Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 1 of 31

Energy levels atom/nucleus comparison

Levels characterised by:

energy

spin

parity

lifetime/width ( = )
1 ps == 0.7 meV

magnetic moment,

quadrupole moment, Q
General behaviour:
Initially sparse level density as a
function of energy, increasing to a
very high density, then reach
ionisation/separation.
Very similar behaviour!

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 2 of 31

Reminder about parity

Parity is a means of characterising wavefunctions and describes its symmetry.
Parity operation: r -r
Equivalent to: x -x
y -y
z -z

rr
-
+

Observables depend on |(r)|2

If V(r) = V(-r) then |(r)|2 = |(-r)|2. (True for central potentials)
But, if |(r)|2 = |(-r)|2, then (r) = (-r).
The sign (+ or -) defines the parity.
+ positive (even) parity
- negative (odd) parity

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 3 of 31

Wavefunctions and Angular Momentum

Consider a particle moving in a spherical potential. The wavefunction has the form:
r , ,=R nl r Y lm ,
The radial part has the energy dependence and the angular part has the angular momentum. The
functions Ylm are the spherical harmonic angular momentum wavefunctions.
Semi-classically, the wavefunction Ylm describes an angular
momentum vector where l specifies the magnitude and m specifies
its direction, through the projection of the angular momentum on an
axis (conventionally the z axis). In this vector picture, the angular
momentum lies along a cone. We cannot know where on the cone,
but we do know the height of the cone, m.
2

L Y lm ,=l l1 Y lm ,
L z Y lm ,=m Y lm ,

where l=0,1,2,3,4...

where m=l ,l 1,... , l1,l

The different possibilities for m are sometimes called the magnetic substates, since they can be
observed by putting the system in a magnetic field. They describe the orientation of the angular
momentum vector with respect to the z axis.
The parity of the angular momentum wavefunction is given by (-1)l.

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 4 of 31

Energy levels Confinement in a potential

The presence of quantum energy levels arises
from the confinement of particle motion in a
potential. A simple potential that
approximates the nuclear potential is a finite
square well.
The wavefunctions are linear combinations of
sine and cosine functions within the well and
exponential functions within the well walls.
The coefficients in the functions must be
derived numerically (top graph). The first few
wavefunctions and the associated probability
distributions are shown below.
Some questions:
How is the potential created in a nucleus?
How can we know the nucleons move
independently in a nucleus?
Why can they move independently?

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 5 of 31

Nuclear Energy Levels

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 6 of 31

Nuclear Energy Levels

As discussed earlier,
nuclear energy levels
are characterised by:

Energy
Angular momentum
Parity
Lifetime
Magnetic moment
Quadrupole
moment

We wish to understand
how to derive these
properties for specific
nuclei.

But, the level structure of nuclei changes markedly from one to the next.
182

Why?

Ta, 178Os and 120Te are examples of nucleon collective behaviour (a few lectures away....).
25
Al, 209Bi and 40K are examples of nucleon single-particle behaviour, described by the Shell Model

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 7 of 31

Evidence for Shell Structure in Atomic Systems

Atomic radius:

General trend is Z1/3 (reminiscent of

nuclear radius!)
Big jumps at specific Z numbers.

Atomic ionisation energies:

Pattern of increase and drops defines the

noble gases and the various groups in the
Periodic Table.

Understood in terms of the filling of electron

shells. The shells arise from the quantised
motion of the electrons in a central Coulomb
potential.

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 8 of 31

Evidence for Shell Structure in Nuclear Systems

We have already seen examples of
periodic structure in nuclear properties
(nucleon separation energies, deviations
from the Semi-Empirical Mass Formula)
that suggest nucleon shell structure.

Here are more examples of nuclear

properties plotted as a function of
neutron number:

Alpha-decay energy in radon isotopes

Neutron absorption cross-sections

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 9 of 31

Evidence for Shell Structure in Nuclear Systems

Another example: Changes in nuclear radii relative to the standard R=1.2 A1/3 estimate. The
similarity of this plot with the atomic radii on p7 is particularly striking.
A wealth of empirical observation suggests that there are so-called magic numbers of protons
and neutrons that are especially stable, similar to the noble gases in atomic physics. These
magic numbers are:
Z or N = 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126
Compare this to the noble gases which have: Z = 2, 10, 18, 36, 54, 86
Why the difference?

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 10 of 31

Energy Levels for Different Potentials

Let us examine what happens to the energy levels as we change the
potential.
1. Simple Harmonic Oscillator. Each level corresponds to one
quantum of vibration and we label each level by the major
shell number, N. Each level can contain (N+1)*(N+2) particles.
2. Infinite Square Well: The major shells are split according to
the particle angular momentum, l. Each level can contain 4l+2
particles.
3. Finite Square Well: Fundamentally the same as the infinite
square well. Energies shift slightly.
4. Square Well with Rounded Edges: An example is the WoodsV 0
V=
Saxon potential
r R . Here, V0 is the well
1exp
a
depth, R is the well radius and a describes the rounding of the
well edges.

None of these potentials can describe the nuclear magic numbers!

What is missing?

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 11 of 31

Spin-Orbit Coupling
Nucleons have intrinsic spin and we need to consider the coupling of the intrinsic spin, s, to the
orbital angular momentum, l, to give the total angular momentum j. These are vector quantities
and s = 1/2, hence j can equal l+1/2 or l-1/2.
Note also, that we typically do not write the value of l, but instead use the spectroscopic notation:
s
0
+

l
parity

p
1
-

d
2
+

f
3
-

g
4
+

h
5
-

i
6
+

j
7
-

Empirically, it is found that nucleons exhibit a spin-orbit interaction that depends on the vector
dot product l.s. Note that j =l s and we can derive the expectation value for l.s by looking
at the expectation value of j 2 :
j 2 =lsls=l 2 s2 2 l.s
1 2
2
2
l.s = j l s
2
2
l.s= j j1l l1s s1
2
l.s =

2 l /2 for j=l1/2
2

l 1/ 2 for j =l 1/ 2

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 12 of 31

Inclusion of spin-orbit coupling in the potential

Mayer and Haxel, Jensen and Suess suggested
including a spin-orbit interaction V ls l.s in
1949. Note that this is a repulsive interaction
so that the high-j coupling is lower in energy.
The expression on the previous page shows that
the splitting increases with l.
Each level with angular momentum j can
contain 2j+1 particles, corresponding to all
the possible m projections for each j.
The inclusion of the spin-orbit term is able to
explain the nuclear magic numbers. Mayer and
Jensen received the Nobel prize for this
discovery in 1963.
Nuclei are built by putting protons and
neutrons in these levels independently.
Full shells imply spherical symmetry for the
total nuclear wavefunction. Nuclei near closed
shells are spherical and hence this is often
called the spherical shell model.

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 13 of 31

Charge Independence of the Nuclear Force Part 1

23

Na

11 protons
12 neutrons

23

Mg

12 protons
11 neutrons

The similarity of the nuclei implies the equality of neutron-neutron, proton-proton and neutronproton forces, when the nucleons are coupled to the same angular momentum state.

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 14 of 31

Charge Independence of the Nuclear Force Part 2

10 protons
12 neutrons

11 protons
11 neutrons

12 protons
10 neutrons

The charge independence is only for the strong component of the force between nucleons. There
is still a difference between proton-proton and the proton-neutron or neutron-neutron forces due
to the Coulomb force. Also, proton-neutron angular momentum couplings are not limited by the
Pauli principle.

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 15 of 31

Coulomb Forces

Out of the mirror pair 13C and 13N, the latter is less
bound due to the Coulomb force (nitrogen has 7
protons compared to 6 in carbon).
We can evaluate this Coulomb energy difference
using the SEMF.
Exercise: Show that this energy difference depends on the value of R0 (from R=R0 A1/3) and the
parameter A2/3. The A2/3 dependence can be seen in the graph at top right. Use the slope of the
line to show that R0=1.22 fm.

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 16 of 31

Single-particle wavefunction

206

Pb has a filled proton shell (82 protons).

205

Tl has one proton less, meaning there is a hole in the first level below the Z=82 shell gap. This is
a s1/2 proton level.
The theoretical wavefunction for the s1/2 orbital is shown above at left. The difference in charge
density between 206Pb and 205Tl as measured through electron scattering experiments is shown
above at right. There is a remarkable agreement.
The Pauli principle means that the nucleons can move freely in a mean field potential despite
the strong nuclear force.

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 17 of 31

Shell Model Structure of 17O and 17F

Drawing these level occupation diagrams will really help your understanding.

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 18 of 31

Reminder of Single Particle Levels

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 19 of 31

Single-particle picture near Z=82, N=126

Single-particle nucleus
Extra proton outside Z=82

Single hole nucleus

One neutron less than N=126

Exercise: Draw the level occupation diagrams for each of these states.

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 20 of 31

Low-lying levels in

209

Bi Empirical Shell Model

The single-particle levels can be

calculated for any nuclear
potential.
The calculated levels at left
predict that with increasing
energy, the lowest levels in 209Bi
should have J of 9/2-, 7/2-, 3/2-,
For nucleus with 82, 127,
+
ground13/2
state spin-parity
, 1/2-, is5/2- etc. This
rd
9/2+, and first excited state
corresponds
to
the
83
proton
11/2+
occupying the different levels
above the Z=82 magic shell gap.
The real
(measured)
level scheme
For nucleus
with 82,
125
209
(Pb207)
spin parity
forground
Bistate
(above
right) shows that
of 5/2- and the first excited state
theparity
actual
order above the
has spin
of 1/2- level
(HOLE IS
MOVED
DOWN)
Z=82
shell gap is h9/2, f7/2, i13/2, f5/2,

p3/2.

The difference reflects the fact that in real calculations the nuclear
potential needs to be tuned for a particular region of nuclei.
Rather than calculate the levels directly from a potential, an alternative
method is to deduce the particle levels and energies from experimental
observations, an approach known as the Empirical Shell Model.

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 21 of 31

Nuclei with two particles outside the closed shell

210

Po has N=126 (a closed neutron shell) and Z=84 (two

protons outside the closed proton shell). Hence the
lowest lying states should involve recoupling of the two
valence protons, both lying in the h9/2 orbital (see the
ground state of 209Bi on the previous page)

Two like particles

always result in even
angular momentum

All states J=0-J=8 come from the

same single particle
configuration, proton h9/2^2
configuration, this means 2
protons in the h9/2 shell.

The angular momentum of the two protons (9/2 each)

couples together to give the total angular momentum of
the nucleus in 210Po.
The lowest lying state will have the protons moving in
time-reversed orbitals so that the angular momentum
couples to give J=0+. (Remember that all even-even
nuclei have a 0+ ground state due to the dominance of
this type of nuclear pairing.)

Naively, the maximum angular momentum would be

9/2 + 9/2 = 9, but the Pauli principle says that the
like particles can't point in exactly the same direction
or else they'd have the same quantum numbers. Hence
the maximum angular momentum possible is 8. It can be seen that the lowest lying states in 210Po
have J ranging from 0+ to 8+, as might be expected, but where are the odd-J states?

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 22 of 31

Angular Momentum Coupling Vector Model

A simple vector model does not preclude coupling to produce odd values of the angular
momentum.
The absence of odd values is a quantum mechanical effect, in fact it is a manifestation of the Pauli
principle, as shown over the next couple of pages.

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 23 of 31

Angular Momentum Coupling

Quantum Mechanically:

JM = j 1 m1 j 2 m2 JM j 1 m1 j 2 m2
m1 m2

using the Clebsch-Gordan coefficients.

Vector Model:

j j J j j
1

M =m 1m 2

Pauli principle says that for identical

particles we cannot have j1=j2 and m1=m2.
Furthermore, for any state that has a
total angular momentum, J, there must
be 2J+1 different M-substates that range
from -J to J.
Hence to discover the possible values of
J, we can enumerate all the possible values of M that can be obtained through permutations of m1
and m2.

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 24 of 31

Angular Momentum Coupling Combining m substates

Consider the coupling of two d5/2 neutrons or two d5/2 protons that will make the low-lying states in
18
O and 18Ne (c.f. 5/2+ ground states of 17O and 17F on p17 of Lecture G06).
m1

m2

J=4

+5/2
+5/2

+3/2
+1/2

4
3

4
3

+5/2
+5/2

-1/2
-3/2

2
1

2
1

+5/2
+3/2

-5/2
+1/2

0
2

+3/2
+3/2

-1/2
-3/2

1
0

+3/2
+1/2

-5/2
-1/2

-1
0

+1/2
+1/2

-3/2
-5/2

-1
-2

-1/2
-1/2

-3/2
-5/2

-2
-3

-3

-3/2

-5/2

-4

-4

J=2

J=0

2
1
0
-1
0
-1
-2
-2

The coupling gives

complete sets of M
states that can produce
J=4, J=2 and J=0 states.
No other couplings are
possible.
If the particles are not
identical, then m1 and
m2 can be equal. Then
all couplings from J=0 to
J=5 are possible.
Generalisations to larger
numbers of particles can
be done in a similar
manner.

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 25 of 31

Two-particle states outside 16O

In 18O and 18Ne the two d5/2 nucleons have similar character (two neutrons and two protons
respectively) and couple to give 0+, 2+ and 4+ states.
In 18F the d5/2 neutron and d5/2 proton can couple to give 0+, 1+, 2+, 3+, 4+ and 5+ states since the
Pauli principle does not limit the possible m substate populations.

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 26 of 31

Residual Interactions Identical particles

Coupling of identical particles

J=0
Overlap high
Energy favoured

J intermediate
Small overlap

J maximum
Small overlap
Energy unfavoured

Pauli principle prevents particles being fully aligned. Jmax = 2j -1. (E.g. (d5/2)2 => Jmax=4)
The energy being favoured is due to the attractive nature of the nucleon-nucleon interaction.

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 27 of 31

Residual Interactions Non-identical particles

Coupling of non-identical particles

J=0
Overlap high
Energy favoured

J intermediate
Small overlap

J maximum
Overlap high
Energy favoured

Since the vectors can be parallel in the case of non-identical particles, the high J coupling can be
favoured like the low-J coupling. Note that if the two orbitals are not the same, e.g. an h9/2
proton and an i11/2 neutron, then the radii of the orbits are not necessarily the same and the
overlaps are non-obvious. But there is a general favouring of both the low-J and high-J couplings.

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 28 of 31

Empirical Two-Body Interactions

As seen on the next slide, the empirical two-body interactions can be deduced from the observed
spectrum of excited states in those nuclei that are two-nucleons outside the doubly-magic closed
shell. As an example, below left are the low-lying states in 210Po due to the coupling of two h9/2
protons. A similar spectrum is observed in 210Pb due to the coupling of two g9/2 neutrons. The
deduced residual interactions are show in the graph on the lower right.

Triangles:
(h9/2)2
Squares:
(g9/2)2

These empirical interactions have been tabulated (see references on next slide). They can also be
deduced from the overlap of the theoretical quantum mechanical orbits of the particles (again,
see references on the next slide). The slide after next shows selected empirical values for protonneutron interactions (deduced from 210Bi) compared to two different theoretical calculations.

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 29 of 31

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 30 of 31

The angle is the

effective angle
defined by how
the vectors must
couple to give the
total angular
momentum.
Note that in these
cases of nonidentical
particles, both
the high and low-J
couplings are
energetically
favoured, with
intermediate
couplings lying at
higher energy.
The agreement between theory and experiment is relatively good, showing that if the empirical
two-body interactions are not known, then theoretical calculations can be used.

Phys 3033 Nuclear Shell Model - 31 of 31

Empirical Shell Model

The empirical energies of singleparticle neutron and proton levels
relative to 208Pb are shown at left.
To construct more complicated multiparticle states, put individual
nucleons in the levels and combine
the angular momentum to make a
state J.
For that state with J, compute the
energy using:
E= E i ij V ij
i

i j

where Ei are the single particle

energies and Vij are the two-body
interactions. The ij are derived from
angular momentum algebra that
decomposes the multi-body coupling
into a sum over two-body couplings. A
full treatment would require a couple
of lectures. For 2 particle states, only
one ij is non-zero (and equals 1).