Module 2

Kinematics of deformation and Strain

Learning Objectives
develop a mathematical description of the local state of deformation at a material point
understand the tensorial character of the resulting strain tensor
distinguish between a compatible and an incompatible strain eld and understand the
mathematical requirements for strain compatibility
describe the local state of strain from experimental strain-gage measurements
understand the limitations of the linearized theory and discern situations where nonlinear eects need to be considered.

2.1

Local state of deformation at a material point

Readings: BC 1.4.1

Deformation described by deformation mapping:

x = (x)

(2.1)

We seek to characterize the local state of deformation of the material in a neighborhood of

a point P . Consider two points P and Q in the undeformed:
P : x = x 1 e 1 + x 2 e 2 + x 3 e3 = x i e i
Q : x + dx = (xi + dxi )ei

(2.2)
(2.3)

P  : x = 1 (x)e1 + 2 (x)e2 + 3 (x)e3 = i (x)ei

(2.4)



Q : x + dx = i (x) + di ei

(2.5)

and deformed

29

MODULE 2. KINEMATICS OF DEFORMATION AND STRAIN

30

Q
dx
Q

P

dx
P

x

x
e3

e1

e2

Figure 2.1: Kinematics of deformable bodies

congurations. In this expression,
dx = di ei

(2.6)

Expressing the dierentials di in terms of the partial derivatives of the functions i (xj ej ):
d1 =

1
1
1
dx1 +
dx2 +
dx3 ,
x1
x2
x3

(2.7)

and similarly for d2 , d3 , in index notation:

di =

i
dxj
xj

(2.8)

Replacing in equation (2.5):



i
dxj ei
Q : x + dx = i +
xj
i
dxj ei
dx i =
xj

(2.9)
(2.10)

We now try to compute the change in length of the segment P Q which deformed into segment

P  Q . Undeformed length (to the square):

ds2 = dx2 = dx dx = dxi dxi

(2.11)

Deformed length (to the square):

(ds )2 = dx 2 = dx dx =

i
i
dxj
dxk
xj
xk

(2.12)

2.1. LOCAL STATE OF DEFORMATION AT A MATERIAL POINT

31

The change in length of segment P Q is then given by the dierence between equations (2.12)
and (2.11):
(ds )2 ds2 =

i
i
dxj
dxk dxi dxi
xj
xk

(2.13)

We want to extract as common factor the dierentials. To this end we observe that:
dxi dxi = dxj dxk jk

(2.14)

Then:
i
i
dxj
dxk dxj dxk jk
xj
xk


i
i
=
jk dxj dxk
x x
 j k

2jk : Green-Lagrange strain tensor

(ds )2 ds2 =

(2.15)

Assume that the deformation mapping (x) has the form:

(x) = x + u

(2.16)

where u is the displacement eld. Then,

i
xi
ui
ui
=
+
= ij +
xj
xj xj
xj
and the Green-Lagrange strain tensor becomes:

um 
um 
mj +
ij
2ij = mi +
xi
xj
ui uj um um
= ij +
+
+
 ij
xj
xi
xi xj
Green-Lagrange strain tensor :

ij =

1  ui uj um um 
+
+
2 xj
xi
xi xj

(2.17)

(2.18)

(2.19)

When the absolute values of the derivatives of the displacement eld are much smaller than
1, their products (nonlinear part of the strain) are even smaller and well neglect them. We
will make this assumption throughout this course (See accompanying Mathematica notebook
evaluating the limits of this assumption). Mathematically:

um um

0
(2.20)

1

xj
xi xj
We will dene the linear part of the Green-Lagrange strain tensor as the small strain tensor :
1  ui uj 
+
ij =
2 xj
xi

(2.21)

MODULE 2. KINEMATICS OF DEFORMATION AND STRAIN

32

Concept Question 2.1.1. Strain elds from displacements.

The purpose of this exercice is to determine strain elds from given displacements.
1. Find the linear and nonlinear strain elds associated with the following displacements
ua1 = x1 x2 (2 x1 ) c1 x2 + c2 x32 ,
x2
ua2 = c3 x22 (1 x1 ) (3 x1 ) 1 c1 x1 .
3
2. Find the linear strain elds associated with the following displacements
ub1 = x31 x2 + 2c1 c32 x1 + 3c1 c22 x1 x2 c1 x1 x32 ,
3
1
3
ub2 = 2c32 x2 c22 x22 + x42 c1 x21 x22 .
2
4
2
Solution: The expression to calculate the nonlinear (nl) strains in function of the
displacements is


1 ui uj um um
nl
ij =
.
(2.22)
+
+
2 xj
xi
xi xj
When the derivatives of the displacement

 components are small in comparison to one,
um um
um um
i.e. xi , xj  1, the product xi xj can be neglected, and the previous equation
simplies to the following linear (l) expression


1 ui uj
l
.
(2.23)
+
ij =
2 xj
xi
When we apply the Equation 2.23 to the eld (ua1 , ua2 ), we obtain the following linear
(l) strain tensor


(3c2 +c3 ) 2
2x
(1

x
)
c
+
x
2
1
1
2
2
la =
.
c1 + (3c22+c3 ) x22 2c3 x2 (1 x1 )
On the other hand, the Equation 2.22 allows us to calculate the nonlinear (nl) strain
tensor for the eld (ua1 , ua2 )
 nl nl 
12

nl
,
a = 11
nl
12 nl
22
where
2
1
c1 + c3 x22 x1 (2 x1 ) ,
2
2
1
= 2c3 x2 (1 x1 ) [1 + c3 x2 (1 x1 )] + c1 + 3c2 x22 + x1 (2 x1 ) ,
2
(3c2 + c3 ) 2
x2
= c1 +
2

+x2 (1 x1 ) x1 (2 x1 )(1 + c3 ) + c1 (1 + c3 ) + (3c2 c23 )x22 .

nl
11 = 2x2 (1 x1 ) [1 + x2 (1 x1 )] +
nl
22
nl
12

2.2. TRANSFORMATION OF STRAIN COMPONENTS

33

The linear (l) strain tensor for the displacement eld (ub1 , ub2 ) is

 2
1 3
x1 + 32 c1 c22 x1 3c1 x1 x22
3x1 x2 + 2c1 c32 + 3c1 c22 x2 c1 x32
l
2
.
b =
1 3
x + 32 c1 c22 x1 3c1 x1 x22
3c1 x21 x2 + x32 3c22 x2 2c32
2 1

2.2

Transformation of strain components

Readings: BC 1.5.1, 1.6.2, 1.5.2, 1.6.3, 1.6.4

ek , determine the components of strain in the new basis kl

Given: ij , ei and a new basis
1  ui uj 
ij =
+
(2.24)
2 xj
xi
We want to express the quantities with tilde on the right-hand side in terms of their non-tilde
counterparts. Start by applying the chain rule of dierentiation:
ui xk
ui
=
xj
xk xj

(2.25)

Transform the displacement components:

u = um
e m = ul e l
em
ei ) = ul (el
ei )
um (
ei )
um mi = ul (el
ei )
ui = ul (el

(2.26)
(2.27)
(2.28)
(2.29)

take the derivative of ui with respect to xk , as required by equation (2.25):

ul
ui
=
(el
ei )
xk
xk

(2.30)

and take the derivative of the reverse transformation of the components of the position vector
x:
x = xj ej = xk
ek
e k ei )
xj (ej ei ) = xk (
e k ei )
xj ji = xk (
e k ei )
xi = xk (

(2.31)
(2.32)
(2.33)
(2.34)

xi
xk
=
(
ek ei ) = kj (
ek ei ) = (
e j ei )
xj
xj

(2.35)

Replacing equations (2.30) and (2.35) in (2.25):

ui
ui xk
ul
=
=
(el
ei )(
ej ek )
xj
xk xj
xk

(2.36)

34

MODULE 2. KINEMATICS OF DEFORMATION AND STRAIN

Replacing in equation (2.24):

ij =


1  ul
ul
(el
ei )(
e j ek ) +
(el
ej )(
ei ek )
2 xk
xk

(2.37)

Exchange indices l and k in second term:


1  ul
uk
(el
ei )(
e j ek ) +
(ek
ej )(
e i el )
2 xk
xl
1  ul
uk 
=
+
ei )(
e j ek )
(el
2 xk
xl

ij =

(2.38)

Or, nally:
ij = lk (el
ei )(
ej ek )

(2.39)

Concept Question 2.2.1. 2d relations for strain tensor rotation.

ek such that
e1 is oriented at an angle
In two dimensions, let us consider two basis ei and
with respect to the axis e1 . ij and ij are, respectively, the components of a strain tensor
 expressed in the ei and
ek bases (i.e. they correspond to the same state of deformation.
Using the following expression introduced in the class notes,
ij = lk (el
ei )(
ej ek )
derive the following relations:
11 = 11 cos2 + 22 sin2 + 12 sin 2
22 = 11 sin2 + 22 cos2 12 sin 2
11 22
sin 2 + 12 cos 2
12 =
2
Note: It is also usual to nd the following expressions for 11 and 22 in textbooks:
11 + 22 11 22
+
cos 2 + 12 sin 2
2
2
11 + 22 22 11
+
cos 2 12 sin 2
=
2
2

11 =
22

Solution: First, let us recall the following trigonometric relations between the
vectors of ei and
ek :
e1
e1 =
e2 =
e2

cos
cos

e1
e2 = sin
e2
e1 = sin

2.2. TRANSFORMATION OF STRAIN COMPONENTS

35

Using (2.39), it is possible to write the following:

11 (e1
e1 )2 + 22 (e2
e2 )2 + 212 (e1
e1 )(
e 1 e2 )
2
2
11 cos + 22 sin + 12 sin 2
11 (e1
e2 )2 + 22 (e2
e2 )2 + 212 (e1
e2 )(
e 2 e2 )
2
2
11 sin + 22 cos 12 sin 2
11 (e1
e1 )(
e2 e1 ) + 22 (e2
e1 )(
e2 e2 )
e1 )(
e2 e2 ) + 21 (e2
e1 )(
e2 e1 )
12 (e1
22
11
sin 2 +
sin 2 + 12 (cos2 sin2 )
=
2
2
11 22
sin 2 + 12 cos 2
=
2

11 =
=
22 =
=
22 =
+

The expresssions given in the remark can be derived from these using the following trigonometric relations:
1 + cos 2
1 cos 2
sin2 =
cos2 =
2
2

Concept Question 2.2.2. Principal strains and maximum shear strain in 2d.
Using the relations introduced in Problem 2.2.1, show that given the components ij of
a 2d strain tensor in a basis ei :
1. The principal strains can be computed as follows:

2
11 22
11 + 22

+ 212
1,2 =
2
2
and the principal directions of strain for angles with respect to e1 satisfy:
tan 2p =

212
11 22

2. The maximum shear strain can be computed as follows:


2
11 22
max
+ 212
12 =
2
and the normal of the planes of maximum shear form angles with respect to e1
tan 2s =

11 22
.
212

Conclude that the direction of maximum shear is always oriented at an angle equal to
45o with respect to the principal directions of strain.

MODULE 2. KINEMATICS OF DEFORMATION AND STRAIN

36

Solution: Principal strains: The characteristic polynomial () corresponding to

the strain tensor components ij is:
() = det(ij ij ) = (11 )(22 ) 212
= 2 (11 + 22 ) + (11 22 212 )
The roots of the characteristic polynomial are:

2
11 22
11 + 22

+ 212
1,2 =
2
2
To nd the angle p formed by the principal directions and the basis vecto e1 , use the fact
that the shear strains vanish in principal directions:
0=

11 22
sin 2p + 12 cos 2p
2

tan 2p =

212
11 22

Maximum shear strain: The maximum shear strain can be found by simply nding the
value of the argument in the expression for transforming the shear strain component which
makes the derivative of 12 with respect to vanish:
11 22
max
=
sin 2s + 12 cos 2s
12

2
12
11 22
s
s
= 2
cos 2 + 12 sin 2 = 0

2
By taking the square of the two previous equations and summing them, it is easy to show
that:
2

11 22
max 2
+ 212
12 =
2
The second equation leads directly to the angular relation:
22 11
tan 2s =
212
From the trigonometric relation: tan ( + 2 ) = tan1 it is also easy to see that:
 
1

11 22
=
tan 2 p +
=

= tan 2s
4
tan 2p
212
Thus, proving that s = p + 4 .

Concept Question 2.2.3. Strain tensor rotation.

Consider the following problem of a square of unit area subject to the following strain
components in the basis given, Figure 2.3(a). :
11 = 3.4 104

22 = 1.1 104

12 = 9.0 105

Since the square has its edge of unit length, the changes in length in the directions e1 and
e2 are directly equal to 11 and 22 , respectively. The shear strain 12 is equal to half of the
decrease in angle in A (for innitesimal angles).

2.2. TRANSFORMATION OF STRAIN COMPONENTS

e2

37

e2

212

ea2

22

ea1

1
30o

1
A

e1

11

e1

A
(a) Deformed unit square

(b) dierent initial orientation of the unit square

Figure 2.2: Deformed unit square and oriented new initial conguration.

e2

e2

212

ea2

22

ea1

1
30o

1
A

11

e1
A

(a) Deformed unit square

e1

(b) dierent initial orientation of the unit square

Figure 2.3: Deformed unit square and oriented new initial conguration.

MODULE 2. KINEMATICS OF DEFORMATION AND STRAIN

38

1. Determine the strain components on a square initialy oriented at an angle equal to

30o to the axis e1 as shown on Figure 2.3(b). Sketch in this case, the deformed
conguration.
2. Determine the principal strains and sketch the deformed conguration.
3. Determine the maximum shear strain and sketch the deformed conguration.
Solution: For the solution of this problem, we are going to use extensively the
relations introduced in Problem 2.2.1. Let us rst compute the two following ratios:
11 + 22
= 2.25 104
2

11 22
= 1.15 104
2

Orientation at an angle = 30o : The value of the strain tensor in the basis eai are as
follows:
a11 =
=
a22 =
=
a12 =
=

11 + 22 11 22

+
cos 2 + 12 sin 2
2
2

3
1
4
4
5
= 3.6 104
2.25 10 + 1.15 10 + 9.0 10
2
2
11 + 22 22 11
+
cos 2 12 sin 2
2
2

3
1
4
4
5
= 9.0 105
2.25 10 1.15 10 + 9.0 10
2
2
11 22
sin 2 + 12 cos 2

3
1
4
+ 9.0 105 = 5.5 105
1.15 10
2
2

Figure 2.4(a) shows the deformed conguration corresponding to this case.

Principal strains: Using the relation introduced in Problem 2.2.2, the principal strains
are:


2
11 22
11 + 22
= 3.7 104 : 1
2
+ 12 =

1,2 =
= 8.0 105 : 2
2
2
and their respective direction can be computed as:
212
tan 2 =
11 22
b

1b 19o
2b 109o

In order to nd which of the two angles solution of the equation above is associated with
which value of principal strain, one can test these values of b in the expression of 11 given in
Problem 2.2.1. Figure 2.4(b) shows the deformed conguration corresponding to this case.
Maximum shear strain: Following the relations introduced in Problem 2.2.2, we can
compute the absolute value of the maximal shear strain as:

2

11 22
max
2
12 =
+ 12 = (1.15 104 )2 + (9.0 105 )2 = 1.46 104 .
2

2.3. COMPATIBILITY OF STRAINS

39

Using the fact that the maximum shear direction is oriented at an angle of 45o to one of the
principal strain direction, let us consider the case of maximum shear obtained for an angle
c = 19o + 45o = 64o starting from e1 . We obtain 12 (c ) = max
and contend that for
12
this angle the maximum negative shear strain is obtained. Figure 2.4(c) shows the deformed
conguration corresponding to this case.
e2

2a12

ea2

a22

ea1
30o

a11

e1

(a) Deformed conguration with initial orientation of 30o

c22

e2

eb2

e2

ec1

b22

2c12

ec2

b11

c11

eb1
19o

65o

e1

(b) Deformed conguration of principal strain

e1

(c) Deformed conguration of maximum shear

Figure 2.4: Several deformed conguration of a unit square.

2.3

Compatibility of strains
Readings: BC 1.8

Given displacement eld u, expression (2.21) allows to compute the strains components
ij . How does one answer the reverse question? Note analogy with potential-gradient eld. In
this section, we will restrain ourselves to small perturbation theory where the displacements
and the rotations of a deformable solid are innitesimal. Let us rst restrict the analysis to

40

MODULE 2. KINEMATICS OF DEFORMATION AND STRAIN

two dimensions. The small strain tensor is dened as the symmetric part of the displacement
ui
gradient x
:
j
1
ij =
2
We dene the skew-symmetric part of

ui
xj

1
ij :=
2

ui uj
+
xj
xi


(2.40)

as:


ui
uj

xj
xi


(2.41)

Concept Question 2.3.1. Properties of ij

1. Verify that ji = ij , i.e. ij is skew-symmetric




1 ui
1 uj
ui
uj
=
= ij

ji =
2 xi
xj
2 xj
xi

2. Verify that ij + ij =

ui
xj

1
ij + ij =
2

Solution:

Solution:


ui uj
+
xj
xi

1
+
2

ui
uj

xj
xi

For the two-dimensional setting, the components are as follows:



1 u1 u2
11 = 22 = 0, 12 = 21 =

2 x2 x1

ui
xj

(2.42)

We have seen in a previous section of this module, that ij describes the change of length
of a vector dx due to deformation. We will now see that ij represents the innitesimal
rotation of the vector dx from the initial to the deformed conguration. ij is thus named
the innitesimal rotation tensor.

Consider an innitesimal rotation of a vector P Q in the neighborhood of a point P .

For this transformation, the strain tensor  vanishes. Such a transformation can only be a

rotation of P Q into P Q by an angle (  1) as depicted in the following gure:

dx
P

dx

Q
Q

Figure 2.5: innitesimal rotation of a vector dx

2.3. COMPATIBILITY OF STRAINS

41

From Figure 2.5, it is possible to express dx in terms of and dx:





cos sin
1

dx
dx
dx =
sin cos
1
Altenatively, from (2.17), it is possible to express dx in terms of 12 and dx:


1 12

dx = (ij + ij ) dxj =
dx
12
1

(2.43)

(2.44)

By identication of the transformation matrix components, we conclude that 12 = 21

corresponds indeed to an innitesimal rotation in the plane of normal e3 . Similar conclusions
can be drawn on the remaining components: 31 = 13 corresponds to an innitesimal
rotation in the plane of normal e2 and 23 = 32 corresponds to an innitesimal rotation
in the plane of normal e1 .
The compatibility of strain is intricately related to the continuity of innitesimal rotations. In two dimensions, this can be readily expressed by requiring the equality of the mixed
2 12
2 12
partials of 12 : x
= x
. To this end, dierentiate 12 with respect to x1 :
1 x2
2 x1
 2
u1
1
12
=

x1
2 x2 x1
 2
u1
1
+
=
2 x2 x1
11 12
=

x2
x1


2 u2
x21

 2
2 u1
u2
2 u1

+
x2 x1
x21
x2 x1

(2.45)
(2.46)
(2.47)

and now with respect to x2 :

2 11
2 12
2 12
=

x1 x2
x2 2
x1 x2

(2.48)

Similarly, we can nd that:

12
12 22
=

x2
x2
x1
which dierentiated with respect to x1 gives:
2 12
2 12
2 22
=

x2 x1
x2 x1
x1 2

(2.49)

(2.50)

Equating the mixed partials in equations (2.48) and (2.50) we obtain:

2

2 12
2 11 2 22
=
+
x1 x2
x22
x21

(2.51)

The following concept question generalizes this result to obtain all of the equations of
strain compatibility in three dimensions.

42

MODULE 2. KINEMATICS OF DEFORMATION AND STRAIN

Concept Question 2.3.2. Strain compatibility equation in 3d.

The purpose of this exercise is to derive the strain compatibility equations in 3d using
the approach followed in class for the 2d case.
1. Apply the equality of mixed partials to the small rotation tensor:
2 ij
2 ij
=
xk xl
xl xk
and show that the following relations hold:
2 ik
2 jk
2 il
2 jl

xj xl xi xl
xj xk xi xk

(2.52)

2. How many relations are dened by (2.52) and how many strain compatibility equations
are required in order to ensure that a unique displacement may be computed from a
given small strain tensor?
3. Notice that for i = j or l = k, (2.52) is automatically veried. How many non-trivial
relations can be derived from (2.52)? Are all these relation independant?
Solution: Let us remind rst that the small rotation tensor is dened as:
1
ij = (ui,j uj,i )
2
Thus, the gradient of small rotation reads:
1
(ui,jk uj,ik )
2
By adding and substracting uk,ij form the right-hand side of the previous relation, it is to
express the gradient of small rotation only in terms of the derivatives of the componenent
of the small strain tensor:
 1

1
ui,jk + uk,ij (uj,ik uk,ij ) = ik,j jk,i
ij,k =


2   
2
ij,k =

2ik,j

2jk,i

Thus, the mixed derivatives: ij,kl and ij,lk of the small rotation tensor have the following
expressions:

1
ij,kl =
ik,jl jk,il
2

1
il,jk jl,ik
ij,lk =
2
The equality of mixed partials implies:
ik,jl jk,il = il,jk jl,ik

Since i, j, k, l can take any value in {1, 2, 3} respectively, (2.52) comprises 34 = 81 relations.
It is easy to verify that the only non-trivial relations from (2.52) can be obtained for i = j
and k = l.

2.3. COMPATIBILITY OF STRAINS

i = j
1
2
2
3
3
1
1
2
2
3
3
1

43
and
and
and
and
and
and
and

k =
1
2
2
1
2
3

l
2
3
1
3
1
2

Thus, obtaining the 6 following relations:

11,22 + 22,11
22,33 + 33,22
33,11 + 11,33
12,23 + 23,12
23,31 + 31,23
31,12 + 12,31

=
=
=
=
=
=

212,12
223,23
231,31
22,31 + 31,22
33,12 + 12,33
11,23 + 23,11

These six relations are linearly dependent and it is possible to show that if only three are
them are verifed then the remaining three are.