Grammar Sheets

BASIC GRAMMAR REFERENCE
1. be
We use the verb to be
to talk about somebodys job, nationality,
relationships or name.
to describe people, animals and things.
I am a Doctor.
He isnt Portuguese.
We are friends.
Is she a Doctor?
Tony is nice.
The dog isnt big.
What color are the books? Theyre blue.
We often use the short form when we talk, but we

dont use it for questions and short answers.
Im Hannah.
Hes from Britain.
Are you German? Yes, I am.
We use be with personal pronouns (I, you, he, she, it,

we, they) or other words for people, animals and
things.
Janet Jones is a teacher.

You are friends.
The cat is brown.
The room is big.
2. Who?/Where?
We use Who? To ask about people and Where?
to ask about places.
Who is she?
Where are the teachers?
3. The Indefinite Article

We use the indefinite articles a and an
With singular nouns.
a pen.
an orange.
To talk about one person, animal or thing in

general.
Helen is an aunt.
Ben is a dog.
Its a cell phone.
We use a before words that begin with a consonant

and an before words that begin with a vowel.
Harry is a cook.
Its an apple.
Sometimes there is an adjective before a noun. We

use a when the adjective starts with a consonant, and
Shes a nice aunt.

Its an old photo.
an when the adjective starts with a vowel.

Note: Be careful with words that begin with h and u.
When the h or u sounds like a consonant, we use a
before the word. When the h or u sounds like a
vowel, we use an. a hat but an hour; an umbrella but
a university.
a hat
but
an hour
a university
but
an umbrella
4. The Definite Article

We use the definite article the
to talk about specific people, animals or things
(singular or plural).
The men with glasses are brothers.

The chair is in the photo.
before unique nouns.
The moon is big.
before musical instruments.
Where is the guitar?
before the names of mountain ranges, oceans,

seas, rivers, deserts, theaters, hotels, etc.
The Mississippi River is very long.

The Grand Hotel is over there.
with some countries.
before morning, afternoon and evening.
The USA is a big country.

My friend is from the United Kingdom.
Dad is at work in the evening.
We do not use the

with plural nouns when we talk about people,
animals or things in general.
Dogs are nice animals.

Cars are useful.
before the names of cities, islands, most countries,

lakes and mountains.
London is in Britain.
before a persons name.
Jan is young.
before subjects of study.
Math is a great subject.
before nationalities and languages.
He is English.
She speaks Spanish.
before games and sports.
Football is a great sport.
before days and months.
Grandma is at home on Wednesdays.
before meals.
Breakfast is a very important meal.
5. Regular Plurals
We add
-s to nouns to make them plural.
-es to nouns that end in s, -ss, -sh, -ch, and x

and some (but not all) that end in o.
For nouns that end in a consonant and y, we take off

the y and add ies. For nouns that end in a vowel and
y, we just add s.
For some (but not all) nouns that end in fe/f, we take
off fe/f and add ves.
girl
girls
bus
class
watch
box
potato
but
photo
party
but
boy
knife
but
roof
buses
classes
watches
boxes
potatoes
foot
sheep
fish
feet
sheep
fish
photos
parties
boys
knives
roofs
6. Irregular Plurals
Some nouns have irregular plurals.
7. Prepositions of place
We use prepositions of place to show where someone
or something is.
The bikes are behind the house.

The house is between the school and the post office.
The new caf is in the train station.
A car is in front of the house.
The public phone is near the library.
The bike path is next to the road.
The dog is on the road.
The parking garage is under the department store.
8. What?/Which?
We use What? to ask about things and actions and
Which? to ask about someone or something from a
group.
What is in the neighborhood?

Which museum is on Center Street?
9. there is/there are

We use there is/there are to talk about what exists in
the present.
There is a park near the school.

There are two museums in the town.
Are there any supermarkets here?
10. some/any
We use some with nouns in affirmative sentences.
We use any in negative sentences and questions.
There are some great cafes in the town.

There arent any new houses in the neighborhood.
Are there any children in the park?
11. have got

We use have
to talk about belongings.
To describe people, animals or things
To talk about a health problem.
I have a comfortable sofa.

Tony has long hair.
The dog has long ears.
The house doesnt have an attic.
You have a bad cold.
We can use question words with have.
Who has a big house?
12. Possessive s
We use s to show that
something belongs to someone.
The brown shirt is Toms.
someone has a particular relationship with someone

or something.
The man is Sarahs brother.
We use s after names or singular nouns.
Its Susans handbag.
We use s after plural nouns, but we use s when the

noun has an irregular plural.
My two cousinss friends are nice.

The childrens clothes are expensive.
13. Possessive adjectives

We use possessive adjectives before nouns to show that
someone or something has a relationship with

someone or something else.
Your socks are on the table.

Sarah is our new model.
His new job is great.
Note: The possessive adjective its does not have an apostrophe. Its means it is or it has.
Note: Be careful not to confuse their with theyre (they are) and there.
14. Possessive pronouns
A possessive pronoun replaces a possessive adjective
and a noun. We use possessive pronouns to show that
The red jacket is hers.
Hes my child. Hes mine.
Someone or something has a particular relationship

with someone or something else.
Note: Be careful not to confuse theres (there is) with theirs.

15. Demonstratives
We use this (singular) and these (plural) to show that
someone or something is near us.
This belt is his.

These arent my shoes.
We use that (singular) and those (plural) to show that

someone or something is further away.
That is your backpack.

Those shirts arent ours.
16. Whose?
We use Whose? to ask who or what something
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Whose car is that?
belongs to.
Note: Be careful not to confuse Whose? with Whos? (Who is ?).
17. Simple Present

We use this tense for
permanent situations.
habits and things we often do.
general truths and the laws of science and nature.
We teach at this college.

Students take a test every month.
The sun rises in the east.
We often use time expressions like adverbs of

frequency, today, every day/month/year, on
Mondays, etc. at the beginning or at the end of
sentences with the simple present.
They study French on Saturdays.

Every month I visit the library.
Note: We can use question words with the simple

present.
Spelling Rules for the third person singular
Where do you go to college?
1. We add s to the verb in the third person singular of

the affirmative (he, she, it).
meet
close
he/she/it meets
he/she/it closes
2. We add es to verbs that end in ss, -sh, -ch, -x and

o in the third person singular.
miss
crash
match
mix
do
he/she/it misses
he/she/it crashes
he/she/it matches
he/she/it mixes
he/she/it does
3. For verbs that end in a consonant + -y, we take off

the y and add ies to the third person singular.
carry
he/she/it carries
4. For verbs that end in a vowel + -y, we just add s to

the third person singular.
18. Why?
play
he/she/it plays
We use Why? to ask about the reason for something.
Why do you study biology?
19. Adverbs of frequency

We use adverbs of frequency to talk about how often
something happens.
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He never uses a computer at work.

We sometimes play football with friends.
Do you often get free meals?

What do you usually do on weekends?
Employees always wear uniforms.
Adverbs of frequency go before the main verb, but they
go after the verb to be.
The manager sometimes trains staff.

He is never at home in the morning.
20. Prepositions of time

We use prepositions of time to talk about when
something happens.
They meet at 12 oclock.

I often go to the office on weekends.
Students never study in August.
We usually work in the autumn.
They never eat in the morning.
The restaurant needs extra staff on Saturdays.
The meeting is on October 21st.
She goes out on her birthday.
Note: Time expressions can go at the beginning or at

the end of a sentence.
They train every week.

In the afternoon theres a meeting.
21. When?
Spelling
rules
We use
When? to ask about time.
When do you meet your friends?
1. We add ly to most adjectives to form adverbs.

patient
patiently
22. Adverbs of manner
Adverbs
of manner
are in
words
thattake
describe
we doheavy
He is a quick
worker.
2. For
adjectives
that end
y, we
off thehow
y and
heavily
something.
add
ily to form the adverb.
3. For adjectives that end in le, we take off the e
and add y.
terrible
terribly
4. Some adverbs have the same form as the adjective.
hard
early
fast
late
straight
hard
early
fast
late
straight
good
well
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5. Some adverbs are irregular.
He works quickly.
Note: Some adjectives end in ly (lively, friendly, ugly, silly) and dont have adverbs. We say in a friendly way etc.
instead.
23. How?
We use How?
before an adverb to ask about the way, speed etc.
that someone does something.
How fast does the dog run?
before an adjective to ask about the amount, degree

etc. of something.
How full is the Internet caf?
to ask about someones health.
How is your mom now?
to ask somebodys age.
How old are you?
24. Present Continuous

things that are happening at the moment.
The boys are playing football over there.
Hes working at the college this year.
temporary things happening in the present, or things

that are in progress around the time of speaking.
We often use time expressions like now, at the

moment, at present, today, tonght, these days, this
year, etc. at the beginning or at the end of sentences
with the present continuous.
They are watching TV at the moment.

This year we are studying French.
Spelling Rules
1. For verbs that end in e, we take off the e and add
ing.
speak
make
am/are/is speaking
am/are/is making
2a. For verbs that end in consonant-vowel-consonant,

we double the consonant when the stress is on the
last syllable.
sit
am/are/is sitting
2b. When the stress is not on the last syllable, we dont

double the consonant.
listen
3. For verbs that end in ie, we take off the ie and add
ying.
die
listening
am/are/is dying
Note: Dont forget to use am/are/is before the verb +ing to form the Present Continuous.
25. Present Continuous question

We can use question words with the present continuous.
Why are you playing basketball?
26. Can for ability and permission

We use can + the base form
to talk about ability in the present and the future.
to ask for or give permission to someone to do

something in the present and the future.
Susan can see well.

Can I go now? No, you cant.
You can see the doctor now.
The negative form of can is cannot or cant.
Jenny cant help you.
Note: We can use question words with can.
What can I do for you?
27. Must for obligation

We use must + the base form to talk about obligations
in the present and the future.
The negative form of must is must not. We use must
not. to talk about things we are not allowed to do in the
present or the future.
You must wear glasses.

Doctors must not leave the hospital.
We dont usually use must in questions.

28. The Imperative
We use the imperative when we want to give instructions
or orders. It takes the same form as the base form. It is the
same when we talk to one person or to many people.
Take my photo, Jane.

Go outside, children.
We use Dont before the imperative when we ask

someone not to do something.
Dont order a hamburger for me.

Dont talk!
We often use please with the imperative to be more polite.
Please book a table for dinner.
29. Lets
We use Lets + the base form. With a verb when we want
to suggest something to someone.
Lets go to that restaurant.

Lets make dinner now.
30. Object Pronouns

We use object pronouns
to replace an object in a sentence.
to refer to something in a previous sentence.
Note: Object pronouns come after verbs or prepositions.
The police officer is with the girl.

The police
officer is with her.
These people are hurt. We must help them.
We can help you.
Come with me!
31. Simple Past: to be

We use the simple past of to be to talk about people,
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It was cold last night.
animals, things or situations that existed in the past.
The dogs were scared in the storm.

Was Bill outside in the rain?
Note: We can use there and question words with the

simple past of to be.
There werent any sunny days last week.

How was the weather yesterday?
32. Simple Past Irregular Verbs

Some verbs are irregular and do not follow the spelling
rules in 33.
eat
find
fly
ate
found
flew
33. Simple Past Regular Verbs

We use the simple past with
things that happened in the past when the time is
important.
past habits and thing we often did in the past.
things that happened one after the other in the past.
We use time expressions like yesterday, last night, last

week, last summer, ago, etc. with the simple past.
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She moved the plant yesterday.

We studied in the evening.
He watered the plants, opened the door and walked
away.
We looked after the dogs last week.
Spelling Rules
1. We add ed to verbs to form the simple past.
For verbs that end in e, we just add d.
talk
move
talked
moved
2a. For verbs that end in a consonant + -y, we take off the
y and add ied.
carry
carried
2b. For verbs that end in a vowel + -y, we add ed.
stay
stayed
3a. For verbs that end in consonant-vowel-consonant

where the final syllable is stressed, we double the last
consonant and add ed.
prefer
preferred
3b. For verbs that end in consonant-vowel-consonant

where the final syllable is not stressed, we do not
double the last letter.
happen
happened
34. Simple Past Negative Question

We can use question words with the simple past.
Why did he feed the dog?
35. Count Nouns

Count nouns are nouns that we can count. They can be
singular or plural and they take a singular or plural verb
form.
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The trip was great.

The trips were great.
We can use a few, many, a lot of or some before count

nouns to show an indefinite number.
There are a few tourists in the dining room.

They dont have many waiters at the caf.
A lot of hotels offer a bus service to town.
36. Noncount Nouns

Noncount nouns are nouns that we cannot count.
They are singular and they take a singular verb form.
information
luggage
We can use a little, much, a lot of and some before
noncount nouns to show how much we have.
There isnt any information about the price.
There is a lot of luggage in the car.

There wasnt much furniture in my hotel room.
37. How much? How many?

We use How many ? to ask about count nouns.
How many rooms are there in the hotel?
We use How much ? to ask about noncount nouns.
How much juice do we have?
38. some- /any- /no- /every- + -body (one)/ -thing/ -where
We use the words somebody/someone, something

and somewhere to talk about one unspecified
person, thing or place. We usually use the words that
begin with some- in affirmative sentences.
Theres somebody in the car.

They want something nice for breakfast.
Put the table somewhere near the window.
We use the words anybody/anyone, anything and

anywhere to talk about one unspecified person,
thing and or place. We usually use the words that
begin with any- in sentences and negative questions.
Is there anybody in the room?

Is there anything on your plate?
Im not going anywhere.
We use the words nobody/no one, nothing and

nowhere to talk about one unspecified person, thing
or place. We use the words that begin with no- when
the verb is affirmative but the sentence has a
negative meaning.
There is nobody in the room.

There is nothing in the refrigerator.
The book is nowhere in the house.
We use the words everybody, everything and

everywhere to talk about all the people, things and
places. We usually use the words that begin with
every- in affirmative sentences and questions.
Is everybody here?
Is everything OK, Mr. Dean?
There are tourists everywhere in summer.
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39. Comparative
We use the comparative of adjectives to compare two or This robot is newer than your robot.
more people, animals or things. We often use the word
than after the comparative.
Spelling Rules
1. For short adjectives which have one syllable and
warm
warmer than
some adjectives which have two syllables, we add
er to the adjective to form the comparative.
2. For short adjectives that end in e, we just add r.
nice
nicer than
3. For short adjectives that end in y, we take off the
funny
funnier than
y and add ier.
4. For short adjectives that end in consonant-vowelfat
fatter than
consonant, we double the last consonant and then
add er.
We use the word more before many adjectives that have fantastic
more fantastic than
two syllables, and before all adjectives that have three or
more syllables. We do not add er.
We can use both forms of the comparative with some
simple
simpler/more simple than
two-syllable adjectives.
clever
cleverer/more clever than
The comparative form of some adjectives is irregular.
good
better than
bad
worse than
far
farther/further than
much
more than
many
more than
a little
less than
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40. Superlative
We use the superlative form of adjectives to
compare one person or thing with many
others of the same type. We use the or a
possessive adjective before the superlative.
Spelling Rules
This is the newest robot in the shop.

This is your worst gadget.
1. For short adjectives which have one syllable and

some adjectives which have two syllables, we add
est to the adjective to form the superlative.
warm
the warmest
2. For adjectives that end in e, we just add st.
nice
the nicest
3. For short adjectives that end in y, we take off the

y and add iest.
funny
the funniest
4. For short adjectives that end in consonant-vowelconsonant, we double the last consonant and then
add est.
fat
the fattest
We use the word most before many adjectives that have

two syllables, and before all adjectives that have three or
more syllables. We dont add est.
fantastic
the most fantastic
We can use both forms of the superlative with some

two-syllable adjectives.
simple
clever
the simplest/the most simple

the cleverest/the most clever
The superlative form of some adjectives is irregular.
good
bad
far
much
many
a little
the best
the worst
the farthest/furthest
the most
the most
the least
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41. be going to
We use be going to + base form to talk about
future plans and arrangements.
predictions based on evidence we have now.
We often use time expressions like soon, tomorrow,
next week/month/year, this evening, in the
morning/afternoon/evening, tonight, next weekend,
etc. with be going to.
We can use there and question words with be going to.
Theyre going to have a party on Saturday.

Look at the clouds. Its going to rain.
Im going to study this evening.

Theyre going to leave in the morning.
Theres going to be a concert tomorrow.

When are you going to have a party?
42. Future with Will

future facts.
predictions.
sudden decisions.
promises, threats and warnings.
Shell be twenty tomorrow.

He will win the game.
Im hungry. I will have dinner.
Dont be late again! Youll lose your job.
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I think I will sell my car.
after hope, think, perhaps, sure, etc.
We often use time expressions like tomorrow, next

week/month/year, next weekend, this evening,
tonight, etc. at the beginning or end of sentences with
the Future with Will.
This evening Ill go out.

He will come home late tonight.
We can use there and question words with the Future

with Will.
There will be lots of new robots in the stores.

Where will you buy their presents?
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PREINTERMEDIA GRAMMAR REFERENCE

1. be, have
We use the verb be
to talk about someones job, nationality, relationship
or name.
My father is tall and slim.

Are the dogs friendly?
to describe people, animals and things.
We use have
to show what belongs to someone.
I am a teacher. You are my students.

Shoko is Japanese. Are Miguel and Carmen Mexican?
Shes my aunt. She isnt my grandmother.
Hi! Im Robert. Are you Mary?
I have a TV in my room.
Mr. Smith doesnt have a beard.
To describe people, animals and things.
Jashuas dogs have a red ball.

Our house has three bedrooms.
Note: In American English we also use the form

have/has got, but not as often as have/has. Have/has
got is more common in British English.
2. Simple Present
We use this for
Things that are true in general.
My uncle drives a BMW.
Water freezes at 0 Celsius.
The laws of science and nature.
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Spelling Rules
1a. In the third person singular affirmative (he, she, it),
we add s to the verb.
walk
sit
walks
sits
1b. We add es to verbs that end in ss, -sh, -ch, -x and

o in the third person singular affirmative.
dress
push
catch
fix
do
dresses
pushes
catches
fixes
does
2. When a verb ends in a consonant + -y, we take off

the y and add ies in the third person singular
affirmative.
carry
study
carries
studies
3. When a verb ends in a vowel + -y, we just add s in

the third person singular affirmative.
play
plays
We use do and does to form questions and negative

statements.
Do you live with your parents?

My brother doesnt go to bed early.
We also use the Simple Present with words like always,

often, sometimes, never, etc., to say how often
something happens. They come before the main verb,
but after the verb be.
My mother always goes shopping on Fridays.

My cousin is never at home on Saturday night!
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We use this for
actions that are in progress now.
actions that are in progress around the time of
speaking.
The children are having an Italian lesson now.

My aunt is learning French.
4. Simple Past
We use this for
States or completed actions in the past when the
time is important.
Actions that happened one after the other in the past.
We use did to form questions and negative statements.
I went to the movies with my best friend last Saturday.

Jane arrived at the party, took off her coat and started
to dance.
Did you enjoy the party?
Sally didnt come to the theater with us.
Spelling Rules
1. We form most regular verbs in the Simple Past by
adding ed. Verbs ending in e add d.
help
dance
helped
danced
2a. Regular verbs ending in consonant-vowelconsonant double the consonant before the ending ed
when the stress is on the final syllable.
rob
control
robbed
controlled
2b. When the stress is not on the last syllable, the final
consonant is not doubled.
listen
listened
3a. Verbs ending in a consonant and y change the y

to an i before the ending ed.
carry
carried
3b. When the verb ends in a vowel and y, the y

doesnt change.
play
played
Note: Some verbs are irregular and do not follow these

spelling rules.
come
hit
say
came
hit
said
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5. Used to
We use used to + the base form of a verb to talk about
an action that happened often in the past. It does not
happen now.
Jane used to go to a youth club every Saturday evening.
The negative form of used to is didnt use to.
David didnt use to dance very well.
6. Past Continuous
We use this for
actions that were in progress at a certain time in the
past.
Penny and Natalie were having a tennis lesson at 11

oclock yesterday morning.
two or more actions that were in progress at the

same time in the past.
Lucy was watching a movie on TV while I was making

lunch.
an action that was in progress in the past and was

interrupted by another action.
Justin was playing football when his friend arrived.
7. Present Perfect
We use this for
completed actions and states when the time is not
important.
I have seen the Loch Ness monster.

Have you ever gone to a hypnotist?
They have lived in a haunted house for ten years.
actions that started in the past and continue now, or

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actions that happened in the past but are still

important now.
My car keys have disappeared; well have to go by

bus.
8. Review the Present Perfect and Simple Past

9. Future with Will
We use this for
making predictions.
The new building will be the best in town.
making promises.
The restaurant at the Hyatt Hotel is fantastic. Ill take

you there on your birthday.
making threats.
Stop making so much noise or I will ask you to leave

the hotel, said the hotel manager.
making a sudden decision.
Lets go away next weekend.

OK. Ill reserve a room for us at a hotel.
We often use this form with the verbs think and believe
and also with phrases like Im sure to make guesses
or give our opinion about what will happen in the future.
Im sure well have a nice view from our room.
The negative of will is will not (wont).
She wont stay in that hotel because its too expensive.
10. Simple Present (Future Meaning)

We use this for scheduled events in the future.
The show finishes at 10 p.m.
11. Present Continuous (Future Meaning)

We use this to talk about somebodys plans for the
future.
Peter and Lucy are taking their children to the circus

this weekend.
Note: There must be a word or phrase in the sentence

that talks about future time, unless we can understand
this from the context.
Im going to the movies on Saturday. Would you like

to come with me?
12. be going to
We use be going to for
plans and arrangements for the future.
Pauls going to buy tickets for the ice show.
making predictions for the future based on evidence

in the present.
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Darren is going to be famous one day; hes a really

good actor.
13. Modals - Ability

We use can to talk about ability in the present. It is
followed by the base form of a verb. The negative form
of can is cannot or cant.
We can walk for miles because were very fit.

John cant ride a horse but he wants to learn.
We use could to talk about ability in the past. It is

of could is couldnt.
My grandpa could drive a tractor when he was 12.

Terry couldnt feed the chickens yesterday because he
was sick.
14. Modals - Necessity

We use must and have to to talk about necessity.
They are followed by the base form of a verb.
You must take your dog for a walk every day.

David has to water the plants today.
The negative form of must is must not. We use must

not to talk about things that you are not allowed to do.
Children must not play football on the grass.
Note: The form mustnt exists, but it is rare in

American English. It is much more common in British
English.
The negative form of have to is dont have to.
Dont have to means you can choose whether you do
something or not.
Laura doesnt have to take a tent when she goes

camping; she can sleep in Marys tent.
The past form of must and have to is had to.
John had to walk two miles to find a telephone when

his car broke down in the country.
15. Relative Clauses

Relative clauses give more information about the subject or the object of a sentence. Most of the examples in this
reference are relative clauses that add extra information about a noun. They are called non-defining relative clauses.
We usually put commas around them to show the information is extra.
Here are some of the words that can appear of the
beginning of a non-defining relative clause:
The nurse, who is my moms friend, was very kind.
who for people

23
which for things or ideas
The medicine, which tasted horrible, made me feel

better immediately.
where for places
Saint Peters hospital, where I work now, is very small.
Note: In formal English, we sometimes use which after

the prepositions at, on, in or from when we talk about
places.
In less formal English we can use where instead.
The Peoples Drugstore, from which I bought this

medicine, is on the corner of Main and Oak.
The Peoples Drugstore, where I bought this medicine,
is on the corner of Main and Oak.
16. Count Nouns

Count nouns are nouns that we can count. They can be
singular or plural and take both singular and plural verb
forms.
This house is the biggest in town.

These houses are very expensive.
Some nouns have irregular plural forms.
child
fish
We use a/an with singular count nouns, but not with

plural count nouns.
Is there a parking lot near the train station?

This town needs more parking lots.
We can use some with plural count nouns in statements,

and we can use any in questions or negative sentences.
Some stores stay open late on Thursdays.

Do you have any friends in Boston?
There arent any restaurants in this part of town.
children
fish
17. Noncount Nouns

Noncount nouns are nouns that we cannot count. They
are singular, and they take a singular verb form.
bread
cheese
fire
food
homework
information
juice
knowledge
luggage
milk
music
news
salt
time
traffic
water
We dont use a/an with noncount nouns.
Traffic is a problem in most large towns.
Tourist information is available in most large towns.

24
We can use some with noncount nouns in affirmative

statements, and we can use any in questions and
negative statements.
I listened to some music on my way into town.

Do you have any time to go sightseeing today?
We dont have any information about trains yet.

We use the indefinite article a/an with singular count
nouns when we talk in general or when we talk about
something for the first time.
Does this town have a museum?

The town has a museum and a theater. The museum is
on Oak Road, and the theater is on Broadway.
We dont use a/an with plural count nouns or noncount

nouns.
Susan spends a lot of money on tickets to the opera.

This restaurant serves food from India.

We use the definite article the with singular and plural
count nouns and with noncount nouns.
We use the
to talk about something specific.
before nationalities.
before superlatives.

before the names of theaters and hotels.
We do not use the

to talk about something in general.
Kelly bought the skirt from Top Shop.

The hotels in this city are all very good.
The money was stolen from the bank on Crown Street.
The library is at the end of this street.

The Spanish have built some beautiful cities.
She lives in the biggest house in the street.
The Colosseum is one of Romes most famous
buildings.
Kevin is learning to play the piano.
The Ambassador Hotel opens this week.
The city looks lovely in the evening.
Big towns can be very noisy places.
before names of countries, cities, streets, islands and

continents (exception: names with common nouns:
e.g. the Czech Republic, the United States).
Tokyo is the capital of Japan.

Toronto is in Canada. It is not in the United States.
before a persons name.
Mary is moving to Toronto next month.
Can you study economics at Harvard University?
25
before names of sports and games.
I play tennis at the sports center in town twice a week.
before names of days and months.
Im going to Tokyo on Tuesday.
before languages (when they are not followed by the

word language).
When I visited London, I heard people talking French,

German, Spanish and all kinds of other languages.
before words like school, class, prison, college,

court, church and bed in prepositional phrases with
in or to, when the speaker refers generally to a place
and does not have a specific building in mind.
If you steal, you will go to prison.

Is he going to college next year?
The lawyer will be in court all day.
before meals.
Were having dinner in a restaurant near the river.
20. Tag Questions

Tag questions are short questions at the end of an
affirmative or negative sentence. They are formed with
modal or auxiliary verbs and a personal pronoun.
We cant go to the movie, can we?

Jenny didnt pass her test, did she?
Note: When the main verb is a form of be, we use the

same form in the tag question. Sentences with I am are
an exception. They require an irregular tag question. In
sentences with I am not, the tag question is regular.
Our school is the biggest in the area, isnt it?

He was sick yesterday, wasnt he?
Im late, arent I?
Im not late, am I?
Affirmative sentences use negative tag questions.
Our new teacher is nice, isnt she?
Negative sentences use affirmative tag questions.
Students cant eat in the classroom, can they?
We use tag questions

when we want someone to agree with what we are
saying.
to make sure that what we are saying is right.
Our math homework was hard, wasnt it?

School starts again on Monday, doesnt it?
21. so, because

We use so to join two clauses into one sentence when
the second clause is the result of the first clause.
Our chemistry teacher was ill, so we didnt have class

today.
We use because to join two clauses into one sentence

when the second clause is the reason for the first clause.
James did well in his exams because he worked hard all

year.
26
22. Modals - Advice

We use should to give advice. It is followed by the base
form of a verb.
You should take your umbrella today because its going

to rain.
The negative form is should not (shouldnt).
Kerry shouldnt leave the lights on all the time. It

wastes electricity.
23. Modals - Possibility

We use may and might to talk about possibility.
I may listen to the concert on the radio after lunch.

Olivia might visit a television studio with her school.
The negative forms are may not and might not.
The story may not be on the news tonight.

Luke might not buy a TV guide this week.
24. First Conditional

We use the first conditional to talk about something that
will probably happen in the future.
If the woman is guilty, she will go to prison.

If it rains, we wont go on a picnic.
If + Simple Present, Future with will.

Note: When the if clause comes first, we use a comma.
When the result clause comes first, we do not use a
comma.
If the police find the criminal, they will arrest him.

The police will arrest the criminal if they find him.
25. Second Conditional

We can use the second conditional to talk about
something that is impossible in the present or the future.
We also use it to talk about something that is possible
but that is unlikely to happen.
If Marys house had a spare bedroom, we would stay

with her.
They would buy a bigger house if they won the lottery.
If + Simple Past, would + base form of the verb.

Note: When we use the verb be in the if clause, we
usually use were for all subjects.
If I were you, Id move to a bigger house.

If Al were here now, he would help us paint.
Remember: When the result clause comes first, we do

not use a comma.
Lynn would move if she wanted to live downtown.
26. Gerund
We use the gerund (-ing) form after
27
prepositions.
certain verbs.
Here are common verbs that take gerunds:
avoid
dislike
mind
consider imagine practice
enjoy
keep
suggest
Im looking forward to seeing the magician.

Emily enjoys learning new card tricks.
Magicians avoid telling people their secrets.
Do you dislike doing housework?
My son keeps asking me to buy him a magic book.
27. Infinitive
We use the infinitive (i.e., to + base form of verb) after
certain verbs.
afford hope
plan
agree
learn (how) promise
allow
manage
refuse
ask
offer
seem
decide persuade
want
I cant afford to buy an electric car.

Henry has decided to travel by train.
Paul is learning how to fly a helicopter.
I was planning to call you tonight.
Susan wants to drive a racing car!
Note: We can follow the verbs begin, continue and

start with the gerund or the infinitive.
It started to rain when we arrived at the train station.

It started raining when we arrived at the train station.
28. Comparatives and Superlatives

We use the comparative and superlative form of adjectives and adverbs to compare two or more places, people or
things. We make comparatives and superlatives in the following ways:
We add er/-est to adjectives/adverbs

with one or two syllables.
We double the last consonant for

syllable adjectives/adverbs with
vowel-consonant.
tall
quick
taller
quicker
tallest
quickest
fat
big
red
fatter
bigger
redder
fattest
biggest
reddest
For one or two syllable adjectives/adverbs

that end in y, the y changes to i and then
we add er/-est.
dry
easy
muddy
drier
easier
muddier
driest
easiest
muddiest
We use more/most or less/least with

adjectives/adverbs with more than two syllables.
dangerous
beautiful
more dangerous
less beautiful
most dangerous
least beautiful
oneconsonant-
28
Some adjectives/adverbs are irregular. You must learn the comparative and superlative forms shown below.
Adjective/Adverb
Comparative
Superlative
a lot of
bad (ly)
far
good/well
little
many/much
more
worse
farther/further
better
less/smaller
more
most
worst
farthest/furthest
best
least/smallest
most
We use than with the comparative when we

compare two people, groups, places or things.
Sally likes brighter colors than Tina.
We use the superlative when we are comparing one

person, group, place or thing with more than one of
the same type. We always use the word the.
Red is the best color for a sports car.
29. too, enough

Enough means as much as is necessary. It comes
after an adjective.
Too means more than is necessary. It comes before
an adjective.
Note: We can use the infinitive after adjective +
enough and too + adjective.
Those blue jeans arent long enough for you.

I dont like this color; its too dark.
These curtains arent colorful enough to put in the
childrens playroom.
The red leather jacket was too expensive to buy.
30. Passive Voice

We form the passive with the verb be and a past
participle.
Lunch is served at 1 p.m. every day.
We use the passive when we are more interested in

the action than in who does it (the agent).
The spaghetti is boiled for 12 minutes.
We change an active sentence into a passive sentence

in the following way: The object of the active verb
becomes the subject of the passive verb. The verb
be is used in the correct form together with the past
participle of the active verb.
The French Bakery makes the best cakes.

The best cakes are made by the French Bakery.
We form the Simple Present passive with am/are/is

and a past participle.
I am given homemade jam by my neighbor.

This meat isnt cooked enough.
Are these cookies sold at the supermarket?
We form the Simple Past passive with was/were and
The salad was made by my mother.
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The farmer sells fresh fruit.

Fresh fruit is sold by the farmer.
a past participle.
Julie wasnt invited to the dinner party.

Was the birthday cake ordered?
When we want to mention the agent, we use the

word by before it.
Laura reserved the table at the restaurant.

The table at the restaurant was reserved by Laura.
31. Simple Present

*
We use this form for
things that are true in general.
how often something happens.
the laws of science and nature.
My father works in a bank.

Davids sister plays tennis twice a week.
Water boils at 100 Celcius.
We use do and does to make the question and

negative forms.
Does your brother go to college?

I dont work on Sundays.

actions in progress at the time of speaking.
actions in progress around the time of speaking.
My brother is washing his car at the moment.

They are learning to play the guitar.
33. Stative Verbs

We dont usually use stative verbs in the Present
Continuous or in other continuous forms.
Does your sister belong to a sailing club?
believe
belong
hate
hear
know
like
He doesnt believe that I have six brothers and sisters.

That van belongs to my brother.
He prefers pop music, while his sisters prefer rock
music.
I remember you; youre Jans friend!
Do you know when we are going to Aunt Lindas?
They dont understand why their mother is so upset.
mean
need
prefer
remember
seem
understand
34. Simple Past

states or completed actions in the past when the time
is important.
actions that happened one after the other in the past.
30
William Wallace died in 1305.

Robin Hood robbed the rich and gave to the poor.
We use did to make the question and negative forms.
Did King Alfred burn the cakes?

King Arthur didnt kill Lancelot.
Spelling Rules
1. We form most regular verbs in the Simple Past
by adding ed. Verbs ending in e add d.
watch
save
watched
saved
2a. Regular verbs ending in consonant-vowelconsonant double the consonant before the
ending ed when the stress is on the final
syllable or when there is only one syllable.
control
stop
controlled
stopped
2b. When the stress is not on the last syllable,

the final consonant is not doubled.
open
opened
3a. Verbs ending in a consonant and y change

the y to an i before the ending ed.
marry
married
3b. When the verb ends in a vowel and y,

the y doesnt change.
stay
stayed
Note: Some verbs do not follow the spelling rules.
pay
say
paid
said
35. Past Continuous

actions in progress at a certain time in
the past.
two or more actions in progress at the same
time in the past.
an action in progress in the past that was
Robert the Bruce was hiding in a cave when he saw a

spider.
While the king was fighting abroad, his enemy was
planning his revenge.
The little girl was hiding under her bed when the
firefighter went into the burning building.
Remember: We dont use the Past Continuous with stative verbs.

36. used to
We use used to + the base form of a verb to talk about
an action that was repeated in the past.
37. Present Perfect
31
Knights used to ride horses and wear armor.

Kings and queens didnt use to care about the poor.

completed actions and states when the time is
not important or not mentioned.
actions that started in the past and continue
now,
or actions that happened in the past but
are still
important now.
The painter has exhibited in many galleries.

Rose has worked in this studio for five years.
Ive seen his new sculpture. Its beautiful.
38. Present Perfect Continuous

We use this form
for actions that started in the past and have
happened repeatedly or continuously until now.
to say how long something has been in progress.
John has a good tan because he has been going to the

beach every day.
She has been swimming in the lake since 10 oclock.
Remember: We dont use the Present Perfect Continuous with stative verbs.
39. Past Perfect
We use this form for an action or state that existed
before another action, state or time in the past.
She called her grandmother because she hadnt spoken

to her for a long time.

making predictions.
making promises.
making threats.
More species will become extinct in the future.

Well walk the dog every day, Mom.
Eat your dinner or Ill give it to the dog, she said.
Wheres the cat? Ill look for her.
We often use this form after the verbs think and believe
and after phrases like Im sure to make guesses or
give our opinion about what will happen.
We believe you wont be disappointed.

Im sure your son will love the dog.
41. be going to
We use be going to for
plans for the future.
making predictions for the future based on
a present situation.
Were going to join Greenpeace tomorrow, they said.

Karens dog is well trained. Its going to win the
competition.
42. Present Simple (Future Meaning)

We use this form for programmed future events (e.g., on
a schedule or calendar).
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I cant believe that my vacation starts next week.
43. Present Continuous (Future Meaning)

We use this form for plans and arrangements
in the near future.
Im going to the job center tomorrow. Do you want to

come, too?
Note: There must be a word or phrase in the

sentence that talks about future time, unless
this can be understood from the context.
Im having a meeting with my boss on Monday.
Remember: We dont use the Present Continuous with stative verbs.
Review of Verb Form

44. Count Nouns
Count nouns are nouns that can be counted. They
can be singular or plural and take both singular
and plural verb forms
This coin is from India.

These coins are very rare; they are worth a lot of money.
Some nouns have irregular plural forms.
child
person
We use a/an with singular count nouns, but not

with plural count nouns.
Im going to the bank to ask for a loan.

More and more people get loans these days.
We can use some with plural count nouns in

statements, and we can use any in questions or
in negative statements.
Some people prefer to pay for things by check.

Do you have any old coins?
I didnt pay any bills last week.
children
people
45. Noncount Nouns

Noncount nouns are nouns that cannot be counted.
They are singular and take a singular verb.
cheese
knowledge
news
equipment
luggage
salt
furniture
milk
time
homework
money
traffic
information
music
water
33
Money has been used for thousands of years.

Tonights news was all about the economy.
The new equipment is worth thousands of dollars.
We dont use a/an with noncount nouns.
He loves music, so he spends all his money on CDs.
We can use some with noncount nouns in statements,

and we can use any in questions or in negative
statements.
Please find some information about the history of

money for tomorrows lesson.
Is there any milk, or should I go to the store?
I didnt have any time to buy you a present.

We use the indefinite article a/an with singular count
nouns that we talk about for the first time.
Have you got a checkbook?
We dont use it with plural count nouns or noncount

nouns.
Helen spends a lot of money on shoes.

Salt used to be used as money in Tibet.

We use the definite article the with singular and plural
count nouns and with noncount nouns.
We use the
to talk about something specific.
before nationalities.
before ordinal numbers.
before superlatives.
before names of theaters, hotels and ships.
before names of rivers, deserts and mountain ranges.
34
There is a lot of money in the briefcase.

The stores in this area are very expensive.
The money on the table is mine.
The documentary about banking was fascinating.

The Chinese produced the first paper banknotes.
When were the first modern banks established?
Its not cheap to send a rocket to the moon.
My parents paid for me to learn the violin.
Was it the most expensive painting in the gallery?
How much did it cost to build the Globe Theater?
He paid a lot of money to cruise the Nile.
We do not use the

to talk about something in general.
before names of countries, cities, streets, mountains,
islands and continents.
before proper nouns.
before names of sports and games.
before names of days and months.
before languages (when they are not followed by the
word language).
before the words home, work, school, prison and
bed in phrases that refer to a place generally.
Dont forget to go to the bank in the morning.
Do you know the proverb Money is the root of all evi

The euro is not yet legal currency in Great Britain.
How much does it cost to climb Mount Everest?
Daniel is very good at saving money.
Sarahs brother is studying economics.
Playing football can earn you a lot of money.
Department stores make a lot of money in December.
Barry wants to learn French, but he cant afford it.
Why are you in bed? You should be at work so you ca

earn some money!
48. Modals - Ability

We can use can to talk about ability in the present.
It is followed by the base form of a verb. The negative
form of can is cannot or cant.
You can swim really well. Were you ever a lifeguard?

Jonathan knows that he wants a job in one of the emergenc
services, but he cant decide which one.
We use could to talk about ability in the past. It is

of could is could not or couldnt.
My grandfather was a lifeguard when he was young;

he could swim 100 meters in 60 seconds.
The ambulance couldnt get to the scene of the accident
because it was stuck in traffic.
We can use be able to to talk about ability in the

present, past and future.
Will the firefighters be able to rescue the people?

Was the rescue team able to reach the climber?
49. Modals - Necessity

We use must and have to to talk about necessity.
35
You must try to be calm in an accident.
You have to be a good driver to drive an ambulance.
The negative forms of must and have to are must not

and do not (dont) have to. The form musnt is rare in
American English.
You must not put water on a frying pan if it catches on

fire.
You dont have to be a professional to learn first aid.
Must not means youre not allowed to do something.

Dont have to means you can choose whether you do
something or not.
You must not panic in an emergency.

You dont have to train as a nurse to do volunteer work
for your local ambulance service.

The negative form of had to is didnt have to.
The firefighter had to complete a tough training course.

Alice didnt have to take the first aid course because she
had already taken one in college.
50. Determiners
We use a little with noncount nouns.

It means a small amount of.
Could you buy a little cheese when you go to the

supermarket?
We use a few with plural nouns.

It means a small number of.
Ive still got a few eggs, so you dont need to buy any.
We use a lot of with plural count nouns and

noncount nouns. It means a large number of.
There are a lot of department stores downtown.

Its Friday night, so there will be a lot of traffic in town.
We use both for two people, things, etc.

It means one and the other.
I think Ill buy both the black skirt and the jeans.
We use none (of) for three or more people, things,

etc. It means not any (of).
None of the shoe stores I went to had anything I liked.
We dont use all by itself as the subject of a verb.

We use it with a personal pronoun.
All goes before the main verb but after the verb be.
They all/All of them liked their presents.

We all thought the new shopping center was impressive.
We were all impressed by the new shopping center.
We use either with or. It means one or the other.
Colin is going to buy either a digital camera or a new

TV with the money he won.
We use neither with nor. It means not one and not

the other.
Neither Samantha nor Jamie likes shopping.

Neither my brothers nor my sisters like shopping.
We can also use neither as the opposite of both.
Olivia said that neither of the dresses suited her, but I

thought she looked really nice.

36
We use the first conditional to talk about things that will

probably happen in the future.
If + Simple Present, Future with Will.
If you visit the planetarium, you will learn a lot about

the universe.

We use the second conditional to talk about things that
probably cant happen now or in the future.
With the verb be, we usually use were for all subjects.
If we spent less money on space exploration, there would

be more money to help poor people.
If + Simple Past, would + the base form of a verb
If I were rich, I would go on a tour with Space Vacations!
53. Modals - Advice

We use should and ought to to give advice.
You should train harder if you want to be on the team.

His grades are good; he ought to apply to college.
The negative form of should is should not (shouldnt).

The negative form of ought to (i.e., ought not to)
is rare in American English.
You shouldnt listen to her; you know shes just jealous

of your success.
54. Modals - Possibility

We use may and might to talk about possibility.
They may choose her for the team.

I might get promoted next year.
The negative forms are may not and might not.
He may not get the job.

I think you should apply for the job; they might not need
someone with experience.
55. Wishes
We use wish to talk about a situation or an action that
we are sorry about.
We use wish + Simple Past to express a desire in the
present or the future. With the verb be, we usually
use were for all subjects.
We use wish + Past Perfect to express a regret about
the past.
37
He wishes he knew more about the Pyramids.

I wish I were better informed about the Yeti.
She wishes she had seen the Loch Ness Monster when
she was in Scotland.
We use wish + would + the base form of a verb to

talk about something we would like to change in the
future. We also use it to express annoyance.
I wish they would tell us more about the Bermuda

Triangle.
I wish you would stop talking about UFOs.
Remember: We usually do not use wish + would when we talk about our own behavior.
56. Modals - Certainty
We use must and cant to talk about certainty.
He must be the murderer.

He cant have a photo of the Yeti.
We use must when we are sure that something is true.
She must know that the photo isnt real.
We use cant when we are sure that something is not

true.
It cant be a ghost. Theres no such thing!
57. Passive
The passive is formed with the verb be in the correct form and a past participle.
We use the passive when we are more interested in the action than in who was responsible for it (the agent).
We change an active sentence into a passive sentence in the following way. The object of the active verb becomes
the subject of the passive verb. The verb be is used in the correct form together with the past participle of the active
verb.
E.g. The volunteers organized the party.
The party was organized by the volunteers.
The table below shows how active verb forms change to passive verb forms.
Active Form
Passive Form
Simple Present
Present Continuous
Simple Past
Past Continuous
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
Future with Will
be going to
modals
change/changes
am/are/is changing
changed
was/were changing
have/has changed
had changed
will change
am/are/is going to change
must change
am/are/is changed
am/are/is being changed
was/were changed
was/were being changed
have/has been changed
had been changed
will be changed
am/are is going to be changed
must be changed
The Present Perfect Continuous is not usually used in the passive form.
When it doesnt matter who the agent is or when we do not know who the agent is, we do not mention it.
E.g. $10,000 has been donated to the hospital.
38
When we want to mention the agent, we put the word by before it.
E.g. The cards were designed by children from a local childrens home.
58. Reported Speech - Statements
We use reported speech to say what someone else has said. When the reporting verb is in the past, the verb forms
used by the speaker change.
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
Simple Present
I work at a private clinic, he said.
Simple Past
He said (that) he worked at a private clinic.
Present Continuous
I am training to be a nurse, she said.
Past Continuous
She said (that) she was training to be a nurse.
Present Perfect
She has seen the doctor, he said.
Past Perfect
He said (that) she had seen the doctor.
Present Perfect Continuous

I have been working for 16 hours, she said.
Past Perfect Continuous

She said (that) she had been working for 16 hours.
Simple Past
I had an operation, he said.
Past Perfect
He said (that) he had had an operation.
Past Continuous
He was looking for the doctor, she said.

She said (that) he had been looking for the doctor.
Remember: Changes must also be made to personal pronouns, possessive pronouns and possessive adjectives.
59. Other Changes

can
could
They cant do anything about it, he said.
He said (that) they couldnt do anything about it.
must
had to
We must take Sam to the doctor, he said.
He said (that) they had to take Sam to the doctor.
will
would
I will start the diet on Monday, she said.
She said (that) she would start the diet on Monday.
Sometimes there are changes in time and places in reported speech.
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
39
today
I want to make an appointment today, she said.
yesterday
I went to the dentist yesterday, he said.
last week/month/year/etc.
I gave up smoking last year, she said.
tomorrow
Im going to the opticians tomorrow, he said.
next week/month/year/etc.
Hes getting out of the hospital next week,
she said.
ago
I first tried reflexology six months ago, she said.
now
Theyre in the ambulance now, he said.
at the moment
The doctor is seeing a patient at the moment,
he said.
this/these
This is the operating room, he said.
here
Ill leave the chart here, she said.
that day
She said (that) she wanted to make an appointment that day.
the day before
He said (that) he had been to the dentist the day before.
the week/month/year/etc. before
She said (that) she had given up smoking the year before.
the following day
He said (that) he was going to the opticians the following day.
the following week/month/year/etc.
She said (that) he was getting out of the hospital the following wee
before
She said (that) she had first tried reflexology six months before.
then
He said (that) they were in the ambulance then.
at that moment
He said (that) the doctor was seeing a patient at that moment.
that/those
He said (that) that was the operating room.
there
She said (that) she would leave the chart there.
Remember: The reporting verb say is used without an object, but tell is used with an object.
60. Reported Speech - Questions
The changes in verbs are the same as the ones we make in reported statements. We usually use the reporting verb ask.
When a direct question has a question word like who,
what, how, etc., this word is used in the reported question.
When did you decide to become an actor? he asked.

He asked when I had decided to become an actor.
When a direct question doesnt have a question word like

who, what, how, etc., if/whether is used in the reported
question.
Are you planning to go on tour? she asked.

She asked if/whether we were planning to go on tour.
Remember: In reported questions the verb follows the subject, as in ordinary statements. We do not use a question mark.
40

We use the comparative and superlative form of words to compare two or more places, people or things. We make
comparatives and superlatives in the following ways:
We add er/-est to adjectives/adverbs with one or

two syllables.
long
slow
longer
slower
longest
slowest
The last consonant is doubled for one-syllable

adjectives/adverbs with consonant-vowelconsonant.
big
hot
bigger
hotter
biggest
hottest
pretty
happy
prettier
happier
prettiest
happiest
more expensive
most expensive
For one or two syllable adjectives/adverbs that end

in y, the y changes to -i and then we add er/-est.
expensive
For adjectives/adverbs of more than two syllables,

we use more/most or less/least.
Some adjectives/adverbs are irregular.

Adjective/adverb
Comparative
Superlative
a lot of
bad(ly)
far
few
good/well
little
many/much
old
more
worse
farther/further
fewer
better
less/smaller
more
older/elder
most
worst
farthest/furthest
fewest
best
least/smallest
most
oldest/eldest
We use than with the comparative when two people,

groups, places or things are compared.
We use the with the superlative when one person,
group, place or thing is being compared to three or
more things of the same type.
This restaurant is nicer than the restaurant we went to

last month.
I think this is the best club in the city!
62. Relative Clauses

Relative clauses give more information about the subject or the object of a sentence. In this book we look at defining
relative clauses: i.e., clauses that provide essential information about a noun. Defining relative clauses begin with the
following relative pronouns and relative adverbs:
Thats the man who is in the new cell phone ad.
who for people (that can also be used)

41
that for things (which can also be used, especially in

British English)
whose for belongings
which after prepositions (in formal English)
when for time
where for places
Adco is the company that made the commercial.

Ed is the person whose idea the client liked best.
Thats the commercial for which they won an award.
April 1st is the date when the ad must be ready.
Do you know the studio where the ad will be filmed?
63. Gerund
Here are some common verbs that can be followed by a gerund (i.e., the ing form of a verb used as a noun):
admit
enjoy
keep
practice
He admits having a fear of spiders.
avoid
fancy
mind
risk
I dont mind being high up; Im not afraid of heights.
consider
imagine
miss
suggest
Would you consider flying in a helicopter?
Here are some expressions that are followed by a gerund:
Its (not) worth
Its no use/good
Theres no point in
cant help
cant stand
Note: We often use a gerund after prepositions.
Its worth getting help if you have a phobia.

Its no use inviting her. Shes afraid of crowds.
Theres no point in telling Carol not to be afraid.
He must learn to deal with being in closed spaces.
64. Infinitive
Here are some verbs that are followed by an infinitive (i.e., to + the base form of a verb):
afford
agree
attempt
decide
fail
hope
learn
manage
offer
plan
promise
refuse
seem
want
He agreed to try and travel by plane.

My therapist plans to take me up in a plane next week.
Sarah has decided to get help with her fear of spiders.
65. Gerund and Infinitive

Some verbs can be followed by either a gerund or infinitive without a change in meaning.
begin
continue
start
He has begun feeling/to feel better about his phobia.

The therapist will continue helping/to help me.
I started shaking/to shake when I boarded the plane.
42
INTERMEDIA GRAMMAR REFERENCE

66. Simple Present
We use this for
Many people live in the heart of the city.

In winter some trees lose all their leaves.
Linda cleans her house twice a week.
The Simple Present is used with the stative verbs on the

right. They appear only in simple forms.
Believe, belong, hate, hear, know, like, mean, need,

prefer, remember, seem, suppose, understand.
Do and does are used to form question and negative

forms.
Does she share a bedroom with her sister?

I dont like living near this busy road. Its very noisy.

We use this for actions that
Michael is painting the kitchen at the moment.
are in progress at the time of speaking.
They are saving up to buy a new carpet.
are in progress around the time of speaking.
43
68. Adverbs of Frequency

Adverbs of frequency are used to say how often
something happens. They come before the main verb,
but after the verb be.
Here are some common adverbs of frequency.
We always leave the light on at night.

I am never late for school.
always, never, often, rarely, seldom, sometimes, usually.
69. Tag Questions

Tag Questions are short questions at the end of an
She walks to work, doesnt she?
affirmative or negative sentence.
We use tag questions when we want
They lived in Denver, didnt they?
Someone to agree with what we are saying.
He wont make the curtains, will he?
To make sure that what we are saying is right.
You can send a fax, cant you?
They are formed with modal and auxiliary verbs.
Remember: When have is used as a main verb, we use the verb do to make the tag question.
70. Simple Past
We use this for
A state or completed action in the past when the time is
important.
A series of completed actions in the past.
Did is used to form question and negative forms.
Spelling Rules
1. Most regular verbs in the Simple Past are formed by adding
ed. Verbs ending in e add d.
2a. Regular verbs ending in consonant-vowel-consonant double
the consonant before the ending ed when the stress is on the
final syllable.
2b. When the stress is not on the last syllable, the final consonant
is not doubled.
3a. Verbs ending in a consonant and y change the y to an i
before the ending ed.
3b. When the verb ends in a vowel and y the y doesnt change.
Note: that these verbs do not follow the spelling rules.
She passed her driving test last month.

We sold the house two years ago.
He sat down, took out a pen and started writing.
Did you send them a postcard when you were on vacatio
They didnt watch TV last night.
look
save
stop
prefer
looked
saved
stopped
preferred
visit
visited
lay laid
pay paid
say - said
71. Past Continuous

We use this
for actions that were in progress at a certain time in
the past.
for two or more actions that were in progress at the
for an action that was in progress in the past and was
44
We were playing cards at 10 oclock last night.

Amy was writing a letter when I arrived.
I was washing the floor and Jack was working in the
garden.
I was writing a letter when my boss arrived.

to describe things in the past.
The reporters were asking the star questions.

The Past Continuous often follows as and while.
The lights went out while she was typing.
Remember: We dont use the Past Continuous with stative verbs.

We use this to
make predictions, promises and threats.
It is often used with verbs like think and believe,
as well as phrases like I am sure
offer to do something for someone.
ask someone to do something.
make a sudden decision.
I think an astronaut will walk on Mars in the next

twenty-five years.
I am sure you will like the new CD.
I will give you a lift to the concert.
Will you turn the music down, please?
What can I get for Jane? I know. Ill get her a CD.
73. Present Continuous with a future meaning

We use this for future plans and arrangements.
Were having a ballet lesson after work.
74. be going to
We use be going to
for plans and arrangements for the future.
to make a prediction for the near future based on a
present situation.
75. Future time clauses with when
Future verb forms cannot be used in a future clause
with when. We use present forms.
The same is true of future time clauses with as soon
as, after, before, until, while and by the time.
76. Modals Ability, Obligation and Necessity
We use can to talk about ability in the present.
It is followed by the base form of a verb.
The negative form of can is cannot or cant.
We use could to talk about ability in the past.
The negative form of could is could not (couldnt).
We use be able to to talk about ability in the past,
present and future.
We use must to talk about obligation and necessity.
The negative form of must is must not.
Must not means youre not allowed to do
45
They are going to see that new rock band tonight.

Marks band has the highest score. They are going to
win the talent contest.
Ill give her your message when she wakes up.

Ill listen to my new CD when Im driving to work.
Shell give you a call as soon as the musician arrives.
She can design hats quite well now.

She cant change my bag because Ive lost the receipt.
He could run quite fast when he was at college.
We couldnt find a bag to match the dress.
She hasnt been able to model since March.
Will you be able to get a job if you go to the USA?
We must take photos of Jane during the fashion show.
You mustnt steal other peoples designs!
something.
The past form of must is had to.
I had to stay late at work to finish making the dress.
We also use have to to talk about obligation and

necessity. The negative form of have to is dont
have to. Dont have to means you can choose
whether you do something or not.
The past form of have to is had to.
77. although, despite, in spite of

We use although, despite, and in spite of to talk
about something that is unexpected because of
certain facts.
We use although with a subject and a verb.
We use despite and in spite of with a noun or a
gerund (-ing form).
78. Present Perfect
We use this for actions and states
that are completed when the time is not important.
There is a connection with now.
that started in the past and are still true now.
This form is used with already, just and yet.
I have to buy a new dress for the wedding.

You dont have to wear a skirt; you can wear pants.
We had to repair the necklace.
Although she is tall, she wears high heels.

Despite/In spite of having the best models, the fashion
show was a disaster.
Although it was very cold, he didnt wear a coat.
Despite/In spite of having a lot of money, she rarely
buys expensive clothes.
Ive stayed at that hotel before so I know what its like.

Shes worked in Sydney so she knows what to expect.
I have lived here since 1989.
They have already been to the Sahara.
Hes just heard the news. Have you heard about it yet?

We use this
Hes tired because hes been working in the garden.
For actions that began in the past and have recently
stopped.
She has been studying geography for two years.
To say how long something has been in progress.
Remember: We dont use the Past Perfect Continuous with stative verbs.
80. have been to, have gone to
We use have been to when somebody has visited a

place and has come back.
We use have gone to when somebody is visiting a
place and hasnt come back yet.
81. for and since

We use for and since with the Present Perfect to
talk about how long an action has
been in progress or how long a state has
existed until now.
46
Michael has been to California many times, so he can

recommend somewhere to stay.
Susan has gone to Austin, but shell be here next week.
Theyve been spending their vacations in Mexico since

they were children.
Ive been in Russia for two weeks and Ill stay until the
end of the month.
Since is followed by a specific point in time.

For is followed by a period of time.
We have stayed in this hotel every summer since 1995.

Kate hasnt had a vacation for three years.
82. Past Perfect

We use this for an action or state that existed before
another event, state or time in the past.
I hadnt played golf until I went on vacation to Boston.

By the time we arrived, the game had already finished.
83. Past Perfect Continuous

We use this for actions that were in progress until a
We had been sitting in the stadium for about an hour
certain time in the past.
when the team came onto the field.
Remember: We dont use the Past Perfect Continuous with stative verbs.
84. Passive
We use the passive when we are more interested in the action than who or what is responsible for it (the agent).
Verb Form
Active Form
Passive Form
Simple Present
take/takes
am/are/is taken
Present Continuous
am/are/is taking
am/are/is being taken
Simple Past
took
was/were taken
Past Continuous
was/were taking
was/were being taken
Present Perfect
have/has taken
have/has been taken
Past Perfect
had taken
had been taken
Future with will
will take
will be taken
Modals
must take
must be taken
Infinitive
to take
to be taken
Gerund
taking
being taken
The passive is formed with the verb be and a past participle.
We change an active sentence into a passive sentence in the following way. The object of the verb in the active
sentence becomes the subject of the verb in the passive sentence. The verb be is used in the correct form together
with the past participle of the main verb in the active sentence.
E.g. They have never recorded rain in this area.
Rain has never been recorded in this area.
In this example we do not know who has recorded the rain and the information is not very important, so we do not
include the word they in the passive sentence.
Sometimes we want to know who or what is responsible for the action. In a passive sentence the word by comes
before this information.
E.g. The sun warms the earth during the day.
The earth is warmed by the sun during the day.
85. Adjectives ending in ing or -ed
Adjectives that describe things, places,
situations, events and people end in ing.
Adjectives that describe how someone feels
end in ed.
47
The thunderstorm was amazing.

Listening to the weather forecast is boring.
I was interested in the experiment.
She was surprised to see snow in June.
86. Adjectives: Word Order

When we use two or more adjectives, we usually
put them in a set order.
opinion, size, age, shape, color, nationality,
material + noun
Look at those lovely pink flowers she planted.

I dont like that big square plastic box you bought.

We use the comparative and superlative form of words to compare two or more places, people or things.
tall
taller
tallest
We usually add er/-est to adjectives/adverbs
fast
faster
fastest
with one or two syllables.
The last consonant is doubled for one syllable

adjectives with consonant-vowel-consonant.
For one or two syllable adjectives/adverbs that
end in y, the y changes to I before we add
er/-est.
hot
red
hotter
redder
hottest
reddest
dry
happy
early
drier
happier
earlier
driest
happiest
earliest

adjectives/adverbs of more than two syllables.
sensible
carefully
more/less sensible
more/less carefully
most/least sensible
more/least carefully
These comparative and superlative forms of irregular adjectives/adverbs must be learned.

Adjective/adver
Comparativ
Superlative
b
e
a lot of
more
most
bad(ly)/ill
worse
worst
far
farther/further
farthest/furthest
few
fewer
fewest
good/well
better
best
little
less/smaller
least/smallest
many
more
most
much
more
most
old
older/elder
oldest/eldest
We use than with the comparative when two people, Tigers are more dangerous than rhinos.
groups, places or things are compared.
The Indian elephant is not as big as the African elephant.
We can also make comparisons using (not) as +
adjective + as.
48
88. Reported Speech (statements)

When the reporting verb is in a past form, the verbs used by the speaker usually change as follows:
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
Simple Present
Simple Past
I want ice cream, she said.
She said (that) she wanted ice cream.
Present Continuous
Past Continuous
He is working out in the gym, she said.
She said he was working out in the gym.
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
We have never played tennis, they said.
They said they had never played tennis.
I have been dieting for two weeks, he said.
He said he had been dieting for two weeks.
Simple Past
Past Perfect
I put your shoes in the closet, said John.
John said he had put my shoes in the closet.
Past Continuous
She was preparing a salad for lunch, he said.
He said she had been preparing a salad for lunch.
We also make other changes
can
could
I cant go with you because I am too tired, said Mark. Mark said he couldnt go with me because he was too tired
may
might
I may go to the health club later, he said.
He said he might go to the health club later.
must
had to
I must get more sleep, she said.
She said she had to get more sleep.
will
would
He will be tired after training, she said.
She said he would be tired after training.
dont
not to
Dont go because Mom will worry, he said.
He told me not to go because Mom will worry.
Note: that when we talk about something that is still
London is the capital of England. Our teacher told us.
true or is a fact, the verb forms do not change.
Our teacher told us that London is the capital of England.
Sometimes there are changes in time and place in reported speech. Changes are as follows:
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
today
that day
Ill start my exercises today, he said.
He said hed start his exercises that day.
yesterday
the day before
I arrived early yesterday, she said.
She said she had arrived early the day before.
last week/month/year/etc.
the week/month/year/etc. before
He saw his doctor last week, she said.
She said he had seen his doctor the week before.
tomorrow
the following day
Ill buy the vitamins tomorrow, she said.
She said shed buy the vitamins the following day.
next week/month/year/etc.
the following week/month/year/etc.
The gym will open next month, he said.
He said the gym would open the following month.
ago
He joined the gym two years ago, she said.
now
Hes learning golf now, he said.
49
before
She said he had joined the gym two years before.
then
He said he was learning golf then.
at the moment
at that moment
Were eating salad at the moment, they said.
They said they were eating salad at that moment.
this/these
that/those
These are my football shoes, he said.
He said those were his football shoes.
here
there
Hes been waiting here for an hour, she said.
She said hed been waiting there for an hour.
Remember: We do not use quotation marks with reported speech.
Other reporting verbs
Sometimes we use other verbs to report speech.
agree/refuse/decide/offer + verb with to
apologize + for + verb in the gerund form (-ing)
blame + object + for + verb in the gerund form (-ing)
accuse + object + of + verb in the gerund form (-ing)
suggest + that + subject + (should) + base form.
suggest + that + subject + verb in the Simple Past
Note: that suggest can be followed by a gerund when
the speaker is involved in the action.
I will come with you to the dentist, she said.

She agreed to come with me to the dentist.
Im sorry I arrived late, she said.
She apologized for arriving late.
Brenda caused the accident, said Alice.
Alice blamed Brenda for causing the accident.
Larry stole the tennis racket, said Alec.
Alec accused Larry of stealing the tennis racket.
Why dont you go to the beach, Paul? said Carol.
Carol suggested that Paul should go to the beach.
You should see a doctor, Mark, said Jane.
Jane suggested that Mark saw a doctor.
Lets play a game. Said Ben.
Ben suggested playing a game.
89. Reported Speech (questions)

When a direct question has a word like who, what, how, Where is the post office? he asked.
we use this word in the reported question.
He asked where the post office was.
When a direct question doesnt have a word like who,
Can I send the package by mail? he asked.
what, how, we use if/whether in the reported question. He asked if/whether he could send the package by mail.
Remember: In reported questions, the verb follows the subject, as in ordinary statements.
We do not use question marks.
90. used to, would
We use used to + verb to talk about past habits or
states.
She used to go to work by bus when she was younger.

He used to be interested in old airplanes.
I didnt use to travel by ferry, but now I go to the
islands this way every summer.
He would catch the early morning train to work.
We also use would + the base form of a verb to talk

about past habits.
Remember: We cannot use would + the base form of a verb to talk about past states
91. be/get used to
We use be/get used to when we want to talk about
habits and states that are not strange or
new to us.
50
Dont worry! I am used to driving on the left.

She is used to the noise from the main road now.
things that became familiar in the past.

They are followed by a gerund (-ing form) or a noun.

We use the first conditional to talk about things that will
probably happen now or in the future.
If + present form, will/can/may + base form
Unless can be used in this conditional. Unless means the
same as if not.
I soon got used to flying when I started working for an

airline.
If the weather is fine, well go away for the weekend.

If they give us the money, we can go to Disneyland.
We may go to San Antonio if Mary gets a job there.
If I dont have time to visit, I will call instead.
Unless I have time to visit, I will call instead.

We use the second conditional to talk about things
If she had more money, she would travel first class.
that probably wont happen now or in the future.
I might visit my uncle if I had time off work.
we know will not happen.
If I lived nearby, I could visit more.
If + past form, would/could/might + base form
Remember: When we use be in the if clause, we usually use were for all subjects.
94. Third Conditional
We use the third conditional to talk about the past. These
are always hypothetical things because we cannot
change the past.
If + Past Perfect, would/could/might + have + past
participle
If I had listened to you, I would have paid less.

If we had booked our plane tickets earlier, we could
have found the dates we really wanted.
If she hadnt been so sick, she might have enjoyed the
vacation.
95. Relative clauses

Relative clauses give more information about the subject or the object of a sentence. In some relative clauses the
information is necessary and in others it is extra.
Relative clauses with necessary information
This type of relative clause gives us information that we The woman who is paying for her bread now is my mom
need to understand who or what the speaker is talking
The building that looks like a castle is actually a store.
about. We do not use commas. This type of clause is
The park where we had our picnic is now a shopping cent
called a defining relative clause.
The man whose uncle is a friend of mine got a job here.
This center was opened in the year when I left school.
Relative clauses with extra information
This type of relative clause gives us extra information.
We use commas to separate it from the rest of the
sentence. This type of clause is called a non-defining
relative clause.
51
Mrs. Brown, who lives next door, owns a corner store.

Tesco, which is a supermarket chain, has three stores.
She opened a store in Rio, where she met her husband.
Laura Jenkins, whose store is popular, is thinking of retiri
This center opened in 1995, when I was 21.

96. Future Continuous
We use this
This time next week, we will be enjoying a meal at the
for an action that will be in progress at a specific
new Indian restaurant in town.
time in the future.
Hell be taking a friend to dinner on Saturday.
for a plan for the future.
to find out about somebodys plans when we want to Will you be going shopping tomorrow because I need
some bread and milk?
ask them a favor.
Remember: We dont use the Future Continuous with stative verbs.
97. Future Perfect
We use this to talk about something that will have
happened before a certain time in the future.
They will have finished all their tests by the end of the we
He wont have returned from the library by noon.
Will she have given them their grades by half past one?
98. Future Perfect Continuous

We use this to talk about how long something will have
By 2015, I will have been living here for 25 years.
been in progress at a certain time in the future.
By 7:00, I will have been writing reports for hours!
Remember: We dont use the Future Perfect Continuous with stative verbs.
99. Gerund
Here are some common verbs that are followed by a
gerund (-ing) form:
admit
finish
like
miss
avoid
imagine
love
practice
enjoy
keep
mind
risk
Here are some expressions that are followed by a
gerund:
Its not worth
cant help
Its no use
cant stand
Theres no point
Note: that we often use the gerund after prepositions.
100. Infinitive
Here are some common verbs that are followed by an
infinitive (to + base form).
afford
decide
manage
refuse
agree
fail
offer
seem
allow
hope
plan
threaten
attempt
learn
promise
want
52
When did you finish writing the report?

I dont mind waiting for you to finish the experiment.
Can you imagine being a famous inventor?
Its no use inviting Tia; shes working late.

I cant stand reading computer magazines.
Theres no point buying a new computer now.
I am interested in taking a computer course.
How about going to the science museum?
Do you want to buy a chemistry set for John?

I couldnt afford to get a printer for my computer.
They hope to discover a new medicine this year.
He failed to find a cure for the common cold.
Note: that some common verbs can be followed by

either a gerund or an infinitive without a change in
meaning. For example: begin, continue, and start.
101. Modals Possibility and Certainty
Could and might are used to talk about possibility.
When we talk about the present or future, could and
might are followed by the base form of a verb.
When we talk about the past, could and might are
followed by have and a past participle.
Must and cant are used to talk about certainty.
Must means that we are sure something is, was or will
be true. Cant means we are sure something isnt,
wasnt or wont be true.
When we talk about the present or the future, we use
must and cant with the base form of a verb.
When we talk about the past, we use must and cant
with have and a past participle.
She began cooking.

She began to cook.
He could go to prison for a very long time.

She might meet her lawyer this afternoon.
They could have seen the bank robbery on the way
home last night.
She must be upset because her car was stolen.
He cant be guilty because he was away at the time of
the robbery.
He must be a police officer because hes wearing a
uniform.
It cant have been a man who broke into the house
because the window was too small.
102. Wishes and Certainty

We use wish to talk about a situation or an action we are I wish I didnt argue all the time with my parents.
sorry about.
Wish is followed by a past form when we talk about She wishes she could get a job as a counselor.
I wish I were a famous artist.
the present or the future. When we use be, we
I wish you had come to Davids house last night.
usually use were for all subjects.
I wish I hadnt forgotten my brothers birthday.
Wish is followed by a past perfect form when we
I wish you would wash your hands before you eat.
talk about the past.
I wish he wouldnt speak with his mouth full.
Wish is followed by would and a base verb form
when we talk about other peoples annoying habits
or to say that we would like something to be
different in the future. We use it for actions, not
states.
Remember: We cannot use would when we talk about our own behavior.
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103. Modals - Advice

should, ought to and had better are used to give advice.
They are followed by a base form of a verb.
The negative forms are should not (shouldnt), ought
not to and had better not.
We use should + have + past participle when we
criticize our own behavior or somebody elses.
We use it to say that something was the right thing to
do, but wasnt done.
The negative form is shouldnt + have + past
participle. We use it when we want to say that
something happened although it wasnt a good idea.
104. The Causative Form
We use the causative form when we want to say that
we have arranged for somebody to do something for us.
We use have + object + past participle.
We can also use get + object + past participle.
He should read the newspaper more often.

We ought to watch that new TV drama.
They had better get these microphones repaired soon.
She shouldnt spend so much money on clothes.
You ought not to let them watch so much TV.
Hed better not miss my first radio show tonight.
You should have arrived at the studio half an hour ago.
Youre late!
He shouldnt have used had language on TV.
The movie star had his picture taken for a magazine.

Shes going to have her hair cut before the party.
He is getting the costumes made by a designer.
ADVANCE GRAMMAR REFERENCE

105. Simple Present
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Large cities are very busy places.

Fish live in water.
My parents plant new flowers in our garden every
spring.

This tense is used with the stative verbs below, which

normally appear in simple forms.
emotion: adore, dislike, fear, forgive, hate, like,
love, need, want, and wish.
Measurement: cost, equal, measure, and weigh.
mental activity: appear, believe, depend, doubt,

expect, forget, guess, hope, imagine, know, mean,
mind, prefer, realize, remember, seem, suppose,
think, and understand.
possession: belong to, have, owe, own, and possess.
senses: feel, hear, notice, recognize, see, smell,
sound, and taste.

actions that are in progress at the time of speaking.
actions that are in progress around the time of
speaking.
This tense can also be used with words like always,
forever and continuously to complain about habitual
behavior.
I absolutely adore your apartment.

How much does a two-bedroom apartment in
New York cost?
He doesnt understand why she moved to a new house.
That house belongs to my grandfather.

Do you hear the dog barking?
At the moment, I am cleaning my room.

Johns uncle is building a house near the sea.
Martins neighbors are always making too much noise.
107. Stative Verbs

Some stative verbs can be used in continuous forms, but there is always a change in meaning. Instead of describing
a state, they describe an activity.
State
Activity
Your house appears to need a coat of paint.
The famous architect is now appearing at the town hall.
Most houses have solid foundations.
Angela is having problems with her landlord.
I see that you got a new fence.
We are seeing a plumber about the central heating
problems.
When we cook food on our barbeque, it always tastes
Im tasting the cheese because it smells funny.
fantastic.
We think your designs are very good.
We are thinking of moving from this area.
108. Present Perfect
completed actions and states when the time is not
important. There is always a connection with the present.
actions and states that started in the past and still continue.
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Helen has used those builders and she says theyre

good.
He has lived here most of his life.
giving new information or announcing a recent event.

saying how many times an action has happened.
This tense is used with words like already, just, and yet and
with phrases such as Its the first/second/last time , this
morning/evening (when the period of time hasnt finished),
etc.
This tense can be used with for and since.
for + a period of time
since + a point in time
My sister has just bought a new bungalow.

I have never seen such a beautiful house.
We have just called the estate agent.
Its the first time I have lived in an apartment.
They have lived here for three years.

He has made a lot of friends since he moved here.
Remember: Dont use this tense with words and phrases that refer to specific past time
such as yesterday, in 1972, last year, etc.
actions that began in the past and have recently
stopped. There is a connection with now.
emphasizing how long an action has been in
progress.
This tense can also be used with for and since.
John has been gardening and he now needs a shower.

We have been painting the house for almost two
weeks.
He has been living in London for three years.
She has been decorating her house since Christmas.
Talking about the past

1. Simple Past
a state or completed action in the past when the time Andrew started his job four months ago.
is important.
110. Past Continuous
She turned on the computer and inserted a disk.
a series of completed actions in the past.
He walked into the office and closed the door.
the main events in a story.
Sheila was working on a project when her boss asked
actions that were in progress at a certain time in the
The telephone rang while we were having a meeting.
an action that interrupted another action that was in
her to come into his office.
past.
progress in the past.
Anna was typing the reviews while Sally was entering
two or more actions that were in progress at the
information into the computer.
She was driving home from work when the police
an action that was in progress in the past and was
stopped her for speeding.
The firemen were putting out the fire while the police
describing things in the past.
were asking people what had happened.
111. Past Perfect
We use this tense for an action or state that existed
before another event, state, or time in the past.
This tense is used with words like already, just and yet
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The doctor saw the patient after he had looked at the Xray.
I had just closed the office door when the telephone
and with phrases such as It was the first/second/last

time .
This tense can be used with for and since.
112. Past Perfect Continuous

an action that was in progress before another action
in the past.
an action that had just finished at a certain time in
the past but was still relevant at that time.
113. would, used to

We use used to + bare infinitive to talk about
an action that happened regularly in the past but no
longer happens.
past states.
Used to can be replaced by would to talk about actions
that happened regularly in the past. It cannot be replaced
by would when it talks about past states.
114. be/get used to
Be used to + noun/gerund talks about habits and states
that are not strange or new to us.
Get used to + noun/gerund talks about the process of
something becoming familiar to us.
rang.
It was the first time Tony had been for an interview.
They had worked together for three years when they
decided to start a company together.
Chris had wanted to become a policeman since he was
at school.
Naomi had been waiting for half an hour when the

office manager finally had time to see her.
They had been interviewing people for ages and still
couldnt find the right person.
Secretaries used to use typewriters to write letters but

now they have computers.
She used to have an office of her own.
Women didnt use to work as often as they do now.
He would always have a coffee and look at the paper
before he started work.
Martin is used to working overtime at the hospital.

She soon got used to taking responsibility for the other
members of staff.
Talking about the Future

115. Future with will
making predictions, promises, and threats.
offering to do something for someone.
asking someone to do something.
It is often used with the verbs think, believe, etc. and
phrases like I am sure to make guesses or give our
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Ill make you the most beautiful dress you have ever
seen.
I will help you decide which belt to buy.
Will you pass me that checked scarf, please?
I will take the red dress, please.
I think long dresses will be in fashion again next year.
opinion about what will happen in the future.

116. Future Continuous
We use this tense to
talk about an action that will be in progress at a
specific time in the future.
talk about an arrangement for the future.
find out about somebodys plans when we want to
ask them a favor.
Mary will be watching the fashion show then, so she

cant come to lunch.
I will be shopping for my wedding dress on Saturday.
Will you be wearing your leather jacket tomorrow?
If not, can I borrow it?
117. Future Perfect Simple

We use this tense to talk about something that will have
happened before a certain time in the future.
The fashion show will have ended by the time we get

there.
118. Future Perfect Continuous

We use this tense to talk about how long something will
have been in progress at a certain time in the future.
This time next year, James will have been working for
that fashion house for ten years.
119. Simple Present with a future meaning

We use this tense for schedules and programmed events.
The fashion show starts at 3 oclock in the afternoon.
120. Present Continuous with a future meaning

We use this tense for plans and arrangements for the
future. There must be a word or phrase in the sentence
that talks about future time unless this can be
understood from the context.
121. be going to
We use be going to + bare infinitive for
plans and arrangements for the future.
making a prediction for the future based on a present
situation.
122. Future clauses with when
Future tenses cannot be used in a future clause with
when. We use a present tense.
Note: That we use the Present Perfect when we need to
emphasize that one action must be completed before the
next one starts.
The same is true of future clauses with as soon as, after,
before, until, while, by the time, and no matter
what/who/where/etc.
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We are attending a fashion show tomorrow evening.
Sandra is going to meet me at the boutique.

She is going to become a very successful designer one
day.
When you see Ruth, will you tell her to call the shop?
Ill look for a new bag when Im shopping over the
weekend.
I will give you back the pencil when I have finished
with it.
As soon as you see her new haircut, tell her it looks
nice.
No matter where we go, Ill wear my new suit.
Review of Tenses I
123. Modals Ability, Obligation and Necessity
We use can to talk about ability in the present or
future. It is followed by a bare infinitive.
The negative form of can is cannot (cant).
We use could to talk about a general ability in the
past. It is followed by a bare infinitive.
The negative form of could is could not (couldnt).
Other forms of can are formed using the verb be

able to.
We use must and have to to talk about obligation
and necessity. They are followed by a bare
infinitive.
The negative forms of must and have to are must
not (mustnt) and do not (dont) have to. Mustnt
means that you are not allowed to do something, but
dont have to means you can choose whether you
do something or not.
The negative form of had to is didnt have to.
We use need to to talk about something that is
necessary. It is followed by a bare infinitive.
The negative form is dont need to. We can also use
neednt.
The past form is needed to.
We use didnt need to when somebody knew that it
was not necessary to do something.
We use neednt have + past participle when
somebody did something unnecessary in the past,
but they didnt know it was unnecessary at the time.
Young people can have a great time on adventure

vacations.
The travel agent cant change your flight dates.
I used to have lots of free time, so I could go away for
short breaks.
A hundred years ago, people couldnt go on allinclusive vacations.
Ill be able to meet you in London next Saturday.
Sorry, but I wasnt able to book the flight to Paris.
You must be careful when you cross the road.
You have to take your passport when you travel abroad.
You mustnt park near the crossroads.
You dont have to take a taxi. Take the bus instead.
We had to turn right as the road was blocked.

You didnt have to stay in the most expensive hotel in
the city.
You need to buy some film to take pictures of the
village.
The guide says that we dont need to take umbrellas
with us.
We needed to wait for the local ferry to take us across
the river.
He didnt need to be home early so he drove along the
coast road.
You didnt need to take so many photographs as there
are some beautiful postcards available at the gift shop.
124. Passive
The passive is made with the verb be and a past participle.
We change an active sentence into a passive sentence in the following way. The object of the active verb becomes the
59
subject of the passive verb. The verb be is used in the correct form together with the past participle of the active verb.
E.g. Their most expensive player scored the goal.
The goal was scored by their most expensive player.
The table below shows how active verb forms change to passive verb forms.
Tense
Active Form
Passive Form
Simple Present
give/gives
am/are/is given
Present Continuous
am/are/is giving
am/are/is being given
Simple Past
gave
was/were given
Past Continuous
was/were giving
was/were being given
Present Perfect
have/has given
have/has been given
Past Perfect
had given
had been given
Future
will give
will be given
Future Perfect
will have given
will have been given
Modals
should give
should be given
Modals (past)
should have given
should have been given
Infinitive
to give
to be given
Gerund
giving
being given
be going to
am/are/is going to give
am/are/is going to be given
The Present Perfect Continuous, Past Perfect Continuous, Future Continuous, and Future Perfect Continuous tenses
are not usually used in the passive form.
Sometimes we want to know who or what was responsible for the action (the agent). In a passive sentence the word by
comes before this information.
E.g. The team is managed by Sir Alex Ferguson.
We use the word with when we want to say what the agent used to do something.
E.g. The swimming pool was cleaned with special chemicals.
We make comparatives and superlatives in the following ways:
short
shorter
shortest
We add er/-est to adjectives/adverbs with one or
clever
cleverer
cleverest
two syllables.
big
bigger
biggest
The last consonant is double for one syllable
adjectives/adverbs with consonant-vowelconsonant.
crazy
crazier
craziest
For one or two syllable adjectives/adverbs that end in
y, the y changes to i and then we add er/-est.
comfortably
more/less
most/least
comfortably
comfortably
adjectives/adverbs of more than two syllables.
Some adjectives/adverbs are irregular and the comparative and superlative forms shown in the table below must be learned.
Adjective/adverb
Comparative
Superlative
a lot of
more
most
bad/badly
worse
worst
far
farther/further
farthest/furthest
few
fewer
fewest
good/well
better
best
ill
worse
worst
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little
many
much
old
less/smaller
more
more
older/elder
We use than with the comparative when two

people, groups, places, or things are compared.
Slightly, a bit, much and a lot can be used with
the comparative form to give us more information.
least/smallest
most
most
oldest/eldest
A Ferrari is faster than a Renault Clio.
It is slightly more expensive to travel by train than by bus.
It was a bit cheaper to go from Athens to Crete by ferry than by pla
It is much more comfortable to travel first class on the plane.
There are a lot more cars in Los Angeles than in Dallas.
126. Other Comparative Structures

(not) as + adjective/adverb + as
the + comparative, the + comparative

comparative + and + comparative
prefer + gerund / noun + to + gerund / noun
would rather + bare infinitive + than + bare infinitive
The new departure lounge at the airport is not as comfortab

as the old one.
The faster he drives, the sooner he will get home.
Cars are getting faster and faster.
Some people prefer taking the metro to driving to the city.
She prefers her Ford to her husbands Porsche.
Many passengers on the bus would rather stand than sit.
Passive II
127. Impersonal and Personal Structures
Believe, consider, expect, hope, know, report, say, think, etc. can be used in the following passive structures:
Impersonal Structure
It is believed that the problem of litter is getting worse.
It + passive verb + that + clause
Personal Structure
subject + passive verb + full infinitive
The problem of litter is believed to be getting worse.
128. Verbs with two objects

Some active verbs have two objects.
We usually use the personal object as the subject in a
passive sentence.
Note: the use of the word to when the impersonal object
becomes the subject of the passive sentence.
The villagers sent the minister letters of protest.

The minister was sent letters of protest by the villagers.
Letters of protest were sent to the minister by the
villagers.
Questions
129. Question Tags
Questions tags are short questions at the end of a positive or negative sentence. They are formed with modal and
auxiliary verbs.
We use questions tags
You exercise every day, dont you?
Those pills give pain relief, dont they?
when we want someone to agree with what we are
He cant pay by check, can he?
saying.
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to make sure that what we are saying is right.

Note: the way the following tags are formed.
I am , arent I ?
Lets , shall we?
Imperative , will you? / wont you?
This/That is , isnt it?
These/Those are , arent they?
130. Subject/Object questions
When who, what, or which is the object of a question,
the word order changes.
When who, what, or which is the subject of a question,
the word order does not change.
She used to work in that hospital didnt she?

Im in good shape, arent I?
Lets go jogging, shall we?
Call the doctor, will you/wont you?
This is the medicine the doctor recommended, isnt it?
Those are bad habits that made him sick, arent they?
Who did she see about her sore tooth?

What did the doctor tell him?
What made her do that?
Who called the ambulance?
131. Indirect questions

An indirect question is a question introduced by one of the following phrases:
Could you let me know ?
Can you tell me ?
Do you know ?
Have you any idea ?
I would like to know
I wonder if you know
I would like to ask you
I dont suppose you know
Note: that the word order of a direct question changes when it becomes an indirect question.
Direc
Indirect
t
Where is the hospital?
Can you tell me where the hospital is?
When should she take the medicine?
Id like to know when she should take the medicine.
Why did the nurse speak so rudely?
Have you any idea why the nurse spoke so rudely?
132. Negative questions
We make negative questions with not.
We use negative questions
to express surprise.
to show we are annoyed.
when we expect the answer to be yes.
Didnt you take the doctors advice?

Didnt the dentist take the tooth out in the end?
Didnt I tell you to call me if she needed any assistance?
Didnt we see the surgeon last year?
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Reported Speech
133. Statements
When the reporting verb is in a past tense, the tenses used by the speaker change as follows:
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
Simple Present
Simple Past
I work at the local library, she said.
She said (that) she worked at the local library.
Present Continuous
Past Continuous
We are meeting the social worker soon, Mark said.
Mark said they were meeting the social worker soon.
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
He has wanted that job for ages, she said.
She said he had wanted that job for ages.
I have been waiting for the repair man, he said.
He said he had been waiting for the repair man.
Simple Past
Past Perfect
I renewed my library card, she said.
She said she had renewed her library card.
Past Continuous
she was waiting for two hours to see the mayor, he
She said she had been waiting for two hours to see the mayor.
said.
Other changes are as follows:
can: I can help you, she said
could: She said she could help me.
may: I may be able to visit her, he said.
might: He said that he might be able to visit her.
must: You must see the dentist about your tooth, he said.
had to: He said I had to see the dentist about my tooth.
will: I will help you raise the money for charity, he said.
would: He said he would help me raise the money for char
dont: Dont expect the police to help you, she said.
not to: She told me not to expect the police to help me.
If we report something and we know that it is still true, we
I have a lovely niece, he said.
do not need to change the verb tenses.
He said he has a lovely niece.
The police are there to help, they said.
They said the police are there to help.
When direct speech talks about a law of science and nature,
The earth goes around the sun, said the library assistant.
the tenses do not change when it is reported.
The library assistant said the earth goes around the sun.
Sometimes there are time and place changes in reported speech. Changes are as follows:
Direct Speech
Reported Speech
today:
that day:
I will be available to see you today, he said.
He said he would be available to see me that day.
yesterday:
the day before:
She gave some money to charity yesterday, he said.
He said she had given some money to charity the day
before.
last week/month/year,etc.:
the week/month/year before etc.:
We met the counselor last week, they said.
They said they had met the counselor the week before.
tomorrow:
the following day:
We can go to the town hall tomorrow, they said.
They said they could go to the town hall the following
day.
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next week/month/year, etc.:

You can expect the letter from the organization next
week, he said.
this/these:
These are my library books, he said.
ago:
We went to the health center two weeks ago, they
said.
now:
We need the money now, he said.
here:
I will be here tomorrow, he said.
at the moment:
I am too busy to see you at the moment, said the
manager.
the following week/month/year, etc.:

He said I could expect the letter from the organization
the following week.
that/those:
He said those were his library books.
before:
They said they had gone to the health center two weeks
before.
then:
He said they needed the money then.
there:
He said he would be there the next day.
at that moment:
The manager said she was too busy to see me at that
moment.
134. Questions
The changes in tenses are the same as the ones we make in reported statements.
When a direct question has a question word like who,
Where is the police station? I asked.
what, how, etc., this word is used in the reported
I asked where the police station was.
question.
When a direct question doesnt have a question word
Do you do any volunteer work? he asked.
like who, what, how, etc., if/whether is used in the
He asked me if/whether I did any volunteer work.
reported question.
Remember: In reported questions, the verb follows the subject, as in ordinary statements.
We do not use question marks.
135. Other reporting verbs
Sometimes we use other verbs to report speech.
agree/refuse/decide/offer + full infinitive
apologize + for + gerund

accuse + object + of + gerund
blame + object + for + gerund
congratulate + subject + on + gerund
64
Yes, I can see you tomorrow, she said.

She agreed to see me the next day.
I will not allow you to volunteer for that job, he said.
He refused to allow me to volunteer for that job.
I am sorry for making such a mistake, he said.
He apologized for making such a mistake.
You broke the window on purpose, they said.
They accused me of breaking the window on purpose.
It was Andrew who started the fire, said David.
David blamed Andrew for starting the fire.
You did a wonderful job, she said to the policeman.
She congratulated the policeman on doing a wonderful
job.
suggest (that) + subject + (should) + the bare infinitive
suggest (that) + subject + verb in Past Simple

Note: that suggest can be followed by a gerund when
the speaker is involved in the action.
Lets collect some money for the poor people in Africa,

they said.
They suggested (that) they (should) collect some
money for the poor people in Africa.
Why dont we visit the old peoples home, he said.
He suggested (that) they visited the old peoples home.
Lets buy charity Christmas cards, said John.
John suggested buying charity Christmas cards.
136. Relative Clauses I

Relative clauses give more information about the subject or the object of a sentence.
Relative clauses are introduced by the following words
(relative pronouns):
Who for people
There are people who have survived natural disasters.
Which for things
The flood which happened last month was the worst in a

decade.
Whose for belongings
Those are the boys whose money was sent to the flood
victims.
When for time
There comes a time when we need to offer our support to

those in need.
Where for places
The building where they keep the fire engines is

spotlessly clean.
137. Relative Clauses II

In some relative clauses, the information is necessary and in others it is extra.
Defining relative clauses
This type of relative clause gives us information that we The man who told us about the hotel was very helpful.
need to be able to understand who or what the speaker is
talking about. We do not use commas to separate it from There are many vacations available that arent too
the rest of the sentence.
expensive.
The woman whose sister is my best friend has been
working in Africa for two years.
I remember a time when vacations abroad were not
common.
Non-defining relative clauses
This type of relative clause gives us extra information.
We use commas to separate it from the rest of the
sentence.
My father, who travels a lot on business, has visited

many countries.
While we were in Santorini we saw the black sand,
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which is a result of a volcanic eruption thousands of

years ago.
The offices of Go Tours, whose vacations are really
good, are next to the town hall.
In 1972, when I first went to France, my brother was
born.
She went to the Caribbean, where she enjoyed the
natural beauty all around her.
138. Conditionals I
Conditional sentences talk about the results of real or imagined actions or states.
Zero Conditional
The zero conditional talks about habitual facts in the
present or the future. When can be used instead of if.
If/When + present tense, present tense
If Angela goes jogging, she takes a bottle of water with

her.
When she has a problem with her weight, she tries to do
more exercise.
First Conditional
The first conditional talks about things that will
probably happen now or in the future.
If + present tense, will/can/may + bare infinitive
Note: that unless can be used in this conditional.
Unless means the same as if not.
Second Conditional
We use the second conditional to talk about things
that probably wont happen now or in the future.
we know will not happen.
If Anna continues to eat lots of chocolate, she will put

on weight.
If John gets himself fit, he can play for us next week.
You may hurt yourself if you try to lift those weights.
Well go swimming unless it rains.
If you ate less, you might be thinner.

If you wanted, you could take up tennis.
If I were asked to play for Manchester United, it would
be a dream come true.
If + past tense, would/could/might + bare infinitive

Third Conditional
We use the third conditional to talk about the past.
It always talks about hypothetical things because we
cannot change the past.
If + past perfect, would/could/might + have + past

66
If they had scored that penalty, they would have won

the cup last year.
My grandfather could have been an athlete if hed
trained harder.
Graff might have been the best tennis player in the
world, if she had not had so many injuries.
participle
139. Conditional II
We can use provided (that) and as long as in the first
conditional instead of if.
Provided (that) the referee arrives on time, the game

will start at seven.
I will let you borrow my exercise bike as long as you
promise to be careful with it.
We can use even if in the first, second, and third

conditional to mean it doesnt matter if.
I wont play with her again even if she changes her style.
Even if he changed tactics, the team would never win.
They wouldnt have beaten Real Madrid even if they had
had Beckham and Giggs.
We use in case to explain why somebody does

something. In case can be used to talk about the present,
the future, or the past. It is not followed by a future
tense.
in case + present tense (present/future time)
in case + past tense (past time)
Take your jacket when you go jogging in case it starts

raining later.
She advised her son to wear two pairs of socks in case
the weather changed.
140. Articles
A / An is used
with singular countable nouns.
to mean per/each, in expressions of frequency.
to mention something for the first time.
(When we continue talking about it we use the.)
to show job, status, etc.
The is used with singular and plural, countable and
uncountable nouns, to talk about something specific
when the noun is mentioned for a second time.
I would like a can of lemonade, please.

We buy meat once a week, usually on Saturday.
I had a sandwich for lunch. (The sandwich had chicken
and tomato in it.)
She works as a dietician in a health club in the city.
I made a cake and some cookies yesterday.
The cake had been eaten by lunchtime!
It is also used before

unique nouns
names of cinemas, theaters, ships, hotels, etc.
The sun was shining for our picnic.

The Titanic had the finest restaurants ever built on a ship.
The Amazon is the largest river in the world, although it
names of rivers, deserts, mountain ranges, and

67
names or nouns with of

musical instruments
nationalities
adjectives used as nouns
superlatives
beach, countryside, station, jungle, etc.
morning, afternoon, evening, and night
is not the longest.

Would you play the piano for us after dinner, Sidney?
The Italians are famous for their pizza.
It is very important that the young eat a balanced diet
while they are growing.
That is the finest wine we have ever drank.
Shall we take some sandwiches with us when we go to
the beach later?
In the morning, Nancy likes to have some milk and toast
for breakfast.
The is not used before

proper nouns
names of sports, games, colors, days, months,
drinks, holidays, meals, and languages (not followed
by the word language)
subjects of study
names of countries (the Argentine, the USA), cities,
streets (the M5, the High Street), squares, bridges
(the Golden Gate Bridge), parks, stations, individual
mountains, islands, lakes, continents
bed, church, school, hospital, prison, university,
college, court when we talk about the reason they
exist. (Work never takes the)
means of transportation in expressions like by car,
etc. (in the car)
68
Christopher prefers eggs for breakfast.

Lunch will be served at one oclock, so dont be late.
A friend of mine is studying food science at college.

You will find a magnificent bistro halfway along George
Street.
Shes taking a catering course at college and wants to

open her own restaurant one day.
When we went out for a meal last Saturday, we went by
taxi to the restaurant.

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BASIC GRAMMAR REFERENCE

to describe people, animals and things.

We often use the short form when we talk, but we

We use be with personal pronouns (I, you, he, she, it,

Janet Jones is a teacher.

3. The Indefinite Article

To talk about one person, animal or thing in

We use a before words that begin with a consonant

Sometimes there is an adjective before a noun. We

Shes a nice aunt.

an when the adjective starts with a vowel.

4. The Definite Article

The men with glasses are brothers.

before unique nouns.

The moon is big.

before musical instruments.

Where is the guitar?

before the names of mountain ranges, oceans,

The Mississippi River is very long.

with some countries.

before morning, afternoon and evening.

The USA is a big country.

We do not use the

Dogs are nice animals.

before the names of cities, islands, most countries,

before a persons name.

before subjects of study.

Math is a great subject.

before nationalities and languages.

before games and sports.

Football is a great sport.

before days and months.

Grandma is at home on Wednesdays.

Breakfast is a very important meal.

-es to nouns that end in s, -ss, -sh, -ch, and x

For nouns that end in a consonant and y, we take off

The bikes are behind the house.

What is in the neighborhood?

9. there is/there are

There is a park near the school.

There are some great cafes in the town.

11. have got

To describe people, animals or things

To talk about a health problem.

I have a comfortable sofa.

We can use question words with have.

Who has a big house?

The brown shirt is Toms.

someone has a particular relationship with someone

The man is Sarahs brother.

We use s after names or singular nouns.

Its Susans handbag.

We use s after plural nouns, but we use s when the

My two cousinss friends are nice.

13. Possessive adjectives

someone or something has a relationship with

Your socks are on the table.

The red jacket is hers.

Hes my child. Hes mine.

Someone or something has a particular relationship

Note: Be careful not to confuse theres (there is) with theirs.

This belt is his.

We use that (singular) and those (plural) to show that