^VETENSKAP K.

UNGL

KONST

TEKNISKA

APERTURE DISTRIBUTION
OF
ROCK FRACTURES
Eva Hakami

Stockholm 1995

sa,
Doctoral Thesis
Division of Engineering Geology
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Royal Institute of Technology

VOL

2 7 Ns 0 6.

Doctoral Thesis

Aperture Distribution of Rock Fractures

by
Eva Hakami

Division of Engineering Geology

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Royal Institute of Technology
Stockholm, Sweden
June 1995

APERTURE DISTRIBUTION OF ROCK FRACTURES

by

Eva Hakami

AKADEMISK AVHANDLING

Som med tillstnd av Kungliga Tekniska Hgskolan i Stockholm framlggs

till offentlig granskning fr avlggande av teknisk doktorsexamen fredagen
den 15:e september 1995, kl. 10.00, i kollegiesalen, Valhallavgen 79,
Stockholm (pga ombyggnad ev. i annan sal, vnligen kontakta KTH's
vxel 790 6000 fr besked). Avhandlingen frsvaras p engelska.
Fakultetsopponent:

Examinator:

Professor John E Gale

Memorial University, St John's, Canada

Professor Ove Stephansson

Avd fr Teknisk geologi

TRITA-AMI PHD 1003, ISSN 1400-1284, ISRN KTH/AMI/PHD 1003-SE, ISBN 91-7170-835-9

Stockholm 1995

ABSTRACT

Ground water flow in crystalline rock masses is governed by the

conductivity of the fractures in the rock. The void geometry has a major
influence on the hydromechanical properties of fractures, and this thesis
concerns the properties of the fracture void geometry of single rock
fractures. It is suggested that the parameter aperture be used to describe the
fracture void geometry and a definition of the aperture is proposed. The
relation between void geometry and other fracture properties such as
roughness, conductivity, stiffness and channelling are discussed.
The spatial correlation of the aperture distribution over a fracture
surface influences both the mechanical and the hydraulic properties of the
fracture. Therefore, a parameter defining the spatial correlation should be
included in the description of the aperture distribution. It is proposed that
the geostatistical parameters range and sill be used for this purpose.
Aperture measurement methods may be divided into three groups
depending on the basic principle of the method: surface topography
measurements, grout or resin injection and casting techniques. Different
experimental techniques have been developed within the thesis work. The
methods are applicable to fractures of different nature and size.
A compilation of measurement results indicates that the spatial
correlation (range) of fracture apertures increases with increasing mean
aperture and that the range is correlated with the coefficient of variation.
The existing data from aperture measurements and fracture flow
experiments are still very scarce, in particular for fractures with large
apertures. For future research, additional aperture measurements from
fractures of different types is recommended. A further development of
aperture measurement techniques suitable for field investigations is also
suggested.

Key words: Rock fractures, aperture, void geometry, aperture

measurements, flow experiements, statistical analysis, spatial correlation.

FOREWORD

The research work presented in this thesis was conducted during the period 19851988 at Lule University of Technology (LuTH) and during 1992-1995 at the Royal
Institute of Technology (KTH).
Professor Ove Stephansson was my supervisor during both periods and I am deeply
grateful to him for his continuous support, trust and enthusiasm. I would also like to
thank DrNick Barton who was my assistant supervisor during the beginning of my
studies and made me share his interest in the mechanics of rock fractures.
Financial support provided by Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management Co.
(8KB) is gratefully acknowledged and I wish to thank Dr Lars O Eriksson at 8KB for his
interest and personal engagement in the work.
Parts of this thesis were carried out together with the Department of Geology at
Chalmers University of Technology. I would like to express my sincere thanks to Erik
Larsson for his careful work with the flow experiments and to Professor Gunnar
Gustafson for valuable co-operation during the last three years.
The efforts of Elis Svensson and Per Delin, at the Division of Soil and Rock
Mechanics, KTH, was an important contribution to the experimental part of the work for
which I give my warmest thanks. I would also like to acknowledge the assistance of
Tobias Eklind who helped me with the use of the image analysis system.
I would also like to thank all the personnel at the Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, KTH, and my former colleagues at LuTH and Vattenfall
HydroPower AB, for giving me a friendly and stimulating atmosphere to work in. In
particular my fellow graduate students at the division of Engineering Geology all
contributed in different ways to the thesis with assistance, advice, and friendship.
Finally, I wish to thank my husband Dr Hossein Hakami for his review work and for
his help and encouragement during the course of my studies.

Stockholm, June 1995

Eva Hakami

ABSTRACT

Ground water flow in crystalline rock masses is governed by the conductivity of the
fractures in the rock. The void geometry has a major influence on the hydromechanical
properties of fractures, and this thesis concerns the properties of the fracture void
geometry of single rock fractures. It is suggested that the parameter aperture be used to
describe the fracture void geometry and a definition of the aperture is proposed. The
relation between void geometry and other fracture properties such as rouglmess,
conductivity, stiffness and channelling are discussed.
The spatial correlation of the aperture distribution over a fracture surface influences
both the mechanical and the hydraulic properties of the fracture. Therefore, a parameter
defining the spatial correlation should be included in the description of the aperture
distribution. It is proposed that the geostatistical parameters range and sill be used for
this purpose.
Aperture measurement methods may be divided into three groups depending on the
basic principle of the method: surface topography measurements, grout or resin injection
and casting techniques. Different experimental techniques have been developed within
the thesis work. The methods are applicable to fractures of different nature and size.
A compilation of measurement results indicates that the spatial correlation (range) of
fracture apertures increases with increasing mean aperture and that the range is correlated
with the coefficient of variation.
The existing data from aperture measurements and fracture flow experiments are still
very scarce, in particular for fractures with large apertures. For future research, additional
aperture measurements from fractures of different types is recommended. A further
development of aperture measurement techniques suitable for field investigations is also
suggested.

Key words: Rock fractures, aperture, void geometry, aperture measurements, flow
experiments, statistical analysis, spatial correlation.

SAMMANFATTNING

Grundvattenfldet i hrda kristallina bergmassor bestms av konduktiviteten hos

sprickorna i berget. Sprickppningens geometri har en avgrande betydelse fr de
hydromekaniska egenskaperna hos bergsprickor. Denna avhandling behandlar
sprickppningsgeometrin hos enskilda sprickplan i granitiska bergarter.
Fr att beskriva sprickppningsgeometrin frsls att parametern sprickvidd
(aperture) anvnds. Sambandet mellan sprickvidd och andra sprickegenskaper, ssom
rhet, konduktivitet, styvhet och kanaleffekter, behandlas.
Den spatiella korrelationen hos sprickviddsfrdelningen p en sprickyta har
betydelse bde fr de mekaniska och de hydrauliska egenskaperna hos sprickan. Drfr
behvs en parameter som bestmmer spatiell korrelation i beskrivningen av
sprickviddsfrdelningen. Parametrarna range och sill fresls till detta.
Metoderna fr mtning av sprickvidd kan delas in i tre grupper: metoder med
mtning av sprickytans topografi, metoder med injicering av resin eller bruk och
avgjutningsmetoder. Flera metoder fr sprickviddsmtning har utvecklats och presenteras
i avhandlingen. Metoderna kan appliceras p sprickor av olika typ och storlek.
En sammanstllning av mtresultat visar att sprickviddens spatiella korrelation kar
med kad medelsprickvidd och att det finns ett samband mellan korrelationsavstndet
och variationskoefficienten.
Det finns idag en mycket begrnsad mngd data frn sprickviddsmtningar och
fldesexperiment, i synnerhet frn sprickor med stor sprickvidd. Fr framtida studier
rekommenderas fortsatta mtningar p sprickor av olika typ. Fortsatt utveckling frsls
ocks av mtmetoder lmpliga fr sprickviddsunderskningar i flt.

111

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
FOREWORD

ABSTRACT

ii

SAMMANFATTNING

iii

INTRODUCTION

APERTURE AND RELATED PROPERTIES

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7

Aperture
Roughness
Contact area
Matedness and spatial correlation
Tortuosity
Channelling
Stiffness

2
4
4
5
6
7
7

METHODS FOR APERTURE MEASUREMENT

MEASUREMENT RESULTS

12

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4

12
16
17
17

Aperture distribution of fractures of different nature

Compilation of results
Conceptual models
Flow experiments

CONCLUSIONS

18

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

19

REFERENCES

20

IV

Page
APPENDIX
Paper A: Aperture measurements and flow experiments using
transparent replicas of rock joints

A1-A8

Paper B: Joint aperture measurements - An experimental technique

B1-B5

Paper C: Experimental technique for aperture studies of

intersecting joints

C1-C8

Paper D: Characterisation of fracture apertures - Methods and parameters

D l -D4

Paper E: Aperture distribution of a highly conductive single fracture

E l -E 19

Paper F: Aperture measurements and flow experiments on a single

natural fracture

F1-F20

INTRODUCTION

Rock masses consist of intact rock and rock fractures of different sizes. The
hydromechanical rock mass properties are to a large extent determined by the properties
of the rock fractures, as the fractures are weaker and more permeable than the intact rock.
Therefore, much research in the field of rock mechanics is directed to towards studying
the properties of rock fractures. One of the research aims is to be able to understand and
predict flow and transport processes which take place in the bedrock. This issue has
attracted increasing interest, in particular in connection with assessing the safety of
storing hazardous waste underground. The conductivity of a rock mass depends on the
entire fracture network within the particular rock mass in question and is thus governed
by both the connectivity of the network and the conductivity of the single fractures. In
this work, geometrical and hydraulic properties of single fractures are addressed.
To predict flow in a single fracture, three factors must be known: the fluid property,
the fracture void geometry and the fluid pressure at the boundaries of the fracture
(Figure 1). The fracture void geometry is governed by the geological history of the
fracture and may be modified by changes in the prevailing geological conditions. This
thesis will deal with the geometrical parameters for description of the fracture void
geometry - how to define these parameters and which methods to use to determine the
geometry.

PREDICTION OF FLUID
FLOW IN SINGLE FRACTURE
(overall objective)

FLUID PRESSURE
AT BOUNDARIES

Determined by
I

'APERTURE.!;:?#;'.
.MEASUREMENTS;

Figure 1. Flow chart showing the context of the thesis work (shaded).

The thesis begins with an introduction to the different aspects of fracture apertures
referring to the previous work in this field. This is followed by a brief description of the
different methods developed for aperture measurements. These methods are presented
and discussed in more detail in the appended papers. Finally, the results obtained from
aperture measurements are summarized and the conclusions of the thesis work are drawn.

APERTURE AND RELATED PROPERTIES

A fracture can be said to consist of two rock surfaces, with irregular shape, and
being more or less in contact with each other. The volume between the surfaces is the
fracture void. The fracture void geometry is related in various ways to several properties
and variables which often appear in the literature about rock fractures (Figure 2).
Aperture is used to describe the void geometry and roughness to describe the shape of
the rock surfaces. The percentage contact area is used as a measure of the separation of
the fracture surfaces and matedness or spatial correlation describes how well they match.
The fracture void geometry determines the tortuosity of the fracture flow and the
variation in aperture also causes channelling. The void geometry also governs the
fracture stiffness. In the following, the relation between fracture void geometry and the
different fracture properties depicted in Figure 2 will be discussed in more detail.

2.1

Aperture

The parameter fracture aperture is here defined as illustrated in Figure 3. The two
fracture surfaces are assumed to be parallel with a reference x-y-plane and the aperture,
b, is the separation between the surfaces in the z-direction at each point. The aperture
thus varies from point to point on the fracture surface. The aperture distribution of a
fracture is only valid at a certain state of stress and if the stress changes the distribution
will be altered.
Having defined the parameter aperture it may be worth analysing the reasons for the
existence of apertures. If we assume that a fracture is originally created when a block of
rock is divided into two pieces, the fracture is formed from two opposing surfaces. When
the two surfaces are put together, there are principally two reasons why the aperture is
not zero: 1) the surfaces do not have an equal (mirror) shape and/or 2) the surfaces are
displaced relative to each other. The difference in the shape of the surfaces may be due to
the stress release of the mineral grains, damage and crushing of asperities or be caused
by chemical processes over time, such as alteration, precipitation and leaching. Relative
movement of the surfaces is caused by the stresses in the surrounding rock giving rise to
separation, shearing, rotation and deformation of the rock blocks. For most natural
fractures a combination of these mechanisms is the explanation for the existing aperture.
The hydromechanical properties can therefore be expected to differ between artificial and
natural fractures. This has also been observed experimentally [Gale, 1982]. The work in
this thesis aims at studies of natural fractures.

Fracture void geometry

Figure 2. Fracture properties determined by fracture void geometry.

fracture
surfaces

reference plane

Figure 3. Definition of fracture aperture, b(x,y).

2.2

Roughness

To characterise the shape of the individual fracture surfaces the term roughness is
often used. The parameter studied is normally the surface height distribution defined
analogous to the aperture (see Figure 2). Roughness can be fairly conveniently measured
with automatic profilometers [Iwano & Einstein, 1993], but can also be recorded with a
simple mechanical profilometer and compared to standard roughness profiles [Barton &
Chobey, 1977]. Roughness has mainly been used to predict fracture shear strength, but
attempts have also been made to correlate roughness with the aperture and to use
roughness parameters to simulate fracture apertures [Gentier, 1986; Brown 1985a,b and
1987]. However, the aperture depends on the shape and correlation of the two surfaces as
they are put together and thus roughness parameters alone cannot be used to describe the
fracture void geometry, in particular not for fractures at greateer depths in the crust
where compressive stresses are high.

2.3

Contact area

Normally, fracture surfaces are at some points in contact with each other. At these
points the compressive and shear stresses are transferred through the fracture. It is
difficult to define the term contact areas because there is no sharp border between contact
and non-contact points even at microscopic level. Therefore, in this thesis, the contact
area is defined as the areas with an aperture smaller than a certain threshold value [Paper
D]. This definition is convenient and implies that the aperture also includes the contact
areas, i.e. the aperture can be any small value including zero. When required, the contact
area may be determined from the aperture distribution. A relevant aperture threshold can
be chosen depending on the quality of aperture data and the purpose of the study.

2.4

Matedness and spatial correlation

When the fracture surfaces are displaced due to shear movement the fracture is
called unmated. The unmated fracture exhibits clearly different properties as compared to
the mated fracture. The permeability increases and the strength and stiffness decrease
dramatically with shear displacement [e.g. Makurat, 1985; Esaki et al, 1995; Boulon,
1995]. The expression matedness has also been used for the general match between the
two opposing fracture surfaces. In the following the term spatial correlation will be used
as a purely geometrical property depending on the matedness of the fracture, irrespective
of the mechanism creating the aperture.
The spatial correlation tells how abruptly or slowly the aperture changes from one
point on the fracture surface to another. A (semi-)variogram is a geostatistical tool for
analyses of spatial variables [Isaacs & Srivastava, 1990] and has been applied to the
aperture distribution [Paper E; Paper F]. Figure 4 illustrates how different spatial
correlations are manifested in sections of the fracture void and in the corresponding
variograms. The curve of the variogram will have a shape reflecting the correlation of tlie
aperture and the parameters range and sill are used to describe the characteristics of the
curve. Note that ordinary non-spatial statistical parameters such as the mean and standard
deviation may be the same for fractures that have different spatial correlation.

FRACTURE II
Low correlation

FRACTURE 1
Hiqh correlation
X-Z-section
of
3D fracture
void space

X-Y-seotlon
of
3D fracture
void space

Total contact jrea

Y(h)

AI = As

Y(h)

Seml-variogram

s -4-

S-S B Sill

RsRango
Ihl = Lag distance

Ihl
R! > RI

Ihl

Figure 4. The influence of different spatial correlation on the aperture distribution.

To be able to analyse spatial correlation it is necessary that the aperture is measured at

known locations and that the measurement points are close to each other. If
measurements are taken along sections in different directions on the fracture surface,
anisotropy in the spatial correlation may be revealed [Paper E].

2.5

Tortuosity

The flow pattern through a fracture is evidently influenced by the geometry of the
fracture void space. The forced bending of the stream lines in the flow field of a fracture
is called tortuosity and is often quantified by comparing the bent length of stream lines
with straight flow lines [Paper A]. Figure 5a shows experimentally determined stream
lines for a fracture that have a large spread in the aperture distribution.
To visualise or predict the tortuosity of a fracture having a known aperture
distribution, the fracture flow can be calculated by numerical methods (Figure 5b),
[Hakami & Larsson, 1993]. The direction ..ad magnitude of the water gradient must then
also be known (boundary conditions). If the fracture void geometry is anisotropic the
flow tortuosity may well become different for flow in different directions.

a)

b)

Figure 5. Illustration of flow tortuosity in a single fracture; a) Experimentally observed

stream lines of a specmien with large variation in aperture values, [Hakami, 1988];
b) Calculated flow pattern for the same specimen [Hakami and Larsson, 1993].

2.6

Channelling

The aperture variation over a fracture surface causes a variation of the ground water
pressure and flow velocity over the surface. In some cases the void geometry is such that
the flow along some paths is much faster than along others. This difference in flow
velocity is called channelling. All fractures exhibit channelling to some extent. The
reason for having strong channelling effects in a single fracture is that the apertures are
very well correlated. The reason for the high correlation may, for example, be that the
fracture is extensively sheared or that the fracture fill is not distributed uniformly.
Major channelling has been observed in chemical transport tests in the field [Abelin
et al., 1991]. Flow in field test, with several fractures involved, is expected to display
more pronounced channelling because of the influence of the connectivity between the
single fracture planes. Also, flow may take place in large apertures along the
intersections [Paper C]. The difference in aperture distribution between individual
fractures is another factor that further increases the expected channelling effect on the
rock mass scale compared to the channelling of single fractures.

2.7

Stiffness

A way of studying the mechanical properties of a rock fracture is to perform a

normal stiffness test. The result of such a test is often shown as the closure, or normal
deformation (AV) of the fracture, plotted against the applied normal stress (Figure 6a).
Stiffness curves have been used by Goodman [1976] and Bandis et al. [1983] to define
parameters related to the fracture aperture. Both authors use the term maximum closure
Vm determined from the fracture position at a certain "initial" stress level. The initial
stress cannot be put at zero because at this stress the position of the fracture surfaces can
not be defined. Also a very low initial stress, as used by Bandis et al. [1983], may give
experimental problems since the stiffness orthe fracture is extremely low at these stress
levels and the curve of stress versus deformation will be unreliable (Figure 6a). It is
therefore suggested that a rather high reference stress level be chosen for characterisation
and prediction of fracture stiffness behaviour [Paper B].
A coupling between parameters related to fracture stiffness and those related to
fracture conductivity has been very desirable because it enables calculation of coupled
hydromechanical processes. A linear function relating the hydraulic aperture and the
closure (AV) has been proposed by e.g. Witherspoon et al. [1980] and Elliot et al. [1985].
A non-linear function relating hydraulic aperture and the closure was proposed by Barton
et al. [1985]. These functions contain the closure parameters, AV or AE and Vm> which
are determined from fracture stiffness curves (these should not be confused with the
geometrical aperture parameter, b, defined in Figure 3). The hydraulic aperture (often
denoted e, 2b or b h ) is the equivalent width of a fracture consisting of two parallel plates.
The hydraulic aperture is calculated through the well known "cubic law" for laminar
flow between parallel plates, by using results from flow experiments.

The only study known to the author that deals directly with the relation between
fracture stiffness and fracture void geometry is the study by Hopkins et al. [1990 and
1992]. They used a numerical model to analyse the effect of different patterns of contact
area on the fracture stiffness and found that fractures with a few but large contact areas
were less stiff than fractures with many small contact areas. Expressed in terms of spatial
correlation, this relation would imply that a fracture with a high correlation of apertures
has a lower stiffness compared to a fracture with a low correlation of apertures.

a)

b)

Aa

1/2 Abj

^s^~^-~ Aperture
change

1/2 AV

Closure [ urn

Closure

Figure 6. a) Fracture parameters determined from a normal stiffness test,

b) Deformation of fracture void geometry during normal compression.
When the normal stress across a fracture is increased, the aperture will change at all
points except for the contact points (Figure 6b). The larger aperture changes occur when
the contact points are far from each other and it may thus be expected that the aperture
distribution of a fracture becomes more peaked as the normal stress across the fracture
increases. This has also been confirmed by experimental results (Figure 7).
12,-

b) '5

a)

100

200 300 400

Aperture, urn

500

600

ZOO
300
400
Aportura C*lcron]

Figure 7. Aperture measurement results showing the change in fracture aperture

distribution with normal stress; a) [Paper B]; b) [Hakami, 1988].

The relation between fracture void geometry and shear stiffness has not been
investigated to any great extent. Experimental results from [Yoshinaka et al, 1993]
demonstrate that the shear strength increases, as expected, with the sheared contact area.
The void geometry, in terms of the percentage of contact areas, is therefore one factor
defining the shear properties. The shear stiffness is, however, governed by the surface
roughness to a large extent, since the roughness determines the dilation angle [e.g.
Bartonetal., 1985].

METHODS FOR APERTURE MEASUREMENT

Several different techniques have been used to measure fracture aperture. The
measurement methods can be grouped with regard to the measurement procedures
(Figure 8) and are described in Paper D. One procedure (I) is to measure the topography
of the two fracture surfaces forming the void space and to define the aperture as the
space between the surfaces. Another procedure (II) is to inject resin into a fracture to fill
up the void space. The specimen containing the fracture can then be cut into slices and
the aperture be measured as the resin thickness along the fracture on each slice. A third
procedure (III) is to make a replica of the void space between the surfaces of a fracture,
or to make replicas of the fracture surfaces.

Surface
topography

Injection

Ill

Casting

Figure 8. Different approaches to measure fracture void geometry.

This thesis presents aperture measurements carried out with several different
methods. Paper A describes a technique using transparent replicas of fracture surfaces. A
simple principle for measuring the aperture is applied which is explained in Figure 9. A
small known volume, V, of water is placed between the fracture surface. The water drop
covers a small area, A, that is recorded and the average aperture over the small area can
be calculated. Paper B presents a technique applying the same principle. In this case
small volumes of silicon rubber are placed inside a natural fracture. After compression of
the fracture it is opened and the areal extent of the silicon rubber at different points can
be recorded. This method has the advantage that it does not damage the fracture
specimen, which may later be used in further testing [Hakami, 1992].

Figure 9. Principle for aperture determination using a small known volume of water or
silicon rubber placed behveen the fracture surfaces [Paper A; Paper BJ.
Aperture measurements applying the injection approach have been carried out using
different injection materials. Paper C describes a technique in which fractures are
injected in-situ with polyurethane and cylindrical specimens containing fracture
intersections have been obtained by core drilling. In this way, the aperture distribution
along fracture intersections may also be studied. The disadvantage of using polyurethane
is that it has an uneven colour and texture, which makes digital image analysis difficult.
The measurements described in Paper E concern a fracture filled with red-coloured
cement grout. This was a suitable material for the very conductive fracture studied. Also
in this case close-up pictures of the fracture profile were recorded on a video film and the
apertures were measured manually on the computer screen. This cumbersome procedure
could be overcome by developing the method further. Paper F presents a technique using
fluorescent epoxy and an image analysis system for aperture measurements (Figures 10
and 11). The fracture was first used in flow experiments and thereafter filled with
fluorescent epoxy while still placed in the loading cell. After hardening of the epoxy the
specimen was cut into slices and the aperture of the fracture profile measured.

10

Natural
fracture

Y,

-H_

x-y-table
Concrete
casting

t
M *

Statistical analysis

Figure 10. Experimental technique for aperture measurements using fluorescent epoxy
injection and image analysis [Paper FJ.

Figure J1. Close-up photograph of a fracture filled with fluorescent epoxy using the
image analysis system. The aperture, b, is measured as the distances marked out in the
image [Paper FJ.

11

All of the different techniques have advantages and drawbacks and should be chosen
depending on the aim and the scale of the study. For fractures with very large apertures
an in-situ injection technique must be appJied, and the fracture surface area studied
should be large [Paper E; Hakami, 1994]. Therefore, if it is possible to drill boreholes
parallel to the fracture plane, a technique using photographs taken from inside the
boreholes is recommended. This technique may also be applicable when the quality of
the rock is poor and good core recovery is not possible. For fractures with smaller
apertures in fairly competent rocks, the technique using sectioned cores is recommended.
The fracture could be injected in-situ or in the laboratory and a high contrast in colour
between the rock and injected material is very helpful.
The method using small volumes of rubber is less accurate but may provide a quick
estimate of the aperture without destroying the fracture specimen. The use of transparent
replicas is recommended when the fracture models are to be used in flow experiments
where advantage is taken of the transparency for the study of tortuosity and channelling.

MEASUREMENT RESULTS

4.1

Aperture distribution of fractures of different nature

The results of aperture measurements on a 410x190 mm fracture specimen in granite

are presented in Paper F. The surface area studied is divided into eight subareas and the
frequency histograms of the subareas are given in Figure 12. This fracture is a well
mated joint and has little spread in the aperture. The mean aperture is 360 urn and the
coefficient of variation CV = o/b) is only 0.4. The fracture described in Paper E is a
minor fault and has a much different character. For comparison, the aperture distribution
of the sample J2 (360x190 mm) of this fracture is given in Figure 14. The apertures are
in this sample generally large but there is also a large percentage of zero-apertures and
the spread in aperture is thus considerable. The mean aperture is 2.3 mm and the
coefficient of variation is 1.3.
The difference in the character of these two fractures is also reflected in the spatial
correlation of apertures. The range of the variograms is, as expected, much larger for the
sheared fault than for the joint with well correlated surfaces (Figures 13 and 15).
These two aperture distributions are the extreme cases among the distributions
encountered in measurements performed within this thesis work. The character of other
fractures falls somewhere in between these two. Without claiming that the fracture
aperture follows any standard distribution function, a general observation is that aperture
distributions with a small spread have best fit to normal functions while distributions
with a large spread have better fit to log-normal functions (contact areas not included).
The measurement results suggest that if the aperture distribution were to be generated
with a stochastic model, the contact areas would have to be treated separately from the
other areas

12

>-~
Nj

ra

I!

8
S
a a

II
55 8

=, a

ro
p

If
*5

s>

J. o

fi
fs
m

O)

3.8

-g

Is

*s
-c

SFT

fi
li
Is

CD

U)

CD

S
S

ro

Frequency [%]
01

Subarea B

Subaroa A

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

10

20

Subarea C

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

10

20

30

50

60

70

40

30

40

50

60

70

50

60

70

50

60

70

Lag distance [mm]

Subarea F

Subarea E

20

40

Subarea 0

Lag distance [mm]

10

30

Lag distance [mm]

Lag distance [mm]

50

60

10

70

20

30

40

Lag distance [mm]

Lag distance [mm]

Subarea H
Subarea G

10

20

30

40

50

60

10

70

20

30

40

Lag distance [mm]

Lag distance [mm]

Figure 13. Variograms calculated for subsets of the aperture data in Figure 12,
[Paper FJ.

14

400

Sample J2
300
c
o

200

100

10

12

aperture [mm]

Figure 14. Minor fault with large variation in aperture. Frequency histogram of
apertures. Sample J2, [Paper EJ.

10

15

20

lag distance [cm]

Figure 15. Variogram of the aperture data of a highly conductive minor fault,
[Paper EJ.

15

4.2

Compilation of results

A compilation has been made of results from aperture measurements presented in

this thesis and the results reported in the literature. The coefficient of variation (CV=a/b)
is plotted versus the mean aperture in Figure 17 and the range versus CV in Figure 18.
Although the available data are limited, these graphs indicate that the spread increases
with mean aperture and that the spatial correlation increases with the spread in apertures.
The correlation between CV and mean aperture is less strong than the correlation
between range and CV because of the difference in stress level for the fractures
compared. As discussed earlier, the mean aperture is sensitive to the stress level while
the parameters CV and R are more stable (cf. Figure 7), [Paper C]. The range is not
expected to change very much with stress as long as the contact area is small. This is
because the range is determined by the difference in shape of the fracture surfaces.
Therefore, both the CV and the range may be fairly robust parameters suitable for
comparisons and the classification of fracture void geometry.
The mean aperture must be determined or estimated for a specific state of stress. The
change in mean aperture with normal stress may then be estimated through the results of
normal stiffness tests. The aperture change due to shear stress can be addressed by using
theoretical models describing fracture dilation caused by shear displacement.

1.4,

o
1.2-

o
1

D [Gentler, 1990]
o[Hakami, 1988]
[Hakami, 1993]
ofHakami, 1995]
A[Hakami&Larsson, 1995]
A [Iwano&Einstein, 1993]
[Iwano&Einstein, 1995]

0.8

DO

0.6 -

O
O

0.4 -

9 A
a

0.2-

'it

0.
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Mean aperture [mm]

Figure 16. Compilation of fracture aperture data: Coefficient of variation (CV) versus
mean aperture.

16

100 T

D [Gentler, 1990]

7 10-

[Hakami, 1993]

D)

o[Hakami, 1995]

A [Hakami&Larsson, 1995]

A*

A [Iwano&Einstein, 1993]

* [Iwano&Einstein, 1995]

1.5

0.5

2.5

CV

Figure 17. Compilation of fracture aperture data: Range (correlation length) versus
Coefficient of variation (CV).

4.3

Conceptual models

A conceptual model of the aperture distribution can be constructed based on

experimental data. One example of this kind of conceptual model is given in Figure 16
[Paper E]. Here anisotropy is anticipated in the distribution owing to both the inferred
shear displacement of the fault and the results of the statistical analysis of measured
apertures.
The conceptual models can serve either as general descriptions or classifications of
the fracture aperture characteristics or they can constitute a basis for synthetic generation
of aperture distributions in theoretical studies [e.g. Moreno, 1988]. Measurement results
from Paper F have been used in numerical calculations of flow and transport by [Larsson
& Hakami, 1995]. In these studies, comparisons made between calculated flow and
measured flow showed good agreement.

4.4

Flow experiments

Results from the flow experiments performed in combination with aperture

measurements, show that the ratio between mean aperture and hydraulic aperture lies in
the interval 1.1-1.7, for fractures with a mean aperture of 0.1 - 0.5 mm [Paper A, Paper
B, Paper F]. This result is in accordance with results reported in the literature, both from
experimental studies [Witherspoon, 1980; Barton et al., 1985; Gale, 1990; Sundaram,
1987; Iwano, 1995] and numerical studies [Brown 1987; Zimmermann, 1991]. This
means that the mean aperture can be used as a rough estimate of the hydraulic aperture

17

and vice versa, for fractures in the aperture interval mentioned. The hydraulic aperture or
the mean aperture can be used to predict the total flow through this type of fracture.
However, for predicting the flow distribution of a fracture some other parameters
characterising the correlation of the fracture must be included in the conceptual model
used for the prediction.

strike 010

fault plane
contact area

5cm
shear
displacement

vertical

horizontal

3cm

Figure 18. Conceptual model for the aperture distribution of a highly conductive minor
fault, [Paper EJ.

CONCLUSIONS

Fracture void geometry has a major influence on the hydromechanical properties of

single fractures and rock masses. To increase our knowledge of single fracture
properties, further studies of fracture void geometry are needed. Ways of describing a
fracture void geometry and measurement methods to obtain the appropriate parameters
must be established. This thesis emphasizes the need for spatial correlation parameters to
be included in fracture aperture characterisation.
It is proposed that the parameter "aperture" be defined as the pointwise distance
between the opposing fracture surfaces, measured perpendicular to a reference plane
parallel to the fracture. Clearly, the aperture distribution changes with changes in the
state of stress. Measurements of the aperture may be used for the geometrical description
of the fracture void space.
If the contact area is defined as the subareas with apertures smaller than a threshold
value, it can be assessed from the aperture distribution. The spatial distribution of the

18

contact areas within a fracture, likewise the entire aperture distribution, is determined by
the geological history of the fracture and the present state of stress.
The different methods of measuring aperture, which were developed within the
thesis, have been successfully applied to fractures of different types. One method is
based on measurements taken on close-up pictures from sections sawn along a resin- or
grout-filled fracture. Fractures may be injected in-situ or in the laboratory, and pictures
may be taken via a microscope, by a video camera or with a camera from inside a
borehole, depending on the scale and the scope of the study. Another method is based on
placing small known volumes of silicon rubber between fracture surfaces. This method
has the advantage that it does not damage the fracture specimen, which may later be used
in further testing. In the third method presented, transparent replicas of fracture surfaces
are used. Such replicas are used to measure the aperture and to perform flow tests in
which stream lines are visible.
Statistical methods have been used to analyse the aperture distribution of a fracture
and statistical parameters are proposed that enable quantitative comparisons to be made
between fractures of different kind. The aperture frequency distribution is generally bellshaped, with a certain percentage of very small apertures in the contact areas. Apart from
the contact areas, the aperture frequency may be fairly well approximated with normal or
log-normal distributions. The distribution is more skewed for fractures with large
apertures. The few existing experimental results indicate that the coefficient of variation
increases with increasing mean aperture and that the range (spatial correlation) is
correlated with the coefficient of variation. Results of flow experiments on fractures with
known aperture distribution show that the ratio between mean aperture and hydraulic
aperture is 1.1 - 1.7, for O.K b < 0.5 mm.

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

In future research, more measurements of fracture apertures taken on fractures of

different character and from different rock types are recommended. In particular there is
a lack of data collected from fractures with a mean aperture larger than about 0.5
millimetres. Aperture measurement extended to include fracture intersections is also
desirable. At present, aperture data from fracture intersections are very limited.
It is further recommended that fracture aperture characterisation, carried out in the
field and/or in the laboratory, should become an integrated part of fracture flow and
transport experiments. A better understanding of the fracture void geometry will
undoubtedly make it possible to interprete the experimental results more correctly. In
particular, the coupling between different disciplines dealing with rock fractures will be
facilitated by clearly defined terms and improved conceptual models of the fracture void
geometry. Conceptual models of the fracture void geometry, based on measurement
results, may be utilised in calculations of fracture deformation, fracture flow and nuclide
transport in fractures.
For future development of aperture measurements, use of advanced borehole
equipment appears promising. The recent improvement of drilling techniques together

19

with video scanners and digital cameras may provide the means for such development.
Borehole measurement techniques will be specially desired for field investigations,
including flow and migration experiments, in which fractures are studied at a large scale.
There is also a need for further laborator}' experiments investigating fluid flow and
two-phase flow in rock fractures. In such experiments the geometrical properties of the
fracture should be an indispensable part of the investigation.
Consequently, it is recommended that future research be directed partly towards
aperture measurement methods which are quick and robust, and can be used for the
characterisation of a large number of fractures, and partly towards methods which are
adapted to specific multi-discipline experiments.

REFERENCES

Abelin H, Birgersson L, Gidlund J and Neretnieks I, 1991. A large-scale flow and tracer
experiment in granite. 1. Experimental design and flow distribution. Water. Resour. Res.,
Vol. 27, No. 12, pp 3107-3117
Bandis S C, Lumsden A C and Barton N R, 1983. Fundamentals of rock joint
deformation. Int J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr., Vol. 20, No. 6, pp 249-268
Barton N, Bandis S and Bakhtar 1985. Strength, Deformation and Conductivity Coupling
of Rock Joints. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr. Vol. 22. No. 3, pp 121140
Barton N and Chobey V, 1977. The shear strength of rock joints in theory and practice.
Rock. Mech., Vol 10, pp 1-54
Boulon M, 1995. A 3D direct shear devise for testing the mechanical behaviour and the
hydraulic conductivity of rock joints. Proc. Int. Conf. Mechanics of Jointed and Faulted
Rock, Vienna, 10-14 April, 1995, pp 407-413
Brown S R and Scholz C H, 1985a. Closure of random elastic surfaces in contact. J.
Geoph. Res., Vol. 90, No. B7, pp 5531-5545
Brown S R and Scholz C H, 1985b. Broad bandwith study of the topography of natural
rock surfaces. J. Geoph. Res., Vol. 90, No. B14, pp 12,575-12,582
Brown S B, 1987. Fluid flow through rock joints: The effect of surface roughness. J.
Geoph. Res., Vol. 92, No. B2, pp 1337-1347
Elliot G M, Brown E T, Boodt P I and Hudson J A, 1985. Hydromechanical behaviour of
joints in the Carnmenelis granite, SW England. Proc. Int. Symp. on Fundamentals of
Rock Joints, Bjrkliden, Sweden, pp 249-258

20

Esaki T, Nakahara K, Jiang Y and Mitani Y, 1995. Effects of preceding shear history on
shear-flow coupling properties of rock joints. Proc. Int. Conf. Mechanics of Jointed and
Faulted Rock, Vienna, 10-14 April, 1995, pp 501-506
Gale J E, 1982. The effects of fracture type (induced versus natural) on the stress fracture closure - fracture permeability relationship. Proc. 23rd U.S. Rock Mechanics
Symp., Berkeley, California, pp. 290-296
Gale J, MacLeod R and LeMessurier P, 1990. Site Characterization and Validation Measurement of Flowrate, Solute Velocities and Aperture Variation in Natural Fractures
as a Function of Normal and Shear Stress, Stage 3. Stripa Project, Technical Report 9011, 8KB, Stockholm
Gentier S, 1986. Morphologic et comportement hydromechanique d'une fracture naturell
dans une granite sous contrainte normale. Ph. D. Thesis, 1'universite d'Orleans.
Gentier S, 1990. Morphological Analysis of a Natural Fracture. International Association
of Hydrogeologists, Vol. 1, pp 315-326
Goodman R E, 1976. Methods of geological engineering in discontinuous rock. West
Publishing, New York, 472 p
Hakami E, 1988. Water Flow in Single Rock Joints. Licentiate Thesis, Lule University
of Technology, Lule, Sweden, ISSN 0280-8242
Hakami E, 1992. Injektering av bergsprickor - Teori och laboratoriefrsk. Vattenfall
PHU, FUD, Stockholm (In Swedish)
Hakami E and Larsson E, 1993. Geometry and hydraulic characteristics of rock fractures.
Internal Report AR 93-33, 8KB, Stockholm
Hakami E, 1994. Pore Volume Characterization - Aperture distribution of a highly
conductive single fracture. splaboratoriet, Progress Report 25-94-30, 8KB, Stockholm
Hopkins D L, Cook N G W and Myer L R, 1990. Normal joint stiffness as a function of
spatial geometry and surface roughness. Rock Joints, Proceedings of ISRM Int.
Symposium, Loen Norway, 4-6 June 1990, pp 203-210
Isaacs E H and Srivastava R M, 1990. An Introduction to Applied Geostatistics, Oxford
University Press, New York, 562 p

21

Iwano M and Einstein H H, 1993. Stochastic analysis of surface roughness, aperture and
flow in a single fracture. Eurock '93, Proceedings ISRM Int. Symp on Safety and
Environmental Issues in Rock Engineering, Lisbon, 1993.06.21-24, pp 135-141
Larsson E and Hakami E, 1995. Modelling of flow and transport in a single natural
fracture (in prep).
Makurat A,1985. The effect of shear displacement on the permeability of natural rough
joints. Proc. Int. Congr. on Hydrogeology of Rock of Low Permeability, Tucson,
Arizona, USA, jan, 1985, pp 95-106
Moreno L, Neretnieks I and Eriksen T, 1985. Analysis of some laboratory tracer runs in
natural fissures. Water Res. Res., Vol. 21, No. 7, pp 951-958
Moreno L, Tsang Y W, Tsang C-F, Hale F V and Neretnieks 1,1988. Flow and Tracer
Transport in a Single Fracture: A Stochastic Model and its Relation to Some Field
Observations. Water Resour. Res., Vol. 24, No. 12. pp 2033-2048
Sundaram P N, Watkins D J and Ralph W E, 1987. Laboratory investigations of coupled
stress-deformation - hydraulic flow in a natural rock fracture. 28th U.S. Symp. on Rock
Mech., Tucson, June 29 - July 1, pp 585-592
Witherspoon P A, Wang J S Y , Iwai K and Gale J E, 1980. Validity of cubic law for
fluid flow in a deformable rock fracture. Water Res. Res., Vol. 16, No. 6, pp 1016-1024
Yoshinaka R, Yoshida J, Arai H and Arisaka S, 1993. Scale effects on shear strength and
deformability of rock joints. Scale Effects in Rock Masses 93, Pinto da Cunha (ed),
Balkema, Rotterdam, ISBM 90 5410 322 1
Zimmermann R V, Kumar S and Bodvarsson G S, 1991. Lubrication theory analysis of
the permeability of rough-walled fractures. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech.
Abstr. Vol. 28, No. 4, pp 325-331

22

m
TRITA-AMIPHD1003
ISSN 1400-1284
ISRN KTH/AMI/PHD 1003-SE
ISBN 91-7170-835-9

ANLGGNING OCH MILJ