Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs motivational model

1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.
2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc.
3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships, etc.
4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige,
managerial responsibility, etc.
5. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak
experiences.

"I suppose it is tempting, if the only tool you have is a hammer, to treat everything as if it were a
nail.."('Maslow's Hammer' - Abraham Maslow, 1966)

Each of us is motivated by needs. Our most basic needs are inborn, having evolved over tens of thousands
of years. Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs helps to explain how these needs motivate us all.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs states that we must satisfy each need in turn, starting with the first, which
deals with the most obvious needs for survival itself.
Only when the lower order needs of physical and emotional well-being are satisfied are we concerned with
the higher order needs of influence and personal development.
Conversely, if the things that satisfy our lower order needs are swept away, we are no longer concerned
about the maintenance of our higher order needs.

Maslow's original Hierarchy of Needs model was developed between1943-1954, and first widely published
in Motivation and Personality in 1954. At this time the Hierarchy of Needs model comprised five needs.
This original version remains for most people the definitive Hierarchy of Needs.
Maslows self-actualizing characteristics
keen sense of reality - aware of real situations - objective judgment, rather than subjective
see problems in terms of challenges and situations requiring solutions, rather than see problems as
personal complaints or excuses
need for privacy and comfortable being alone
reliant on own experiences and judgment - independent - not reliant on culture and environment to
form opinions and views
not susceptible to social pressures - non-conformist
democratic, fair and non-discriminating - embracing and enjoying all cultures, races and individual
styles
socially compassionate - possessing humanity
accepting others as they are and not trying to change people
comfortable with oneself - despite any unconventional tendencies
a few close intimate friends rather than many surface relationships
sense of humor directed at oneself or the human condition, rather than at the expense of others
spontaneous and natural - true to oneself, rather than being how others want
excited and interested in everything, even ordinary things
creative, inventive and original
seek peak experiences that leave a lasting impression

Benjamin Bloom's Taxonomy of Learning Domains

Taxonomy means 'a set of classification principles', or 'structure', and Domain simply means 'category'.
Bloom and his colleagues were academics, looking at learning as a behavioral science, and writing for
other academics, which is why they never called it 'Bloom's Learning Structure', which would perhaps have
made more sense to people in the business world. (Interestingly this example of the use of technical
language provides a helpful lesson in learning itself, namely, if you want to get an idea across to people,
you should try to use language that your audience will easily recognize and understand.)
Bloom's Taxonomy provides an excellent structure for planning, designing, assessing and evaluating
training and learning effectiveness. The model also serves as a sort of checklist, by which you can ensure
that training is planned to deliver all the necessary development for students, trainees or learners, and a
template by which you can assess the validity and coverage of any existing training, be it a course, a
curriculum, or an entire training and development programme for a large organization.
Bloom's Taxonomy model is in three parts, or 'overlapping domains'. Again, Bloom used rather academic
language, but the meanings are simple to understand:
1. Cognitive domain (intellectual capability, i.e., knowledge, or 'think')
2. Affective domain (feelings, emotions and behavior, i.e., attitude, or 'feel')
3. Psychomotor domain (manual and physical skills, i.e., skills, or 'do')
This has given rise to the obvious short-hand variations on the theme which summarize the three domains;
for example, Skills-Knowledge-Attitude, KAS, Do-Think-Feel, etc.
An important premise of Bloom's Taxonomy is that each category (or 'level') must be mastered before
progressing to the next. As such the categories within each domain are levels of learning development,
and these levels increase in difficulty.
The learner should benefit from development of knowledge and intellect (Cognitive Domain); attitude and
beliefs (Affective Domain); and the ability to put physical and bodily skills into effect - to act (Psychomotor
Domain).
COGNITIVE DOMAIN

category or
'level'

behavior descriptions

examples of activity to be
trained, or demonstration and
evidence to be measured

'key words' (verbs which

describe the activity to be
trained or measured at each
level)

Knowledge

recall or recognize
information

multiple-choice test, recount

facts or statistics, recall a
process, rules, definitions; quote
law or procedure

arrange, define, describe,

label, list, memorize,
recognize, relate, reproduce,
select, state

Comprehensio
n

understand meaning,
re-state data in one's
own words, interpret,
extrapolate, translate

explain or interpret meaning

from a given scenario or
statement, suggest treatment,
reaction or solution to given
problem, create examples or
metaphors

explain, reiterate, reword,

critique, classify, summarize,
illustrate, translate, review,
report, discuss, re-write,
estimate, interpret, theorize,
paraphrase, reference,
example

Application

use or apply
knowledge, put
theory into practice,
use knowledge in
response to real
circumstances

put a theory into practical

effect, demonstrate, solve a
problem, manage an activity

use, apply, discover, manage,

execute, solve, produce,
implement, construct, change,
prepare, conduct, perform,
react, respond, role-play

Analysis

interpret elements,
organizational
principles, structure,
construction, internal
relationships; quality,
reliability of
individual
components

identify constituent parts and

functions of a process or
concept, or de-construct a
methodology or process,
making qualitative assessment
of elements, relationships,
values and effects; measure
requirements or needs

analyze, break down,

catalogue, compare, quantify,
measure, test, examine,
experiment, relate, graph,
diagram, plot, extrapolate,
value, divide

Synthesis
(create/build)

develop new unique

structures, systems,
models, approaches,
ideas; creative
thinking, operations

develop plans or procedures,

design solutions, integrate
methods, resources, ideas,
parts; create teams or new
approaches, write protocols or
contingencies

develop, plan, build, create,

design, organize, revise,
formulate, propose, establish,
assemble, integrate, rearrange, modify

Evaluation

assess effectiveness
of whole concepts, in
relation to values,
outputs, efficacy,
viability; critical
thinking, strategic
comparison and
review; judgment
relating to external
criteria

review strategic options or

plans in terms of efficacy, return
on investment or costeffectiveness, practicability;
assess sustainability; perform a
SWOT analysis in relation to
alternatives; produce a financial
justification for a proposition or
venture, calculate the effects of
a plan or strategy; perform a
detailed and costed risk
analysis with recommendations
and justifications

review, justify, assess, present

a case for, defend, report on,
investigate, direct, appraise,
argue, project-manage

AFFECTIVE DOMAIN - Bloom, Krathwhol and Masia

category or
'level'

behavior
descriptions

examples of experience, or
demonstration and evidence to
be measured

'key words' (verbs which describe

the activity to be trained or
measured at each level)

Receive

open to
experience,
willing to hear

listen to teacher or trainer, take

interest in session or learning
experience, take notes, turn up,
make time for learning
experience, participate
passively

ask, listen, focus, attend, take part,

discuss, acknowledge, hear, be
open to, retain, follow, concentrate,
read, do, feel

Respond

react and
participate
actively

participate actively in group

discussion, active participation
in activity, interest in outcomes,
enthusiasm for action, question
and probe ideas, suggest

react, respond, seek clarification,

interpret, clarify, provide other
references and examples,
contribute, question, present, cite,
become animated or excited, help

interpretation

team, write, perform

Value

attach values and

express personal
opinions

decide worth and relevance of

ideas, experiences; accept or
commit to particular stance or
action

argue, challenge, debate, refute,

confront, justify, persuade, criticize,

Organize or
Conceptualiz
e values

reconcile internal
conflicts; develop
value system

qualify and quantify personal

views, state personal position
and reasons, state beliefs

build, develop, formulate, defend,

modify, relate, prioritize, reconcile,
contrast, arrange, compare

Internalize or
characterize
values

adopt belief
system and
philosophy

self-reliant; behave consistently

with personal value set

act, display, influence, solve,

practice,

PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN (dave)

category or
'level'

behavior
descriptions

examples of activity or
demonstration and evidence to
be measured

'key words' (verbs which describe

the activity to be trained or
measured at each level)

Imitation

copy action of
another; observe
and replicate

watch teacher or trainer and

repeat action, process or
activity

copy, follow, replicate, repeat,

adhere

Manipulation

reproduce activity
from instruction
or memory

carry out task from written or

verbal instruction

re-create, build, perform, execute,

implement

Precision

execute skill
reliably,
independent of
help

perform a task or activity with

expertise and to high quality
without assistance or
instruction; able to demonstrate
an activity to other learners

demonstrate, complete, show,

perfect, calibrate, control,

Articulation

adapt and
integrate
expertise to
satisfy a nonstandard
objective

relate and combine associated

activities to develop methods to
meet varying, novel
requirements

construct, solve, combine,

coordinate, integrate, adapt,
develop, formulate, modify, master

Naturalization

automated,
unconscious
mastery of
activity and
related skills at
strategic level

define aim, approach and

strategy for use of activities to
meet strategic need

design, specify, manage, invent,

project-manage

Freudian psychosexual stages - overview

1. Oral Stage - Feeding, crying, teething, biting, thumb-sucking, weaning the mouth and the breast are the centre of all experience. The infant's
actual experiences and attachments to mum (or maternal equivalent)

Erikson's
psychosocial
crisis stages
1. Trust vs
Mistrust

age guide

0-1 yrs,
baby, birth
to walking

through this stage have a fundamental effect on the unconscious mind and
thereby on deeply rooted feelings, which along with the next two stages
affect all sorts of behaviours and (sexually powered) drives and aims Freud's 'libido' - and preferences in later life.
2. Anal Stage - It's a lot to do with pooh - 'holding on' or 'letting go' - the
pleasure and control. Is it dirty? Is it okay? Bodily expulsions are the centre
of the world, and the pivot around which early character is formed. Am I
pleasing my mum and dad? Are they making me feel good or bad about my
bottom? Am I okay or naughty? Again the young child's actual experiences
through this stage have a deep effect on the unconscious and behaviours
and preferences in later life.

2. Autonomy
vs Shame
and Doubt

1-3 yrs,
toddler,
toilet
training

3. Phallic Stage - Phallic is not restricted to boys. This stage is focused on

resolving reproductive issues. This is a sort of dry run before the real game
starts in adolescence. Where do babies come from? Can I have a baby? Why
has dad got a willy and I've not? Why have I got a willy and mum hasn't?
Why do they tell me off for touching my bits and pieces down there? (Boys)
I'm going to marry mum (and maybe kill dad). (Girls) I'm in love with my
dad. Oedipus Complex, Electra Complex, Penis envy, Castration Anxiety,
etc. "If you touch yourself down there it'll fall off/heal up.." Inevitably once
more, experiences in this stage have a profound effect on feelings and
behaviour and libido in later life. If you want to know more about all this I
recommend you read about Freud, not Erikson, and I repeat that
understanding Freud's psychosexual theory is not required for
understanding and using Erikson's concepts.

3. Initiative
vs Guilt

3-6 yrs, preschool,

nursery

4. Latency Stage - Sexual dormancy or repression. The focus is on learning,

skills, schoolwork. This is actually not a psychosexual stage because
basically normally nothing formative happens sexually. Experiences, fears
and conditioning from the previous stages have already shaped many of the
child's feelings and attitudes and these will re-surface in the next stage.

4. Industry vs
Inferiority

5-12 yrs,
early school

5. Genital stage - Puberty in other words. Glandular, hormonal, and physical

changes in the adolescent child's body cause a resurgence of sexual
thoughts, feelings and behaviours. Boys start treating their mothers like
woman-servants and challenge their fathers (Freud's 'Oedipus'). Girls flirt
with their fathers and argue with their mums (Freud/Jung's 'Electra'). All
become highly agitated if away from a mirror for more than half an hour
(Freud's Narcissus or Narcissism). Dating and fondling quickly push
schoolwork and sports (and anything else encouraged by parents and
figures of authority) into second place. Basically everyone is in turmoil and
it's mostly to do with growing up, which entails more sexual undercurrents
than parents would ever believe, even though these same parents went
through exactly the same struggles themselves just a few years before. It's
a wonder anyone ever makes it to adulthood, but of course they do, and
mostly it's all perfectly normal.

5. Identity vs
Role
Confusion

11-18 yrs,
puberty,
teens
earlier for
girls

This is the final Freudian psychosexual stage. Erikson's model, which from
the start offers a different and more socially oriented perspective, continues
through to old age, and re-interprets Freudian sexual theory into the adult
life stages equating to Erikson's crisis stages. This incorporation of Freudian
sexual stages into the adult crisis stages is not especially significant.
Arguably no direct equivalent Freudian stage, although as from Identity and
the Life Cycle (1969) Erikson clearly separated Puberty and Genitality
(Freud's Genital stage) , and related each respectively to Identity v Role
Confusion, and Intimacy v Isolation.

6. Intimacy
vs Isolation

18-40,
courting,
early
parenthood

No direct equivalent Freudian stage, although Erikson later interpreted this

as being a psychosexual stage of 'Procreativity'.

7.
Generativity
vs Stagnation

30-65,
middle age,
parenting

Again no direct equivalent Freudian stage. Erikson later called this the
psychosexual stage of 'Generalization of Sensual Modes'.

8. Integrity
vs Despair

50+, old
age,
grandparent
s

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES HOWARD GARDNER

1. Naturalist Intelligence (Nature Smart)
Designates the human ability to discriminate among living things (plants, animals) as well as sensitivity to
other features of the natural world (clouds, rock configurations). This ability was clearly of value in our
evolutionary past as hunters, gatherers, and farmers; it continues to be central in such roles as botanist or
chef. It is also speculated that much of our consumer society exploits the naturalist intelligences, which
can be mobilized in the discrimination among cars, sneakers, kinds of makeup, and the like.
2. Musical Intelligence (Musical Smart)
Musical intelligence is the capacity to discern pitch, rhythm, timbre, and tone. This intelligence enables us
to recognize, create, reproduce, and reflect on music, as demonstrated by composers, conductors,
musicians, vocalist, and sensitive listeners. Interestingly, there is often an affective connection between
music and the emotions; and mathematical and musical intelligences may share common thinking
processes. Young adults with this kind of intelligence are usually singing or drumming to
themselves. They are usually quite aware of sounds others may miss.
3. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence (Number/Reasoning Smart)
Logical-mathematical intelligence is the ability to calculate, quantify, consider propositions and
hypotheses, and carry out complete mathematical operations. It enables us to perceive relationships and
connections and to use abstract, symbolic thought; sequential reasoning skills; and inductive and
deductive thinking patterns. Logical intelligence is usually well developed in mathematicians, scientists,
and detectives. Young adults with lots of logical intelligence are interested in patterns, categories, and
relationships. They are drawn to arithmetic problems, strategy games and experiments.
4. Existential Intelligence
Sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence, such as the meaning of life, why
do we die, and how did we get here.
5. Interpersonal Intelligence (People Smart)
Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand and interact effectively with others. It involves
effective verbal and nonverbal communication, the ability to note distinctions among others, sensitivity to
the moods and temperaments of others, and the ability to entertain multiple perspectives. Teachers,
social workers, actors, and politicians all exhibit interpersonal intelligence. Young adults with this kind of
intelligence are leaders among their peers, are good at communicating, and seem to understand others
feelings and motives.
6. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence (Body Smart)
Bodily kinesthetic intelligence is the capacity to manipulate objects and use a variety of physical
skills. This intelligence also involves a sense of timing and the perfection of skills through mindbody
union. Athletes, dancers, surgeons, and craftspeople exhibit well-developed bodily kinesthetic intelligence.
7. Linguistic Intelligence (Word Smart)
Linguistic intelligence is the ability to think in words and to use language to express and appreciate
complex meanings. Linguistic intelligence allows us to understand the order and meaning of words and to
apply meta-linguistic skills to reflect on our use of language. Linguistic intelligence is the most widely
shared human competence and is evident in poets, novelists, journalists, and effective public
speakers. Young adults with this kind of intelligence enjoy writing, reading, telling stories or doing
crossword puzzles.
8. Intra-personal Intelligence (Self Smart)
Intra-personal intelligence is the capacity to understand oneself and ones thoughts and feelings, and to
use such knowledge in planning and directioning ones life. Intra-personal intelligence involves not only an
appreciation of the self, but also of the human condition. It is evident in psychologist, spiritual leaders,
and philosophers. These young adults may be shy. They are very aware of their own feelings and are selfmotivated.
9. Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart)
Spatial intelligence is the ability to think in three dimensions. Core capacities include mental imagery,
spatial reasoning, image manipulation, graphic and artistic skills, and an active imagination. Sailors, pilots,

sculptors, painters, and architects all exhibit spatial intelligence. Young adults with this kind of intelligence
may be fascinated with mazes or jigsaw puzzles, or spend free time drawing or daydreaming.

Introduction to the Social Dimensions of Education

(SUMMARY)
What is Consensus and Conflict Theory?

Consensus is a general or widespread agreement among all members of a particular society. A concept
of society in which the absence of conflict is seen as the equilibrium state of society based on a general or
widespread agreement among all members of a particular society.
Conflict is a clash or disagreement between ideas, principles and people
Consensus theories see shared norms and values as fundamental to society; focus on social order based
on tacit agreements, and view social change as occurring in a slow and orderly fashion. In contrast, conflict
theories emphasize the dominance of some social groups by others, see social order as based on
manipulation and control by dominant groups and view social change as occurring rapidly and in a
disorderly fashion as subordinate groups overthrow dominant groups (Ritzer, 2000). It is a theory or
collection of theories which places emphasis on conflict in human society (Jary and Jary, 2000:105).
Is it possible in such society to have no conflict?

Dahrendorf recognizes that society can not exist without both conflict and consensus, which are
prerequisites for each other. Thus, we cannot have conflict unless there is some prior consensus.
What is the focus of Conflict Theory?
According to Horton and Hunt (1984), conflict theory focuses on the heterogeneous nature of society
and the differential distribution of political and social power. A struggle between social classes and class
conflicts between the powerful and less powerful groups occur.

What is the larger issue for conflict theorists?

The larger issue for conflict theorists is the role that education plays in maintaining the prestige, power,
and economic and social position of the dominant group in society (Ballantine & Spade, 2004).
Where the conflict theory did came from?

Grew out from the work of Karl Marx and focuses on the struggle of social classes to maintain
dominance and power in social systems.

They explained change as emerging from the crisis between human beings and their society.

They argued the theory characterized by class conflicts: bourgeoisie (rich owners) and proletariat (poor
workers).
What is status culture?

Refer to groups in society with similar interests and positions in the status hierarchy.

Max Weber argues that schools teach and maintain particular status cultures

Education systems may train individuals in specialties to fill needed positions or prepare cultivated
individuals (those who stand above others because of their superior knowledge and reasoning abilities
(Sadovnik, et. Al, 1994).
What is structural functionalism?

States that society is made up of various institutions that work together in cooperation.

Structural functionalism was for many years the dominant sociological theory in the works of Talcott
Parsons, Robert Merton and their students and followers. However in the last 3 decades it has declined
dramatically in importance (Chris, 1995).

Parsons Structural functionalism has 4 Functional Imperatives for all ACTION SYSTEMS, embodied in
his famous AGIL scheme. These functional imperatives that are necessary for all systems are:
1. Adaptation- a system must cope with external situational exigencies. It must adapt to its environment and
adapt environment to its needs.

2. Goal attainment- A system must define and achieve its primary goals
3. Integration- a system must regulate the interrelationship of its component parts. It must also manage the
relationship among the other 3 functional imperatives (AGL).
4. Latency- (pattern maintenance) a system must furnish, maintains, and renews both the motivation of
individuals and the cultural patterns that create and sustain the motivation.

Parsons designed the AGIL scheme to be used at all levels in this theoretical system:
- Action System- handles the adaptation function by adjusting to an transforming the external world.
- Personality system- perform the goal-attainment unction by defining system goals and mobilizing
resources to attain them.
- Social System- copes with the integration function by controlling its component parts.
- Cultural System- performs the latency function by providing actors with the norms and values that
motivate them for action (Ritzer, 2000).

Key Principles of the functionalist theory:

1. Interdependency. One of the most important principles of the functionalist theory is that society is made up
of interdependent parts.
2. Functions of Social Structure and Culture. Closely related to interdependency is the idea that each part of
the social system exist because of it serves some function. This principle is applied by both functionalist to
both social structure and culture. The Social structure refers to the organization of society, including its
institutions, its social positions, and its distribution of resources. Culture refers to a set of beliefs, language,
rules, values, acknowledgement held in common by members of a society.
3. Consensus and cooperation. Another principle key in functionalist theory is that a society has the tendency
to towards consensus; that is to have the certain basic values to everyone in the society agrees upon. For
example, we all believe in the principles of democracy and freedom. Societies tend toward consensus in
order to achieve cooperation. Functionalist believe that inability will to cooperate will paralyze the society,
and people will devote more and more effort to fighting one another rather than getting anything done.
4. Equilibrium. A final principle of functionalist theorist is that of equilibrium. This holds that, once a society
has achieved the form that is best adapted to its situation, it has reached the stage of balance
eaquilibrium, and it will remain in that condition until it is forced to change by some new condition.
Equilibrium is the characteristic of a society when it has achjeived the form that is best adapted to its
situation
The component parts of a social structure:

Families
Neighbors
Associations
Schools
Churches
Banks
Countries
What is the role of structural functionalism to education?

As cited by Ballantine and Spade (2004), Parson believes that education is a vital part of a modern
society, a society that differs considerably from all previous societies. From this perspective, schooling
performs an important function in the development and maintenance of a modern, democratic society,
especially with regard to equality of opportunity for all citizens. Thus, in modern societies education
becomes the key institution in a meritocratic selection process.
What is Interaction Theory?

Interactionist theory has its origin in the social psychology of early 20 th century sociologists George
Herbert Mead and Charles Horton Cooley.
Mead and Cooley examined the ways in which the individual is related to society through ongoing
interactions.
This theory attempt to make the commonplace strange by turning on their heads everyday taken-forgranted behaviors and interactions between students and students and between students and teachers.
Basic Forms of SOCIAL INTERACTIONS

Symbolic interaction which require mental processes and views the self as socially constructed in
relation to social forces and social structures. (Ritzer, 2000)
Meads approach to symbolic interaction rested on 3 basic premises:

1.
2.

People act toward the things hey encounter on the basis of what those things mean to them.
People learn what things are by observing the things they encounter people respond to them that is
through social interaction.
3.
As a result of ongoing interaction, the sounds (or words, gestures, facial expressions and body postures
we use in dealing with others acquire symbolic meanings that are shared by people who belong to the
same culture.

Another important concept that has long been used by symbolic interactionist is the Looking-Glass
Self. This concept was developed by Charles Cooley according to him, We see ourselves as others see us.
In Cooleys terms, you use other people as a mirror into which you look to see what you are like (Farley,
1990).
Non-symbolic interaction which does not involve thinking (Blumer, following Mead)

o
o

Symbolic gestures, extends beyond the act itself. A handshake, a hug, a bow expresses both parties
shared understanding that a social interaction is beginning.
This also shows respect and love for one another.

Intercultural Communication
Two types of communication:
verbal refers to use of language
non verbal refer to the use of gestures, facial expressions, and other body movements
Language is an abstract system of word meaning and symbols for all aspects of culture. It includes speech,
written characters, numerals, symbols and gestures and gestures and expressions of non-verbal
communication.

1.

2.

3.

4.

Communication is far more than speech and writing. Most of us are unaware that we are
communicating in many different ways even we are not speaking. The same goes for social animal species.
We rarely lean about non-verbal human communication in school even though it is very important for effective
interaction with others. Growing up in a society, we learn how to use gestures, glances, slight changes in tone
of voice, and other auxiliary communication devices to alter or emphasize what we say and do. We learn these
highly culture-bound techniques over years largely by observing others and imitating them.
Paralanguage is the language of gestures, expressions and postures.
Linguists refer to all auxiliary communication devices as paralanguage. It is part of redundancy in
communication that helps prevent ineffective communication. It can help prevent the wrong message from
inadvertently being passed on, as often as the case in a telephone call and even more so in a letter.The most
obvious form of paralanguage is body language or kinesics. This is the language of gestures, expressions, and
postures.
A mans language is the reflection of the kind of person he is, the level of education he has attained, and an
index to the behavior that may be expected from him.
Language is the key factor in the success of the human race in creating and preserving culture, for without
language the ability to convey ideas and traditions is impossible.
Four areas of the Study of Language:
Phonology, the system of sounds that a particular language uses, includes not only the languages basic unit
of sounds, or phonemes, but rules about how we put phonemes together to form words and rules about proper
intonation patterns for phrases and sentences.
Semantics is the study of word meanings and word combinations. Comprehension of written as well as
spoken requires not only knowledge of specific words and their definitions but an understanding of how we
use the sentence
Grammar describes the structure of language which consists the two major parts: morphology and syntax.
Morphology is the study of languages smallest units of meaning called morphemes- prefixes, suffixes, and root
words-and of how these units are properly combined. Syntax specifies on how are words are combined into
sentences. The rules of syntax allow us to vary word orders so that we are not limited to one way of saying
what we mean.
Pragmatics, the fourth component of language, consists of the rules for the use of appropriate language in
particular contexts. Thus progmatics is not only concern with speaking and writing but with social interaction,
and it directly addresses the issue of effective communication.
If culture can affect the structure and content of its language, then it follows that linguistic diversity derives in
part from cultural diversity
The linguistic relativity hypothesis asserts that language determines thought and therefore culture. In reality
language and culture influence each other. - Edward Sapir
Edward Sapir, a linguist, acknowledged the close relationship between language and culture, maintaining that
they were inextricably related so that you could not understand or appreciate the one without the knowledge of
the other.

What is Culture?

Culture is defined as a set of leaned behaviors, beliefs, attitudes, values, and ideals that are characteristics of
a particular society or population. (Ember,1999)
An eminent English scholar, E.B. Taylor defines culture as that complex whole which include knowledge, belief,
art, morals, law, custom and any capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of a society (Panopio,
1992)
Hofstede (1997) states that culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and
transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their embodiments
in artifacts.
Culture is:

Learned
Shared by a group of people
Cumulative
Dynamic
Ideational
Diverse

Culture:
Changes
Gives us a range of permissible behavior patterns.

Characteristics of Culture
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Culture possesses several characteristics. Different cultures throughout the world have these characteristics or
qualities.
Culture is learned, this is the first essential characteristics of culture. Culture is learned by any individual,
especially if he/she grows up with that particular culture. He/she can learn behavior patterns including
language and many other attributes. We can learn the culture of others especially if we acquaint with them and
get influence with their personality and lifestyle.
Culture is shared by a group of people. We can consider a thought or an action as a culture if it is
commonly shared and believed or practiced by a group of people. If it is commonly shared and believed by a
group of individuals then it can be considered as their culture.
Culture is cumulative. Different knowledge embodied in culture can be passed from one generation to
another generation. More and more knowledge is added in the particular culture as time passes by. Each may
work out solutions to problems in life that passes from one generation to another. This cycle remains as the
particular culture goes with time.
Cultures change. Not all cultures accumulate. There is knowledge; thoughts or traditions that are lost as new
cultural traits are added, with that there are possibilities of cultural changes with the particular culture through
time.
Culture is dynamic. It was considered that there is no culture remains on the permanent state. Culture is
changing constantly as new ideas and new techniques are added in time modifying or changing the old ways.
This is the characteristic of culture that stems from the cultures cumulative quality.
Culture is ideational. Culture forms ideal pattern of behaviors that followed by individuals expectedly. It
serves as guidelines that must be followed by members to gain social acceptance from the people with the
same culture.
Culture is diverse. It was considered that culture was formed by many separate cultures. It is a system that
has several mutually interdependent parts. Although these parts are separate, they are interdependent with
one another forming culture as a whole
Culture gives us a range of permissible behavior pattern. Culture provides us with the norms of
appropriate behavioral patterns. It involves how an activity should be conducted, how an individual should
appropriately act, as husband, wife, parents, child, and others. It tells us how to dress based on gender,
occasions, statue and many more. Culture provides us with the norms of appropriate behavioral patterns. It
involves how an activity should be conducted, how an individual should appropriately act, as husband, wife,
parents, child, and others. It tells us how to dress based on gender, occasions, statue and many more.

COMPONENTS OF CULTURE
Cultures varies from one another and it shares four major components, these are the communication,
cognitive, material and behavioral aspects.
1. Communication components include language and symbols. Through having a language, a group of people
interact with one another, socially sharing their thoughts, feelings or ideas to the people with same
language.Language forms the core of all cultures throughout society. The symbols are considered as the
backbone of symbolic interactions. A symbol might be considered as anything that holds a particular meaning
and are recognized by the people that shares the same culture. Different cultures have different symbols, it is
cross-culturally and it might be change over a period of time.
2. Cognitive component includes Ideas, Knowledge and Belief, Values and Accounts.
Ideas, Knowledge and Belief are basic units of knowledge construction. Ideas are considered as mental representation and are used to
organize stimulus. When Ideas are link together it will organize into larger systems of information which will become knowledge.
Knowledge now is considered as a storage of information fact or assumption, and these knowledge can be passed down from one
generation to another.

Belief on the other hand assumes that a proposition, statement, description of fact are true in nature. These acceptance were
influenced by the external authorities such as government, religion, or science rather than proven true from the individuals direct
experiences.
Values serve as guidelines for social living. Culturally, it can be defined as the standards of desirability, goodness and beauty.
Accounts are considered to be a way on how people use the language for their explanation, justification, or to rationalize, excuse, or
legitimize a behavior towards themselves or to the others.

3.

Behavioral component is the major component of culture that is concerned about on how we act. It includes
norms which further categorizes int Mores, Laws, Folkway, and Rituals.
Norms are considered as rules and expectations eventually set by a particular society that serve as guides to the behavior of its
members. It varies in the terms of the degrees of importance and might be change over a period of time. It is reinforced by sanctions in
the forms or rewards and punishments. These are standards accepted by society culturally and serves as obligatory and expected
behaviors of the people in different situations in life.
Mores are kinds of norms that are considered to be as a customary behavior patterns which have taken from a moralistic value.
Laws serve as the formal and important norms that translated into legal formalizations.
Folkways are considered as behavioral patterns of a particular society that is repetitive and organize. Rituals on the other hand are
those highly scripted ceremonies of interactions which follows a sequence of actions. Examples are baptism, holidays and more.

4.

The Material component. This includes materials or objects created by humans for practical use or for artistic
reasons. These objects are called as material culture. Material components serves as an expression of an
individual culture.
HOW CULTURE IS TRANSMITTED
1. Enculturation. It is the process of learning culture of ones own group. Ex. Learning the folkways, mores, social
traditions, values, beliefs of ones own group.
2. Acculturation. It is the process of learning some new traits from another culture. For examplr, when students
from the rural areas migrate to the urban areas or city and gradually learn some urban customs, they become
acculturated. The interaction of Filipinos with Americans in the Philippines maybe considered an example of
acculturation.
3. Assimilation. It is the term used for a process in which an individual entirely loses any awareness of his/her
previous group identity and takes on the culture and attitudes of another group.

Stages of writing Development

Stages of writing Development
Conventional spelling
Invented spelling
Reproducing learned units
Making letter-like forms
Scribbling
Drawing
Skills in Reading Study Skills and Comprehension
1. PQRST Method- helps students focus on studying and prioritizing the information that relates directly to
how they will use that information.
Preview- looking at the topic by glancing over the major headings or the points in the reading material.
Question-formulating queries that maybe answered. That the student wants to learn.
Read- reading through the material that relates to the topic.
Summary- put together the information read.
Test- Assessing whether focus has remained.
2. Spider Diagram- links concepts together.
Passport

plane ticket
Immigration

Foreign affairs

To another country

2 .SQ4R Method
Survey- to develop general idea of the structure.
Question- asking oneself a question which serve to keep the reader more
involved in the material read.
Read- reading carefully and trying to answer questions.
Write- write down the answers to the questions formerly read.
Recite- reciting what has been read.
Review- key to figuring out what one knows and what one needs to concentrate on.
3. PQ4R
Preview-survey the chapter to determine the general topics being read.
Questions- making questions about the section.
Read- reading the section carefully trying to answer the questions one has made.
Reflect - reflecting on the text as one is reading. Relate the material to prior knowledge.
Recite-recite the portion one had trouble remembering.
Review- mental recalling of the main points.
Stages of Language Development
Stage 1- Holophrastic Stage- (10-12 mos.)- the child speaks one word at a time.
Holophrases- one word utterances
Stage 2- Joining Stage- (18-24 mos.)-producing two and three word utterance
Stage 3 The Combining Stage- (age 3)- structures of questions and negation evolves.
Stage 4- Recursive Stage- (3.5-4 mos.)- develops first complex sentences.
Stage 5- Toward the adult Stage- vocabulary expands enormously; language functions change and expand.
The Four-Pronged Approach
The Four-Pronged approach is one of the modern approaches that is being used in the educational system. It
is practically based on the different principles- content based instruction, constructivism, thematic teaching and
the teacher as facilitator.
Developing Genuine Love for Reading is focused on the idea of letting students appreciate the story or
selection; establishing the mindset.
Motivation determines the extent of the learners` active involvement and attitude towards learning.
Motive Question is a query that is left hanging until the last part of the reading proper.
Developing Critical and Creative Thinking Skills
Children develop logical thinking as they learn many skills.
Higher order thinking skills include hypothesizing ,organizing. operating, testing, searching. scrutinizing, solving
and synthesizing.
Grammar and Oral language Development
It encompasses the idea that the students should be taught skills in speaking and grammar based on the
reading selection as a springboard.
Transfer stage
Transfer is a crucial stage sinc it is an indicator of the significant learning of children.

Stages of the Reading Process/ literacy development

Stages of the Reading Process/ literacy development
-guide in determining the reading skills of a particular child or the whole class.
Stage 1- Emergent Reader
-beginning reader
-basic concepts of print

-picture analysis
-sound letter recognition
Stage 2- Early reader
-word recognition strategies
-sight words
-print reading
Stage 3- Transitional reader
-towards fluent reading
-reading of lengthy texts
-little reliance in pictures
Stage 4- Self Extending Reader
-independent reading
-reading various texts
-reading for information
-gradual speed in reading
Stage 5-Advanced/Fluent Reader
-mastery in reading
-proficient comprehension
-reading for pleasure
-interpretive reading
-internalized reading strategies
Writing is always related to reading and reading is always connected to writing.
As the child writes, he integrates knowledge of reading with knowledge of
writing.

Factors that Affect Reading Progress

1.Cerebral Dominance- laterality of the individual is affected is by the dominance in the two hemispheres of the
brain.
2. Directional Orientation-spatial and directional orientation underlie in all aspects of perception- visual.
auditory, tactile and kinesthetic.
3.Maturation- lag in the maturation of the brain part neopallium can slow down intellectual and emotional
development.
4. Intelligence- mental aptitude is considered a crucial factor in reading growth and development
5. Visual Auditory Efficiency-Visual and auditory acuity are basic to success in reading.
6.Language Proficiency- linguistic factor is a major importance in the acquisition of reading power.

7. Perception and Conceptualization- ability to perceive and conceptualize is essential in the acquisition of and
growth in reading skills.
8. Listening Comprehension- listening and reading are both receptive acts which are requisites to
comprehension.
9.Personality and Emotional Factors-personality traits. emotional condition and reading achievement shape
instructional procedure to a great extent.
10. Environmental factors- conditions related to personal relations, intragroup relation, home condition
contribute to progress or failure in reading skills.
11. Socio-economic status, mobility, education and attitudes of parents, home conditions, some school
variables and general physical condition.

Developmental Reading
Developmental Reading deals with the theories of child`s early stages of learning his
progress to fluency in oral language, reading and writing, and the transfer of his home
literacy to school literacy.
Marie Clay(1966) was the first one who used the term emergent literacy.Emergent
literacy refers to the competencies and skills in early childhood.
Emergent or emerging means that the children are always in the process of becoming
literate, probably since they are just few months old(Teale,1987)
Sulzby(1991) defines literacy as the reading and writing behaviors of young children
that precede and develop into conventional literacy.

Models of Literacy Development

1. Bottom Up Model (Behaviorism S-R theory)
Stimulus is print or spoken message. Processing of the language starts with the
smallest unit to larger units of language.
Limitation- when too much attention is given to decoding, over all meaning maybe lost
2.Top down Model (Gestalt Psychology)
Reader processes the text from whole to parts. The individual parts of the text
are influenced by the readers`perception of the text as whole
3. Interactive Model ( combination theory- Bottom up and Top down)
Active approach- if the reader has strong background knowledge of the topic.
Passive- reader has limited prior knowledge of the text.

4.Transactional Model(Constructivism)
Emphasis in the social-situational context in which oracy and literacy take place.
The text is reconstructed by the reader in a unique way
1. IVAN PAVLOV - Classical Conditioning
2. BURRHUS F. SKINNER- Operant (instrumental) Conditioning
3. EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE- Law of Learning (Law of readiness, law of exercise, Law of effect)
4. ALBERT BANDURA- Social Cognitive Learning
5. DAVID AUSUBEL- Meaningful Learning

6. JEROME BRUNER- Discovery Learning

7. WOLFGANG KOHLER, KURT KOFFKA, MAX WERTHEIMER- Gestalt Theory
8. KURT LEVIN- Life Space Concept
9. KOHLER - Problem -solving by Insight
10. URIE BROFENBRENNER - Ecological Theory
11. SANDRA BEM- The Gender Schema Theory
12. SIGMUND FREUD- Psychosexual Theory
13. HOWARD GARDNER- Theory Multiple Intelligence
14. ELLIOT TURRIEL- Social Domain Theory
15. ROBERT STERNBERG - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
16. LAWRENCE KOHLBERG- Moral Dev. Theory
17. ERIK ERIKSON- Psychosocial Dev. Theory
18. MARIA MONTESSORI- Transfer of Learning
19. EDWARD PAUL TORRANCE- Creative Problem Solving
20. CHOMSKY- Linguistic Acquisition Dev. Or LAD
21. JEAN PIAGET- Cognitive Theory of Dev.
22. JOHN WATSON- Behavioral Theory
23. EDWARD TOLMAN- Purposive Behaviorism
24. JEROME BRUNER- Spiral Curriculum
25. BERNARD WEINER- Attribution Theory
26. JEAN PIAGET- Info. Processing , Dynamic Interrelations
27. LEV VYGOTSKY- Zone of Proximal Dev.
28. GAGNE- Cumulative Theory
29. MASLOW Motivation
MOTIVATION- consisting of 3 interrelated components: personal goals, personal agency beliefs, and emotions.
a. INTRINSIC MOTIVATION- refers to the desire of students themselves to learn in order to achieve specific
objectives.
b. EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION- marks, prizes and other tangible rewards characterize
What Causes Motivation?
A. Humanistic Psychology and Motivation
One of the Maslow's 1987 most famous concepts is that of self-actualization, or the use of one's abilities to the
limit of one's potentialities.
Growth towards self-actualization requires satisfaction of a hierarchy of needs.
1. Physiological Needs
2. Safety Needs
3. Love and Belongingness Needs
4. Esteem Needs
5. Need for Self-Actualization
B. Cognitive Psychology and Motivation
Attribution Theory and Motivation
Attribution theory rests on 3 basic assumptioms.
a. 1st, people want to know the causes their own and others' behavior, particularly of behavior that is important
to them.
b. 2nd, they do not randomly assign causes to their behavior