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Chapter 1

Chemistry and Measurements


1

What Is Chemistry?
Chemistry
is the study of composition, structure,
properties, and reactions of matter
happens all around you everyday
Antacid tablets undergo a chemical
reaction when dropped in water.

Matter is another word for all substances that make up our world.
Antacid tablets are matter.
Water is matter.
Glass is matter.
Air is matter.
2

Branches of Chemistry
The field of chemistry is divided into branches, such as
organic chemistry, the study of substances that contain
carbon
inorganic chemistry, the study of all substances except
those that contain carbon
general chemistry, the study of the composition,
properties and reactions of matter

Chemistry + Other Sciences


Chemistry is often combined
with other sciences:
Geology + Chemistry
=
Geochemistry
Biology + Chemistry
=
Biochemistry
Physical Science + Chemistry =
Physical Chemistry
Biochemists analyze lab samples.

Chemicals
Chemicals are
substances that have the
same composition and
properties wherever found
often substances made by
chemists that you use
everyday

Toothpaste is a combination
of chemicals.

Units of Measurement
Scientists use the metric system of measurement and have
adopted a modification of the metric system called the
International System of Units as a worldwide standard.
International System of Units (SI) is an official system of
measurement used throughout the world for units in
length, volume, mass, temperature, and time.

Length, Meter (m) and Centimeter (cm)

1 m = 100 cm
1 m = 39.4 in.

1 m = 1.09 yd
2.54 cm = 1 in.

Volume, Liter (L) and Milliliter (mL)

1L
= 1000 mL
1L
= 1.06 qt
946 mL = 1 qt

We use graduated cylinders to


measure small volumes.
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Mass, Gram (g) and Kilogram (kg)

1 kg
= 1000 g
1 kg
= 2.20 lb
454 g = 1 lb
The mass of a nickel is
5.01 g on an
electronic scale.

Temperature, Celsius (oC) and Kelvin (K)

Water freezes:
32 oF
0 oC
The Kelvin scale for temperature
begins at the lowest possible
temperature, 0 K.
A thermometer is used to measure
temperature.
10

Time, Second (s)

The second is the correct metric


and SI unit for time.
The standard measure for 1 s is an
atomic clock.

A stopwatch is used to measure


the time of a race.
11

Writing a Number in Scientific Notation


Numbers written in scientific notation have three parts:
coefficient
power of 10
unit
To write 2400 m in correct scientific notation:
the coefficient is 2.4
the power of 10 is 3
the unit is "m"
2400. m = 2.4 x 1000 = 2.4 x 103 m
3 places

0.00086 g =
4 places

coefficient x power of 10 unit

8.6
10,000

= 8.6 x 104

coefficient x power of 10 unit

12

Measurements in Scientific Notation

Diameter chickenpox virus

= 0.0000003 m
= 3 x 107 m

13

Scientific Notation and Calculators


Number to enter:
Enter:
Display:

4 x 106
4 EXP (EE) (x10x) 6
4 06 or 406 4 E06

Number to enter:
Enter:
Display:

2.5 x 104
2.5 EXP (EE) (x10x) +/ 4
2.5 04 or 2.504 2.5 E04

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Some Powers of 10

15

Measured Numbers
Measured numbers are the numbers obtained when you
measure a quantity such as your height, weight, or
temperature.

To write a measured number,


observe the numerical values of marked lines
estimate value of number between marks
the estimated number is the final number in your
measured number

16

Writing Measured Numbers for Length


The lengths of the objects are
measured as
(a) 4.5 cm
(b) 4.55 cm
(c) 3.0 cm

17

Rules for Significant Figures


1) All non-zero digits are significant.
2) All zeros between non-zero digits are significant.
3) All zeros to the right of the decimal and to the right of
the last non-zero digit are significant.
4) All zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit are NOT
significant.
5) Zeros to the right of the first non-zero digit and to the
left of the decimal may or may not be significant.
They must be written in scientific notation.
6) Some numbers have infinite significant figures or are
exact numbers.

A number is a significant figure (SF) if it is


Example
a. not a zero
4.5 g
2 SF
b. a zero between digits
205 m
c. a zero at the end of a
50. L
decimal number
d. in the coefficient of a
4.8 x 105 m
number written in
scientific notation

3 SF
2 SF
2 SF

A number is not significant if it is


Example
a. at the beginning of
a decimal number
b. used as a placeholder
in a large number
without a decimal point

0.0004 s

1 SF

850 000 m

2 SF
19

Learning Check
Identify the significant and nonsignificant zeros in each of the
following numbers:
A. 0.002650 m
B. 43.026 g
C. 1,044,000 L

20

Solution
Identify the significant and nonsignificant zeros in each of the
following numbers:
A. 0.002 650 m
The zeros preceding 2 are not significant.
The digits 2, 6, 5 are significant.
The zero in last decimal place is significant.
4 SF
B. 43.026 g
The zeros between nonzero digits or at the
end of decimal numbers are significant.
5 SF
C. 1 044 000 L
The zeros between nonzero digits are significant.
The zeros at end of a number with no decimal
are not significant.
4 SF

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Exact Numbers
Exact numbers are
numbers obtained by counting
in definitions that compare two units
in the same measuring system

8 cookies
6 eggs
1 qt = 4 cups
1 kg = 1000 g

Any enumerated value.


We cant have 27 students.
We cant have 6 cats (unless were in a biology lab!)

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Rules for Rounding Off


1. If the first digit to be dropped is 4 or less, then it and all the
following digits are dropped from the number.
2. If the first digit to be dropped is 5 or greater, then the last
retained digit of the number is increased by 1.

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Learning Check
Select the correct value when 3.1457 g is rounded to:
A. three significant figures
B. two significant figures

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Solution
Select the correct value when 3.1457 g is rounded to:
A. To round 3.1457 to three significant figures,
drop the final digits, 57
increase the last remaining digit by 1.
The answer is 3.15 g.
B. To round 3.1457 g to two significant figures,
drop the final digits 457.
do not increase the last number by 1 since the first of these
digits is 4.
The answer is 3.1 g.
25

Rules for Multiplication and Division


In multiplication or division, the final answer is written so it has
the same number of significant figures as the measurement
with the fewest significant figures (SFs).
Example 1: Multiply the following measured numbers:
24.66 cm x 0.35 cm
= 8.631 (calculator display)
= 8.6 cm2 (2 significant figures)
Multiplying 4 SFs by 2 SFs gives us an answer with 2 SFs.

26

Multiplication and Division with SFs


Example 2: Multiply and divide the following measured
numbers:
21.5 cm x 0.30 cm =
1.88 cm
Put the following into your calculator:
21.5 x 0.30 1.88 = 3.430851063
= 3.4 cm (2 significant figures)
Multiplying 4 SFs by 2 SFs gives us an answer with 2 SFs.

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Multiplication and Division with SFs


Example 3: Multiply and divide the following measured
numbers:
6.0 g =
2.00 g
Put the following into your calculator:
6.0 2.00 = 3 (calculator display)
= 3.0 g (2 significant figures)
Add one zero to give 2 significant figures.

28

Learning Check
Perform the following calculation of measured numbers. Give
the answer in the correct number of significant figures.
5.00 cm x 3.408 cm =
2.00 cm
Solution:
(3 SF x 4 SF 3 SF )
= 8.52 cm calculator display and correct
significant figures.

29

Addition and Subtraction


In addition or subtraction, the final answer is written so it has the
same number of decimal places as the measurement with the
fewest decimal places.
Example 1: Add the following measured numbers:
2.012 g three decimal places
61.09 g two decimal places
+ 3.0 g one decimal place
66.102 g (calculator display)
= 66.1 g answer rounded to one decimal place
Example 2: Subtract the following measured numbers:
65.09 g two decimal places
3.0 g one decimal place
62.09 g (calculator display)
= 62.1 g answer rounded to one decimal place
30

Learning Check
Add the following measured numbers:
82.409 mg
+ 22.0
mg

Solution:
Add the following measured numbers:
82.409 mg three decimal places
+ 22.0
mg one decimal place
104.409 mg (calculator display)
= 104.4
mg answer rounded to one decimal place
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Prefixes
32

A special feature of the SI as well as the metric system is that a prefix


can be placed in front of any unit to increase or decrease its size
by some factor of ten.
For example, the prefixes milli and micro are used to make the
smaller units:
milligram
(mg)
microgram
(g)

Prefixes and Equalities


A special feature of the SI as well as the metric system is that a
prefix can be placed in front of any unit to increase or decrease
its size by some factor of ten.
For example, the prefixes milli and micro are used to make the
smaller units:
milligram
(mg)
microgram
(g)

The relationship of a prefix to a unit can be expressed by replacing


the prefix with its numerical value.
For example, when the prefix kilo in kilometer is replaced with its
value of 1000, we find that a kilometer is equal to 1000 meters.
kilometer
=
1000 meters
kilogram
=
1000 grams
33

Prefixes That Increase/Decrease Unit Size

34

Measuring Length, Mass & Volume


Examples of some Length equalities..
1 m = 100 cm
= 1 x 102 cm
1 m = 1000 mm = 1 x 103 mm
1 cm = 10 mm
= 1 x 101 mm
Examples of Some Mass Equalities
1 kg = 1000 g
= 1 x 103 g
1 g = 1000 mg
= 1 x 103 mg
1 g = 100 cg
= 1 x 102 cg
1 mg = 1000 g
= 1 x 103 g
Examples of Some Volume Equalities
1 L = 10 dL
= 1 x 101 dL
1 L = 1000 mL
= 1 x 103 mL
1 dL = 100 mL
= 1 x 102 mL
35

The Cubic Centimeter

1 cm3 = 1 cc = 1 mL
10 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm = 1000 cm3 = 1000 mL = 1 L

36

Equalities
37

Equalities
use two different units to describe the same measured
amount
are written for relationships between units of the metric
system, U.S. units, or between metric and U.S. units
For example,
1m

1 lb

= 16 oz

2.20 lb =

1000 mm
1 kg

Exact and Measured Numbers in Equalities


38

Equalities between units in


the same system of measurement are definitions that use
exact numbers
different systems of measurement (metric and U.S.) use
measured numbers that have significant figures
Exception:
The equality 1 in. = 2.54 cm has been defined as an exact
relationship and therefore 2.54 is an exact number.

Some Common Equalities


39

Equalities & Conversion Factors


An equality
is written as a fraction (ratio)
provides two conversion factors that are the inverse of
each other
A conversion factor is
obtained from an equality and written in the form of a
fraction with a numerator and denominator
Equality: 1 in. = 2.54 cm
inverted to give two conversion factors for every
equality
1 in.
2.54 cm

and

2.54 cm
1 in.

Conversion Factors in a Problem


41

A conversion factor
may be obtained from information in a word problem
is written for that problem only
Example 1:
The price of one pound (1 lb) of red peppers is $2.39.
1 lb red peppers
and
$2.39
$2.39
1 lb red peppers
Example 2:
The cost of one gallon (1 gal) of gas is $2.89.

1 gal gas and


$2.89

$2.89
1 gal gas

Percent as a Conversion Factor


A percent factor
gives the ratio of the parts to the whole
% = parts x 100
whole
uses the same unit in the numerator and denominator
uses the value of 100
can be written as two factors
Example: A food contains 30% (by mass) fat:
30 g fat
and
100 g food
100 g food
30 g fat
42

Percent Factor in a Problem


The thickness of the skin fold at
the waist indicates 11% body
fat. What factors can be
written for percent body fat (in
kg)?
Percent factors using kg:
11 kg fat and 100 kg mass
100 kg mass
11 kg fat

43

Smaller Percents: ppm and ppb


Small percents are given as ppm and ppb.
Parts per million (ppm) = mg part
kg whole
Example: The EPA allows 15 ppm cadmium in food colors.
15 mg of cadmium = 1 kg of food color
Parts per billion (ppb) = g part
kg whole
Example: The EPA allows 10 ppb arsenic in public water.
10 g of arsenic = 1 kg of water
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Given and Needed Units


45

To solve a problem,
identify the given unit
identify the needed unit
Example:
A person has a height of 2.0 meters. What is that height
in inches?
The given unit is the initial unit of height.
given unit = meters (m)
The needed unit is the unit for the answer.
needed unit = inches (in.)

5-Step Problem Solving Method


1.

What am I being asked for?


- What answer does the problem want me to give?

- Beware of multi-step problems!

2. What do I know?
- What information does the problem give me or allow me to solve for?
- This includes information from common sources/tables.

3. What are the relationships between what Im being asked for and what I
know?
- What formulas relate What I know with What Im being asked for?

4. Are there any unit conversions I have to make?


- Make sure the units are compatible and that you are giving the answer in the
proper units.

5. Always solve the problem for the variable of interest BEFORE plugging in any
values!!

Study Tip: Problem Solving Using GPS


47

The steps in the


Guide to
Problem Solving (GPS)
are useful in setting up
a problem with conversion
factors.

Setting Up a Problem
48

Question:
How many minutes are in 2.5 hours?

Solution:
Step 1 State the given and needed quantities.
Given unit:
2.5 hours
Needed unit: min
Step 2 Write a unit plan.
Plan:
hours

min

Step 3 State equalities and conversion factors to cancel units.

60 min = 1 h

60 min and
1h
Step 4 Set up problem to cancel units.
Given Conversion Needed unit
unit
factor
2.5 h x 60 min = 150 min (2 SF)
1h

1h
60 min

Learning Check
49

A rattlesnake is 2.44 m long. How many centimeters long is


the snake?

Solution
50

A rattlesnake is 2.44 m long. How many centimeters long is the


snake?
Step 1 State the given and needed quantities.
Given unit: 2.44 m
Needed unit: cm
Step 2 Write a unit plan.
Plan:
meters

centimeters

Step 3 State equalities and conversion factors to cancel units.


1 m = 102 cm
102 cm and
1m
1m
102 cm
Step 4 Set up problem to cancel units.
Given Conversion Needed unit
unit
factor
2.44 m x 102 cm = 244 cm (3 SF)
1m

Learning Check
51

How many minutes are in 1.4 days?

Solution
52

How many minutes are in 1.4 days?


Step 1 State the given and needed quantities.
Given unit: 1.4 days
Needed unit: minutes
Step 2 Write a unit plan.
Factor 1

Plan:

days

Factor 2

min

Solution
53

How many minutes are in 1.4 days?


Step 3 State equalities and conversion factors to cancel
units.
1 day = 24 hours
24 hours and
1 day
1 day
24 hours

1 hour = 60 minutes 60 min and 1 h


1h
60 min

Solution
54

How many minutes are in 1.4 days?


Step 4 Set up problem to cancel units.
Given Conversion Conversion
unit
factor
factor

Needed unit

1.4 days x 24 h x 60 min = 2.0 x 103 min


1 day
1h
(rounded)
2 SF
Exact
Exact = 2 SF

Learning Check
55

How many pounds of sugar are in 120 g of candy if the candy is


25% (by mass) sugar?
Solution:
Step 1 State the given and needed quantities.
Given units: 120 g of candy
25% by mass sugar
Needed unit: pounds sugar
Step 2 Write a unit plan.
Conversion
factor

Plan: grams

Percent
factor

pounds candy

pounds sugar

Solution
56

How many pounds of sugar are in 120 g of candy if the


candy is 25% (by mass) sugar?
Step 3 State equalities and conversion factors to cancel
units.
1 pound = 454 grams
454 g and
1 lb
1 lb
454 g
25 pounds of sugar = 100 pounds of candy
25 lb sugar and 100 lb candy
100 lb candy
25 lb sugar

Solution
57

How many pounds of sugar are in 120 g of candy if the candy is


25% (by mass) sugar?
Step 4 Set up problem to cancel units.

Given
unit

Conversion
factor

Percent
factor

120 g candy x 1 lb candy x 25 lb sugar


454 g candy 100 lb candy
= 0.066 lb of sugar

Density
Density

compares the mass of an object to its volume


is the mass of a substance divided by its volume
Density Expression
Density = mass = g or g
volume mL
cm3

or g/cm3

Note: 1 mL = 1 cm3

58

Calculating Density

59

Learning Check
Osmium is a very dense metal. What is its density in g/cm3
if 50.0 g of osmium has a volume of 2.22 cm3?
1) 2.25 g/cm3
2) 22.5 g/cm3
3) 111 g/cm3

60

Solution
Step 1 State the given and needed quantities.
Given: 50.0 g; 22.2 cm3 Need: density, g/cm3
Step 2 Write the density expression.
D = mass
volume
Step 3 Express mass in grams and volume in mL or cm3.
Mass = 50.0 g Volume = 22.2 cm3
Step 4 Substitute mass and volume into the density
expression
and calculate.
D = 50.0 g = 22.522522 g/cm3
2.22 cm3
= 22.5 g/cm3 (rounded to 3 SFs)
61

Volume by Displacement
62

A solid

completely submerged
in water displaces its
own volume of water
has a volume
calculated from the
volume difference
45.0 mL 35.5 mL
= 9.5 mL
= 9.5 cm3

Density Using Volume Displacement


63

The density of the zinc object is


calculated from its mass
and volume.
Density =
mass = 68.60 g = 7.2 g/cm3
volume 9.5 cm3

Learning Check
What is the density (g/cm3) of a 48.0-g sample of a metal if the
level of water in a graduated cylinder rises from 25.0 mL to 33.0
mL after the metal is added?
1) 0.17 g/cm3

25.0 mL

2) 6.0 g/cm3

3) 380 g/cm3

33.0 mL
object
64

Solution
Step 1 State the given and needed quantities.
Given: 48.0 g
Volume of water
= 25.0 mL
Volume of water + metal = 33.0 mL
Need: Density
Step 2 Write the density expression.
Density = mass of metal
volume of metal

65

Solution
Step 3 Express mass in grams and volume in mL or cm3.
Mass = 48.0 g
Volume of the metal is equal to the volume of water
displaced.
Volume of water + metal
Volume of water
Volume of metal

= 33.0 mL
= 25.0 mL
= 8.0 mL

Step 4 Substitute mass and volume into the density expression


and calculate the density.
Density = 48.0 g = 6.0 g = 6.0 g/mL
8.0 mL
1 mL
66

Problem Solving Using Density


Density can be written as an equality.
For a substance with a density of 3.8 g/mL, the equality is
3.8 g = 1 mL

From this equality, two conversion factors can be written


for density.
Conversion 3.8 g
factors
1 mL

and

1 mL
3.8 g

67

Problem Solving Using Density

68

Learning Check
The density of octane, a component of gasoline, is 0.702
g/mL. What is the mass, in kg, of 875 mL of octane?
A. 0.614 kg
B. 614 kg
C. 1.25 kg

69

Solution
The density of octane, a component of gasoline, is 0.702
g/mL. What is the mass, in kg, of 875 mL of octane?
Step 1 State the given and needed quantities.
Given:

Density of octane = 0.702 g/mL


Volume = 875 mL

Needed: Mass of octane


Step 2 Write a plan to calculate the needed quantity.
Density

Plan: milliliters

Conversion
factor

grams

kilograms
70

Solution
The density of octane, a component of gasoline, is 0.702 g/mL.
What is the mass, in kg, of 875 mL of octane?
Step 3 Write equalities and their conversion factors
including density.
density 0.702 g = 1 mL
and
1 kg = 1000 g
Step 4 Set up problem to calculate the needed quantity.
875 mL x 0.702 g x 1 kg = 0.614 kg
1 mL
1000 g
Answer is A, 0.614 kg.

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