SHORT NOTES

1. CAUSTIC SODA:
CAUSTIC SODA is used to maintain or increase pH. Increasing pH with CAUSTIC SODA will precipitate
magnesium (Mg2+) and suppress calcium (Ca2+) in high hardness waters such as seawater, reduce
corrosion, and neutralize acid gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen sulphide (H2S).Typical
concentrations range from 0.25 to 4 lb/bbl (0.7 to 11.4 kg/m3) with treatments depending on water chemistry
and type of drilling fluid. In seawater and waters containing buffering salts, a higher concentration of
CAUSTIC SODA will be required.
pH vs CAUSTIC SODA Concentration

CAUSTIC SODA is used in water-base muds as a source of hydroxyl ions to control pH. CAUSTIC SODA,
caustic, alkali and lye are all common names for sodium hydroxide (NaOH). It is a strong base which is
extremely soluble in water and dissociates into sodium
(Na) and hydroxyl (OH) ions in solution.

2. SODA ASH:
SODA ASH is used in water-base muds as a source of carbonate ions to precipitate calcium, increase pH or
flocculate spud muds. SODA ASH is the common name for sodium carbonate (Na2CO3). It is a weak base
which is soluble in water and dissociates into sodium (Na) and carbonate (CO3) ions in solution.
SODA ASH is primarily used to reduce soluble calcium in water-base drilling muds and makeup waters.
Other uses include increasing pH and flocculating spud muds. Calcium is present in many makeup waters
and formations. It can cause flocculation of the mud resulting in increased rheology, gel strengths and fluid
loss. High filtrate calcium will cause precipitation of calcium-sensitive additives such as the acrylic polymers
POLY-PLUST (PHPA), SP-101T (SPA) and TACKLE,T which are the most sensitive. Cellulosic polymers
POLYPACT (Polyanionic Cellulose) and Carboxy Methyl Cellulose (CMC) are only slightly calcium
sensitive and tolerate moderate levels of filtrate calcium. Typical treatments of SODA ASH range from 0.25
to 2 lb/bbl (0.7 to 5.7 kg/m3), dependent on the calcium level and water chemistry of the drilling fluid. One
pound (0.45 kg) of SODA ASH will remove the calcium from 1.283 lb (0.58 kg) of calcium sulfate
(anhydrite).
Treatment should be made on an incremental basis to prevent overtreatment which results in carbonate
flocculation. Note: If significant quantities of soluble magnesium (>320 mg/l Mg2+) are present, such as in
seawater (~1,300 mg/l Mg2+), use caustic soda to reduce the amount of magnesium prior to adding SODA
ASH to reduce the soluble calcium concentration.
The calcium precipitation chemical reaction is described as: Ca2+ + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2Na+ (9.7 < pH <
11.7) When using SODA ASH to reduce hardness: SODA ASH (lb/bbl) =
Ca (mg/l) x 0.00093 x Fw
Where: Fw = Water fraction from retort analysis (% water/100) In pure water, SODA ASH forms
highly buffered solutions which range between a pH of 10.9 to 11.6 at concentrations of 0.21 to 30 lb/bbl
(0.6 to 86 kg/m3).
3. STARCH:
Starch is a high-quality, preserved polysaccharide used to provide filtration control and rheology stability in
all types of water-base drilling fluids. This non-ionic, natural polymer is effective in all make-up waters,
including high-salinity and high-hardness brines such as NaCl, KCl, MgCl2, CaCl2 and complex brines.

Starch is designed to reduce fluid loss and increase viscosity in all water-base muds. It is especially
applicable and economical in saturated salt and brine systems where other products are not effective. This
includes clear brines used during workover and completion operations. Starch encapsulates particles with a
protective polymer coating to function as a protective colloid. It is effective as a drilling fluid stabilizer, as
well as a fluid-loss reducer, when evaporite formations such as anhydrite or salt must be drilled and when
drilling hydratable shales. POLY-SAL contains a preservative and does not normally require a biocide.
Starch is a natural polymer which derived from a variety of plant and grain sources, with corn and potato
starches being the most important source for drilling fluids. Starch contains two polysaccharides

Amylose: a chain of carbohydrate rings, make up the straight chain backbone of the starch
molecule.

Amylopectin: it is a highly branched chain of carbohydrate rings that branches out from an amylose
backbone. The ratio of amylose to Amylopectin determines the functional properties of starch.
Starch in its raw state is not soluble in water. To make it soluble and to use in drilling fluids it is
necessary to rapture the protective shell coating of Amylopectin so to release the inner amylose.
The starch granules are heated until the shell rapture which allows the amylose to get disperse.
This process is called pregelatinisation.

Starches are used mainly for fluid loss control and are viable in a large range of fluid systems, such as
seawater, saturated saltwater, KCl muds and lime muds. Starches are thermally stable to about 250F.
Starches are not resistant to bacteria and require a biocide to retard fermentation, except in saturated salt
and high pH muds.
4. XC POLYMER:
Xanthan Gum is a biopolymer and is a product of the action of bacteria (Xanthomonas Campestris) on
sugar. This material may be used in a variety of brines and salinity levels. Xanthan gum begins to degrade
thermally at temperatures of about 225F. Xanthum gum is the only polymer that provides thixotropy, i.e.,
formation of gel structures.
The primary function of XC POLYMER is to increase viscosity for cuttings transport and suspension. XC
POLYMER will perform effectively in all waterbase fluids, from highly weighted to low-solids systems. This
includes freshwater, seawater, salt and heavy-brine systems. XC POLYMER works to provide an optimized
rheological profile with elevated low-shear-rate-viscosity and highly shear-thinning characteristics with low
n values. These characteristics frequently result in fluids with inverted flow properties, i.e., the yield point
being greater than the plastic viscosity. Shear-thinning fluids have low effective viscosities at the high shear
rates encountered inside the drill string and at the bit. This low effective viscosity for minimal pressure
losses and standpipe pressures allows optimized hydraulics and maximized rates of penetration.
Conversely, at the low shear rates experienced in the annulus, XC POLYMER enables the fluid to have a
high effective viscosity for adequately cleaning the well and suspending cuttings.
The amount of XC POLYMER required will depend upon the desired viscosity. Normal concentrations
range from 0.25 to 2 lb/bbl (0.71 to 5.7 kg/m3) for most mud systems. Special fluids and difficult holecleaning conditions may require higher concentrations up to 4 lb/bbl (11.4 kg/m3). The addition of salt,
an antioxidant and thermal stabilizers will improve temperature stability in fluids from 250 to >280F (121 to
>138C). Specially formulated systems have been used at temperatures of 400F (204C). XC POLYMER
is subject to bacterial degradation, and treatments with a biocide are recommended to prevent
fermentation.

5. Modified natural polymers:

Modified natural polymers are very common in drilling fluids. Cellulose and starch are two natural polymers
that frequently are used to produce modified natural polymers. The modified versions can have
substantially different properties than the original, natural polymers. For drilling fluids, nonionic natural
polymers such as cellulose and starch are modified to polyelectrolytes. Many polymers are not watersoluble and therefore are not applicable to water-base drilling fluids unless they are modified. To obtain
water solubility, polymers are sometimes modified to polyelectrolytes. This modification involves an
alteration of the repeating unit of the polymer. A polyelectrolyte is a polymer that dissolves into water,
forming polyions and counter ions of the opposite charge.

The effectiveness of a polyelectrolyte depends on the number of available sites on the polymer which, in
turn,
depends on the following factors:

The concentration of the polymer.

The concentration and distribution of the ionizable groups.
The salinity and hardness of the fluid.
The pH of the fluid.

6. Cellulose Derivatives
A number of different polymers exist which have cellulose as a base. They vary in: (1) degree of
substitution (DS), (2) degree of polymerization (DP), (3) type of substitution, and (4) extent of purification
(salt removal). Their properties and abilities can widely differ. The cellulose molecule is modified by
reacting with an acid, then an oxidizing group, and then, an anionic radical is attached to the existing
hydroxyl group.
Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) - When cellulose is reacted with sodium monochloroacetate, a sodium
methylacetate group is substituted on one of the three hydroxyl groups. The degree of substitution (DS)
refers to the number of hydroxyl groups upon which substitution takes place divided by the number of
repeating units in the molecule. The degree of substitution will range from zero to a maximum of three.
Generally, CMCs will have a DS in the range of 0.4 to 0.8 with 0.45 being required for solubility. The degree
of polymerization (DP) will range from 500 to 5000. The polymers with the greater DP will impart more
viscosity to the fluid. High DS on the other hand, will permit more tolerance to salts and cation
contamination. Thermal degradation accelerates above 250F.
Polyanionic Cellulose (PAC) - Polyanionic cellulose is similar to CMC but generally has a DS of about
1.0. The PAC materials generally are more expensive than CMC due to higher processing costs, but show
a greater tolerance to hardness and chlorides. PAC begins to thermally degrade at 250F.

Hydroxyethylcellulose (HEC) - HEC is formed by causticizing cellulose and reacting it with ethylene oxide
which replaces one or more of the hydroxyl groups present on the cellulose molecule. Although HEC is
nonionic, it is still water soluble due to the hydroxy ethyl groups. HEC imparts high viscosity to water or
brines but exhibits no gel strengths. It is susceptible to degradation through shear or heat and has a
maximum thermal stability of about 225F.
7. OVERVIEW ON K-SYSTEM:
Potassium is one of the most effective ions available to inhibit shale hydration. Potassium performance is
based on cation exchange of potassium for sodium or calcium ions on smectite and interlayered clays.
Potassium ions work better than other inhibitive ions because of its structure. Potassium ions fit more
closely into the clay lattice structure and thereby reducing swelling or hydration of clays. The potassium
ions are of proper size to fit into the spaces between the two silica tetrahedral layers which contact each
other in the formation of a three layered clay packets. The ionic diameter of potassium ion is 2.66A where
as available space between the lattice structure of clay is 2.8A. A cation slightly smaller than 2.8A is
desirable to allow for crystalline compaction. When the formation is dominantly monmorillonitic the
potassium ion exchange for sodium and calcium results in less hydratable structures. Potassium system
work best when polymers are used for encapsulation. During drilling operation shale cuttings should be
monitored very carefully for proper inhibition. If the concentration of KCL in the mud is not sufficient then
shale cuttings will appear soft and mushy at the shaker.
Formation
Older shale formation
Younger shale formation
Shale formation

Concentration (lb/bbl)
10 to 15
30 to 50
25 to 35

Recommended properties:
Properties
Density (ppg)
Viscosity (sec/qt)
Plastic viscosity (lb/100ft2)
API fluid loss (cc/30min)
MBT (lb/bbl)
LGS (%)
Ph
Total hardness (mg/l)
Pm (cc of 0.02N H2SO4)
Pf (cc of 0.02N H2SO4)
Mf (cc of 0.02N H2SO4)
Chlorides (mg/l)

Values in range
9.5 to 11
45 to 50
ALAP
<8
<15
<6
9.5 to 10
<300
1 TO 2
0.5 to 1
1.5 to 2.5
36000 to 55000

Percentage weight
3.5 to 5
8.5 to 15
5 to 8

8. MECHANISM OF GLYCOL:
Polyalkalyne glycol has chemical adsorption and has unique chemistry. Certain PAGs exhibit a cloud-point
behaviour that causes the Polyglycol to become insoluble or precipitate out of solution at a certain
temperature. This phenomenon varies from polyglycol to polyglycol and depends on the polyglycol
concentration and water-phase salinity. The chemical adsorption mechanism is applicable to polyglycols,
both below and above their cloud points (both soluble and insoluble). In fact, surface adsorption is greater
when the glycol has clouded out and is in its colloidal form, thus resulting in glycol-coated clays that are
somewhat water-repellent. As the temperature cools, the glycols become more water-soluble and a greater
portion of the inhibitor is retained in the drilling fluid. This inhibition mechanism can be readily combined
with more traditional cationic exchange and encapsulation mechanisms to provide the excellent inhibition
characteristics of the GLYDRIL drilling fluid system. In their insoluble or clouded-out state, polyglycols
help stabilize troublesome shales. This provides a barrier against water migration into the shale while it
plugs shale pores to prevent the equalization of hydrostatic pressure away from the wellbore. The improved
shale inhibition of glycol leads to lower dilution volume, fewer hole washouts and reduced instances of
stuck pipe, which translate into less waste volumes requiring disposal and more pollution prevention and
source reduction opportunities. The PAGs also improve HTHP fluid-loss control, enhance filter-cake quality
and lubricity, and reduce bit balling. In certain areas, not all polyglycols can be discharged in their
maximum concentration.
Glycol cloud point matches the downhole temperature, maximum benefit is obtained. Above this
temperature, the glycol forms a type of micro-emulsion which is often referred to as a Thermally Activated
Mud Emulsion (TAME). This TAME effect contributes to stabilizing the
wellbore in three distinct ways:
Chemical adsorption
Micro-emulsion and precipitate pore plugging
Filter-cake improvement
Features
Low-toxicity, water-base system
Relatively fast biodegradation
Shale inhibition
Pore-plugging, Thermally Activated Mud Emulsion (TAME) properties
Improved filter-cake quality
Pipe-wetting capabilities
Benefits
In-gauge wellbores
Lower fluid losses and leak-off values
Lower potential for differential sticking
Less torque, drag and bit balling
Lower dilution rates
Slicker, firmer filter cake
Greater wellbore stability
Results
Higher ROP
Reduced discharge to environment
Fewer environmental concerns
Fewer hole problems
Improved drilling efficiency

9. SHORT NOTES ON PHPA

(PHPA), is a class of water mud which use for control well bore shales. PHPA believed to seal micro
fractures and coat shales surfaces with film that retards dispersion and disintegration.KCL is used as a
shale inhibitor in most PHPA mud design. PHPA improve rheology without increased colloidal solids
loading.
10. SHORT NOTES ON RHEOLOGY & HYDRAULICS
Rheology is the study of how matter deforms and flow. Viscosity is the resistant to flow of fluid. There are 5
different viscosities with separate implication
a. Funnel viscosity, sec/qt
b. Apparent viscosity, cps
c. Effective viscosity, cps
d. Low shear rate viscosity, cps
e. Plastic viscosity, cps
Shear rate: The rate at which one layer of fluid slide past the other. In well shear rate is calculated from
bulk velocities (average or calculated) velocity at which fluid is flowing.
Shear Rate = 1.703 X VGRPM
Shear Stress: The internal force that resists the flow of fluid
Shear Stress = 1.0678 X VG READING
Viscosity = Shear Stress / Shear Rate
= 1.0678 X VG RPM / 1.703 X VG READINGS
= 300.28 X (VG RPM / VG READINGS)
Factors affecting rheology
Hole Cleaning
Suspension of solids
Hole stability
Solid Control
ECD
Swab and surge pressure
Definition of Plastic Viscosity (cps)
Shear thinning limit
Resistant to flow of fluid due to mechanical friction
It does not help with ECD or hole cleaning
Liquid-solid interaction at high shear rates
It value should be as low as possible
Plastic Viscosity is affected by
Solid contamination
Shape and size of solids
Viscosity of fluid phase

 The temperature at which rheological properties are measured

Plastic viscosity is increased by
Hydratable drill solids (example clays, shales, Bentonite)
Inert drill solids
Colloidal matter (example CMC, PAC)\
Weight materials to increase density
Particles breaking thereby increasing surface area and hence more friction.
Plastic Viscosity is decreased by
Shale shakers
Desander / desilter / centrifuge
Lower of gel strengths
Dilution with water / fresh mud.
Definition of yield point (lb / 100 ft2)
It is the measure of force required to start the fluid flowing from stationary. The YP readings
indicates the chemical and physical attractive forces between the fines in the drilling fluids.
Dispersion or attraction between solids
Hole cleaning ability of drilling fluids
It mainly depends on ROP, hydraulic diameters, pump rates, densities, size of cuttings and fracture
gradient.
Yield point is affected by
Types of soilds and associated charges.
Concentration of these solids.
Dissolved salts.
Yield Point is affected by
Hydratable drilled clays.
Insufficient concentration of deflocculants.
Over treated with soda ash or sodium bicarbonate.
The presence of contaminants.
Fracturing of clay particles causes residual force to be left on the particle edges resulting in
flocculation.

Gel Strength: it is the indication of attractive forces between particles when the fluid is stationary. 10 sec gel
strength means how well the mud holding the cuttings in suspension. Ten minute gel strength indicates
how difficult it is to break circulation.
Rheological models

Bingham Plastic Model: Shear stress = YP + PV (Shear Rate): fluid that confirms to the bingham plastic
model do not have a constant viscosity and require a certain minimum stress to initial flow. Slope is PV and
YP is the threshold stress.
Power law model: Shear stress = k (shear rate) n, where n= 3.321 log R600/R300 and K = R600/ 511n
Fluid whose viscosity decreases as the shear rate increases.
Herschel-Bulkley Model: Shear stress = Yield stress + K (shear rate )n
This model is the combination of both bingham and power law models. It results in more accurate models
of rheological behaviour when adequate experimental data are available. Yield stress is normally taken as
3 RPM readings from VG meter.

Shorts on Hole Cleaning

Removal of cutting from the wellbore is an essential part of drilling operation and one of the most important
functions of drilling fluids. Inadequate hole cleaning may leads to some of the following problems:

Excessive overpull and held up during tripping operations.

High torque and drag while drilling.

Stuck pipe.

Hole pack off.

Formation breaks down.

Slow ROP while drilling.

Lost circulation.

Trouble in running casing.

Primary cementing problems.

There are two components that play major role in hole cleaning:
Force components
Velocity components

Force Components:

Force acting downward due to gravity.

Force acting upward due to buoyancy from fluid.
Force acting parallel to the direction of mud flow due to viscous drag caused by mud flowing around
the particles.

Velocity components:

Downward slip velocity due to gravity.

Radial or helical velocity due to rotation and velocity profile.
Axial velocity parallel to the direction of mud flow.

Hole cleaning zones:

.Types of settling
1. Free.
2. Hindered.
3. boycott

The first two types are mainly happens in vertical well whereas all three mainly happens in directional wells.

In turbulent flow the settling velocity is independent of rheology. In laminar flow around particles stokes law
applies for free settling. According to stokes law

Good hole cleaning Factors:

Condition

Annular velocity
Hole geometry
Cuttings
properties
ROP
Drill pipe
rotation
Mud rheology

Hole cleaning

Higher AV better is hole cleaning

Smaller hole diameter increases hole cleaning
Larger cutting size & density tend to increase cutting slip velocity &
hence bad cutting transport. Increase in LSRYP & gel strength will
modify the hole cleaning
Higher ROP will results in higher cutting conc. in annulus. This will
tend to increase high ECD.
In deviated well high pipe rotation speeds provide an effective
means of mechanically disturbing cutting beds & reintroducing them
into the main mud flow for removal.
The effect of rheology on hole cleaning depends on annular flow
regime. In laminar flow increasing in mud viscosity will improve hole
cleaning. In turbulent flow reducing mud density will improve hole
cleaning.

LSRYP
Pump rate

Hole Size

(2xR3 reading R6 reading) > 5 is the good startup for hole

cleaning.
The mud flow rate provides lifting force on cuttings to carry them
out of the wellbore.

Typical Flow rates (gpm)

17.5 inch

1100 gpm minimum, some rig achieve 1250-1400gpm

12.25 inch

Aim for 1100 gpm although 600-1000 gpm is typically achieved

8.5 inch

Aim for 500 gpm. Flow rates>400 can lead to hydraulic erosion

Short Notes on Filtration:

The basic function of drilling fluids is to seal permeable formation and control filtration (fluid loss). The
potential problems arise due to excessive filter cake thickness are as follow:

Excessive drag due to tight spot in the hole.

Reduction in annular clearance results in swabbing and surging.
Differential sticking or stuck pipe due to increased contact area and rapid development of sticking
forces caused by higher filtration rate.
Primary problems during cementing operation.
Problem in running casing.

The potential problems from excessive filtrate invasion are as follows:

Formation damage due to filtrate and solid invasion.

Damage may be due to precipitation of insoluble compounds, changes in wet ability, changes in
relative permeability to oil or gas, formation plugging with fines or solids and swelling of in situ clay.
Difficult in wireline logging due to poor electrical transmission through the filter cakes and potential
mechanical problems in running and retrieving logging tools.

The ability of fluid to move through porous and permeable formation is known as Darcy.
Q (c.c/sec) = (kADp)/UH where Q = filtrate flow rate in cm 3/sec
K = permeability in Darcies.
A = cross-sectional area of pipe through which it flowing.
DP = differential pressure (atmosphere).
U = viscosity (centipoises).
H = thickness of filter cake (cm).

FILTRATION THEORY

A liquid or liquid/solid slurry fluid must be present.

A permeable medium must be present.
The hydrostatic pressure of circulating fluid in the well must be higher than the pore pressure. Once
these conditions are satisfied then filter cake of mud solids will built up on the permeable formation.
Meanwhile the liquid phase of the mud, the filtrate will move through the filter cake and into the
formation. The filter cake thickness and the depth of filtrate invasion are mainly controlled by
concentration of solids in the mud, differential pressure, permeability of filter cake and
length of exposure time

Filtrations are of two types:

1. Static filtration (mainly at the time of tripping, cementing and casing operations).
2. Dynamic filtration (at the time of drilling and circulation).
Factor affecting filtration:

Time
Pressure differential.
Filter cake permeability.
Viscosity.

Mud which exhibit good static filtration characteristics and stability will have satisfactory performance under
actual drilling conditions, indicating the dynamic fluid loss is in satisfactory range. As soon as the bit
exposes to permeable formation, dynamic filtration begins. An overbalance in hydrostatic pressure will
cause immediate filtrate flow into the formation at very high rate. As filtration continues, larger mud solids
bridges porous formation and filter cake begins to form. In static filtration, the permeability of filter cake
limits filtration, not the permeability of the formation. The turbulence of fluid flow at the bit and around the
adjacent drill collar tends to keep filtration rates high by eroding the filter cake. Dynamic filter cakes are
thinner than static filter cake. During tripping static filtration begins but at the time of circulation, the static
filter cake deposited on the dynamic filter cake begins to erode and once again it reaches the equilibrium at
a constant filtration rate.