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SOCIOLOGY

What is? Its the study of how memberships of social groups influence peoples
behaviors. Socialists are interested in how facts are created and how they are linked.
Origins: the Enlightment period, end of 17th century in Europe, great cultural
upheavals: intellectuals and scientists began to question the prevailing view of the
world (based on religious faith). Period attempted to challenge traditional beliefs
through reason and science.
Comte: against background of change (French and Industrial Revolution), he rose the
question how social order was created and maintained. He argued with scientific
method (positivism), and told about three stages:
- Theological: order based on religious beliefs
- Metaphysical: upheaval and disorder, old religious challenged: emergence of
science
- Positive: science and reason: nature of social world, basis of social order
Culture: way of life of a particular group. Defined in terms of material culture and non-material
(beliefs).
Beliefs: ideas accepted as true, they dont need to be supported by evidence.
Social order: behavioral patterns and regularities established by societies.
Positivism: methodology: possible to study social world with the same way scientists study natural
world.

Marx: order created and maintained by conflict, not co-operation. Social


development had passed through four periods, with particular economic relationship:
- Primitive communism
- Ancient society
- Feudal, pre-industrial society: relationship between lord and peasant
- Capitalism, industrial-society: relationship between employer and employee.
Economic relationships: always with conflict because: based on domination of one
group over another. Capitalist: bourgeoisie (owned economic production) dominated
proletariat (only have ability to work).
Class inequality: one small group owns most of wealth, vast majority: little or
nothing. Inequality linked to stratification: ranking of different social classes in
order of their wealth, power and influence. Power came from economic ownership.
Critics: Marx fails to recognize the importance of other not-economic forms of
conflict that may divide a society and lead to social changes (religion, sexes). Also,
he is deterministic: doesnt consider: individual might choose to act in a way
different to the directed by economic structure.
Weber: concerned in social change in the form how societies modernized. For
example: explained the change of agricultural production, feudal pre-industrial
society to industries, manufacture and political democracy.
Social development followed process of modernization that included:
- Industrialization
- Urbanization
- Rationalization: bureaucratic scientific principles
Social change is the result of individuals and groups acting purposefully.
Modernization was fuelled by ideas and principles of Protestant religion. Besides
economy, there were other factors that contributed in social change: political
struggles, beliefs, science, government, etc.

Durkheim:
Societies can only be fully understood in terms of relationships between institutions
(patterns of shared behavior persistent over time)
Sociological problem: what holds a mass of individual together as a society? Solution:
regard social systems as moral entities.
Order is based on common agreement (what society thinks its important).
Societies didnt just exist, people developed social solidarity. In traditional
societies, people are bound together by who they are (part of), and in modern
societies, theres organic solidarity: people together by what they do.
He used positivism method to analyze society. Studied suicide and social causes.
Social order comes from existence of shared values and interests
Science: way of producing knowledge, two qualities: its reliable (check accuracy of
research by repeating it to get similar results), and valid (data useful if it measures or
describes what it claims).
Poppers hypothetic-deductive method: standard example of scientific
procedure. This begins with a hypothesis/research question. Question must be tested,
and conclusions cant be false. Scientific knowledge: occurs when we can affirm
that something will happen in future.
Ethical rules (conditions to be science):
- Universal: objective, universally agreed, criteria.
- Communal: scientific knowledge is public, freely shared within the scientific
community.
- Disinterested: scientists should be recognized and rewarded by their efforts
and achievements, but they shouldnt take a personal stake, financial or in the
outcome of it.
- Skeptical: nothing is beyond criticism: science is true since it hasnt been
disproved yet.
Positivism
Studies the social work in same way scientists study natural world. Construct and test
hypothesis.
Value freedom: conduct and findings of research shouldnt be influenced by researchers values.

Scientific knowledge is factual, objective, evidence-based, and testable.


Interpretivism
Anti-positivism, different approach to research. How people interpret the social
world in different ways. They argue that people are different from inanimate objects
because they have consciousness awareness of themselves and the world. People
cant be studied in the same way we study plants. It explains how people understand
the behavior in which they are involved (qualitative data). Greater validity because it
reveals why people live their lives as they do.
Post-modernism
Not a scientific methodology. Based on the idea that people construct stories through
which to make sense the world. These are neither true nor false: they simply are, and
can be revealed by sociological research.
Role of values in sociology

Data collected and presented in sociological knowledge is value free: hasnt been
influenced by the values, beliefs or prejudices of the researcher. However, is more
value-neutral, since its impossible to truly act without values. Best thing we can do:
recognize them.
Respondent: the subject of a research process | who responds to the research.

Uses of sociological knowledge


In classical sociology, knowledge involved the development of grand theories that
sought to explain social order and change: Marxtheories about capitalism,
economic and social exploitation-inequality /Weber modernization /Durkheim
explored social forces that produced change.
Most recently, social issues such as feminism (patriarchy and gender), poverty, and
social and environmental costs of development.
Social policy: set of actions pursued by government to meet a social objective.
Social problem: behavior seen to cause public friction and misery. Always perspective of the
powerful.

Behaviors including crime, poverty and unemployment: social problems. A social


problem: behavior of which powerful social groups disapprove. Sociological problem:
two categories: the idea that societies have to solve certain problems if they are to
survive. Social order and social change: sociological but no social problems.
Disability: disabled face social problems, discrimination and lack of facilities.
Social policy: main principles under which the government directs economic
resources to meet specific social needs: housing, education, helps to elderly, etc.
Diversity of human behavior and cultural variation
Different societies, interpret behaviors at different ways. Arabs: to shake hand with
someone of the other sex: unacceptable. USA: acceptable to call someone by
pointing with finger, India: insult. Cross-cultural diversity: differences between
societies (personal space in German: 60cm, Argentina: small, or non-existent) / (most
societies: two sexes, some: third sex, transgendered).
Intra-cultural diversity: differences within the same culture
Class
Distinct class grouping, own cultural characteristics. In relation to work: manual
occupation is working class (plumber) while professional occupations are middle class
(dentist). Middle class children are more likely to attend university than their workingclass peers. Possible to identify differences based on a persons cultural products and
ideas.
Age
Different biological age groups (child, youth, adult, elderly), and cultural
characteristics associated with biological age (assumptions of how people should
behave in relation to age). Childhood, cultural differences: Permissions (play) and
denials (have sex). Young: different tastes in music, fashion, language, lifestyles
played out in public. Adulthood: rights such as marriage, and responsibilities, as
childcare (set differences from other age groups). Elderly: medicalization for senility,
old age brings changing patterns of consumption and leisure.
Gender

Different cultural behaviors in the same gender. Life chances can vary between men
and women of the same class, age and ethnicity (men: greater personal share of
family resources). Gender differences (men and women dress differently), some
related to patriarchal ideologies: result in how men and women are treated
(inequalities, women domestic labour, and men hard work, different education and
responsibilities).
Ethnicity
Cultural differences between social groups, where people see themselves as
distinctive from others, on a basis of a shared culture and history. Ethnic groups have
common ancestry and memories of a shared past.
Religion
Wide variations: Christianity, Judaism and Islam involve worship of a single god
(monotheism), other forms such as Paganism, involve worship of different gods
(polytheism), and some belief systems dont involve a god: people believe on the
incomprehensible (North American Sioux).
Possible to be Christian without ever vising a church; different religions require
different levels of personal commitment (attendance at services, praying number of
times).
There are differences between religions (Christianity, Judaism, Islam), differences
within religions (Islam has tree belief systems), and differences of belief practice and
organization (affiliation).
Global culture
Rapid global movement of cultural ideas and products, adapted to fit the needs of
different cultural groups. Cultural products are malleable (manipulated), a pick
andmix approach to culture developed creation of something new: cultural
hybridization.
Globalized culture reflects how national cultural developments can spread, to be
picked up, shaped and changed to suit different groups needs.
Globalization: various processes, economic, political and cultural, that occur on a worldwide basis.

Social order, social control and social change


Functionalist theory and Marxist theory provide interpretations of how order and
control are created and maintained, both are structuralist and argue how societies
are organized. Also determines how individuals view their world and behave
(structural determinism): sees society as a powerful force.
Functionalist theory: consensus is the principle on which societies are based. Focus on institutional
relationships and the functions they perform for the individual and society.
Marxist theory: philosophy based on Marx ideas.
Structuralist: analyze society in terms of institutional relationships and the effect on individual.
Determinism: claim that human behaviors is shaped by forces beyond control of individuals such as
social structures.

Functionalism
Explanations of how order and stability is created and maintained involve looking at
societys organization at social system. Also: various parts of a society function in
harmony, each part dependent on the others. Connections between parts of social
system are created by institutional purposes and needs. For a family institution to
exist and function, its members need to survive. Work institution: needs family to
produce socialized human beings.

Social system, institutions: Economic (solves the physical survival problem: organize
people into work to produce things for survival), Political (solves the problem of
order: find ways of governing and control), Family (solves problem of socialization),
Cultural (solves problem of social integration: make people feel they have things in
common).
Marxism
Work is the most important activity: to survive. Marxists refer to a relationship
between base and superstructure (relationship between economic, political and
ideological institutions).
- Economic base is foundation on which society is built, involves relationships
(of production), and hierarchy (dominant and dominated)
- Political and ideological superstructure rests on the economic base and
involves political institutions (government, religion, education, etc.)
- Workplace: key area of conflict because of its structure: majority sell their
ability to work.
- Ownership and control of institutions allow ruling class to influence,
ideological state apparatuses: fits on capitalist system, that benefits
bourgeoisie.
- Socialization is a type of ideological manipulation to convince interests of
ruling class
Feminist theory
Belief that societies are patriarchal and interests of men are always considered more
important than womens. Interpersonal power: physical violence, or female labour
exploitation; cultural power: male domination structure to oppress women. Liberal
feminism: form of control is sexual discrimination, Marxist feminism; class
inequality provides female oppression (capitalism), radical feminism: patriarchy is
the source of female oppression.
Action approach
Interactionism claims that people create and re-create society on a daily basis
through daily routines. Society exists mentally: people act as though society is a real
force having an effect on them, limiting and controlling behavior creates order and
stability.
Social change
Explanations of social change; functionalism: social change produced when a subsystem changes since they are all connected in social system. Cultural changes
began with development of scientific ideas.
For Marxism, social change comes through conflict and clash between contradictory
interests in capitalism.
Feminism and social change
For liberals, change can be created through legal system. Marxist feminist link gender
inequality to economic or class-based inequalities: development of patriarch is the
product of cultural differences in capitalism. Radicals say that capitalism isnt all: a
change can only come from the overthrow of ideas and practices (anarchy
matriarch).
SOCIALIZATION AND CREATION OF SOCIAL IDENTITY
Nature vs nurture: human behavior explained in biological or cultural terms.
Roles: expected patterns of behaviors associated with each status.

Values: beliefs or ideas most important, expresses how something should be.
Norms: socially accepted way of behaving when playing particular role.

Structuralist and interactionist views: relation individual-society


Relationship between individual and society based on structure and action: domain
assumptions (key ideas) of structuralism and interactionism.
Interactionist: analyses society and situations in terms of the subjective meanings people impose
on objects, events and behaviors.
Structuration: structure and action are equally significant in terms of our ability to understand the
relationship between the individual and society.

Socialization: how to become a competent social actor


Socialization: process through which people learn the various forms of behavior
consistent with membership of a particular culture to become a competent social
actor.
Instincts: fixed human traits, environment play no role in the development of these.
We test nature in the form of instincts, and nurture in the form of socialization.
Feral children
Evidence of children rose with little or no human contact. These are sociologically
significant. Firstly because they fail to show the social and physical development we
would expect from a conventionally raised child (walk, talk). Second, if human
behaviour is instinctive its not clear why children develop so differently from children
raised with human contact this evidence the significance of socialization. Further
evidence for the importance of this process: the fact that different cultures develop
different ways of doing things. If human behaviours were governed by instinct: there
would be few or any differences.
The I and the Me
Human skills have to be taught and learnt. Behavior conditioned by social context in
which it occurs. We develop the concept of self. Two aspects:
- I: our opinion of ourselves, the unsocialised self
- Me: awareness of how others expect us to behave, it develops through
socialization
AGENCIES OF SOCIALIZATION
Social control: the process brings order, stability and predictability to peoples
behaviors; so, its a form of social control. This is linked to a life-long process of rule
learning underpinned by sanctions. Positive sanctions: rewards, pleasant things we
do to make people behave in routine. Negative: punishments, the reverse.
Two basic forms: formal controls: written rules, with formal sanctions. Informal
controls: reward or punish acceptable/unacceptable behavior in everyday, informal
settings (apply to primary relationships).
Primary socialization: primary groups, critical to the development of behaviors
(such as learning language) parents and then people from our age. Its essential
for development and for learning social relationships, how to play roles, etc.
Secondary socialization: secondary groups, not necessary close contact with the
group. Essential to liberate the individual from a dependence on the primary
attachments and relationships formed within the family group. Characterized by
formality and anonymity: how to treat strangers, instrumental relationships.

Agencies of socialization
Primary
Family: long periods. Adults learn roles ranging from husband/wife to parent/stepparent, and children also learn roles (baby, infant, child, teenager, etc.). Parents
shape our basic values (how to address adults) and moral values (understand
difference between right and wrong). Sanctions are informal.
Peers: people of a similar age, they are primary since we tend to choose friends of a
similar age and personal interaction with them influences our behavior. Peer-group
norms often related to ideas about age-appropriate behavior (children mustnt
drink/smoke). Sanctions: informal.
Secondary
Education: involves a formal curriculum: subjects knowledge and skills children are
taught, and a hidden curriculum: things we learn from the experience of attending
school (obedience, respect to the system). School essential in the process since: it
emancipates the child from primary attachment to family, and it allows children to
internalize a level of societys values and norms.
Schools: range of roles (teacher and pupil), extends the idea of cultural relationships
since we become locked into expected behaviors. Also it project values: work hard to
achieve.
Mass media: its secondary since our relationship with it is impersonal. Advertising
aims to make short-term changes in behavior (encourage to buy x product). But
also television has indirect long-term effects: consumerism, fear and agenda
setting.
Religion: moral values influenced by religious values. Religion: design for living, a
force that provides help and guidance to live a life in accord with God. Religious
values are displayed through styles of dress. It has positive sanctions
(reincarnation for Hinduism, sin in Christianity) and negative (excommunication).
SOCIETY: constructed by geographic borders, a system of government, a common
language, customs and traditions, and a sense of belonging and identification. For a
society to function it must have order and stability, and for these to exist peoples
behavior must display patterns and regularities. Cultures constructed so from the
same basic materials: roles, values and norms.
ROLES: contribute to the creation of culture because they demand both social
interactions and an awareness of others. They help individuals develop socially. Every
role has a label.
VALUES: all roles have an aspect based on beliefs about how people should behave.
So, role play is governed by values that guide behaviors.
NORMS: specific behavioral guides that tell people how to successfully play a role,
how people should act in a particular situation. Used to perform roles predictably and
acceptably. Its important because without order and predictability, behavior
becomes risky and confusing. Anomie: people who fail to understand the norms.
Goffman says that norms are more open to interpretation and negotiation than
either roles or values they can be quickly adapted to changes in social

environment. Ex.: some teachers interpret their role as strict disciplinarians, other
with a friendly approach.
BELIEFS: fundamental, deep-rooted ideas that shape our values and are shaped by
them. All values express a belief, but not every belief expresses a value.
IDEOLOGIES: constructed around a set of fundamental beliefs whose purpose is to
explain: the meaning of life, the nature of family organization, and the superiority of
selected social groups.

METHODS OF RESEARCH
Primary and secondary data
Primary

Definition

Information collected
personally by researcher. May
be questionnaires, interviews
and observational data.

Strengths

. Researcher has complete


control over how data is
collected: by whom and for
what purpose.
. Greater control over reliability
and validity of the data, and
also how representative its.

Secondary
Data that already exists, such as
documents (governments reports
and statistics, diaries) or previous
research completed by other
sociologists.
. Researcher saves time, money
and effort.
. Sometimes its the only
available resource.
. Useful for historical and
comparative purposes.
. Official statistics: highly reliable
and representative.

. Time consuming to design,


. Not always produced with the
construct and carry out.
needs of sociologists in mind.
. Expensive.
. Some sources may only reflect
Limitations
. May be difficult to access the
the views of a single individual
target group.
rather than representing wider
. Some people may refuse to
opinions.
participate/no longer alive.
Quantitative data
Expresses information numerically, in one of these ways:
- A raw number (total number of people who live in society).
- A percentage or number of people per 100.
- A rate or the number of people per 1000.
Strengths
- Ability to express relationships statistically is useful if the researcher doesnt
need to explore the reasons for peoples behaviors.
- Allows summarizing vast sources of information and making comparisons
across categories and over time.
- Statistical comparisons and correlations can test whether a hypothesis is true
or false.
- Can track changes in behavior of same group over time (longitudinal study).
- More reliable since: easy to repeat.
- Standardized questions asked with different groups, different times: results
can be quantified and compared.
- This data makes it easier for the researcher to remain objective.
- Personal biases less likely to intrude into data-collection (since its not
necessary to have personal involvement with the subjects).

Limitations
- Quantification often achieved by placing the respondent in an artificial setting
(for controlling responses and data). Less ecological validity: impossible to
capture peoples normal behavior/real responses when subjects are placed in
artificial environment.
- This data collects a narrow range of information. Doesnt reveal the reasons
for behavior since it lacks depth.
- Superficial, difficult to get real meaning of an issue by looking numbers.
- Issues are only measured if they are known prior to the beginning of the
research. To quantify, the researcher must decide in advance what is
significant from the behavior studied.

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