P-N Junction

One of the crucial keys to solid state electronics is the nature of the P-N
junction. When p-type and n-type materials are placed in contact with
each other, the junction behaves very differently than either type of
material alone. Specifically, current will flow readily in one direction
(forward biased) but not in the other (reverse biased), creating the
basicdiode. This non-reversing behavior arises from the nature of the
charge transport process in the two types of materials.
Index
Semiconductor
concepts
Semiconductors
for electronics
The open circles on the left side of the junction above represent "holes"
or deficiencies of electrons in the lattice which can act like positive
charge carriers. The solid circles on the right of the junction represent
the available electrons from the n-type dopant. Near the junction,
electrons diffuse across to combine with holes, creating a "depletion
region". The energy level sketch above right is a way to visualize
theequilibrium condition of the P-N junction. The upward direction in
the diagram represents increasing electron energy.
Electron and hole conduction

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Depletion Region
When a p-n junction is formed, some of the free electrons in the n-region
diffuse across the junction and combine with holes to form negative
ions. In so doing they leave behind positive ions at the
donor impurity sites.

Index
Semiconductor
concepts
Semiconductor
s for
electronics

Show more detail of depletion region.

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Depletion Region Details

In the p-type region there are holes from the
acceptor impurities and in the n-type region
there are extra electrons.

When a p-n junction is formed, some of the

electrons from the n-region which have reached
the conduction band are free to diffuse across
the junction and combine with holes.
Filling a hole makes a negative ion and leaves
behind a positive ion on the n-side. A space
charge builds up, creating a depletion
regionwhich inhibits any further electron
transfer unless it is helped by putting a forward
bias on the junction.

Index
Semiconductor
concepts
Semiconductors
for electronics

Show effects of biasing.

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Bias effect on electrons in

depletion zone
Equilibrium of junction
Coulomb force from ions
prevents further migration
across the p-n junction. The
electrons which had
migrated across from the N
to the P region in the
forming of the depletion
layer have now reached
equilibrium. Other electrons
from the N region cannot
migrate because they are
Index
repelled by the negative ions
in the P region and attracted
by the positive ions in the N Semiconductor
concepts
region.
Semiconductors
for electronics

Reverse bias
An applied voltage with the
indicated polarity further
impedes the flow of
electrons across the
junction. For conduction in
the device, electrons from
the N region must move to
the junction and combine
with holes in the P region. A
reverse voltage drives the
electrons away from the
junction, preventing
conduction.

Forward bias
An applied voltage in the
forward direction as
indicated assists electrons in
overcoming the coulomb
barrier of the space charge
in depletion region.
Electrons will flow with
very small resistance in the
forward direction.

Click on one of the junction conditions for more detail.

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__________________________________________________________________

Electric Current
Electric current is the rate of charge flow past a given point in an electric
circuit, measured in Coulombs/second which is named Amperes. In mostDC
electric circuits, it can be assumed that the resistance to current flow is a
constant so that the current in the circuit is related to voltage and resistance
by Ohm's law. The standard abbreviations for the units are 1 A = 1C/s.

Index
Electric
Circuits

Microscopic view of electric current

Measurement with ammeter
Conventional electric current direction
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Index

Electric Charge

Coulomb's Law

Electromagnetic
The unit of electric charge is the Coulomb (abbreviated C). Ordinary
force
matter is made up of atoms which have positively charged nuclei and
negatively charged electrons surrounding them. Charge is quantized as
a multiple of the electron or proton charge:

The influence of charges is characterized in terms of the forces between

them (Coulomb's law) and the electric field and voltage produced by
them. One Coulomb of charge is the charge which would flow through
a 120 watt lightbulb (120 volts AC) in one second. Two charges of one
Coulomb each separated by a meter would repel each other with
a force of about a million tons!
The rate of flow of electric charge is called electric current and is
measured in Amperes.
In introducing one of the fundamental properties of matter, it is perhaps
appropriate to point out that we use simplified sketches and constructs
to introduce concepts, and there is inevitably much more to the story.
No significance should be attached to the circles representing the
proton and electron, in the sense of implying a relative size, or even
that they are hard sphere objects, although that's a useful first construct.
The most important opening idea, electrically, is that they have a
property called "charge" which is the same size, but opposite in polarity
for the proton and electron. The proton has 1836 times the mass of the
electron, but exactly the same size charge, only positive rather than
negative. Even the terms "positive" and "negative" are arbitrary, but
well-entrenched historical labels. The essential implication of that is
that the proton and electron will strongly attract each other, the
historical archtype of the cliche "opposites attract". Two protons or two
electrons would strongly repel each other. Once you have established
those basic ideas about electricity, "like charges repel and unlike
charges attract", then you have the foundation for electricity and can
build from there.
From the precise electrical neutrality of bulk matter as well as from
detailed microscopic experiments, we know that the proton and

electron have the same magnitude of charge. All charges observed in

nature are multiples of these fundamental charges. Although the
standard model of the proton depicts it as being made up of fractionally
charged particles called quarks, those fractional charges are not
observed in isolation -- always in combinations which produce +/- the
electron charge.
An isolated single charge can be called an "electric monopole". Equal
positive and negative charges placed close to each other constitute
anelectric dipole. Two oppositely directed dipoles close to each other
are called an electric quadrupole. You can continue this process to any
number of poles, but dipoles and quadrupoles are mentioned here
because they find significant application in physical phenomena.
One of the fundamental symmetries of nature is the conservation of
electric charge. No known physical process produces a net change in
electric charge.

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Index

Conventional Electric Current

Although it is electrons which are the mobile charge carriers which are
responsible for electric current in conductors such as wires, it has long been
the convention to take the direction of electric current as if it were the positive
charges which are moving. Some texts reverse this convention and take
electric current direction as the direction the electrons move, an obviously
more physically realistic direction, but the vast majority of references use the
conventional current direction and that convention will be followed in most of
this material. In common applications such as determining the direction
of force on a current carrying wire, treating current as positive charge motion
or negative charge motion gives identical results. Besides the advantage of
agreeing in direction with most texts, the conventional current direction is the
direction from high voltage to low voltage, high energy to low energy, and

Electric
Circuits

thus has some appeal in its parallel to the flow of water from high pressure to
low (see water analogy).

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Electric current
Physics
Written by: The Editors of Encyclopdia Britannica

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Alternative titles: conduction current; current

Electric current, any movement of electric charge carriers, such as subatomic charged
particles (e.g., electrons having negative charge, protons having positive charge), ions
(atoms that have lost or gained one or more electrons), or holes (electron deficiencies
that may be thought of as positive particles).
Electric current in a wire, where the charge carriers are electrons, is a measure of the
quantity of charge passing any point of the wire per unit of time. In alternating
current (q.v.) the motion of the electric charges is periodically reversed; indirect
current (q.v.) it is not. In many contexts the direction of the current in electric circuits is
taken as the direction of positive charge flow, the direction opposite to the
actual electron drift. When so defined the current is called conventional current.

Current in gases and liquids generally consists of a flow of positive ions in one direction
together with a flow of negative ions in the opposite direction. To treat the overall effect
of the current, its direction is usually taken to be that of the positive charge carrier. A
current of negative charge moving in the opposite direction is equivalent to a positive
charge of the same magnitude moving in the conventional direction and must be
included as a contribution to the total current. Current in semiconductors consists of the
motion of holes in the conventional direction and electrons in the opposite direction.
Currents of many other kinds exist, such as beams of protons, positrons, or charged
pions and muons in particle accelerators.
Electric current generates an accompanying magnetic field, as in electromagnets. When
an electric current flows in an external magnetic field, it experiences a magnetic force,
as in electric motors. The heat loss, or energy dissipated, by electric current in a
conductor is proportional to the square of the current.
A common unit of electric current is the ampere, a flow of one coulomb of charge
per second, or 6.2 1018 electrons per second. The centimetregramsecond units of
current are either the electrostatic unit of charge (esu) per second or the absolute
electromagnetic unit (abamp). One abamp equals 10 amps; 1 amp equals 3 10 9 esu
per second.
Commercial power lines make available about 100 amps to a typical home; a lightbulb
pulls about 1 amp of current and a one-room air conditioner about 15 amps.

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Discussion
definitions
Electric current is defined as the rate at which charge flows through a surface
(the cross section of a wire, for example). Despite referring to many different
things, the word current is often used by itself instead of the longer, more
formal "electric current". The adjective "electrical" is implied by the context
of the situation being described. The phrase "current through a toaster"
surely refers to the flow of electrons through the heating element and not the
flow of slices of bread through the slots.

As with all quantities defined as a rate, there are two ways to write the
definition of electric current average current for those who claim ignorance
of calculus
q

I I=

and instantaneous current for those with no fear of calculus

lim
I=

dq
=

t 0

dt

The unit of current is the ampre [A], which is named for the French
scientist Andr-Marie Ampre(17751836). In written languages without
accented letters (namely English) it has become customary to write the unit
as ampere and, in informal communication, to shorten the word to amp. I
have no problem with either of these spellings. Just don't use a capital "A" at
the beginning. The word Ampre refers to a physicist, while ampre (or
ampere or amp) refers to a unit.
Since charge is measured in coulombs and time is measured in seconds, an
ampre is the same as a coulomb per second.

A=

C
s

This is an algebraic relation, not a definition. The ampre is a fundamental

unit in the International System. Other units are derived from it. Fundamental
units are themselves defined by experiment. In the case of the ampre, the
experiment is electromagnetic in nature.
The ampre is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight
parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and

placed one meter apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors
a force equal to 2 107 newton per meter of length.
This means that the coulomb is defined as the amount of charge that passes
through a surface when a current of one ampre flows for one second.
[C = As]
When I visualize current, I see things moving. I see them moving in a
direction. I see a vector. I see the wrong thing. Current is not a vector
quantity, despite my well-developed sense of scientific intuition. Current is a
scalar. And the reason is because it is.
But wait, it gets weirder. The ratio of current to area for a given surface is
known as the current density.
I
J=
A

The unit of current density is the ampre per square meter, which has no
special name.
A

A
=

m2

m2

Despite being the ratio of two scalar quantities, current density is a vector.
And the reason is, because it is.
Well actually, it's because current density is defined as the product of
charge density and velocity for any location in space
J = v
The two equations are equivalent in magnitude as shown below.
J=

ds

dt

J=

dq

sA

dt

1
=

I
A

I
J=
A

Something else to consider.

I = JA = vA
Readers familiar with fluid mechanics might recognize the right side of this
equation if it was written a bit differently.
I = Av
This product is the quantity that stays constant in the continuity equation.
1A1v1 = 2A2v2
The exact same expression applies to electric current with the symbol
changing meaning between contexts. In fluid mechanics stands for mass
density, while in electric current it represents charge density.
microscopic description
Current is the flow of charged particles. They are discrete entities, which
means they can be counted.
n = N/V
q = nqV

V = Ad = Avt
q

nqAvt

I=

=
t

I = nqAv
A similar expression can be written for current density. The derivation starts
off in scalar form, but the final expression
I
J=

nqAv
=

J = nqv
solids
conduction vs. valence electrons, conductors vs. insulators
Drift motion superimposed on thermal motion
Bridge text.
The thermal speed of the electrons in a wire is quite high and varies
randomly due to atomic collisions. Since the changes are chaotic the velocity
averages out to zero.
When a wire is placed in an electric field, the free electrons accelerate
uniformly in the intervals between collisions. These periods of acceleration
raise the average velocity above zero. (The effect has been greatly
exaggerated in this diagram.)
thermal velocity of an electron in copper at room temperature (classical
approximation)
vrms =

3kT

me
3(1.38 1023 J/K)(300 K)
vrms =

(9.11 1031 kg)

100 km/s

vrms

fermi velocity of an electron in copper (quantum value)

2Efermi
vfermi =
me
2(7.00 eV)(1.60 1019 J/eV)
vfermi =

(9.11 1031 kg)

1500 km/s

vfermi

drift velocity of an electron in 10 m of copper wire connected to a 12 V car

battery at room temperature (mean free time between collisions at room
temperature = 3 1014 s)
1
vdrift =

1
v =

me

a =
2

vdrift =
2dme
(1.60 1019 C)(12 V)(3 1014 s)
2(10 m)(9.11 1031 kg)
vdrift

eE

me

eV

vdrift =

3 mm/s

The thermal velocity is several orders of magnitude greater than the drift
velocity in a typical wire. Time to complete the circuit is about an hour.
liquids
ions, electrolytes
gases
ions, plasma

2:02 PM - Transmission line disconnects in southwestern Ohio

4. Stuart - Atlanta 345 kV
This line is part of the transmission pathway from southwestern Ohio into
northern Ohio. It disconnected from the system due to a brush fire under a
portion of the line. Hot gases from a fire can ionize the air above a transmission
line, causing the air to conduct electricity and short-circuit the conductors.
Source

historical junk
Why I for current? Why not c for current or f for flow?
The word "ion" is ancient Greek for "going" and was coined
by Michael Faraday (17911867) England to designate those electrically
charged particles that migrate to one or another pole when an electric field
is set up in a solution. The ion that moves "uphill" (e.g., chlorine, nitrogen) to
the positive electrode he called anion ( = up) and the ion that moves
"downhill" (e.g., hydrogen, zinc) the cation ( = down). He called the
locations where the electrically charged ions "exit" electrodes ( = path,
street, way; compare to = way out, exit, exodus).

The ion of physics is from Greek , present participle of , to go. Joseph

E. Shipley, Dictionary of Word Origins, 1945.

Greek , something that goes, neuter present participle of , to go.

American Heritage Dictionary, 2000.

The OED (1989, Second Edition) says [a. Gr. , neut. pr. pple. of to

go.] Name given by Faraday to either of the constituents which pass to the
"poles" or electrodes in electrolysis: the general term including anion and
cation. In modern use, any individual atom, molecule, or group having a net
electric charge (either positive or negative), whether in an electrolytic solution
or not.
1834. William Whewell. Letter to Michael Faraday 5 May in I. Todhunter,

William Whewell (1876) II. 182 For the two together you might use the term
ions.
1834 Michael Faraday in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal

Society. CXXIV. 79 Finally, I require a term to express those bodies which

can pass to the electrodes I propose to distinguish these bodies by calling
those anions which go to the anode of the decomposing body; and those
passing to the cathode, cations; and when I have occasion to speak of
these together, I shall call them ions.

In the nineteenth century, geology, paleontology and physics enlarged their

vocabularies with the help of William Whewell, a veritable mint of new
coinages. He did not try for grand systems, however, but for small groups of
linked words that would convey concepts without fixing theories. In response to
Michael Faraday's request for terms to describe his experiments in electrolysis,
Whewell supplied anode, cathode, electrode and ion from non-committal Greek
roots. J.L. Heilbron. "Coming to Terms." Nature. Vol. 415 No. 585 (2002).

Forgotten Source From Greek ion, literally "moving thing,"

From Aqua: Ion was the son of Creusa by either Apollo (the god of prophecy,
the arts and archery) or Xuthus. There are different stories about his origin, but
the one that's most relevant to the meaning of his name goes like this: Apollo
raped Creusa when she was already Xuthus's wife, and Hermes (the messenger
god) was appointed by Apollo to bring his son to the Oracle of Delphi to work
under the priests for him. Many years later, Xuthus and Creusa consulted the
Oracle because they couldn't have children, and Xuthus was told that the first
man that he met leaving the temple would be his son. Not surprisingly, it was
Ion that he met first, and he gave him this name because he met him "on the
way."

"I was coming" continuous past tense of ? The modern Greek word is
.

Literally, the travellers, the things which are going. Michael Faraday, His Life
and Work By Silvanus Phillips Thompson

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Current Electricity - Lesson 2 - Electric Current

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What is an Electric Circuit?

Requirements of a Circuit

chromodynamics
3.
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4.
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5.

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Electric Current
Power: Putting Charges to Work
Common Misconceptions Regarding Electric Circuits

If the two requirements of an electric circuit are met, then charge will flow
through the external circuit. It is said that there is a current - a flow of
charge. Using the word current in this context is to simply use it to say that
something is happening in the wires - charge is moving. Yet current is a
physical quantity that can be measured and expressed numerically. As a
physical quantity, current is the rate at which charge flows past a point on a
circuit. As depicted in the diagram below, the current in a circuit can be
determined if the quantity of charge Q passing through a cross section of a
wire in a time t can be measured. The current is simply the ratio of the
quantity of charge and time.

Current is a rate quantity. There are several rate quantities in physics. For
instance, velocity is a rate quantity - the rate at which an object changes its
position. Mathematically, velocity is the position change per time
ratio. Acceleration is a rate quantity - the rate at which an object changes its
velocity. Mathematically, acceleration is the velocity change per time ratio.
And power is a rate quantity - the rate at which work is done on an object.
Mathematically, power is the work per time ratio. In every case of a rate
quantity, the mathematical equation involves some quantity over time. Thus,
current as a rate quantity would be expressed mathematically as

Note that the equation above uses the symbol I to represent the quantity
current.

As is the usual case, when a quantity is introduced in The Physics Classroom,

the standard metric unit used to express that quantity is introduced as well.
The standard metric unit for current is the ampere. Ampere is often
shortened to Amp and is abbreviated by the unit symbol A. A current of 1
ampere means that there is 1 coulomb of charge passing through a cross
section of a wire every 1 second.
1 ampere = 1 coulomb / 1 second

To test your understanding, determine the current for the following two
situations. Note that some extraneous information is given in each situation.
Click the Check Answer button to see if you are correct.
A 2 mm long cross section of wire is A 1 mm long cross section of wire is
isolated and 20 C of charge is
isolated and 2 C of charge is
determined to pass through it in 40 s. determined to pass through it in 0.5
s.

I = _____ Ampere

I = _____ Ampere

Check Answer

Check Answer

Conventional Current Direction

The particles that carry charge through wires in a circuit are mobile
electrons. The electric field direction within a circuit is by definition the
direction that positive test charges are pushed. Thus, these negatively
charged electrons move in the direction opposite the electric field. But while
electrons are the charge carriers in metal wires, the charge carriers in other
circuits can be positive charges, negative charges or both. In fact, the charge
carriers in semiconductors, street lamps and fluorescent lamps are
simultaneously both positive and negative charges traveling in opposite
directions.

Ben Franklin, who conducted extensive scientific studies in both static and
current electricity, envisioned positive charges as the carriers of charge. As
such, an early convention for the direction of an electric current was
established to be in the direction that positive charges would move. The
convention has stuck and is still used today. The direction of an electric
current is by convention the direction in which a positive charge would
move. Thus, the current in the external circuit is directed away from the
positive terminal and toward the negative terminal of the battery. Electrons
would actually move through the wires in the opposite direction. Knowing
that the actual charge carriers in wires are negatively charged electrons may
make this convention seem a bit odd and outdated. Nonetheless, it is the
convention that is used worldwide and one that a student of physics can
easily become accustomed to.

Current versus Drift Speed

Current has to do with the number of coulombs of
charge that pass a point in the circuit per unit of
time. Because of its definition, it is often confused with the quantity drift
speed. Drift speed refers to the average distance traveled by a charge
carrier per unit of time. Like the speed of any object, the drift speed of an
electron moving through a wire is the distance to time ratio. The path of a
typical electron through a wire could be described as a rather chaotic, zigzag
path characterized by collisions with fixed atoms. Each collision results in a
change in direction of the electron. Yet because of collisions with atoms in
the solid network of the metal conductor, there are two steps backwards for
every three steps forward. With an electric potential established across the
two ends of the circuit, the electron continues to migrate forward. Progress is
always made towards the positive terminal. Yet the overall effect of the
countless collisions and the high between-collision speeds is that the overall
drift speed of an electron in a circuit is abnormally low. A typical drift speed
might be 1 meter per hour. That is slow!
One might then ask: How can there by a current
on the order of 1 or 2 ampere in a circuit if the
drift speed is only about 1 meter per hour? The
answer is: there are many, many charge

carriers moving at once throughout the whole length of the circuit. Current is
the rate at which charge crosses a point on a circuit. A high current is the
result of several coulombs of charge crossing over a cross section of a wire
on a circuit. If the charge carriers are densely packed into the wire, then
there does not have to be a high speed to have a high current. That is, the
charge carriers do not have to travel a long distance in a second, there just
has to be a lot of them passing through the cross section. Current does not
have to do with how far charges move in a second but rather with how many
charges pass through a cross section of wire on a
circuit.
To illustrate how densely packed the charge carriers
are, we will consider a typical wire found in household
lighting circuits - a 14-gauge copper wire. In a 0.01 cmlong (very thin) cross-sectional slice of this wire, there
would be as many as 3.51 x 1020 copper atoms. Each
copper atom has 29 electrons; it would be unlikely that even the 11 valence
electrons would be in motion as charge carriers at once. If we assume that
each copper atom contributes just a single electron, then there would be as
much as 56 coulombs of charge within a thin 0.01-cm length of the wire.
With that much mobile charge within such a small space, a small drift speed
could lead to a very large current.
To further illustrate this distinction between drift speed and current, consider
this racing analogy. Suppose that there was a very large turtle race with
millions and millions of turtles on a very wide race track. Turtles do not move
very fast - they have a very low drift speed. Suppose that the race was
rather short - say 1 meter in length - and that a large percentage of the
turtles reached the finish line at the same time - 30 minutes after the start of
the race. In such a case, the current would be very large - with millions of
turtles passing a point in a short amount of time. In this analogy, speed has
to do with how far the turtles move in a certain amount of time; and current
has to do with how many turtles cross the finish line in a certain amount of
time.

The Nature of Charge Flow

Once it has been established that the average drift speed of an electron is
very, very slow, the question soon arises: Why does the light in a room or in
a flashlight light immediately after the switched is turned on? Wouldn't there
be a noticeable time delay before a charge carrier moves from the switch to
the light bulb filament? The answer is NO! and the explanation of why
reveals a significant amount about the nature of charge flow in a circuit.
As mentioned above, charge carriers in the wires of electric circuits are
electrons. These electrons are simply supplied by the atoms of copper (or
whatever material the wire is made of) within the metal wire. Once the
switch is turned to on, the circuit is closed and there is an electric potential
difference is established across the two ends of the external circuit. The
electric field signal travels at nearly the speed of light to all mobile electrons
within the circuit, ordering them to begin marching. As the signal is received,
the electrons begin moving along a zigzag path in their usual direction. Thus,
the flipping of the switch causes an immediate response throughout every
part of the circuit, setting charge carriers everywhere in motion in the same
net direction. While the actual motion of charge carriers occurs with a slow
speed, the signal that informsthem to start moving travels at a fraction of
the speed of light.
The electrons that light the bulb in a flashlight
do not have to first travel from the switch
through 10 cm of wire to the filament. Rather,
the electrons that light the bulb immediately after the switch is turned
toon are the electrons that are present in the filament itself. As the switch is
flipped, all mobile electrons everywhere begin marching; and it is the mobile
electrons present in the filament whose motion are immediately responsible
for the lighting of its bulb. As those electrons leave the filament, new
electrons enter and become the ones that are responsible for lighting the
bulb. The electrons are moving together much like the water in the pipes of a
home move. When a faucet is turned on, it is the water in the faucet that
emerges from the spigot. One does not have to wait a noticeable time for
water from the entry point to your home to travel through the pipes to the
spigot. The pipes are already filled with water and water everywhere within
the water circuit is set in motion at the same time.
The picture of charge flow being developed here is a picture in which charge
carriers are like soldiers marching along together, everywhere at the same

rate. Their marching begins immediately in response to the establishment of

an electric potential across the two ends of the circuit. There is no place in
the electrical circuit where charge carriers become consumed or used up.
While the energy possessed by the charge may be used up (or a better way
of putting this is to say that the electric energy is transformed to other forms
of energy), the charge carriers themselves do not disintegrate, disappear or
otherwise become removed from the circuit. And there is no place in the
circuit where charge carriers begin to pile up or accumulate. The rate at
which charge enters the external circuit on one end is the same as the rate
at which charge exits the external circuit on the other end. Current - the rate
of charge flow - is everywhere the same. Charge flow is like the movement of
soldiers marching in step together, everywhere at
the same rate.