CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Over recent past years, stringent emission legislations have been imposed on NO x,
smoke and particulate emissions emitted from automotive engines worldwide. SI
engines are typically characterized by low fuel consumption and very low CO
emissions. However, the NOx emissions from SI engines still remain high. Hence,
in order to meet the environmental legislations, it is highly desirable to reduce the
amount of NOx in the exhaust gas. Petrol engines are predominantly used to drive
various types of vehicles. Owing to their low fuel consumption, they have become
increasingly attractive but higher NOx emissions from the engine remain a major
problem in the pollution aspect. For reducing vehicular emissions, baseline
technologies are being used which include exhaust gas recirculation, retarded
injection timing, fuel denitrogenation, staged injection of fuel, water injection,
exhaust catalysts, reduction of premixed burn fraction by reducing ignition delay,
engines direct injection, turbo-charging, air-to-air inter-cooling, combustion
optimization with and without swirl support, multi-valve cylinder head, advanced
high pressure injection system i.e. split injection or rate shaping, electronic
management system, lube oil consumption control etc. Among the above methods,
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) is one of the most effective techniques currently
available for reducing NOx emissions from I.C engines. Technologies like exhaust
gas recirculation (EGR), soot traps and exhaust gas after-treatment are essential to
cater to the challenges posed by increasingly stringent environmental emission
legislations.

1.2 EXHAUST POLLUTANTS

Exhaust gas emitted as a result of the combustion of fuels such as natural
gas, gasoline/petrol, diesel fuel, fuel oil or coal. The type of emission depends on
the condition of combustion occurring inside the engine. The different exhaust gas
emissions are:
1.2.1 Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbon emissions result when fuel molecules in the engine do not burn or
burn only partially. Hydrocarbons react in the presence of nitrogen oxides and
sunlight to form ground-level ozone, a major component of smog. Ozone irritates
the eyes, damages the lungs, and aggravates respiratory problems. It is our most
widespread and intractable urban air pollution problem. A number of exhaust
hydrocarbons are also toxic, with the potential to cause cancer.
1.2.2 Nitrogen Oxides (NOX)
Under the high pressure and temperature conditions in an engine, nitrogen and
oxygen atoms in the air react to form various nitrogen oxides, collectively known
as NOx. Nitrogen oxides, like hydrocarbons, are precursors to the formation of
ozone. They also contribute to the formation of acid rain.
1.2.3 Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a product of incomplete combustion and occurs when
carbon in the fuel is partially oxidized rather than fully oxidized to carbon dioxide
(CO). Carbon monoxide reduces the flow of oxygen in the bloodstream and is
particularly dangerous to persons with heart disease.
1.2.4 Carbon Dioxide
In recent years, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has started to
view carbon dioxide, a product of perfect combustion, as a pollution concern.
Carbon dioxide does not directly impair human health, but it is a greenhouse gas
that traps the earths heat and contributes to the potential for global warming.

1.3 MECHANISM OF NOX FORMATION

A major hurdle in understanding the mechanism of formation and controlling its
emission is that combustion is highly heterogeneous and transient. While NO and
NO2 are lumped together as NOx, there are some distinctive differences between
these two pollutants. NO is a colourless and odourless gas, while NO 2 is a reddishbrown gas with pungent odour. Both gases are considered toxic, but NO 2 has a
level of toxicity 5 times greater than that of NO. Although NO 2 is largely formed
from oxidation of NO, attention has been given on how NO can be controlled
before and after combustion. NO is formed during the post flame combustion
process in a high temperature region. The most widely accepted mechanism was
suggested by Zeldovich. The principal source of NO formation is the oxidation of
the nitrogen present in atmospheric air. The nitric oxide formation chain reactions
are initiated by atomic oxygen, which forms from the dissociation of oxygen
molecules at the high temperatures reached during the combustion process. The
principal reactions governing the formation of NO from molecular nitrogen are,

N 2 O NO N
N O2 NO O

N OH NO H
Chemical equilibrium consideration indicates that for burnt gases at typical flame
temperatures, NO2/NO ratios should be negligibly small. While experimental data
show that this is true for spark ignition engines, in diesels, NO 2 can be 10 to 30%
of total exhaust emissions of oxides of nitrogen. A plausible mechanism for the
persistence of NO2 is as follows. NO formed in the flame zone can be rapidly
converted to NO2 via reactions such as

NO HO 2 NO2 OH
Subsequently, conversion of this NO2 to NO occurs via

NO2 O NO O2
unless the NO2 formed in the flame is quenched by mixing with cooler fluid. This
explanation is consistent with the highest NO 2/NO ratio occurring at high load in
diesels, when cooler regions which could quench the conversion back to NO is
widespread.
The local atomic oxygen concentration depends on molecular oxygen
concentration as well as local temperatures. Formation of NO x is almost absent at
temperatures below 2000K. Hence any technique, that can keep the instantaneous
local temperature in the combustion chamber below 2000 K, will be able to reduce
NOx formation.
1.4 EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION SYSTEM
Exhaust gas recirculation means re-circulating exhaust gas to the engine.
Intermixing the incoming air with re-circulated exhaust gas lowers the adiabatic
flame temperature and reduces the excess oxygen. The exhaust gas increases the
specific heat of the mixture and lowers the peak combustion temperature. NO x
formation progresses faster at higher temperatures. EGR serves to limit the
formation of NOx. In internal combustion engines, exhaust gas recirculation
(EGR) is a useful technique for reducing NOx formation in the combustion
chamber. Exhaust consists of CO2; N2 and water vapours mainly. When a part of
this exhaust gas is re-circulated to the cylinder, it acts as diluents to the
combusting mixture. This also reduces the O2 concentration in the combustion
chamber. The specific heat of the EGR is much higher than fresh air; hence EGR
increases the heat capacity (specific heat) of the intake charge, thus decreasing the
temperature rise for the same heat release in the combustion chamber.

EGR%

[ M a ]withoutEGR [ M a ]withEGR
[ M a ]withoutEGR

EGR works by re-circulating a portion of an engine's exhaust gas back to the

engine cylinders. In a gasoline engine, this inert exhaust displaces the amount of
combustible matter in the cylinder. In a diesel engine, the exhaust gas replaces

some of the excess oxygen in the pre-combustion mixture. Because NOx forms
primarily when a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen is subjected to high temperature,
the lower combustion chamber temperatures caused by EGR reduces the amount
of NOx the combustion generates. Most modern engines now require exhaust gas
recirculation to meet emissions standards.

Fig 1.1 Schematic of working of EGR

There are two types of EGR; Internal and External. Internal EGR uses variable
valve timings or other devices to retain a certain fraction of exhaust from the
preceding cycle. Internal EGR provides very short response time, its practical
application is not possible until cam less technology becomes widely available.
Furthermore, in internal EGR the gases cannot be cooled, whereas in external
EGR it can be cooled. Therefore external EGR has emerged as the preferred
current approach. External EGR involves diverting a fraction of the exhaust gas
into the in-take manifold where the re-circulated exhaust gas mixes with the
incoming air before being inducted into the combustion chamber. The

recirculation of exhaust gases raises the total heat capacity of the working gases in
the engine cylinder and thus lowers the peak gas temperature.
1.5

HOW

DOES

EXHAUST

GAS

RECIRCULATION

REDUCE

POLLUTION?
The emissions targeted by EGR come from nitrous oxides that are produced at
very high temperatures. By mixing the car's exhaust with the intake air, the
amount of oxygen in the mixture is reduced and its combustibility is also
decreased, which causes the fuel to burn at a lower temperature. In most EGR
systems, the exhaust is also cooled before it's mixed with the gas. Therefore, fuel
mixed with exhaust burns cooler and less likely to produce N 2O. The lower
temperatures also help fuel economy. With fuel less prone to detonation, the
programmers who write the software timing routines for modern engines have
more control over the precision of the engine's timing. The lower temperatures
also help to avoid heat transfer energy losses, meaning that more of the car's
energy goes into providing power for its wheels.
The valve can be fitted into one of two locations;
a. On a pipe between the exhaust and inlet manifold.
b. Directly on the cylinder head controlling the flow between internal
passages.
The valves can either be vacuum or electronically (ECU) operated. The valve
is only opened during peak NOx output conditions. These are generally at times
with low load, light throttle, high RPM conditions such as cruising along the
motorway. Under these conditions the valve opens and exhaust gasses are drawn
into the inlet system. Older systems relied on the pressure difference between the
inlet and exhaust manifolds to open and close the valve. The control of the
electronic valves is a little more scientific. The ECU holds details of high NO x
conditions and regulates the EGR accordingly. The control of the valve is digital
and is precisely controlled not just either open or closed. The majority of valves
tend to be of the stepper motor type although DC servo/linear solenoids are not
uncommon.

1.6 EGR IN SI ENGINES

In a spark ignition (SI) engine, the re-circulated inert exhaust gases displace some
of the intake charge, thereby reducing the combustion temperature and NOx
formation. The exhaust gas, added to the fuel, oxygen, and combustion products,
increases the specific heat capacity of the cylinder contents, which lowers
the adiabatic flame temperature. In a typical automotive spark-ignited (SI) engine,
5 to 15 per cent of the exhaust gas is routed back to the intake as EGR. The
maximum quantity is limited by the requirement of the mixture to sustain a
contiguous flame front during the combustion event; excessive EGR in poorly set
up applications can cause misfires and partial burns. Although EGR does
measurably slow combustion, this can largely be compensated for by advancing
spark timing. The impact of EGR on engine efficiency largely depends on the
specific engine design, and sometimes leads to a compromise between efficiency
and NOx emissions. A properly operating EGR can theoretically increase the
efficiency of gasoline engines via several mechanisms:
1.6.1

Reduced Throttling Losses.

The addition of inert exhaust gas into the intake system means that for a given
power output, the throttle plate must be opened further, resulting in increased inlet
manifold pressure and reduced throttling losses.
1.6.2

Reduced Heat Rejection.

Lowered peak combustion temperatures not only reduce NO x formation, it also

reduces the loss of thermal energy to combustion chamber surfaces, leaving more
available for conversion to mechanical work during the expansion stroke.
1.6.3

Reduced Chemical Dissociation.

The lower peak temperatures result in more of the released energy remaining as
sensible energy near TDC (Top Dead-Centre), rather than being bound up (early in
the expansion stroke) in the dissociation of combustion products. This effect is

minor compared to the first two. It also decreases the efficiency of gasoline
engines via at least one more mechanism:
1.6.4

Reduced Specific Heat Ratio.

A lean intake charge has a higher specific heat ratio than an EGR mixture. A
reduction of specific heat ratio reduces the amount of energy that can be extracted
by the piston.
EGR is typically not employed at high loads because it would reduce peak power
output. This is because it reduces the intake charge density. EGR is also omitted at
idle (low-speed, zero load) because it would cause unstable combustion, resulting
in rough idle. The EGR valve also cools the exhaust valves and makes them last
far longer.
Since the EGR system re-circulates a portion of exhaust gases, over time the valve
can become clogged with carbon deposits that prevent it from operating properly.
Clogged EGR valves can sometimes be cleaned, but replacement is necessary if
the valve is faulty.
1.7 TWO STROKE ENGINE
A two-stroke engine is a type of internal combustion engine which completes a
power cycle in only one crankshaft revolution and with two strokes, or up and
down movements, of the piston in comparison to a "four-stroke engine", which
uses four strokes to do so. This is accomplished by the end of the combustion
stroke and the beginning of the compression stroke happening simultaneously and
performing the intake and exhaust (or scavenging) functions at the same time.
Two-stroke engines often provide high power-to-weight ratio, usually in a narrow
range of rotational speeds called the "power band", and, compared to 4-stroke
engines, have a greatly reduced number of moving parts, are more compact and
significantly lighter.
Gasoline (spark ignition) versions are particularly useful in lightweight (portable)
applications such as chainsaws and small, lightweight and racing motorcycles, and

the concept is also used in diesel compression ignition engines in large and weight
insensitive applications, such as ships, locomotives and electricity generation. The
heat transfer from the engine to the cooling system is less in a two-stroke engine
than in a traditional four-stroke, a fact that adds to the overall engine efficiency,
however, traditional 2-strokes have a poor exhaust emissions feature.

1.7.1 Working Principle of Two Stroke Engine

1.7.1.1 1st stroke (Upward Stroke):
The piston is at the bottom of the cylinder. A pipe at the left side is opened and lets
the fuel mixture, which is already compressed a bit, flow from the lower to the
upper part of the cylinder. The fresh gases expel now the exhaust through an
ejection pipe, which is not closed by the piston at this moment
1.7.1.2 2nd stroke (Downward Stroke):
After being hurried upward, the piston now covers the pipe on the left side and the
ejection pipe. Because there is no way out any more, the upper, fresh gas mixture
gets compressed now. At the same time in the part below fresh gas is taken in by
the piston driving upward through the open suction pipe. At the upper dead-centre,
the compressed fuel mixture is ignited by the sparking plug, the piston is pressed
downward while he compresses at the same time the fresh gas below. The process
begins again as soon as the piston arrives at its lowest point.

Fig. 1.2 Working of two stroke engine

1.8 LPG AS FUEL FOR TWO STROKE ENGINES
LPG is a mixture of butane (41.1%) and propane (57.3%) which is used as an
alternative fuel to petrol and is vastly accepted around the world. Due to current
fuel price inflation and also current oil crisis, drastic moves have been taken by
many countries to reduce the use of petrol and find other alternatives. LPG is
commonly used as a fuel in homes for cooking and heating and as a transportation
fuel. It is normally created as a by-product of petroleum refining and from the
production of Natural Gas.

1.8.1 LPG Properties

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)

LPG is a liquid under pressure but a gas at ambient conditions.

Vapour LPG is twice as heavy as air and half as heavy as water.
LPG is colourless and odourless.
LPG has a low boiling point of -18 oC.
LPG has a narrow flammability range between 1.8 to 9.5% in air.
Flash point of LPG is -76 oF.
The minimum ignition temperature of LPG is in the range 410oC to 580oC.
LPG is non-toxic.
It is lightly anaesthetic and can cause suffocation, if present in sufficiently
high concentrations.

10

j) Liquid LPG can cause severe cold burns to the skin owing to rapid

vaporization and the consequent lowering of temperature

1.8.2 Advantages of LPG

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)

Clean Burning
No soot, burners have a longer life - so maintenance is low
No spillage as it vaporises at atmospheric temperature and pressure.
Effects of corrosion are greatly reduced
Instantly controllable flame temperature
Avoids Scaling and decarburising of parts
Environmentally friendly fuel, with minimal sulphur content and sulphurfree emissions

1.9 EXHAUST GAS ANALYSER

The exhaust gas analyser is an apparatus which allows determining content of the
four key flue gas components nitrogen, oxygen, carbon monoxide and carbon
dioxide thanks to chemical reactions. The main components of the apparatus are:
a. Burette used to measure volume of the flue gas sample.
b. Bottle with coloured water, used as a driving medium by application of
hydrostatic force.
c. Two or three absorption bottles with capillary tubes where the individual
components of the flue gas are absorbed.
d. Block of valves providing access to individual absorption bottles.
e. Three-way valve allowing to connect the burette to the incoming flue gas
line or to the ambient air.
The general working principle is as follows:
a. Certain amount of dry flue gas is delivered to the burette
b. Flue gas is pumped to consecutive absorption bottles where individual flue
gas components are absorbed. After absorption of each component, the
volume of remaining gas mixture is verified, thus allows to determine
volumes of individual components.
Each apparatus at the Thermodynamics Laboratory has two absorption bottles:
a. Bottle filled with potash lye, which absorbs carbon dioxide

11

b. Bottle filled with pyrogallic acid solution, which absorbs oxygen.

After CO2 and O2 are absorbed, CO content may be determined using an
Ostwalds diagram for the specific fuel. It could also be determined using a third
reagent.
1.10

HIGH EFFICIENCY PARTICULATE AIR FILTER (HEPA)

HEPA filters are composed of a mat of randomly arranged fibres. The fibres are
typically composed of fiberglass and possess diameters between 0.5 and 2.0
micrometers. Key factors affecting function are fibre diameter, filter thickness,
and face velocity. The air space between HEPA filter fibres is much greater than
0.3 m. Unlike membrane filters at this pore size, where particles as wide as the
largest opening or distance between fibres cannot pass in between them at all,
HEPA filters are designed to target much smaller pollutants and particles. These
particles are trapped through a combination of the following three mechanisms:
1. Interception, where particles following a line of flow in the air stream
come within one radius of a fibre and adhere to it.
2. Impaction, where larger particles are unable to avoid fibres by following
the curving contours of the air stream and are forced to embed in one of
them directly.
3. Diffusion, an enhancing mechanism that is a result of the collision with
gas molecules by the smallest particles, especially those below 0.1 m in
diameter; this behaviour is similar to Brownian motion and raises the
probability that a particle will be stopped by either of the two mechanisms
above; it becomes dominant at lower air flow velocities.

12

Fig 1.3 HEPA Filter

13

CHAPTER 2
DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGER
2.1 COOLING SYSTEM FOR EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATION
The exhaust gas drawn off for recirculation has a temperature of around 200 C. It
is therefore far too hot to be fed directly into the cylinders; it would increase the
temperature of the combustion chamber even further, thereby defeating its actual
purpose, that of reducing nitrogen oxide formation by lowering the combustion
temperature. For this reason, the exhaust gas is first cooled to around 50 C. In the
case of industrial engines with high intake air and exhaust mass flow rates that
requires high cooling capacities, which have to be supplied by high-performance
heat exchangers.

Fig 2.1 Heat Exchanger

14

A heat exchanger is a piece of equipment built for efficient heat transfer from one
medium to another. Heat exchangers can be of different types, one of which is
shell and tube heat exchanger. Shell and tube heat exchangers consist of a series
of tubes. One set of these tubes contains the fluid that must be either heated or
cooled. The second fluid runs over the tubes that are being heated or cooled so
that it can either provide the heat or absorb the heat required.
To cool the exhaust gas up to operating temperature before re-admitting it back to
intake manifold, a single pass shell and tube counter flow heat exchanger has been
designed and fabricated. The calculation for design is shown below.
2.2 DESIGN CALCULATION
Consider a shell and tube single pass heat exchanger with tube inner diameter
25mm; tube outer diameter 35mm and outer diameter of shell as 70mm.
Let exhaust gas inlet temperature

T1= 200 oC

Exhaust gas outlet temperature

T2 = 50 oC

Cooling water inlet temperature

T3 = 29 oC

Cooling water mass flow rate

= 80g/s

The exhaust is considered as air. So at 200 oC specific heat of air is 1.09 KJ/Kg K.
At 2000 rpm the mass flow rate of exhaust gas can be calculated as 3g/s.
From heat balance equation,
Heat gained by cooling water = heat lost by exhaust gas
804.18 (T4-29) = 31.09 (200-50)
T4 = 30 oC
Now for exhaust gas,

At Tf =

200 50
125
2

15

(3.1)

 = 26.10 10-6 m2s ,

Pr = 0.685 ,

k = 0.0328 W/mK ,

= 0.875Kg/m3

= 22.3 10-6 Ns/m2

Re

VD mD 4m

A D

Reynolds number,
(3.2)

4 3 1000000
25 22.3

= 6855
So flow is turbulent.
From Dittus-Boilter equation,
Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.3

(3.3)

= 0.023 (6855)0.8 (0.685)0.3

= 24
hD
24
k

24 0.0328
0.025

= 28

For water, At Tf =
= 998kg/m3 ,

30 29
29.5
2

= 0.8510-6 m2s ,

k = 0.618W/mK ,

Re

4mD
( D 2 d 2)

Reynolds number,
(3.4)

16

Pr = 0.634

4 150 70 1000000
(4900 1225) 998 0.85

= 4290.5
Flow is turbulent.
From Dittus-Boelter equation,
(3.5)

Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.4

= 0.023 (4290.5)0.8 (0.634)0.4
= 15.5
hD
15.5
k

15.5 0.618
0.07

= 13
Overall heat transfer coefficient,

1
1

U hi

D
d d
2k
Dho

D ln

(3.6)
1
1

U 137

0.035 ln
2 50

U = 49.5
Log mean temperature difference is given by,

17

35
25

25
70 28

Tm

(200 30) (50 29)

200 30
ln
50 29

= 71.5 oC
Let L be the length of heat exchanger. Then,
U(DL)Tm = mCp(T1-T2)
(3.7)
49.53.140.0771.5L= 31.09 (200-50)
L = 63 cm

18

CHAPTER 3
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS
3.1 EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
Fig. 3.1 indicates the experimental setup developed and used for this work. The
engine employed for the experimental work was a two stroke, single-cylinder, air
cooled, petrol engine with separate systems for the control of EGR rate, air and
fuel flow rate. Technical specifications of the engine are shown in Table 3.1.

Fig 3.1 Engine set up

The engine setup was modified to work with EGR. A single pass counter flow
shell and tube heat exchanger was installed to cool the exhaust gas before recirculating it. The exhaust gas was circulated through an external piping which

19

connected the exhaust manifold to the intake manifold with an EGR valve as
shown in Fig.3.2 . The amount of EGR was controlled manually by adjusting the
EGR valve.

Fig 3.2 EGR Valve and filter

Table: 3.1 Specification of the engine
Type

2 Stroke

Cooling Type

Forced Air Cooled

Displacement

145.45 cc

Max Power

7 BHP( 5.15 kW) 5000 rpm

Max Torque

12.1 Nm @ 3500 rpm

Ignition Type

CDI

Transmission Type

4 forward and one reverse

Bore Diameter

102 mm

Stroke length

116 mm

20

An air-box manometer was installed for the measurement of air flow rate and
another air-box manometer to measure the amount of exhaust gas to be recirculated. The inclination of the manometer was 30. Water was used as
manometric fluid. EGR flow rates were varied in steps of 5% from 0% to 15%.
LPG was used as a primary fuel that was carbureted with intake air and admitted
into engine cylinder. LPG mass flow rate was measured by the difference of its
weight for 5 min duration.
The load was measured by the use of a spring balance dynamometer. The tests
were conducted from no load to full load of engine operation at rated speed of
2000 rpm. The engine exhaust gas temperature was measured with the help of
infrared thermometer.
The particulate matter was filtered by the HEPA filter. A chemical type exhaust
gas analyzer was used to measure HC, NO x and CO levels in the exhaust for every
set of experiment.
3.2 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Constant speed load tests were conducted on the engine for measurement of
different exhaust gas emission and engine performance. The experiments were
conducted on different load conditions and EGR percentage was varied from 0%
to 15% in steps of 5%. First, the engine was at no load condition and the various
measurements for mass flow rate of air, mass flow rate of fuel and using exhaust
gas analyzer exhaust gas emissions were measured. Then using EGR valve the
amount of exhaust to be re-circulated was increased and all the parameters were
measured again and with the help of brake drum dynamometer the engine was
loaded in steps of 1 kg till full load and the speed was kept constant at 2000 rpm.

21

CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 CARBON MONOXIDE EMISSION
Fig.4.1 depicts the variation in CO levels for LPG operation with various EGR
percentages for different load conditions. CO level for LPG without EGR, it varies
from 3513 ppm at no load to 4640 ppm at full load. From no load to 40% load for
all EGR percentages, there is a reduction in CO level when compared with LPG
operation without EGR. At 5% EGR a favourable reduction in CO emission can
be seen at all loads. Because the EGR raises the intake air temperature it could
lead to a reduction in CO level. Similarly at 10% and 15% EGR, there is
significant reduction in CO emissions by about 25%. This may be due to decrease
in combustion temperature inside the cylinder which causes dissociation of CO 2
into CO and O2 leading to decrease in CO emissions.
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500

0%

5%

10%

15%

2000
1500
1000
500
0
0

22

Fig: 4.1 Variation of CO with load

23

4.2 OXIDES OF NITROGEN EMISSION (NOx)

The effect of various EGR percentages on NO x emission for neat LPG operation is
shown in Fig.4.2. Generally EGR raises the total heat capacity of the working
gases in engine cylinder and lowers the elevated peak temperature. The
concentration of NOx in the case of LPG operation without EGR ranges from 6
ppm at no load to 15 ppm at full load. From the figure it can be observed that at no
load to 40% load, for all EGR percentages, the NOx is found to be slightly higher
when compared with LPG operation without EGR. This is because the exhaust gas
mixes with intake air and raises the inlet air temperature slightly which will also
enhance the combustion rate, thereby leading to an increase in the cylinder
temperature and hence higher NOx emissions in the engine exhaust. At higher
power outputs, significant reduction in NOx concentration particularly with high
EGR percentages is observed. From 5% to 15% EGR, at part load, the NO x
reduces by about 40%. This may be due to the fact that at part loads as well as
with higher EGR percentages, the concentration of both CO 2 and H2O present in
the EGR is more. These gases absorb energy released by combustion, which
reduces the peak combustion temperature in the combustion chamber resulting in
the reduction of NOx emissions in the engine exhaust.
30
25
20
0%
5%

15

10%
15%

10
5
0
0

24

Fig. 4.2 Variation of NOx with load

4.3 HYDROCARBON (HC) EMISSION
The variation of hydrocarbon emissions for LPG operation with various EGR
percentages is shown in Fig. 4.3. For neat LPG without EGR, its concentration
varies from 1765 ppm at no load to 2809 ppm at full load. It can be observed that
from no load to 40% load for all EGR percentages, there is an increase in HC
emissions when compared with LPG operation without EGR. This may be due to
the reason that at part loads the mixture available inside the cylinder is rich due
less availability of oxygen. It can also be seen that at 5% EGR there is an increase
in HC emissions at all loads, it increases from 2163 ppm at no load to 2821 ppm at
full load. At 80% and full load condition, the increase in HC emission is
significant, particularly at 10% and 15% EGR. This may be due to the reduction
of O2 in the inlet charge by the EGR admitted into the cylinder. The lack of O 2 was
responsible for reduced oxidation rate, which leads to incomplete combustion
hence higher HC emissions.
3500
3000
2500
2000
0%

1500

5%

10%

15%

1000
500
0
0

Fig: 4.3 Variation of HC with load

25

4.4 BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY

The effect of exhaust gas recirculation on brake thermal efficiency is shown in
Fig. 4.4 for different load conditions. For LPG operation without EGR it ranges
from 4.41% at no load to 21.45% at full load. From the figure it can be observed
that at part loads (20% and 40% load), the brake thermal efficiency increases with
increase in EGR percentage as compared to LPG operation without EGR. From
5% to 15% EGR at part loads, the improvement in efficiency is about 2.5%. This
is because at low loads lean mixture is admitted into the engine cylinder during
suction stroke and increasing the quantity of EGR results in reduction in airfuel
ratio towards stoichiometric ratio and thus results in better combustion of LPG.
Moreover at part loads, EGR improves the combustion by re-circulating active
radicals, which will enhance combustion in the combustion chamber. It can also
be seen that at 5% EGR, the efficiency was found to be higher throughout the load
spectrum as compared to LPG operation without EGR and improvement is about
0.5% at 20% load to 2.2% at full load. This is because as the load increases, the
recycled exhaust gas temperature also increases which leads to accelerated
combustion reaction in the combustion chamber and thereby increases thermal

26

efficiency.

25%

20%

15%
0%

5%

10%

15%

10%

5%

0%
0

Fig: 4.4 Variation of brake thermal efficiency with load

4.5 FIN TEMPERATURE
The variation of fin temperature for LPG mode of operation with various EGR
percentages is shown in Fig. 4.5. It can be observed that the fin temperature is
lower by about 50 C in the case of LPG operation without EGR through-out the
load spectrum as compared to petrol operation. From no load to full load, there is
a slight increase in fin temperature for all EGR percentages. Also it can be seen
that there is a substantial reduction in fin temperature particularly with high EGR
percentage at higher loads. From 5% to 15% EGR, at 40% and at full load
condition the fin temperature decreases from 182 C to 174 C and from 182 C to
163 C respectively. In general increase in EGR quantity into the engine cylinder,

27

results in reduction in peak combustion temperature and hence the coolant heat
loss reduces.
250

200

150
0%

5%

10%

15%

100

50

0
0

Fig. 4.5 Variation of fin temperature with load

4.6 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
Fig. 4.6 shows the variation of specific fuel consumption with brake power for
different values of EGR percentages. It can be observed that SFC without EGR is
higher than the SFC with 5% EGR as the fuel consumption decreases. With 10%
EGR and with 15% EGR it is nearly the same.

28

2
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1

0%

5%

10%

15%

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0

Fig 4.6 Variation of specific fuel consumption with load

29

CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSIONS
An experimental set-up to measure the effects of exhaust gas recirculation on
engine characteristics like exhaust gas temperature, thermal efficiency, brake
specific fuel consumption and exhaust emissions has been developed.
Experiments were carried out using the setup to prove the efficacy of EGR as a
technique for NOx reduction. It is seen that the exhaust gas temperature reduces by
employing EGR. This indirectly shows the potential for reduction of NO x
emission. This can be concluded from the fact that the most important reason for
the formation of NOx in the combustion chamber is the high temperature. The NOx
concentration decreases with EGR technique. Minimum concentration of NOx is 9
ppm with 15% EGR. The reduction in NO x is due to the reduction in peak
combustion temperature, that is, due to the presence of inert gas from EGR. Due
to reduction in the engine temperature the dissociation of carbon dioxide into
carbon monoxide and oxygen reduces. This causes a reduction in emission of
carbon monoxide by 25% with EGR at part loads. The reduction in engine
temperature reduces the coolant heat loss due to convection from engine fins. The
brake thermal efficiency increases by about 2.5% at part loads for all EGR
percentages as compared to LPG operation without EGR. However at no load and
full load higher EGR percentage affects the performance of the engine. The
specific fuel consumption is also found to decrease.
EGR is proved to be one of the most efficient methods of NO x reduction in LPG
engines also.

30

CHAPTER 6
SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK
This technique can be more efficient in the case of electronic engine where the
amount of EGR can be more precisely controlled. The amount of valve openings
that gives maximum efficiency and better emissions characteristics at each load
can be used. Hence, fuel efficiency of the vehicle can be improved by installing
automatically controlled EGR valve. Large scale use of EGR in automotive
industry can help in creating a cleaner environment.

31

REFERENCES
[1]

Jothi, N. K. M., Nagarajan, G., Renganarayanan, S., LPG fueled diesel

engine using diethyl ether with exhaust gas recirculation International
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[2]

Heffel, J. W., NOx emission reduction in a hydrogen fueled internal

combustion engine at 3000 rpm using exhaust gas recirculation,
International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Vol. 28, pp. 12851292, 2003.

[3]

Maiboom, A., Tauzia, X., Hetet, J. F., Experimental study of various

effects of exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) on combustion and emissions of
an automotive direct injection diesel engine Energy, Vol.33 pp. 2234,
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[4]

Saravanan, N., Nagarajan, G., Kalaiselvan, K. M., Dhanasekaran, C., An

experimental investigation on hydrogen as a dual fuel for diesel engine
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[5]

Sen, A. K., Ash, S. K., Huang, B., Huang, Z., Effect of exhaust gas
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[6]

Abd-Alla, G. H., Using exhaust gas recirculation in internal combustion

engines: a review, Energy Conversion and Management, Vol. 43, pp. 1027
1042, 2002.

[7]

Wei, H., Zhu, T., Shu, G., Tan, L., Wang, Y., Gasoline engine exhaust gas
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[8]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_gas_recirculation

[9] http://www.combustion.com/products/egr

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