amp per
cm2. Electrode material should be stable chemically and mechanically. There are several
potential ceramic materials for the electrode system that operate near 1500-2000C. The
Carbides SiC, ZrC, MbC etc, borides ZrB2, TiB6, LaB6 etc. and chromites e.g.Sr, Mg
and doped oxides etc. Most promising among these is stabilized Zirconia.
2.62 Materials for Duct wall or Channel
Construction of duct through which to pass the very hot, sometimes very
corrosive gas is second major problem. Materials to withstand Temperatures of the order
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of 3000C are hard to find. Search of suitable ceramics or coatings is continuing. Steam
cooled walls which are made of insulated laminations of very thin nickel or stainless steel
have been tried. Apart from high temperature gradients as well as withstand the stresses
encountered in use and also the thermal shock in the event of accidental shut down of the
gas supply. The duct material has to be electrically insulating at the operating
temperatures.
The electrodes which are required to emit the cupious stream of electrons
throughout their entire life time are required are required to withstand more rigorous
environment than the duct. Water cooled copper electrodes have been used to a success.
High Temperature coupled with corrosion by alkali seeded plasma and erosion by
high velocity plasma constitutes severe environments experienced by structural materials
in MHD generator. Ceramic materials inherently offer superior chemical stability towards
oxidation and corrosion by alkali seed materials. However, thermal shock of ceramic is
necessary to be taken into account. The density of ceramic should be high in order to
reduce the penetration of slag, seed and gas diffusion which enhances degradation of the
insulation and electrode material. Al the same time density should be high to jeopardize
the thermal shock resistance.
2.63 Zirconia based materials
Zirconia is good refractory oxide having melting point of above 2800C. However,
pure zircona cannot be used as it undergoes phase transition at different temperatures.
During these phase transitions non-linear thermal expansion takes place.

Hence

elimination of the Disruptive phase transition is necessary. This can be achieved by the
addition of CaO, Y2O3, MgO, which results in the formation of cubic phase that is stable
over a wide range of temperature.

2.7 Magnetic Field

As the output power delivered by an MHD generator is proportional to B2, hence
the magnet should be as large as possible. The magnet being one of the one of the most
expensive items of an MHD generator, it is imperative that the production of large

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Magnetic Field is optimized, constant research in this direction has been in progress. Four
types of Magnets has been used uptil now for this purpose: 1. Permanent magnets
2. Water cooled electromagnets
3. Cryogenically cooled electromagnets
4. Super conduction Magnets
At the outset, the iron core of a magnetic circuit which is used to reduce the
reluctance of the circuit is no longer of any consequence where field strength of over
2Wb/m2 are required. Thus air cooled electromagnets are used.

2.8 Advantages of MHD generator

1. Since high temperatures are involved, operational efficiency is high.
2. No moving part, so more reliable.
3. As there is no limitation to the size of the duct, so high capacity generators are
possible.
4. Ability of reaching the full power level instantly.
5. Conceptually these generators are very simpler.
6. The walls can be cooled below temperature of working gas.
7. The more efficient heat utilization reduces the amount of heat discharged to
environment and thus the cooling water requirements are reduced.
8. The capital costs of the MHD plants are estimated to be competitive with those of coal
fired steam power plants.
9. The overall costs of MHD power generation are estimated to be lower (20%) than
those of conventional power plants. This is because of higher efficiency of MHD power
generation.
10. The generator has high efficiency, construction is not limited by the working
temperature of the gas inside the duct but is controlled by the nature of thermal source
upstream of the generator.
11. Direct conversion of heat into electrical energy results in the elimination of gas
turbine and both the boiler and turbine and thus in the reduction of energy losses.
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12. The closed cycle system produces power, free of pollution.

13. The size of the plant is considerably smaller than conventional fossil fuel plants.
14.

It can be started and put on the line within few seconds. It provides almost

instantaneous standby power.

15.

It can be used most economically as peak load plant.

2.9 Problems encountered in design of MHD

1. Sufficient high temperature for thermal ionization can be sustained by refractory
materials. A more practical method of reducing the required temperature is by
seeding.
2. Seed material potassium attacks insulating materials and make them conducting.
3. Electrode materials are chemically eroded by combustion of gases.
4. The major problem forced by this generator is the economics. Although the overall
thermal efficiency is 60% against 40% for conventional thermal plant, additional
investment in the magnet, generator, duct, compressors, scrubbers, seed recovery
plant and DC to AC converters may increase the plant cost and it may be much higher
than conventional plant.
5. Most of the problems are related to material problems caused by high temperature
and highly corrosive and abrasive environment.

3.0 Conclusion
The threat of disappearing of the fossil fuels within few decades compel
the human beings to search for new energy sources will last for a longer time. Extensive
research is going on in different countries throughout the world to find out the new
resources to replace the conventional fossil one. With the present research and
development programs, the non-conventional power resources play an important role in
the power industry. The magneto hydro dynamic power generation is one of the examples
of a new unique method of generation of electricity. These energy resources play a minor
role presently and its use on a vast scale is yet to be confirmed as it is in its childhood
stage. Man being optimistic should not leave the hopes on the success of this MHD
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generator as the technology took the man to moon which was a dream long time back, the
same technology will help the human being to survive from the present crisis of power
shortage.

4.0 References
1. http://web.ornl.gov/sci/fed/Theory/tt/ttmcp/plasma.html.
2. www.mpoweruk.com
3. www.maxwell.com
4. www.electronics-tutorials.com
5. Non conventional energy sources by G. D. Rai
6. www.batteryuniverse.com
7. www.electricalfun.com/plasma.html
8. www.docslides.us

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