FLAME TEST COLOURS

LITHIUM
Li+

SODIUM
Na+

POTASSIUM
K+

RUBIDIUM
Rb+

CAESIUM
Cs+

CALCIUM
Ca2+

STRONTIUM
Sr2+

BARIUM
Ba2+

RADIUM
Ra2+

COPPER
Cu2+

IRON
Fe2+/Fe3+

BORON
B3+

INDIUM
In3+

LEAD
Pb2+

ARSENIC
As3+

ANTIMONY
Sb3+/Sb5+

SELENIUM
Se2+/Se4+

ZINC
Zn2+

A flame test is an analytical procedure used by chemists to detect the presence of

particular metal ions, based on the colour of the flame produced. When heated,
the electrons in the metal ion gain energy and can jump into higher energy levels.
Because this is energetically unstable, the electrons tend to fall back down to
where they were before, releasing energy as they do so. This energy is released as
light energy, and as these transitions vary from one metal ion to another, it leads
to the characteristic colours given by each metal ion.

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VSEPR & THE SHAPES OF MOLECULES

Using Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory

Shape

VSEPR is a model used to predict shapes of molecules. Electron pairs repel each
other, and adopt an arrangement that minimises repulsion. To find the shape, a Lewis
structure can be drawn, or use the following method (assumes single bonds only):

pa
irs

fb
o nd

in g & lo

LINE

LE
A NG

SHAPE & BOND

OF

No.

KEY

NAM
E

A SUMMARY OF THE MOLECULE SHAPES PREDICTED BY VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION THEORY

ne

AR - 180

electron
pairs

2 b.p.

TRI

PL ANAR -

Find the number of electrons the central atom normally has in its valence shell.

Add one electron for every atom that the central atom is bonded to.

Add or subtract electrons to account for charges if the molecule is charged.

Divide the number arrived at by two to find the number of electron pairs.

Subtract no. of atoms bonded to the central atom to find no. of lone pairs.

Arrange electron pairs in the correct shape.

Bonding Pairs & Lone Pairs

BENt ~119

1
20

NAL
GO

Lone pairs lie closer to the central atom, and hence repel more
than a bonded pair. The order of strengths of repulsion is:

electron
pairs

2 b.

NA

Lone Pair Repulsion

T - ~104.5
BEN

L PYRAMIDAL -

TRIG

HEDRAL - 109

LONE PAIR/LONE PAIR > BONDED PAIR/ LONE PAIR > BONDED PAIR/BONDED PAIR

p. , 1 l .p.

7
~10

TR A

.5

TE

3 b.p.

Each lone pair reduces the bond angle by

APPROXIMATELY 2.5 DEGREES

electron
pairs

3 b.

TRIGON

SA

IPYRAMIDAL -

(if there are 4+ electron pairs arranged around the

central atom, ignore repulsions at >90 angles)

p. , 2 l .p.

APED - 90
T-SH

ORSE - <90/<1
H
W

LINE

AR - 180

20

LB

120
90/

4 b.p.

2 b.

p. , 1 l .p.

Isoelectronic
species

electron
pairs

PYRAMIDAL -

E
UAR

P L A N AR -

4 b.

p. , 2 l .p.

SQ

SQU
A

RE

2 b.

p. , 2 l .p.

p. , 3 l .p.

Transition metal
compounds

APED - 90
T-SH

LINE

3 b.

2 b.

AR - 180

DRA
TAHE L - 90

3 b.

~90

OC

p. , 1 l .p.

4 b.

5 b.p.

FAILS FOR:

electron
pairs

6 b.p.

Ci

5 b.

p. , 1 l .p.

p. , 3 l .p.

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p. , 4 l .p.

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3
Li

Group 1 - The Alkali Metals

Lithium

THE GROUP 1 ELEMENTS ARE SHINY, SOFT, AND HIGHLY REACTIVE METALS, NONE OF WHICH OCCUR NATURALLY AS FREE ELEMENTS

ME LT I NG P OI N T S

11
Na

T H E A L K A L I M E TA L S R E A C T W I T H
WAT E R T O F O R M

M E TA L H Y D R O X I D E S

Sodium
0

Li

200

180.5C

19
K
Potassium

Rb
39.5C

37
Rb
Rubidium

Na

200

97.7C

200

Cs

200

LiOH

63.4C

200

28.4C

Fr

200

27.0C

ALL

OF THE

G R O U P 1 M E TA L S
HAVE

ONE

55
Cs
Caesium

VALENCE ELECT RON

Francium

KOH

A L K A L I M E TA L S
R E A C T W I T H
OX YG E N TO F O R M
ME TA L OXI DE S
A L K A L I M E TA L S
R E A C T W I T H
HALOGENS TO FORM
I O N I C S A LT S
U S E S

O F

T H E

RbOH

CsOH

Na+

Cl-

Na+

Cl-

Cl-

Na+

Cl-

Na+

Na+

Cl-

Na+

Cl-

Cl-

Na+

Cl-

Na+

A L K A L I

M E T A L S

THE REACTIVITY OF THE GROUP 1 METALS

INCREASES DOWN THE GROUP

87
Fr

NaOH

AS T H E OUT E R E L E C T RON G E TS
FURTHER FROM THE NUCLEUS
& B E C OME S E A S I E R TO R E MOVE

LITHIUM

SODIUM

POTASSIUM

ANTI
DEPRESSANTS

STREET LAMPS

FERTILISERS

BATTERIES

TABLE SALT

SOAPS

RUBIDIUM
& CAESIUM

FRANCIUM

ATOMIC
CLOCKS

RADIOACTIVE

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2 0 1 3 C OMP OU ND I N T E R E S T - W
W W.C OMP OU NDI N T E R E S T.C OM

G ro up 2 - The Alk a li ne E ar th Met al s

Beryllium

THE GROUP 2 ELEMENTS ARE SHINY, SILVERY-WHITE, AND SOMEWHAT REACTIVE METALS, SOME OF WHICH OCCUR NATURALLY AS FREE ELEMENTS

ME LT I NG P OI N T S

12
Mg

M E TA L H Y D R O X I D E S . . .
0

Be

1500

1278C

20
Ca
0

Sr
764C

38
Sr
Strontium

Mg

1500

650C

1500

Ba

Ca

839C

1500

725C

Ra

1500

700C

ALL
OF THE

Ca

G R O U P 2 M E TA L S
HAVE

TWO

56
Ba
Barium

M (OH ) 2

1500

G R O U P 2 M E TA L S
R E A C T W I T H
OX YG E N TO F O R M
ME TA L OXI DE S
G R O U P 2 M E TA L S
R E A C T W I T H
HALOGENS TO FORM
ME TA L HA L I DE S

VALENCE EL EC TRON S
USES

OF

THE

R A D I U M

Magnesium

Calcium

T H E A L K A L I NE E A R T H M E TA L S
R E A C T W I T H WAT E R T O F O R M

ALKALINE

EXCEPT

4
Be

FOR

Be
W HI C H HA S A
PROTECTIVE
OXIDE LAYE R
PREVENTING
R E A C T I O N

RA DIUM IS A
RADIOACTIVE
E L E M E N T
W HI C H U S E D TO
B E U S E D TO MA KE
GLOW IN THE
D A R K P A I N T
EARTH

ME TA L S

THE REACTIVITY OF THE GROUP 2 METALS

INCREASES DOWN THE GROUP

88
Ra
Radium

AS T H E OUT E R E L E C T RON S G E T
FURTHER FROM THE NUCLEUS
& B E COME E AS I E R TO R E MOVE
THEY ARE LESS REACTIVE THAN GROUP 1

BERYLLIUM

MAGNESIUM

CALCIUM

STRONTIUM

BARIUM

EMERALDS

ALLOY
WHEELS

BONES

FIREWORKS

RAT POISON

TREATING

GLASSMAKING

FLARES

BLACKBOARD
CHALK

TELESCOPE
MIRRORS

OSTEOPOROSIS

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9
F

Group 7 - The Halogens

Fluorine

GROUP 7 IS THE ONLY GROUP THAT CONTAINS ELEMENTS IN ALL THREE STATES OF MATTER. THEY ARE ALL REACTIVE NON-METALS

17
Cl

IODINE & ASTATINE

SOLIDS AT ROOM TEMPERATURE

BROMINE

Chlorine

LIQUID AT ROOM TEMPERATURE

35
Br

FLUORINE & CHLORINE

GASES AT ROOM TEMPERATURE

Bromine

53
I

THE
HA L O G E N S
ALL FORM
D I ATO M I C
MOLECULES
EXCEPT
FOR
A S TAT I NE

ALL

Cl

OF THE
GROUP 7 ELEMENTS
HAVE

SEVEN

Iodine

VALENCE ELE CTRON S

85
At
Astatine

117
Uus
Ununseptium

HYDROFLUORIC ACID
LEACHES CALCIUM FROM
B ONE S A ND CA N CAU S E
VE RY PAINFUL BURNS
IT ALSO

D I S S O LV E S G L A S S
T H E HA LO G E N S T H E HA LO G E N S
R E A C T W I T H A R E U S E D A S
O X Y G E N T O F O R M OXIDISING AGENTS
HA LO G E N OXI DE S
WHILST
HA L I DE I O N S
THE HALOGENS A R E U S E D A S
R E A C T W I T H REDUCING AGENTS
M E TA L S T O F O R M
ME TA L HA L I DE S

F2

T H E R E AC T I VI T Y O F T H E HA LO G E N S

DECREASES DOWN THE GROUP

U S E S

O F

T H E

IONS

H A L O G E N S

AS IT BECOMES HARDE R TO
A D D
A N
E L E C T R O N

1 GRAM

ESTIMATED AMOUNT OF

FLUORINE

CHLORINE

A S TAT I NE

TOOTHPASTE

BLEACH

IN THE EARTHS CRUST

AT A N Y O N E T I M E

REFRIDGERANT
GASES

CHEMICAL
WARFARE

BROMINE

IODINE

FIRE RETARDANT
MATERIALS

DISINFECTANTS

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FUNCTIONAL GROUPS IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS ARE GROUPS OF ATOMS IN ORGANIC MOLECULES THAT ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE CHARACTERISTIC CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF THOSE MOLECULES.
IN THE GENERAL FORMULAE BELOW, R REPRESENTS A HYDROCARBON GROUP OR HYDROGEN, AND X REPRESENTS ANY HALOGEN ATOM.
HYDROCARBONS

SIMPLE OXYGEN HETEROATOMICS

R
C

ALKANE

ALKyNE

Naming: -ene
e.g. ethene

ALDEHYDE

Naming: -al
e.g. ethanal

KETONE

Naming: -one
e.g. propanone

NH2

Naming: -oic acid

e.g. ethanoic acid

Naming: -amine
e.g. ethanamine

NITRILE

Naming: -nitrile
e.g. ethanenitrile

Naming: -oxy -ane

e.g. methoxyethane

ACID ANHYDRIDE

Naming: -oic anhydride

e.g. ethanoic anhydride

R3
R

Naming: -imine
e.g. ethanimine

R1

R3
R4

R2

Epoxide

Naming: -ene oxide

e.g. ethene oxide

haloalkane

Naming: haloe.g. chloroethane

OR

ESTER

Naming: -yl -oate

e.g. ethyl ethanoate

C
O

ISOCYANaTE

Naming: -yl isocyanate

e.g. ethyl isocyanate

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AROMATIC

NH2

AMIDE

Naming: -amide
e.g. ethanamide

ACYL HALIDE

Naming: -oyl halide

e.g. ethanoyl chloride

R1

R2

IMINE

ETHER

CARBOXYLIC ACID

R1

AMINE

SULFUR BASED

Naming: -ol
e.g. ethanol

OH

OH

ALCOHOL

Naming: -yne
e.g. ethyne

NITROGEN BASED

ALKeNE

Naming: -ane
e.g. ethane

CARBONYL COMPOUNDS

R
C

HALOGEN HETEROATOMICS

SH

R2

AZO COMPOUND
Naming: azoe.g. azoethane

THIOL

Naming: -thiol
e.g. methanethiol

ARENE

Naming: -yl benzene

e.g. ethyl benzene

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A BRIEF GUIDE TO

TYPES OF ORGANIC FORMULAE

A GUIDE TO THE DIFFERENT WAYS ORGANIC COMPOUNDS CAN BE REPRESENTED IN CHEMISTRY

MOLECULAR FORMULA

C4H8O2

The molecular formula of an organic compound simply

shows the number of each type of atom present. It tells
you nothing about the bonding within the compound.

EMPIRICAL FORMULA

C2H4O

The empirical formula of an organic compound gives the

simplest possible whole number ratio of the different
types of atom within the compound.

CONDENSED FORMULA
The condensed formula is also text-based; here, each
carbon atom is listed separately, with atoms attached
to it following. An exception is cyclic parts of molecules,
e.g. benzene, where the carbons are grouped.

CH3CH2CH2COOH

DISPLAYED FORMULA
A displayed formula shows all of the atoms and all of
the bonds present in an organic compound. The bonds
are represented as lines.

O
C

STRUCTURAL FORMULA
Similar to displayed formula - not all bonds are shown,
although all atoms are still indicated using subscript
numbers. Carbon hydrogen bonds are often simplified.

O
H3C

CH2

SKELETAL FORMULA
In a skeletal formula, most hydrogen atoms are omitted,
and line ends or vertices represent carbons. Functional
groups and atoms other than carbon or hydrogen are
still shown. Easiest to draw & commonly used.
C

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CH2

C
OH

OH

A BRIEF GUIDE TO

TYPES OF ISOMERISM IN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

A GUIDE TO THE FIVE MAIN TYPES OF ISOMERISM THAT CAN BE EXHIBITED BY ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

AN ISOMER OF A MOLECULE IS A MOLECULE WITH THE SAME MOLECULAR FORMULA BUT A DIFFERENT STRUCTURAL OR
SPATIAL ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS. THIS VARIATION CAN LEAD TO A DIFFERENCE IN PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL PROPERTIES.

STRUCTURAL ISOMERISM
CHAIN

STEREOISOMERISM

POSITION

FUNCTIONAL

BUTANE

BUT-2-ENE

H
H

OPTICAL
Cl

BUT-2-ENE

H
H

GEOMETRIC

C
H

Cl

(E)-1,2-DICHLOROETHENE
E = opposite side

Cl

Cl
C

CH3

CH3

OH HO
Cl

H
Cl

L: (S)-1-CHLOROETHANOL
R: (R)-1-CHLOROETHANOL

(Z)-1,2-DICHLOROETHENE

METHYL PROPANE

BUT-1-ENE

CYCLOBUTANE

DIFFERENT ARRANGEMENT
OF A MOLECULES CARBON
SKELETON

THE DIFFERING POSITION

OF THE SAME FUNCTIONAL
GROUP IN THE MOLECULE

DIFFERING POSITIONS OF
ATOMS GIVE A DIFFERENT
FUNCTIONAL GROUP

DIFFERENT SUBSTITUENTS
AROUND A BOND WITH
RESTRICTED ROTATION

NON-SUPERIMPOSABLE
MIRROR IMAGES OF THE
SAME MOLECULE

The positions of the carbon atoms

in the molecule can be rearranged
to give branched carbon chains
coming off the main chain. The
name of the molecule changes
to reflect this, but the molecular
formula is still the same.

The molecular formula remains the

same; the type of functional group
also remains the same, but its
position in the molecule changes.
The name of the molecule changes
to reflect the new position of the
functional group.

Also referred to as functional group

isomerism, these isomers have
the same molecular formula but
the atoms are rearranged to give
a different functional group. The
name of the molecule changes to
reflect the new functional group.

Commonly exhibited by alkenes,

the presence of two different
substituents on both carbon atoms
at either end of the double bond
can give rise to two different, nonsuperimposable isomers due to the
restricted rotation of the bond.

Optical isomers differ by the

placement of different substituents,
around one or more atoms in a
molecule. Different arrangements
of these substituents can be
impossible to superimpose - these
are optical isomers.

Z = same side

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ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY - INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY

Commonly referred to as IR spectroscopy, this technique allows chemists to identify characteristic groups of atoms (functional groups) present in molecules.
C

Stretch

Stretch

Stretch

ALKENE
AROMATICS

ALDEHYDE

ALKENE

THE FINGERPRINT REGION - 1500CM-1 TO 500CM-1

The fingerprint region of the spectrum contains a complex set of

absorptions, which are unique to each compound. Though these are
hard to interpret visually, by comparison with references they allow
identification of specific compounds.

Stretch

Stretch

Stretch

Stretch

Stretch

Stretch

Stretch

N S

ALKYNE

ALKANE

ALKYNE

CARBONYLS

AROMATICS

ESTERS, ETHERS, ALCOHOLS,

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

ALKYL CHLORIDE (850-550)

ALKYL BROMIDE (690-515)

ACID

Stretch

Stretch

1& 2AMINE
AMIDE

N
ANHYDRIDE

ACYL CHLORIDE

NITRILE

Bend

Bend, Rock

Wag

Bend

Bend

S B

1AMINE

ALKANE

HALOALKANE

ALKENE

ALKENE

ESTER

Stretch

Stretch

V B

ALCOHOLS
PHENOLS

3600

3400

3200

N
AMIDE

ALDEHYDE
& KETONE

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

3000

2800

2600

2400

2200

2000

1900

FREQUENCY/WAVENUMBER OF ABSORPTION (CM-1)

1800

1700

Key: S

Asymm. Stretch

Symm. Stretch

Stretch

Bend

Wag

S B

NITRO
COMPOUND

NITRO
COMPOUND

ALIPHATIC
AMINES

CARBOXYLIC
ACID

1& 2AMINE

1600

STRONG

1500

1400

1300

1200

M MEDIUM W WEAK

1100

1000

B BROAD

900

800

N NARROW

700

600

500

V VARIABLE

Infrared frequencies make up a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. If a range of infrared frequencies are shone through an organic compound, some of the frequencies are
absorbed by the chemical bonds within the compound. Different chemical bonds absorb different frequencies of infrared radiation. There are a number of characteristic absorptions
which allow functional groups (the parts of a compound which give it its particular reactivity) to be identified. This graphic shows a number of these absorptions.

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GRAPHENE: THE CARBON-BASED WONDER MATERIAL

Since its discovery in 2003, graphene has been a hot topic in chemistry and materials science research. Its been linked with water purification, electronics,
and biomedical applications. However, how close are we really to using graphene in our day-to-day lives? This graphic looks at its properties, uses, and future.

WHAT IS GRAPHENE?

POTENTIAL USES OF GRAPHENE

SINGLE LAYER OF CARBON ATOMS

TOUCH SCREENS IN DEVICES

HONEYCOMB-LIKE STRUCTURE

Graphenes transparency and conductivity means that

it can be used in displays and touchscreens. However,
currently these are more expensive to produce than
the currently used material, indium tin oxide.

GRAPHITE IS LAYERS OF GRAPHENE

ISOLATED IN 2003 IN MANCHESTER

WATER FILTRATION SYSTEMS

Graphene is a single layer of graphite, the carbon-based

material found in pencil leads. Graphite has been known
for centuries, but graphene was only isolated in 2003, by
shearing layers off of graphite using sellotape. Its a single
atom-thick layer of carbon atoms, that are arranged in a
flat, hexagonal lattice structure.

Graphene allows water to pass through it, but not

other liquids and gases, so it can be used in water
purification. Researchers are working on a device that
could be capable of filtering salt from sea water.

IN ELECTRONIC DEVICES

THE PROPERTIES OF GRAPHENE

Graphene has been touted as silicons successor, and

has been used to make very fast transistors. However,
its conductivity cannot be switched off as silicons
can. Other 2D materials seem more promising.

MEDICAL SENSORS & DRUG DELIVERY

HIGH ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY

200x STRONGER
THAN STEEL

THIN AND
LIGHTWEIGHT

HIGH THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY

VERY HIGH
TRANSPARENCY

Graphenes wonder material reputation stems from its superlative properties. It is a million times thinner
than a piece of paper, yet stronger than diamond, and 200 times stronger than steel, due to the strong
carbon-carbon bonds. Its also a flexible material, and conducts heat and electricity better than copper.
Being only one atom thick, almost 98% of visible light passes through graphene, making it transparent.

Several biomedical applications are being explored

for graphene, including drug delivery, cancer therapy,
and its use as a sensor. However, its toxicity profile
must be investigated before any clinical uses.

ENERGY STORAGE & COMPOSITES

Graphene-based energy storage devices are possible.
It can also substitute for graphite in normal batteries,
improving efficiency. Additionally, it can be added to
materials to make them stronger and more lightweight.

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