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Temperature in the
subsurface
Subsurface Temperatures
Heat flows constantly from its sources within the Earth to the surface.
Average heat flow: 60 mW/m (but wide variation)
25
150 mW/m
Subsurface Temperatures
q = k (T/x)
Heat Flow (q) = thermal conductivity (k) x geothermal gradient
Density Initial Min. Matrix Thermal Conduct.
kg/m
Porosity
at 20C
at 100C
(W/m/K)
WATER
1160
0.60
0.68
SHALE
2680 0.65 0.05
1.98
1.91
SANDSTONE 2660 0.42 0.05
3.12
2.64
LIMESTONE
2710 0.24 0.05
2.83
2.56
LIMEdolom
2752 0.26 0.05
3.18
2.82
COAL
2000 0.52
0.50
0.46
SALT
2165 0.01 0.01
6.50
5.25
Heat Capacity
at 20C
at 100C
(kcal/kg/K)
0.999
1.008
0.213
0.258
0.178
0.209
0.195
0.223
0.198
0.226
0.204
0.248
0.210
0.240
Subsurface Temperatures
Note: surface temp. is rarely 0C
Subsurface Pressures
(Over)Pressure in the
subsurface
All figures and (most) text are taken from the following thesis
RAMDHAN, Agus, Mochamad (2010) OVERPRESSURE AND COMPACTION IN
THE LOWER KUTAI BASIN, INDONESIA. Doctoral thesis, Durham University.
Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/402/
Key References
Gurevich, A.E. & Chilingar, G.V. 1995. Abnormal pressures in Azerbaijan: a
brief critical review and recommendations. Journal of Petroleum Science
and Engineering, 13, 125135.
Ramdhan, A.M. 2010. Overpressure and Ccompaction in the lower Kutai
Basin, Indonesia. Doctoral thesis, Durham University,
http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/402/.
Swarbrick, R.E. & Osborne, M.J. 1998. Mechanisms that generate abnormal
pressures: an overview. In: Law, B.E., Ulmishek, G.F. & Slavin, V.I. (eds.)
Abnormal Pressures in Hydrocarbon Environments. AAPG, Tulsa,
Memoir 70, 13-34.
Swarbrick, R.E., Osborne, M.J. & Yardley, G.S. 2002. Comparison of
overpressure magnitude resulting from the main generating mechanisms.
In: Huffman, A.R. & Bowers, G.L. (eds.) Pressure Regimes in
Sedimentary Basins and their Prediction. AAPG, Tulsa, Memoir 76, 1-12.
Definitions
P=wgz
(lithostatic
pressure)
v=bgz
(LOT
)
v= vP
h= hP
(overpressure << v)
Figure 3.1 Typical pressure/stress depth profile commonly
encountered in a sedimentary basin.
Tools
Repeat Formation Tester (RFT),
Modular Dynamic Tester (MDT),
Formation Interval Tester (FIT),
production tests (e.g. Drill Stem Test; DST)
(overpressure
approaches v)
P=
w =
b =
g=
z=
For freshwater the hydrostatic gradient is 0.433 psi/ft (100 bar/km, 10 MPa/km)
The lithostatic gradient is
~1 psi/ft (230 bar/km; 23
Figure 3.13 Cartoon to show the pressure-depth profile and wireline log responses anticipated where overpressure is
due to disequilibrium compaction.
Figure 3.14 Cartoon to show the pressure-depth profile and wireline log responses anticipated where overpressure is
due to unloading.
Figure 3.6 Overpressure due to gas buoyancy where the pore water in
the water saturated reservoir is at normal hydrostatic pressure. The
maximum overpressure is located in the crest of the structure, while the
overpressure due to buoyancy is zero at the gas-water contact.
natural phenomena
Figure 3.3 Underpressuring due to reservoir isolation from recharge
area (modified from Swarbrick and Osborne, 1998)
Economics
VERY
Important
PETROLEUM SYSTEM
Economics
NOT
Important
SEDIMENTARY BASIN
PLAY
PROSPECT
SEDIMENTARY BASIN:
Structural style of sedimentary rocks,
Stratigraphic sequence of basin fill
PETROLEUM SYSTEM:
Genetic relation between a pod of
generating source rocks and the
resulting petroleum
divergent
Transform (Conservative):
Oceanic transform zones
Continental transform zones
convergent
Convergent:
Subduction zones
Island Arcs
Active Continental Margin
Continent-continent collision
Divergent:
Sedimentary Basins
Any geographical feature exhibiting subsidence and consequent
infilling by sedimentation
Continent-Continent Collision
10. Remnant (Flysch) Basin
11. Peripheral Foreland Basin
Williston B.
Examples:
Michigan Basin
Williston Basin
West Siberian Basin (2.2 mio km)
Michigan B.
Post-rift
Syn-rift
Pre-rift
(no change in thickness across faults)
Evaporitic rocks
Salt (domes)
South Atlantik
6. Fore-arc Basin
Form between island arc and accretionary wedge. Contain fluvial and deltaic
sediments near the island arc, and shallow marine shelf sediments. In the outer parts
sediments are depsoited as turbidites in deep water. Good possibilities of organic-rich
sediments (source rocks).
Very low geothermal gradients normally only bacterial gas (oil from very deep
buried source rocks?).
Example (San Joaquin Basin, California).
7. Intra-arc Basin
result from tension tectonics in island arcs.
Sediments will be immature and volcanic material
will be common.
Intense tectonic deformation.
(No good sites for source and reservoir rocks)
8. Back-arc Basin
Sumatra Basin
Jordan (1995)
Asymmetric basin.
Subsidence mainly controlled by the load of
the advancing overthrust belt. Trend to
increasing subsidence.
Filled with molasse deposits (debris from the
overthrust belt). There is a general trend
form deep marine to continental and from
distal fine-grained to proximal coarsegrained sedimentation. However, this trend
can be modified by processes related to
tectonic activity.
Compressional structures, overpressuring,
often low geothermal gradient.
Overthrust belt does not always form a
topographic mountain range.
Very important for HC exploration!
Einsele 1992
Wagner (1996)
autochthonous Mesozoic
Molasse
Stratigraphy
Sedimentary basins, deposited on thrust sheets & transported passively on top of the thrusts
Sedimentary material mainly from the thrust belt
Low preservation potential (only in young orogens)
Examples: Po Basin, Adriatic Sea.
Piggy-back B.
Appenine Mts.
Piggy-back B.
SAlps
Narrow basins with variable length. Extremely fast subsidence. Structural complexities
are often very high. The life span is commonly short.
Example: Vienna Basin
Kraubath
Fohnsdorfer B.
Vienna basin
Alpine nappes
Autochthonous
Mesozoic
Crystalline
Autochthonous
Middle Jurassic: Rift basin
uppermost Middle Jurassic to
Upper Cretaceous: Passive Margin
Basin
Paleogene:
Overthrust of Alpine / Carpathian
nappes over early Tertiary Molasse
Early Neogene:
Molasse in front of and above
(piggy back) the nappes during their
last motion.
First pull apart extension in the
Vienna Basin
1st floor
2nd floor
3rd floor
Reference:
Magoon, L.B., Dow, W.G. 1994. The Petroleum System. In: Magoon, L.B., Dow, W.G.
(eds.) The Petroleum System from Source to Trap, AAPG Memoir 60, 3-24.
Petroleum System
A petroleum system (PS) encompasses a pod of active SR and all related oil
and gas and includes all the essential elements and processes needed for oil
and gas accumulations to exist.
Geographic Extent of Petroleum System
250 Ma
Raven
Essential
Elements
Owens
Teapot
Marginal
Pod of Active
Source Rock
Big Oil
Just
Processes
Trap Formation
Generation-Migration-Accumulation
Hardy
Lucky
Zero Edge of
Reservoir Rock
All essentials must be placed in time and space such that the processes
required to form a petroleum accumulation can occur.
The PS has a stratigraphic, geographic, and temporal extent.
Its name combines the names of the SR and the major reservoir rocks and
also expresses a level of certainty (known, hypothetical, speculative) (!) (.) (?)
Petroleum System
Present-Day Trap
Trap
Trap
STRATIGRAPHIC
EXTENT OF
PETROLEUM SYSTEM
Petroleum accumulation
Top of oil window
Bottom of oil window
Overburden
Seal
Reservoir
Source
Underburden
Petroleum System
Trap
Deer-Boar(.) Petroleum
System Folio Sheet
STRATIGRAPHIC
EXTENT OF
PETROLEUM SYSTEM
Overburden
Seal
Reservoir
200
100
Mesozoic
TR
Cen.
K
Rock
Unit
Start
250 Ma
End
Thick
Fm
Raven
Owens
Teapot
Seal
300
Paleozoic
Overburden
400
Source
Source
Underburden
Petroleum accumulation
Top of oil window
Reservoir
POD OF ACTIVE
SOURCE ROCK
Depth (Km)
Essential
elements of
petroleum
system
Lithology
Trap
Sedimentary
basin-fill
Petroleum
System Folio
Sheet
Consists of
Five Charts
Marginal
2
Placer Fm
Pod of Active
Source Rock
George Sh
Big Oil
Just
Hardy
Lucky
Boar Ss
Deer Sh
Elk Fm
Critical Moment
Immature Source Rock
Zero Edge of
Reservoir Rock
400
300
200
Paleozoic
100
Mesozoic
Geologic Time
Scale
Cenozoic
Petroleum
System Events
Reservoir
Date
rock
discovered
API
Gravity
(oAPI)
Cumulative oil
production
(x106 bbl)
Remain
reserves
(x106 bbl)
Big oil
Raven
Owens
Just
1954
1956
1959
1966
Boar
Boar
Boar
Boar
Ss
Ss
Ss
Ss
32
31
33
34
310
120
110
160
90
12
19
36
Hardy
Lucky
Marginal
Teapot
1989
1990
1990
1992
Boar
Boar
Boar
Boar
Ss
Ss
Ss
Ss
29
15
18
21
85
5
12
9
89
70
65
34
T
R
Rock Units
Source Rock
Reservoir Rock
Seal Rock
Overburden Rock
Trap Formation
Gen/Migration/Accum
Preservation
Critical Moment
Petroleum System
Trap
250 Ma
Trap
Trap
Essential
elements of
POD OF ACTIVE petroleum
system
SOURCE ROCK
Petroleum accumulation
Top of oil window
Bottom of oil window
Location for burial history chart
Overburden
Seal
Reservoir
Source
Underburden
Sedimentary
basin-fill
STRATIGRAPHIC
EXTENT OF
PETROLEUM SYSTEM
Petroleum System
250 Ma
Raven
Owens
Teapot
Marginal
A
Pod of Active
Source Rock
Immature
Source Rock
Big Oil
Just
Hardy
Reservoir
Rock
Lucky
Zero Edge of
Reservoir Rock
Petroleum System
Mesozoic
P
TR
Cen.
K
Rock
Unit
Overburden
Paleozoic
100
Reservoir
Seal
200
Source
300
Depth (Km)
400
Lithology
Start
End
Thick
Fm
2
Top oil window
Placer Fm
George Sh
Boar Ss
Deer Sh
Elk Fm
Critical Moment
Magoon & Dow (1994)
Petroleum System
Chart of Accumulations
Relates Fields to Reserves, Geochemistry
Table of accumulations for Deer-Boar(.) petroleum system.
Field
Name
Big oil
Raven
Owens
Just
Hardy
Lucky
Marginal
Teapot
API
Cumulative Remaining
Reservoir
Date
Gravity oil production reserves
discovered rock
(oAPI)
(x106 bbl)
(x106 bbl)
1954
1956
1959
1966
1989
1990
1990
1992
Boar Ss
Boar Ss
Boar Ss
Boar Ss
Boar Ss
Boar Ss
Boar Ss
Boar Ss
32
31
33
34
29
15
18
21
310
120
110
160
85
5
12
9
90
12
19
36
89
70
65
34
Petroleum System
300
200
Paleozoic
100
Mesozoic
TR
Geologic Time
Scale
Cenozoic
Petroleum
System Events
Source Rock
Reservoir Rock
Seal Rock
Overburden Rock
Trap Formation
Gen/Mig/Accum
Preservation
Elements
Processes
Rock Units
Critical Moment
Critical Moment
Preservation Time:
starts after oil and gas generation, migration, accumulation.
Processes that may occur: Remigration, degradation, complete destruction.
Petroleum System
Certainty
Criteria
(!)
Known
Oil-to-source rock or
gas-to-source correlation
(.)
Hypothetical
Geochemical evidence
suggests petroleum origin
(?)
Speculative
Geological or geophysical
evidence only
The level of certainty is mainly controlled by petroleumsource rock correlation (biomarker studies)
Magoon & Dow (1994)
Petroleum System
0 Petroleum
systems
1 Petroleum
system
2 Petroleum
systems
Number of
petroleum systems
Source Rocks
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Determination of TOC:
High temperature oxidation + thermocouple or IR-detector
Minimum values:
Carbonates:
Shale:
Insoluable*
vs.
Bitumen
Soluble*
Characterisation of Kerogen
Characterisation of Bitumen
Elemental analysis
Pyrolysis (RockEval pyrolysis)
Pyrolysis-GC
Microscopy (petrography)
(Isotopy)
(Source Rock Kinetics)
Gas chromatography /
Mass spectometry (GC/MS)
(Isotopy)
Whole rock
* in organic solvents
(e.g. Dichloromethane)
Organic
matter
Kerogen
Bitumen
Characterisation of Kerogen
Elemental analysis
Pyrolysis (RockEval pyrolysis)
Pyrolysis-GC
Microscopy (petrography)
Characterisation of Kerogen
Elemental analysis
Pyrolysis (RockEval pyrolysis)
Pyrolysis-GC
Microscopy (petrography)
(S1+S2)
(OI): (S3/TOC)x100
S1
[mgHC/grock]
[mgHC/gTOC]
S2
Example of record
S3
[mgCO2/gTOC]
Atomic O/C
Atomic H/C
Atomic O/C
Hydrogen Index
mgHC/gTOC)
Type I: > 700
Type II: 250-700
Type III: < 250
TOC
(wt.%)
S1
S2
Type
S2/S3
Poor
0-0.5
0-0.5
0-2.5
HI
(mgHC/gTOC)
Gas
0-150
0-3
Fair
0.5-1
0.5-1
2.5-5
150-300
3-5
Good
1-2
1-2
5-10
Oil
300+
5+
Very good
2+
2+
10+
S1 = mg HC/g rock
S2 = mg HC/g rock
Peters K.E. (1986) Guidelines for evaluating petroleum source rocks using programmed pyrolysis. AAPG Bull. 70, 318-329.
Characterisation of Kerogen
Elemental analysis
Pyrolysis (RockEval pyrolysis)
Pyrolysis-Gas Chromatography (Py-GC)
Microscopy (petrography)
Py-GC: Investigation of the chemical composition of
the pyrolysate [S2-peak] (using a GC).
Application: Provides
information on petroleum
type generated from a
specific kerogen.
C1C5
C6-C14
C15+
Microscopical Techniques
Elemental analysis
Pyrolysis (Rock Eval pyrolysis)
Pyrolysis-GC
Microscopy (petrography)
2. Transmitted light
Reflectivity Fluorescence
middle
no or weak
Liptinite
dark
strong
Inertinite
bright
--
Hydrocarb.
Potential
Vitrinite
Liptinite
Inertinite
Taylor et al. (1998)
gas
oil
--
Kerogen
Type
III
I / II
IV
Origin
white light
Vitrinite
Liptinite
Inertinite
Applications
Biomarker provide a method to relate oil with source rocks (oil-sourcecorrelation) or different oils (oil-oil-correlation).
When only oil samples are available, biomarkers can be used to assess
kerogen type,
depositional environment,
carbonate content,
age and
maturity
of petroleum source rocks
Peters et al., 2005
High Pr/Ph:
oxic depositional
environment
Oil-Source-correlation
using sterane patterns
(Alpine Foreland Basin)
Oil data
Rock extract data
Metamorphism
Metagen. Metamorphism
overmature
Oil window
Hard Coal
Anthracite
Catagenesis
Diagenesis
Diagenesis
mature
immature
Brown Coal
Organic
matter
Diagenesis
Catagenesis
Metagenesis
Changes in Kerogen
Vitrinite
Inorganic matter
Production Index
S1/(S1+S2)
Tmax
Tmax
(C)
Ro
%
Top of oil
window
~0.1
~435~0.6
445
Bottom of
oil window
~0.4
~470 ~1.4
Peters, 1986
1.
Sterane
Isomerisation
2.
3.
immature = 0
nature = 0.55
Peters et al. 2005
Front of Alps
High SPI
Moderate SPI
Low SPI
h (S1+S2)
SPI* =
1000
Molasse B.
Thickness
(m)
S1+S2
Density
(t/m)
(tHC/m)
(mgHC/grock)
SPI
Eggerding Fm.
40
1.9
0.38
Dynow M.
10
10
2.0
0.20
Schneck C
31
1.9
0.24
Schneck A/B
8.5
2.2
0.13
0.95
Demaison, Huizinga (1994) AAPG Memoir 60.
Vertically drained PS
Nearly all accumulations occur over the pod of mature SR or in close proximity
Multiple, vertically stacked reservoirs, sometimes of grossly different ages, often contain
the same genetic type of oil
Faulting
Surface seepages in supercharged systems
Laterally drained PS
Oil accumulations tend to occur in immature rocks located far away from the mature SR
A single reservoir rock of the same age, present under the most effective regional seal,
hosts most of the entrapped oil and gas
Faulting of the effective regional seal rock is minor
In supercharged systems, large accumulations of heavy oil are often found near the
margins of the system.
Williston Basin
Foreland Basin
E Venezuela
Strike-Slip Basin
Los Angeles B.
Demaison, Huizinga (1994) AAPG Memoir 60.
North Sea
Delta
Niger Delta
Demaison, Huizinga (1994) AAPG Memoir 60.
Petroleum Systems
Source Rock
Reservoir Rock
Schneck
Cretac./Paleogen PS
Puchkirchen/Hall Puchkirchen/Hall PS
S
Oil generation
N
Biogenic Gas
Voitsdorf field
Oil window
Gas
l
Wagner & Wessely, 1997
Hydrocarbon Fields
Vienna basin
Alpine nappes
Autochthonous
Mesozoic
Crystalline
Source Rock !!
Source Rock:
Malmian Mikulov Marls
immature
Source Rock !!
Source Rock !!
marginal mature
mature to overmature
HC generation is a consequence
of overthrusting.