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The pattern of 1s and 0s in Table 44 is called a thermometer code because the

number of 1s increases monotonically as v s increases, like the way the mercury
column in a thermometer increases with temperature. Integrated circuit flash
converters have built-in decoders that convert the thermometer code into a standard
binary code. The flash converter is by far the fastest ADC architecture.

E x e r c i s e 440
The reference voltage in Figure 484(a) is VREF 15 V. What are the output codes
corresponding to v S 1, 2, 5, 10, and 14 V?

A n s w e r s : (0, 0, 0, 0); (0, 0, 0, 0); (0, 0, 0, 1); (0, 1, 1, 1); (1, 1, 1, 1)

S


U M M A R Y
Alineardependentsourcegeneratesavoltageoracurrent
whose value is proportional to a voltage or current at
another point in a circuit. There are four such sources:
the current-controlled voltage source, the voltagecontrolled voltage source, the current-controlled current
source, and the voltage-controlled current source.
Circuits containing dependent sources can be analyzed
by node-voltage or mesh-current methods. Such circuits can have input-output relationships that produce
voltage, current, or power gain. The presence of feedback can dramatically influence the input and output
resistances of active circuits.
The OP AMP is an active device with five terminals
called the inverting input, the noninverting input, the
output, and two power supply terminals. The device is
a high-gain differential amplifier with three possible
operating modes: saturation, saturation, and linear. The output predicted by the linear mode circuit

model is compared with known bounds to determine

the actual operating mode.


The ideal OP AMP model has an infinite voltage gain,

an infinite input resistance, and zero output resistance.
The iv characteristics of an ideal OP AMP are iP
iN 0 and v P v N . The ideal model is a good working
approximation in linear applications.

The four basic OP AMP circuit building blocks are the

inverting amplifier, the noninverting amplifier, the
inverting summer, and the subtractor. The analysis
or design of complex OPAMP circuits can be based on
these four building blocks provided the interconnections are made between the output of one to the input
of another.

Important applications of OP AMPs include digitalto-analog converters, instrumentation systems, and

comparator circuits.

R O B L E M S

OBJECTIVE 41 LINEAR ACTIVE CIRCUITS

(SECTS. 41, 42)
Given a linear resistance circuit containing dependent sources,
find selected output signals, input-output relationships, or
input-output resistances.
See Examples 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 410,
411 and Exercises 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 410,
411, 412, 413.

41 Find the voltage gain v O/v S and current gain iO/ix in

Figure P41 for r 5 kV.

ix

100

500

iO
+

vS +

400

C04

r.ix 2 k

vO

FIGURE P41

42 Find the voltage gain v O/v 1 and the current gain iO/iS in
Figure P42. For iS 5 mA, find the power supplied by the

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PROBLEMS

47 (a) Find the voltage v O in Figure P47.

input current source and the power delivered to the

2-kV load resistor.
i1
+

100

v1

iS

iO

2 k

vO

100i1

100

2 k

(b) Validate your answer by simulating the circuit in

OrCAD.
103vx

1 k

+
5V

43 Find the voltage gain v O/v S and current gain iO/ix in

Figure P43 for g 2  103 S. For v S 5 V, find the power

supplied by the input voltage source and the power delivered
to the 2-kV load resistor.
ix

1 k

500

+
vS

3 k

g.vx

vx

10 k 2 k

vO

terms of RX.
(b) Select a value for RX so that the gain is 0.227.
iO

RX

1 k
+

44 (a) Find the voltage gain v O/v S and current gain iO/ix in

vS

50ix 10 k

ix

vx

Figure P44.
(b) Validate your answers by simulating the circuit in
OrCAD.
iO
2.2 k
6.3 k

FIGURE P48

49 Find an expression for the voltage gain v O/v S in Figure P49.

vO

RS

vx +

+
vS

FIGURE P44

2.2 k
103 vx

gvx RO

vS

50 vx

1 k

vO

FIGURE P45

46 Find an expression for the current gain iO/iS in Figure P46.

Hint: Apply KCL at node A.
RS
A

iO

vS

FIGURE P49

410 (a) Find an expression for the voltage gain v O/v S in Figure
P410.
(b) Let RS 10 kV, RL 10 kV and m 100. Find the
voltage gain v O/v S as a function of RF . What is the
voltage gain when RF is an open circuit, a short circuit,
and for RF 100 V?
(c) Simulate the circuit in OrCAD by varying RF from 1 V
to 10 MV. Read your output RF 100 V. How does
your answer compare with part (b)?
RS

iS
+

iE
RE

RF
+ vx

RC
iE

vO

45 Find the voltage gain v O/v S in Figure P45.

+ vx

vO

48 (a) Find an expression for the gain iO/v S in Figure P48 in

+
vx 4.7 k

FIGURE P47

FIGURE P43

vS

1.5 k

iO

1 k
+

FIGURE P42

C04

vS

+
+

vx

RL

vO

FIGURE P46

FIGURE P410

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411 Select g in the circuit of Figure P411 so that the output

voltage is 10 V.

Figure P417.

1 k
2.2 k
vx

gvx

RS

+
+
1 mV

417 Find the Norton Equivalent circuit seen by the load in

vS

ix

vO

ix

Rx

RO v

FIGURE P411

412

Design a dependent source circuit that has a closed-loop

voltage gain of 10 using a VCVS with a m of 100. The source
circuit is a voltage source v S in series with a 1-kV resistor,
and the load is a 3.3-kV resistor. (Hint: See Figure P410.)

FIGURE P417

418 Find the Th
evenin Equivalent circuit seen by the load in

Figure P418.

413 Find the Th
evenin equivalent circuit that the load RL sees

in Figure P413. Repeat the problem with RF replaced by an

open circuit.
RS

RF

RP

+ vx

vx

+
gvx

vx

iS

+
vS

FIGURE P413

414 Find the Th
evenin equivalent circuit that the load RL sees
RS

419 The circuit parameters in Figure P419 are RB 100 kV,

RC 3.3 kV, b 100, Vg 0.7 V, and VCC 15 V. Find iC and

v CE for v S 1 V. Repeat for v S 5 V.

RC

RP

iC

iS
+

r.iS

RB iB

RL

Thvenin circuit
FIGURE P414

415 Find RIN in Figure P415

vCE

+ v
S

VCC

FIGURE P419

420

The circuit parameters in Figure P419 are RC 3 kV,

b 120, Vg 0.7 V, and VCC 5 V. Select a value of RB such
that the transistor is in the saturation mode when v S  2 V.

iS
R
vS

Load

FIGURE P418
vT, RT

vS

RO v

RL

in Figure P414.

Load

+
r.i
S

421 The parameters of the transistor in Figure P421 are

b 60 and Vg 0.7 V. Find iC and v CE for v S 0.8 V. Repeat

for v S 2 V.

10 k

iC

RIN

FIGURE P415

416 Find RIN in Figure P416.

iS

10 k

ix

vCE
ix

iB
+ v
S

20 k

RIN

FIGURE P416

FIGURE P421

15 V

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PROBLEMS

422

An emergency indicator light uses a 10 V, 2-W incandescent lamp. It is to be ON when a digital output is high (5
V). The digital circuit does not have sufficient power to turn
on the lamp directly. However, as is common practice, a
transistor driver is used as a digital switch. Select RB in the
circuit of Figure P422 so to drive the transistor into saturation causing it to act as a short circuit between the lamp and
ground when the digital output is high. The Th

evenin equivalent for the digital circuit is also shown in the figure.
+10 V

425

Two OPAMP circuits are shown in Figure P425. Both

claim to produce a gain of either 100.
(a) Show that the claim is true.
(b) A practical source with a series resistor of 1 kV is
connected to the input of each circuit. Does the
original claim still hold? If it does not, explain why?
vIN

1 k

vO

+
+ V
S

99 k

iLamp
RD

1 k

Lamp = 10V @ 2W

RB

Circuit 1

Source
VD

= 50
V = 0.7 V

Digital
circuit

100 k

VD = 5 V

1 k

vIN

RD = 500

vO

FIGURE P422

OBJECTIVE 42 OP AMP CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

(SECTS. 43, 44)
Given a linear resistance circuit containing OP AMPs, find
selected output signals or input-output relationships.
See Examples 412, 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 4
20 and Exercises 414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421,
422, 423, 424, 425, 426, 427, 428.

423 Find the voltage gain of each OP AMP circuit shown

in Figure P423.
33 k

330 k

Circuit 2

FIGURE P425

426

Suppose the output of the practical source shown in

Figure P425 needs to be amplified by 104 and you can use
only the two circuits shown. How would you connect the
circuits to achieve this? Explain why.

427 (a) Find the voltage gain v O/v S in Figure P427.

(b) Validate your answer by simulating the circuit in
OrCAD.
22 k

vS

33 k

vO
vS

68 k

VCC = 15 V
+

FIGURE P427

vO

428 What is the range of the gain v O/v S in Figure P428?

2 k

100 k

vS

(b)

FIGURE P423

424

vO

330 k

(a)
33 k

330 k

Considering simplicity and standard 10% tolerance

resistors as major constraints, design OP AMP circuits that
produce the following voltage gains 10%:  100, 200, 1,
0.5, 0.5.

+
vS

100 k
+
vO

+
VCC = 15 V

FIGURE P428

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429

Design a simple OP AMP circuit that has a variable

gain from 10 to 100.

430 For the circuit in Figure P430:

(a) Find v O in terms v S.

(b) Find iO for v S 1 V. Repeat for v S 3 V.

434 For the circuit in Figure P434:

(a) Find v O in terms of the inputs v 1 and v 2.

(b) If v 1 1 V, what is the range of values v 2 can have
without saturating the OP AMP?
50 k

100 k

50 k

+
vO

10 k
+

+
v1

iO

vS +

10 k

150 k

+
vO

50 k

100 k

VCC =
+15 V

+
v2

10 k
VCC = 24 V

FIGURE P434

FIGURE P430

435 The input-output relationship for a three-input inverting

summer is

431 For the circuit in Figure P431:

v O v 1 10v 2 100v 3 

(a) Find v O in terms v S.

(b) Find iO for v S 0.5 V. Repeat for v S 2 V.
10 k

The resistance of the feedback resistor is 100 kV. Find the

values of the input resistors R1, R2, and R3.

iO

100 k

+
vO

436 Find v O in terms of the inputs v 1 and v 2 in Figure P436.

10 k

33 k

10 k

+
+
vS

100 k

VCC = 18 V

+
v1

vO
10 k

FIGURE P431

+
33 k

+
v2

432

A young designer needed to amplify a 2-V signal by

the factors of 1, 5, and 10. Find the problem with the design
shown in Figure P432. Recommend a fix.

437 The switch in Figure P437 is open, find v O in terms of the

90 k

10 k

inputs v S1 and v S2. Repeat with the switch closed.

2 40 k

30 k

+
+
vO

vO
30 k

VCC = 15 V

Design two circuits to produce the following output:

v O 2v 1  3v 2.
(a) In your first design use a standard subtractor.
(b) In your second design both inputs must be into high
input resistance amplifiers to avoid loading.

+
vS1

FIGURE P432

433

60 k

+
vS

FIGURE P436

+
vS2

+
60 k

Switch

FIGURE P437

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PROBLEMS

438 Find v O in terms of v S1 and v S2 in Figure P438.

Select values for the resistors so that K 6.

(b)

R1
R4

+
vO

R1

vS2

R2

FIGURE P441

439

It is claimed that v O v S when the switch is closed in

Figure P439 and that v O v S when the switch is open.
Prove or disprove this claim.

442 Use node voltage analysis in Figure P442 to show that

iO v S/2R regardless of the load. That is, show that the

circuit is a voltage-controlled current source.

vS

+
R

iO

2R

+
vO

FIGURE P438

vS

R2

+
vS

vS1

R3

Load

R3

C04

2R

vO

Sw

vO

FIGURE P442

443 For the circuit of Figure P443:

FIGURE P439

(a) Find the output in terms of v 1 and v 2.

(b) Draw a block diagram for the circuit.

440 The circuit in Figure P440 has a diode in its feedback

path and is called a log-amp because its output is proportional to the natural log of the input.
(a) Show that v O V T n1 v S =RS I O if the i-v characteristics of the diode is iD I O evD =vT  1.
(b) Using MATLAB plot v O versus v S for RS 10 kV,
IO 2  1014 A and VT 0.026 V. Plot your results on
a semilog plot for 106 V  v S  100 V.

RS

vS

iD

+ vD

22 k

10 k

100 k

33 k

v1

vO

v2

FIGURE P443

444 Find v O in terms of the inputs v s1 and v s2 in Figure P444.

+

10 k

R1

vO

R2

R2

R1

vS1 +

vS2 +

vO

FIGURE P444
FIGURE P440

441 (a) Use node voltage analysis to find the input-output

relationship or K of the circuit in Figure P441.

445 For the block diagram of Figure P445:

(a) Find an expression for v O in terms of v 1 and v 2.

(b)
Design a suitable circuit that realizes the block
diagram using only one OP AMP.