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INTRODUCTION
1.1.INTRODUCTION
TO WIND ENER
The wind is a free, clean, and inexhaustible energy source. It has served
mankind well for many centuries by propelling ships and driving wind turbines to
grind grain and pump water. Interest in wind power lagged, however, when cheap and
plentiful petroleum products became available after World War II. The high capital
costs and the uncertainty of the wind placed wind power at an economic disadvantage.
Then in 1973, the Arab nations placed an embargo on petroleum. The days of cheap
and plentiful petroleum were drawing to an end. People began to realize that the
worlds oil supplies would not last forever and that remaining supplies should be
conserved for the petrochemical industry. The use of oil as a boiler fuel, for example,
would have to be eliminated. Other energy sources besides oil and natural gas must be
developed.
The two energy sources besides petroleum which have been assumed able to
supply the long term energy needs of the United States are coal and nuclear energy.
Many people think there is enough coal for several centuries at present rates of
consumption, and likewise for nuclear energy after the breeder reactor is fully
developed. These are proven resources in the sense that the technology is highly
developed, and large coal and nuclear powered electrical generating plants are in
operation and are delivering substantial blocks of energy to the consumer.
Unfortunately, both coal and nuclear present serious environmental problems.
Coal requires large scale mining operations, leaving land that is difficult or
impossible to restore to usefulness in many cases. The combustion of coal may upset
the planets heat balance. The production of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide may
affect the atmosphere and the ability of the planet to produce food for its people. Coal
is also a valuable petrochemical feedstock and many consider the burning of it as a
boiler fuel to be foolish.
Nuclear energy has several advantages over coal in that no carbon dioxide or
sulfur dioxide are produced, mining operations are smaller scale, and it has no other
major use besides supplying heat. The major difficulty is the problem of waste
disposal, which, because of the fears of many, will probably never have a truly
satisfying solution.
Because of these problems, wind power and other forms of solar power are
being strongly encouraged. Wind power may become a major source of energy in
spite of slightly higher costs than coal or nuclear power because of the basically noneconomic or political problems of coal and nuclear power. This is not to say that wind
power will always be more expensive than coal or nuclear power, because
considerable progress is being made in making wind power less expensive. But even
without a clear cost advantage, wind power may become truly important in the world
energy picture.
1.2.WIND TURBINES
A wind turbine is a rotating machine which converts the kinetic energy in
wind into mechanical energy. If the mechanical energy is then converted to electricity,
the machine is called a wind generator, wind turbine, wind power unit (WPU), wind
energy converter (WEC), or aero generator. Wind turbines can be separated into two
types based by the axis in which the turbine rotates. Turbines that rotate around a
horizontal axis are more common. Vertical-axis turbines are less frequently used.
Additionally, the blades are placed a considerable distance in front of the tower and
are sometimes tilted up a small amount.
Variable blade pitch, which gives the turbine blades the optimum angle of attack.
Allowing the angle of attack to be remotely adjusted gives greater control, so the
turbine collects the maximum amount of wind energy for the time of day and season.
The tall tower base allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear. In some
wind shear sites, every ten meters up, the wind speed can increase by 20% and the
power output by 34%.
High efficiency, since the blades always move perpendicularly to the wind, receiving
power through the whole rotation. In contrast, all vertical axis wind turbines, and most
proposed airborne wind turbine designs, involve various types of reciprocating
actions, requiring airfoil surfaces to backtrack against the wind for part of the cycle.
Backtracking against the wind leads to inherently lower efficiency.
HAWT DISADVANTAGES
The tall towers and blades up to 90 meters long are difficult to transport.
VAWT ADVANTAGES
A massive tower structure is less frequently used, as VAWTs are more frequently
mounted with the lower bearing mounted near the ground.
Designs without yaw mechanisms are possible with fixed pitch rotor designs.
A VAWT can be located nearer the ground, making it easier to maintain the moving
parts.
VAWTs have lower wind startup speeds than HAWTs. Typically, they start creating
electricity at 6 M.P.H. (10 km/h).
VAWTs may have a lower noise signature.
VAWT DISADVANTAGES
Most VAWTs produce energy at only 50% of the efficiency of HAWTs in large part
because of the additional drag that they have as their blades rotate into the wind.
While VAWTs' parts are located on the ground, they are also located under the
weight of the structure above it, which can make changing out parts nearly impossible
without dismantling the structure if not designed properly.
Having rotors located close to the ground where wind speeds are lower due to wind
shear, VAWTs may not produce as much energy at a given site as a HAWT with the
same footprint or height.
Because VAWTs are not commonly deployed due mainly to the serious
disadvantages mentioned above, they appear novel to those not familiar with the wind
industry. This has often made them the subject of wild claims and investment scams
over the last 50 years.
1.3.2.STALL CONTROL
Stalling works by increasing the angle at which the relative
wind strikes the blades (angle of attack), and it reduces the induced
drag (drag associated with lift). Stalling is simple because it can be
made to happen passively (it increases automatically when the
winds speed up), but it increases the cross-section of the blade face7
on to the wind, and thus the ordinary drag. A fully stalled turbine
blade, when stopped, has the flat side of the blade facing directly
into the wind.
A fixed-speed HAWT inherently increases its angle of attack at
higher wind speed as the blades speed up. A natural strategy, then,
is to allow the blade to stall when the wind speed increases. This
technique was successfully used on many early HAWTs. However, on
some of these blade sets, it was observed that the degree of blade
pitch tended to increase audible noise levels.
1.3.3.PITCH CONTROL
Furling works by decreasing the angle of attack, which
reduces the induced drag from the lift of the rotor, as well as the
cross-section. One major problem in designing wind turbines is
getting the blades to stall or furl quickly enough should a gust of
wind cause sudden acceleration. A fully furled turbine blade, when
stopped, has the edge of the blade facing into the wind.
Standard modern turbines all pitch the blades in high winds.
Since pitching requires acting against the torque on the blade, it
requires some form of pitch angle control. Many turbines use
hydraulic systems. These systems are usually spring loaded, so that
if hydraulic power fails, the blades automatically furl. Other turbines
use an electric servomotor for every rotor blade. They have a small
battery-reserve in case of an electric-grid breakdown. Small wind
turbines (under 50 kW) with variable-pitching generally use systems
operated by centrifugal force, either by flyweights or geometric
design, and employ no electric or hydraulic controls.
1.3.4.OTHER CONTROLS
Yawing
8
are
usually
applied
only
after
blade
furling
and
1.4.GENERATORS
A generator is a device which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. Wind generators have traditionally been wind
turbines, i.e. a propeller attached to an electric generator attached
to appropriate electronics to attach it to the electrical grid.
Generators can be classified broadly into two categories:
a) Synchronous Generators
b) Asynchronous Generators
The basis of this categorization is the speed at which the generators
are run. Synchronous generators are run at synchronous speed
(1500 rpm for a 4 pole machine at 50Hz frequency) while
asynchronous generators run at a speed more than the synchronous
speed.
1.4.1.SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
Synchronous generators are doubly fed machines which
generate electricity by the principle when the magnetic field around
a conductor changes, a current is induced in the conductor.
Typically, a rotating magnet called the rotor turns within a stationary
set of conductors wound in coils on an iron core, called the stator.
The field cuts across conductors, generating an electrical current, as
the mechanical input causes the rotor to turn.
1.4.2.ASYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR
Asynchronous generators or Induction generators are singly
excited a.c. machine. Its stator winding is directly connected to the
10
ac source whereas its rotor winding receives its energy from stator
by means of induction. Balanced currents produce constant
amplitude rotating mmf wave. The stator produced mmf and rotor
produced mmf wave, both rotate in the air gap in the same direction
at synchronous speed. These two mmf s combine to give the
resultant air-gap flux density wave of constant amplitude and
rotating at synchronous speed. This flux induces currents in the
rotor and an electromagnetic torque is produced which rotates the
rotor.
Asynchronous generators are mostly used as wind turbines as they
can be operated at variable speed unlike synchronous generator.
Two kinds of asynchronous generators are used namely
a) Squirrel cage induction generator (SCIG)
b) Doubly fed induction generator (DFIG)
11
12
The doubly-fed generator rotors are typically wound with from 2 to 3 times
the number of turns of the stator. This means that the rotor voltages will be higher and
currents respectively lower. Thus in the typical 30 % operational speed range
around the synchronous speed the rated current of the converter is accordingly lower
leading to a low cost of the converter.
CHAPTER-2
INTRODUCTION TO WIND-DIESEL H
13
2.1.INTRODUCTION
A Wind Diesel Hybrid System (WDHS) is any autonomous electricity
generating system using Wind Turbine Generators(s) (WTG)with Diesel Generator(s)
(DG) to obtain a maximum contribution by the intermittent wind resource to the total
produced power, while providing continuous high quality electric power [1]. The
main goal with these systems is to reduce fuel consumption and in this way to reduce
system operating costs and environmental impact. If the WDHS is capable of shutting
down the Diesel Generators during periods of high wind availability, the WDHS is
classified as high wind penetration. High penetration (HP) WDHS have three
operation modes: Diesel Only (DO), Wind Diesel (WD) and Wind Only (WO)
In DO mode the Diesel Generators supply the active and reactive power
demanded by the consumer load (WTGs are disconnected). In WD mode, in addition
to DG(s), WTG(s) also supply active power. In WO mode the Diesel Generators are
14
not running, only the wind turbines are supplying active power, so that no fuel is
consumed in this mode. Several papers have been published on the subject of WDHS
dynamic simulation.
In the interaction between one DG and a constant/ variable speed WTG is
studied. In a no-storage WDHS is simulated against several perturbations, among
them the connection of a WTG to the DG isolated grid (DO to WD transition). In a
previous work [5] a HP-WDHS with a BESS is simulated in WO mode, but the
battery is modeled by a simple constant voltage source. In [6] the modeled HP-WDHS
has a DG with a locked-disengaged simplified clutch model and it is simulated the
mandatory transition from WO to WD when the active power generated is less than
consumed.
During this type of WO to WD transition the power system is without control
until the DE is added to the system. In the present article the WO mode is also
simulated, but a more elaborated model for a Ni-Cd battery is used and the main
battery variables: current, voltage and state of charge are presented during the
simulation. Additionally, in the present article a more realistic clutch model is also
used to transition from WO to WD, but in this case the transition simulated is
controlled and it is done in order to substitute a supplying BESS by the DE.
The different isolated hybrid power systems considered in the paper are multiwind/single diesel, and single wind/multi- diesel. Multi-wind/single diesel systems
attenuate the effect of power fluctuations produced by the turbulence of the wind. In
fact, it is estimated that the variability of the power should decrease by the square root
of the number of wind turbines[1]. Thus the need for short-term storage would
decrease when the wind generation capacity is made up of more than one machine.
Single wind/ multi-diesel systems allow a variety of possible operation and control
strategies.
Typically the most efficient diesel generators are allowed to run at their rated
output. Load fluctuations are supplied by one of the less efficient diesel generators,
which are allowed to cycle up and down. Diesel grid of Block Island, USA [1] is such
type of an example. First the system state equations are derived from real and reactive
15
Wind is a random and highly variable source of energy. The scales of wind
variation range
(gusts). Long-term wind trends cm be for- from weather patterns and disperse
monitoring stations.
Demand loads also exhibit short-term and long-term frequency trends. but
unlike the wind they are relatively easy to predict (both in frequency and amplitude)
since they follow the community's habits. With the knowledge of the demand pattern
throughout the &y, the load can be anti cipateci, and the appropriate diesel generation
capacity can be brought on line to provide a disable and optimally efficient supply.
With a significant mount of wind energy in the power mix, it is the short-term
fluctuation of the wind that is the greatest impediment to wind-diesel integration.
Diesel generators respond rapidly to load variations in order to keep the system's
frequency and voltage within an acceptable range. This makes them well suited for
operation with wind energy while the wind power penetration remains low.
With higher levels of penetration. additional controls will be needed to
maintain the stability and power quality of the system. A general wind-diesel system
is shown in Figure 1 The initial diesel system comprises the diesel generators
supplying the village load. With the addition of the wind turbines, a dump load will
most likely be needed to absorb the excess energy whenever the generated wind
power exceeds the darned. A clutch may be added between the engines and the
generators of some, or ail, of the diesel generator sets to allow the synchronous
generators to operate as synchronous condensers when it is desirable to nin
exclusively from wind power. In this system the synchronous generators regulate the
grid voltage and provide
17
The high penetration WDHS of Fig. 2 comprises one DG and one WTG. The
DG consists of a Diesel Engine (DE), a Synchronous Machine (SM), and a friction
clutch. The SM generates the voltage waveform of the isolated grid and its automatic
voltage regulator controls the system voltage to be within the prescribed levels during
the three modes of operation. For this reason the SM must be always running close to
its rated speed. The DE provides mechanical power to the SM and its speed governor
(speed regulator+ actuator) controls the DE speed. In this article the DE speed control
is isochronous, so the diesel speed governor will command the necessary fuelling rate
to make the DE run at constant speed.
The DE is needed to supply active power and regulate the system frequency in
the DO and WD modes. The clutch has three states: engaged, locked and disengaged .
If the clutch is disengaged, the frictional surfaces are not in contact and no torque is
transferred from the DE to the SM, so that if CT is closed the operation mode is WO.
In WO mode since the DE and SM axes are independent, the DE must not be running
in order to save fuel, but in this paper it will run at slow speed as it is explained later
on. With the clutch engaged, the frictional surfaces slip past one another and kinetic
friction torque is transferred to the SM. Finally, if the clutch is locked, the frictional
surfaces are locked together without slipping and static friction torque is transferred to
the SM. With the clutch locked the DE and SM turn at the same speed and the WDHS
is in the DO/WD mode if the WTG circuit breaker CT is opened/closed respectively.
Several real HP-WDHS include a clutch to transition from WO to WD modes and
vice versa
The WTG consists of a Wind Turbine (WT) driving an Induction Generator
(IG) directly connected to the autonomous grid conforming a constant speed stallcontrolled WTG (no pitch control). The WTG produced active power PT depends
among other factors on the cube of the wind speed and since the WT used has no pitch
control, there is no way to control the WTG active power, so it behaves as an
uncontrolled source of active power. The IG consumes reactive power so a capacitor
bank has been added to compensate the power factor. The Dump Load (DL) consists
of a set of semiconductor power switches and a binary bank of resistors. By
closing/opening these power switches, the dl consumed active power can be
controlled behaving as a controlled sink of active power. the battery based energy
18
storage system (bess) consists of a battery bank and a power converter that interfaces
the battery bank to the autonomous grid. the bess can store or retrieve power as
needed, so it behaves as a controlled sink/source of active power.
The system frequency is regulated by maintaining an instantaneous balance of
the active power consumed and produced. in do and wd modes the de speed governor
modulates the de active power in order to accomplish this balance, so the de behaves
as a controlled source of active power. in wo mode the clutch is disengaged and the
active power consumed by the load (pl) is produced only by the wtg (pt).
Since pt (also called wind power) and pl are uncontrolled the DL + BESS must
perform the instantaneous balance of the active power. being pd the power consumed
by the dl, ps the power consumed/supplied by the BESS, j the SM inertia and x the
SM shaft speed, the power equation of the SM in wo mode if no losses are taking into
account is
19
The situation where the BESS supplies power is temporary, so that if this
situation persists the control system of the WDHS must order to start the DE and
when the speed difference between DE and SM is small enough engaged the clutch,
changing to the WD mode. With the clutch locked the DE will supply the necessary
20
active power PDE to keep the system frequency at rated value. Finally to obtain Eq.
(1) in WD mode, PDE (positive when produced)must be added to the left side of (1)
and J must be the sum of the DE + SM inertia
21
CHAPTER-3
controllers). Each of these devices has several different control modes associated with
THE
CONTROL MECHANISM OF WIND-DIE
it. For example, the AC machine can be controlled to achieve any of the following:
22
3.1.1.DIESEL ON STATE
23
In the case where there is excess wind power, secondary (or dump) load
may be used to provide frequency control. As long as there is excess wind
power, this works fine, but suppose the wind suddenly drops, resulting in a
power deficit. As wind power drops, secondary load will be rapidly removed
in an attempt to maintain grid frequency. Once it has all been removed, the
ability to control frequency is lost. The system must switch immediately to
frequency control by the DC machine.
24
This question refers to whether the present level of current into the battery can
be sustained. It is actually several questions rolled into one. With a yes
The impedance of the village load, ZL , is assumed constant with respect to voltage
and frequency, thus PL - V' and QL a v2, and both PL and QL are independent of
frequency. This assumption is often on the pessimistic side.
3.2.2.DUMP LOAD
25
Equation (5) means that the power can be varied discretely from 0 to 255.
PSTEP, where PSTEP is the power corresponding to the least significant bit and IJ is
1 when the associated GTO is turned on and 0 when the GTO is turned off. For
this article PSTEP = 1.4 Kw and then PD-NOM = 357 kW, which is a 30% greater than
PT-NOM, so that the WDHS can be controlled in WO mode even in the case of no
consumer load and BESS fully charged/failure.
originally an autonomous diesel generator system, and that the power quality of the
diesel generator(s) is satisfactory.
The diesel generator of the existing system will have been specified to meet
the requirements of the village load. In a HPNSWD system, the addition of wind
power to the system can greatly increase the active and reactive power fluctuations in
the system. This increased variability may require that the frequency and voltage
control systems of the diesel generator(s) be augmented In addition, to maximize
diesel fuel savings, the HPNSWD system must be able to operate solely from wind
power with the diesel engine(s) shut down. This mode of operation requires a
frequency control system independent of the diesel engine..
3.4.1.VOLTAGE CONTROL
The voltage of the network is most effectively regulated by controlling the
reactive power in the system. The AVR of the diesel generator regulates the network
voltage by controlling the amount of reactive power produced (or absorbed) by the
diesel's synchronous generator. The synchronous generator remains operational at all
times. When the diesel engine is off the synchronous generator functions as a
synchronous condenser.
A village load normally consists of many small loads. Therefore the
synchronous generator typically sees relatively small reactive and active power
fluctuations. The wind turbine, on the other hand, is an electric machine with a
capacity comparable to, if not larger than, the capacity of the synchronous generator.
The induction generator of the wind turbine also requires a large amount of reactive
power for excitation. The start-up and shutdown of the wind turbine cause sudden
changes in the reactive and active power in the system. In addition, both the reactive
and active power of the turbine can fluctuate widely in turbulent wind conditions.
These rapid power fluctuations can cause voltage variations that are detrimental to the
operation of voltage sensitive loads and/or result in objectionable disturbances to
lighting levels.
3.4.2.VOLTAGE REGULATION
28
29
The power quality must be maintained within each mode, as well as during the
transfer between consecutive modes. This requires that the dump load controller be
stable when operating with the turbine alone, with the diesel generator and the wind
turbine operating in parallel, and with the diesel alone. The latter scenario is not a
requirement if the dump load is automatically disabled in the diesel only
configuration.
3.4.4.CONTROL SYSTEM FOR FREQUENCY CONTROL
Another way to see Eq. (1) is by means of the rightmost adder and block of the
diagram of Fig3. In this gure the frequency regulator receives as input the frequency
error (difference between the current frequency and the power system frequency
50/60 Hz) and outputs the reference power P REF to the ESS and DL actuator blocks.
Under normal conditions the ESS node takes up to its nominal power of the P REF
power as its reference power P S-REF and the DL takes the difference P REF-PS-NOM if
positive or zero in other case as its reference power PD-REF .
The previous positive limit PS-NOM c a n b e decreased depending on the storage
charge level of the ESS. It can reach 0 if the storage is fully charged and then the DL
will have to dump the whole PREF power (PD-REF = PREF).With this variable ESS
positive power limit (PPL), the power sharing of Fig.3 guarantees t h a t t h e D L
w i l l d u m p j u s t t h e e x c e s s w i n d p o w e r t h a t E S S c a n n o t s t o r e . To
make this
coordination implies that the DL and ESS controllers must know the current P REF with
the same precision and in the same instants.
31
32
In the DCS of Fig. 5 there is another node NGC, this is the WDHS general
controller, which by transmitting and receiving messages, supervises all the nodes of
the DCS, sets the mode of operation of the WDHS, modies parameters of the
regulator block to improve the dynamics of the hybrid system, etc. This proposed
DCS has other advantages against a centralized control. Because it has two actuators,
exibility can be improved by simple failure messages from the actuator nodes or
from NGC. Using these type of messages three control actuations could be performed:
both actuators as it has been explained, dump load actuator alone (P S=0) (same
actuation as if the ESS is full and has the limitation of PT PL >0) and storage system
actuator alone (PD=0) (with the limitation / PT - PL / < PS-NOM ) what gives a more
exible structure in case of failure of any actuator. With PPL messages from NS, the
power sharing between ESS and DL actuators showed in Fig. 3can be accommodated
according to this new positive limit.
33
3.7.FREQUENCY REGULATION
The entire power system, including all its generators, distribution wiring, and
even motors present in the village load, can be thought of as one big
electromechanical entity, as shown in Figure 3. Power flows into this system as power
from the wind transferred to the wind turbine rotor, mechanical power developed in
the diesel engines as a result of combustion, and electric power drawn from the
battery.
Power flows out of the system to consumer resistive loads, to consumer
mechanical loads, to secondary loads, and as various mechanical and electrical losses.
At any given moment, if more power is flowing into the system than out of it, the
difference will be stored as an increase in kinetic energy of the rotating machines
within the system, both generators and motors that happen to be on-line at that time.
The effect of any power imbalance in the system is expressed in Equation 1.
34
35
CHAPTER-4
SIMULATION SCHEMAT
36
4.1.SIMULATION
The Matlab-Simulink [11] model of the WDHS of Fig. 2 is shown in Fig. 6.
Some of the components described next such as the IG, the SM and its voltage
regulator, the consumer load, etc. are blocks which belong to the SimPowerSystems
library for Simulink.
The SM has a rated power (PSM-NOM) of 300 kVA. An IEEE type 1 Voltage
regulator plus an exciter regulates the voltage in the SM terminals. The mechanical
parts of the DE and the SM and the friction clutch are modeled by using blocks of the
SimDriveLine library . The model inside the corresponding block of Fig. 6 includes
the inertia constants of the SM (HSM = 1s) and DE (HDE = 0.75 s) and the friction
clutch. The DE mechanical torque TD and the SM electric torque TS both in per unit
values (pu) are the inputs of the block. The shaft speeds of the DE and SM , both in
pu, are the outputs of the block.
The clutch state is set by the binary input signal CLUTCH, which controls the
clutch pressure actuator. When CLUTCH signal is high (clutch engaged/locked), the
pressure actuator is ordered to apply force normal to the surfaces. When CLUTCH
signal is low (clutch disengaged), the pressure actuator is ordered to relieve the force
normal to the surfaces. The actuator dynamics is modeled as a simple first order
system with 0.04 s time constant whose input is CLUTCH and whose output is the
normalized clutch pressure. The mechanical parts and Friction Clutch Block in Fig. 6
detailed schematic can be seen in[13]
The DE along with its actuator and speed regulator are included in the Diesel
Engine block of Fig. 6 and their modeling is justified in[14]. This block has the
current DE speed (pu) as input and outputs the mechanical torque (pu) to take the DE
speed to its speed reference. The DE has been simulated by means of a gain, relating
fuelling rate to torque (lower/upper torque limits are 0/1.1 pu) and a dead time. The
actuator has been simulated by a second order system and the speed regulator by a
PID control.
37
consists of an Induction
Generator (IG) of 275 kW (WTG rated power PTNOM = 275 kW) directly connected to
the autonomous grid and the Wind Turbine (WT) block. This WT block contains the
wind turbine characteristic which defines the mechanical torque applied to the IG as a
function of the wind speed and the IG shaft speed. This WTG has no pitch control, so
there is no way to control the power it produces.
The dump load [15] consists of eight three phase resistors connected in series
with GTO switches. The resistors values follow an 8 bit binary progression so that the
power consumed by the DL, provided that the voltage in the isolated grid is nominal,
can be expressed in the form:
It (eq-5) means that the power can be varied discretely from 0 to 255.P STEP, where
PSTEP is the power corresponding to the least significant bit and IJ is 1 when the
associated GTO is turned on and 0 when the GTO is turned off. For this article
PSTEP = 1.4 Kw and then PD-NOM = 357 kW, which is a 30% greater than P T-NOM, so that
the WDHS can be controlled in WO mode even in the case of no consumer load and
BESS fully charged/failure [5].
The BESS is based on a Ni-Cd battery bank, a LC filter, an IGBT three-phase
bidirectional Current Controlled Inverter (CCI) of rated power P S-MOM = 150 kW and a
150 kVA elevating transformer.
The elevating transformer isolates the three phase power inverter and the
battery bank from the autonomous grid. Its rated line to line voltage in the
grid/inverter sides are 480/120 VAC.
A detailed description of the CCI block can be seen in bellow. The CCI
receives its active power reference PS-REF from the power sharing block. PS-REF can be
established for inverter mode operation (the CCI supplies power to the isolated grid
and discharges the battery), or rectifier mode operation (the CCI absorbs power from
38
the isolated grid and charges the battery). Although the CCI can control the reactive
power it consumes/produces its reactive reference power is set to 0.
The 240 V Ni-Cd battery [15] model consists of a DC voltage source function
of the state of charge (SOC), based on the discharge characteristic of the battery, and
an internal resistance of assumed constant value. The energy stored in the battery is
93.75 kWh, which is obtained from a storage energy need of 15 min for the 150 kW
CCI rated power and a Ni-Cd battery operating between 35% and 75% of its rated
capacity (150 kW_15 min/(0.4_60 min/h) = 93.75 kWh) . This 93.75 kWh
corresponds to a capacity C of 390.625 Ah (93.75 kWh/240 V = 390.625 Ah). The NiCd battery is tolerant to a current ripple of rms value up to 0.2 C with the only effect
of an increased water usage. Connecting the battery directly to the DC side of the
power converter would excess this ripple size, so a LC filter has been used for
smoothing the battery current.
The described short term BESS helps to cover the load during short term load
peaks or wind power deficits, minimizing the number of the DG start/stop cycles
needed. This start/stop cycles minimization reduces the fuel consumption and DG
wearing and the Sizing made in [6] is done according to these benefits. Also short
term BESS improves the frequency stability and the continuity of supply of the
isolated power system as it is shown in the simulation section. In addition to previous
mentioned benefits, long term energy storage allows to match a variable and
uncontrolled renewable energy production to a generally variable and hardly
predictable load demand. Long term storage allows storing excess renewable energy
to meet the load during days of higher than average load or lower than average
renewable energy availability. In the sizing of long term energy storage in order to
obtain the most cost efficiency configuration in an isolated power system is
addressed.
The WD/WO block of Fig. 6 sets the operation mode selected by the WDHS
DCS. Its output is 1 for WD mode and 0 for WO mode. If WD/WO_ = 1 or
CLUTCH = 1 the speed reference to the DE is 1 pu as the DE is needed to keep the
system frequency at rated value. In WO mode (WD/WO* = 0 and CLUTCH = 0) the
DE speed reference is 0.3 pu, so that the DE is kept running instead of being stopped
39
40
The BESS/DL sharing defined in (3) and (4) is performed within the Power
Sharing Block of Fig. 6, according to the following equation:
that means that the DL does not actuate unless the positive PREF needed is greater than
the BESS rated power PS-NOM, guaranteeing that the DL only will dump just the wind
power excess that the BESS cannot store. So when P REF > PS-NOM, this block assigns to
the DL the minimum integer number XD-REF which verifies XD-REF - PSTEP > PREF
PS-NOM and after this, PS-REF is defined as PS-REF = PREF XD-REF.PSTEP. With these
calculations (3) and (5) are always satisfied and the value of P S-REF is accommodated to
take into account the discrete nature of the DL used in this simulation.
41
42
43
4.2.SIMULATION RESULTS
Time in sec
[ Fig. 8. System frequency per unit and diesel engine speed per unit.]
In the graphs presented below the system frequency/SM speed and the DE
speed are plotted in pu value in Figs. 8 and 9. The rms voltage in pu value is shown in
Fig. 10. The active powers for the WTG, SM, BESS and consumer load are plotted in
kW in Fig. 7. The DL does not actuate during the presented test as the positive P REF
calculated in APR block during the test is in the [0,PS-NOM] range, so that the DL
reference and consumed powers PD-REF and PD are cero during the test and therefore PD
is not plotted. Fig. 11 shows the active powers as being positive when produced and
negative when consumed, so that the sum of active powers in Fig. 11 is null whenever
the power system is in equilibrium.
44
Time in sec
[Fig. 9 Closer view of system frequency and diesel engine speed in per units.]
45
Time in sec
[ Fig. 10. RMS voltage per unit.]
46
was supplying previous to the WO to WD mode change order and the active power of
the BESS is 0 kW.
Time in secs
[ Fig. 11. WTG, BEES, SM (DG) and load active powers ]
Fig. 12 shows the Ni-Cd battery voltage (normalized to its 240 V rated
voltage), current (also normalized to its rated current 150 kW/240 V = 625 A) and
state of charge (SOC) in pu. The battery current is considered positive when
discharging and negative when charging. The battery current in Fig. 11 looks like a
scaled version of the BESS active power in Fig. 12. This is so because of the small
48
variations in the battery voltage during the simulation. Initially Ni-Cd battery absorbs
charging current of -0.265 pu storing the wind power excess. After the positive 100
kW load step in t = 0.2 s, Ni-Cd battery start to supply discharging current with a
maximum of +0.4784 pu, until steady state is reached in t = 1.727 s where discharging
current is +0.395 pu. Once the DE is engaged, the BESS does not have to supply
power to the system, so after the transient due to the engagement process, with current
peaks of +0.417 pu and _0.057 pu respectively, steady state is
Time in secs
[ Fig. 12. Normalized battery current, voltage and SOC. ]
reached in t = 6.777 s with 0 pu current. The battery SOC initially set at 50%, hardly
changes because of the relatively great battery capacity and the short simulation time.
The battery voltage is initially 1.05 pu. After the load step increasing, minimum
voltage is 1.02 pu. During DE engagement process minimum and maximum voltage
49
peaks are 1.022 pu and 1.041 pu respectively. These data agree with the employed
battery model, since SOC variations are negligible, voltage will vary little and will
follow the current variations due to the internal resistance.
CHAPTER-5
FUTURE SCOPE
50
5.FUTURE SCOPE
From this project we concluded that it can give reliable power supply but due to
the diesel generation system it is quite expensive because of the amount of fuel input
to the diesel engine. In future if we add
system then we can reduce the cost of generation. The solar energy generation system
will also give the power along with the wind and diesel system. So the number of
diesel engine need to start will be less. During the day time the solar system work
quite effectively to contribute the power. We can also add biomass energy generation
system along with wind diesel hybrid system to save the fuel cost and to get reliability
of power supply. Using the nonconventional energy generation system is eco friendly
too. we can also consider some of the other new hybrid systems are
1. Solar Diesel system
2. Wind-Solar system
51
CHAPTER-6
CONCLUSION
52
CONCLUSION
A comparative analysis of different storage technologies currently in use was
effectuated according to several criteria such as cost, energy density, specific power,
contributing to reducing fuel consumption and GHG emissions, the lifetime and
efficiency of each technology. This analysis was served to determine the performance
index of each storage technology based on the nature of the project application. The
determination of the performance index of each technology represents, despite its
subjectivity resulting from the use of the decision matrix, a solution where we have
some difficulty to choose a technology and where the constraint of time does not
achieve a detailed modeling of the studied systems. This method showed that the
CAES answers to the choice criteria with a performance index approximately 82 %.
Other systems are also more or less effective but at the cost, simplicity, adaptability to
the WDHS, the contribution to reducing fuel consumption and GHG emissions and
duration of life that there is some difference. For these reasons, CAES technology was
adopted to associate with the wind-diesel hybrid system.
53
CHAPTER-7
REFERENCE
54
14.REFERENCE
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Yukon and Northwest Territories, Gov. of Canada, Dep. of Indian & Northern Aff.,
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[2] Sebastian R., Castro M., Sancristobal E., Yeves F., Peire, J., Quesada, J.,
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3, Pages. 2300-2305, Issue: 5-8 Nov. 2002.
[3] J.G. McGowan, J.F. Manwella and S.R. Connors, "Wind/diesel energy systems:
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6, Pages 561-575, 1988.
[4] J. Kaldellis et al, Autonomous energy systems for remote islands based on
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[5] J.F. Maisson Wind Power Development in Sub-Arctic Conditions with Severe
Rime Icing Presented at the Circumpolar Climate Change Summit and Exposition,
Whitehorse, Yukon, 2001
[6] B. Reeves Kotzebue Electric Association Wind Projects , Proceedings of
NREL/AWEA 2002 Wind- Diesel Workshop, Anchorage, Alaska, USA, 2002
[7] P. Ebert P and J. Zimmermann, Successful high wind penetration into a medium
sized diesel grid without energy storage using variable speed wind turbine
technology, in Proceedings of EWEC 99, Nice 1999.
[8] Lawrenz W. CAN system engineering. Springer; 1997.
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