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It is useful, at this point, to recall the developments that have taken place in both the tyre and
vehicle industries that have enabled heavy goods vehicle operators to become efficient
contributors to the European economy, and that will no doubt continue to do so.
These developments have been summarised earlier in this report in the following figure.

The trend for some years on heavy goods vehicle weights and dimensions regulation has
been to increase allowable weights. Generally, such increases have been to maximum gross
vehicle weights. In order to take advantage of increased gross vehicle weights, the total
number of axles on the vehicle has increased. From the "Old" to the "Current" situation, for
example, the number of trailer axles increased from 2 to 3. As a result of economic pressures,
vehicle operators later took advantage of developments to then existing tyre fitments that
improved performance and reliability. Such tyres produced significant advantages to the
operator: these included reduced tare weights (and therefore increased payloads), reduced
fuel consumption due to lower rolling resistance, and reduced tyre maintenance costs.
In the "Near Future" scenario, further tyre developments will be used to again reduce tare
weights and rolling resistance, probably on the drive axle, and to decrease tyre maintenance
costs by rationalising the number of different tyre fitments used on a vehicle. An example of
the latter is the trend to use of wide single tyres on steering axles, which the use of power
steering on most vehicles makes possible. This reduces the need to stock or carry on the
vehicle combination more than two tyre sizes, brings about savings in tyre wear, and allows
re-use of front tyres on the trailer after re-capping. The use of technologically advanced
materials in tyre construction, generally to reduce rolling resistance, has enhanced these
savings.

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In the "Far Future" scenario, it is anticipated that the tyre industry in particular, and to a lesser
extent the vehicle manufacturing industry, will make additional advances that will enable
further economies to be made in the road transport sector. However, these economies could
occur at the expense of additional road maintenance costs or other disadvantages.
During the period of these technological advances, there have also been other developments
that significantly affect the interaction of vehicle and road, often to the detriment of the road
and its function. For example, the increase in road traffic over the past 30 years, for both
passengers and goods, has been dramatic, often exceeding predictions. Despite considerable
capital investment in road infrastructure over the same period, road capacity is frequently
severely tested, particularly on major routes. Road strengthening to meet the increased
numbers and weights of heavy vehicles has taken place, more recently using advanced
materials for surfacing and underlying layers.
Simultaneously, the trend towards increased use of wide single tyres instead of dual tyres,
coupled with more "canalising" of goods vehicles due to increased traffic, have raised the
stresses to which pavement surfacings have been subjected. A degree of overloading of a
small proportion of heavy goods vehicles in most European countries adds to these stresses,
with the result that pavement deterioration takes place more rapidly than expected, and is of a
type not previously seen to any significant extent.
Against this background, of unquantified but perceived reduced costs to vehicle operators,
increased costs to road owners, benefits in safety, and reduced costs in environmental
aspects, COST 334 has carried out a programme of work to quantify these costs and benefits,
and propose ways in which they may be balanced.
The detailed results of the work of the Action have been reported in earlier Chapters, and the
purpose of the present Chapter is to summarise those results. The breadth of the work
covered, however, makes it necessary to present such a summary in a concise and relevant
manner. For this reason, the conclusions of the work are set down in separate sections,
appropriate to:

Tyre fitment and pavement wear


Tyre fitment and vehicle handling
Tyre fitment and environmental effects
Tyre fitment and vehicle operating costs
Overall economic effects of the use of different tyre fitments.

On the basis of the conclusions drawn from the work, it is also possible to make
recommendations on the development of future tyre fitments, including current sizes, and on
the use of the results obtained in pavement design. These recommendations are presented
separately, and related to the appropriate conclusions. Recommendations made need to be
considered in the light of the current legal framework concerning tyres on heavy goods
vehicles, and a description of this setting is included as an introduction to the
recommendations.


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In examining the conclusions of the work in this area, it is useful to first recall some of the
definitions that have been used for the purposes of COST 334.

Footprint
Tyre fitment

The area of the contact patch between the tyre and the road surface.
Refers to the tyre as a wide single fitment, or as a dual tyre
assembly.

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Primary Road Network Defined, for the purposes of COST 334, as the network of principal
roads in a country or state, generally comprising motorways
(autoroutes, autostrade, etc) and other principal roads, state owned
or otherwise. This network provides the major links between large
urban areas and key national long-distance routes.
Secondary road
network
Defined, for the purposes of COST 334, as the network of secondary
roads in a country or state, generally comprising those roads owned
by state, regional or local authorities, and acting as links between
primary routes, but excluding some rural roads.
Primary rutting
The mode of pavement deterioration by which rutting occurs
principally in the asphaltic or bituminous layers, mainly
occurring in the pavement surfacing of the primary network.
Secondary rutting:
One of the modes of pavement deterioration of the secondary
network occuring in the subgrade or granular layers of the pavement.
Fatigue cracking
Cracking in the bituminous or cement bound material originating at
the bottom of the respective layers, due to fatigue of the material by a
great number of repetitions of bending due to wheel loads. (Such
cracking does not include surface cracking and cracking due to
thermal cycling.) Fatigue cracking is one of the modes of deterioration
of the secondary network.
Thin pavement
Medium pavement
Thick pavement

A pavement with a thickness of bituminous layers of 100 mm or less,


A pavement with a bituminous thickness of around 200 mm,
A pavement with bituminous thickness of around 300 mm or more.

Terms used in modelling


of pavement wear in
relation to tyre
parameters:
"Width" (for widthbased model)

"Total Width" (for total


width-based model)

Axle Wear Factor

Tyre Configuration
Factor (TCF)

In the context of tyre parameters, this term is used to describe the


footprint width for wide base singles. For dual tyres the width is taken
as twice the footprint width of the individual tyres. (All width values
consider footprint (tyre contact area envelope) width, not tyre section
width.)
In the context of tyre parameters, this term is used to describe the
footprint width for wide base singles. For dual tyres the Total Width is
taken as twice the footprint width of the individual tyres plus the
spacing between the footprints of the dual. This spacing is of the
order of 100 mm for all dual tyre fitments.
The Axle Wear Factor (AWF) is a dimensionless factor that relates
the damage contribution of a single passage of an axle fitted with
tyres of a specific tyre width and inflated to a given cold inflation
pressure, carrying a given axle load , to the damage contribution of a
single passage of an axle with the reference tyre (295/80R22.5 dual
fitment with a cold inflation pressure of 650kPa) carrying the reference
load of 10 tonnes.
A factor describing the pavement wear attributable to
different tyre fitments and sizes, when compared with an
arbitrarily selected reference tyre, at equal load. The TCF includes
factors for specific tyre characteristics, in relation to their
performance regarding dynamic force transmissibilty, and potential
load imbalance.The chosen reference tyre, with a TCF of 1.0, is the
most commonly used drive axle tyre, namely 295/80R22.5.

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Load imbalance
Dynamic Loading

Differences in tyre load between the tyres of a dual wheel assembly.


The effect by which vehicle loads applied to the road surface
increase and decrease in response to pavement unevenness and
other factors. Dynamic loading is strongly influenced by vehicle
suspension type.

The conclusions of the work carried out by COST 334 on the relative damaging effects of
different tyre sizes on road pavements involve many different complex and inter-related
parameters that have been identified as contributing to pavement distress. For the purposes
of simplifying these complexities, the conclusions of the work are separated into general
conclusions, those related to the tyre concept and tyre width, size of contact area, tyre inflation
pressure and contact stress distribution and those related to the relative pavement wear of the
current tyres. The interaction between many of these conclusions should, however, be
remembered.
The work of COST 334 was confined to bituminous pavements; for concrete pavements, it is
expected that there will be only small influences on pavement wear due to differences in tyre
configuration. For bridges, viaducts, etc. no specific conclusions were drawn.
*HQHUDO

1. Large differences in relative pavement wear exist among dual tyre assemblies and among
wide-base single tyres. Therefore, a single factor for the difference between wide-base
single and dual tyres is not applicable. Comparisons between pavement wear effects can
only be made if the detailed characteristics of the tyre fitments are taken into account.
2. The pavement wear effects of different tyres vary according to the types and thickness of
pavement, as well as their associated distress modes. For this reason COST 334
developed the concept of the Tyre Configuration Factor (TCF). The TCF of a tyre
expresses the amount of pavement wear, depending on the pavement thickness and
distress mode considered, relative to an arbitrarily chosen reference tyre. In use, the
higher the TCF value, the higher the pavement wear (with the same axle loads,
suspension type, etc.).
3. The TCF formulae developed from the work enable the quantification of the pavement
wear effects of current and future different tyre fitments and sizes. The derivation of TCF
formulae for all pavement thicknesses was not possible in all cases, however, because of
insufficient data.
4. On the basis of the TCF formulae, the main influencing factors for pavement wear are the
width (see Conclusions 6 and 7) and size of the tyre-pavement contact area, and the ratio
of the actual inflation pressure over the recommended inflation pressure for the actual
load (hereafter referred to as the pressure ratio).
5. It was found that the thinner the pavement, the stronger was the influence of differences in
tyre configurations on pavement wear.

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6. For primary rutting (mainly on thick and medium pavements) the main width parameter is
Width, being the footprint width for wide base singles, and for dual tyres twice the footprint
width of the individual tyres. (All width values consider footprint (tyre contact area
envelope) width, not tyre section width.) As a consequence, for this distress mode,
pavement wear due to wide base single tyres or dual tyre assemblies does not differ
significantly, when the axle load, tread pattern width, contact area, tyre diameter and
pressure ratio are equal.
7. For secondary rutting and fatigue cracking on thin and medium pavements the main width
parameter is the Total Width of the footprint of the tyre assembly. [For dual tyre
assemblies this includes the distance (100mm) between the footprints of the individual
tyres.]. As a consequence, single and dual tyre assemblies will produce equal TCF values
indicating equal pavement wear, when the Total Width is equal (all other factors being

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equal). Usually, however, for the same axle load, current dual tyres will have a greater
Total Width than a current wide single tyre.
8. For secondary rutting and fatigue cracking on thick pavements there is little difference
between different fitments and sizes of tyres, as the pavement wear is dominated by the
overall magnitude of the load carried in these cases.

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9. In addition to its width, the length of the tyre-pavement contact area was shown to be
influential in the cases of primary rutting on thick (and probably thin and medium)
pavements and fatigue on thin and medium pavements. Combined, this signifies the
influence of the size of the tyre-pavement contact area, and hence the average contact
stress. Sensitivity analysis showed that a decrease of 10% in contact area results in a 939% increase in pavement wear for these cases. No similar conclusion could be drawn for
secondary rutting because of a lack of data.
10. The tyre diameter can also be taken as an indicator for the contact area length and the
related pavement wear. A reduced tyre diameter will lead to increased pavement wear
(when all other tyre parameters remain constant). This is important in the context of a
trend towards the use of smaller-diameter tyres in Europe, to allow the lower platform
heights that will accommodate volume-limited loads to be carried, rather than masslimited loads
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11. The tyre inflation pressure is not a direct parameter in the TCF formulae. For the same
load and tyre, higher inflation pressures generally result in a smaller tyre-pavement
contact area, and thereby increased surface stress in the pavement As a consequence,
higher inflation pressures generally result in higher pavement wear, especially on thin
pavements.
12. The ratio of actual to recommended inflation pressure was shown to be influential for the
cases of primary rutting on thick (and probably medium) pavements and secondary rutting
on thin and medium pavements. An inflation pressure 10% higher than that recommended
for the actual tyre load results in about 15% increase in pavement wear. In such a case of
over-inflation, the contact stress distribution is non-uniform and the load is concentrated
on a smaller area.
13. The detailed contact stress distribution within the contact area is probably relevant for
distress modes whose origin is at or close to the pavement surface, such as ravelling
(loss of aggregate in the pavement surfacing) and surface cracking. Although COST 334
established good techniques for the measurement of these distributions, insufficient data
was obtained to draw robust conclusions.
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14. By comparison with other effects, tyre fitment does not significantly affect the dynamic
loading of the road pavement.
Experimental work reported by COST 334 shows that, for the tyre fitments tested, the dynamic
loading applied by the truck is not changed significantly by the choice of tyre fitment. Dynamic
loading can significantly increase pavement damage, and it had been thought that the
contribution of tyre stiffness to the suspension characteristics controlling the phenomenon
may be a significant factor. On the basis of the work carried out, this appears not to be the
case.
15. By comparison with other effects, the effect of load imbalance between tyres on a dual
assembly was found not to significantly affect pavement wear or other aspects.
Load imbalance between tyres on a dual tyre assembly is brought about primarily by different
inflation pressures in each of the tyres, and by truck axle geometry and pavement profile.

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Surveys have shown that this difference (in relation to the recommended inflation pressure)
can be large, but is confined to a small proportion of the truck fleet. The work of COST 334
has shown that load imbalance effects on pavement wear and other aspects is negligible in
comparison with other effects.
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As stated earlier, TCF values vary according to the pavement thickness and distress mode
under consideration. For practical use, values for the current common and possible future
tyres (rim sizes 19.5 and 22.5 inches) were determined for the European primary road network
(based on primary rutting in the bituminous layers of thick pavements) and the European
secondary road network (based on a weighted average of the three distress modes on
medium pavements, namely primary rutting, secondary rutting and fatigue cracking). Most
road freight in Europe is carried on the primary networks, however, and greater importance is
attached to these.
16. Common current and possible future dual tyre assemblies for towed axles have TCF
values for primary roads ranging from 1.5 to 1.7 and for secondary roads TCF values of
1.3 to 1.5. Current common and possible future wide base single tyres for towed axles
have TCF values for primary roads ranging from 1.5 to 2.2 and for secondary roads TCF
values ranging from 2.2 to 3.6. On average the use of current common or possible future
wide base singles on towed axles, instead of dual tyre assemblies, increases the
contribution of these axles to pavement wear on primary roads and secondary roads by
17% and 97%, respectively.
17. Common current and possible future dual tyre assemblies for driven axles have TCF
values for primary roads ranging from 0.9 to 1.3 and for secondary roads TCF values
ranging from 0.9 to 1.2. The prototype extra-wide base single tyre 495/45R22.5 for use on
drive axles has a TCF value of 1.2 on primary roads and 1.6 on secondary roads. On
average, the use of wide base singles on driven axles, instead of common current dual
tyre assemblies, increases the contribution of these axles to pavement wear on primary
roads and secondary roads by 17% and 64%, respectively.
18. Conventional single tyres for steering axles have TCF values for primary roads ranging
from 2.8 to 4.0 and for secondary roads TCF values ranging from 5.0 to 8.0. Current
common and possible future wide base single tyres (from the 385 - fitment and wider) for
steering axles have TCF values for primary roads of 1.9 to 2.2 and for secondary roads
TCF values of 2.8 to 3.6. On average the use of current common and possible future wide
base singles on steering axles reduces the contribution of this axle to pavement wear on
primary and secondary roads by 36% and 45% respectively.
19. Conventional single tyres for steering axles are relatively more damaging than the
common dual tyre assemblies for driven and towed axles, and wide single tyres for towed
axles. This is partly alleviated by lower loads on the steering axles, but in practice the
steering axle still may cause more pavement wear than a driven or towed axle.

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Based on the TCF value of tyres, the damage contribution of a single passage of an axle can
be calculated using the appropriate formula, taking into account the actual axle load. This
damage contribution is expressed as the number of passages of the reference tyre with the
reference load of 10 tonnes, that gives the same amount of damage. This number is called
the Axle Wear Factor (AWF).

For the current common and possible future tyre sizes (for rim sizes 19.5 and 22.5 inches),
AWF values were determined for different axle loads for the European primary road networks.
20. Current common and possible future tyre assemblies for the driven axle, either with duals
or wide base singles, have, at a load level of 11.5 tonne, AWF values ranging from 1.2 to
1.7. Current common and possible future tyre sizes for the towed axle, either with duals or

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wide base singles, have, for their respective maximum allowable load levels (between 8
and 10 tonne), AWF values ranging from 1.1 to 1.9. This range of values is very similar to
that for the driven axle. Finally, current common and possible future tyres for the steering
axle, fitted with either conventional singles or wide base singles, have, at their respective
maximum allowable axle load (between 6.5 and 9 tonne), AWF values ranging from 1,4
to 1,9. This range is marginally higher than that for the driven axle. That the lower level of
the axle loads on the towed axles is not reflected in lower AWF values, is explained by the
fact that generally, relative to the axle load, wider tyres are used on the driven axle. The
marginally higher AWF values of the steering axle, though having a much lower load in
comparison with the driven axle, is explained by the fact that on the steering axle, all load
must be transferred by two tyres, whereas for the driven axle, four tyres are usually used.



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In the area of the effects of tyre fitment on vehicle handling, it is useful to recall some of the
definitions of effects that have been given in the full report of the work.
Vehicle handling

Those characteristics of the vehicle that control the ability of the driver
and vehicle to carry out driving manoeuvres safely and efficiently.
Lateral stability
For a single unit vehicle the stability is related to the understeering/over-steering characteristics. The under-steering or stability
gradient, expresses how the steer angle is related to the lateral
acceleration in a steady-state turn. If the stability gradient is negative
there is a critical speed when the vehicle is unstable.
Longitudinal stability
The factor governing the ability of the vehicle to stop, and therefore
controlling the stopping distance of the vehicle.
Off-Tracking
Off tracking is the lateral deviation between the path of the centre-line
point of the front axle of he vehicle and the path of a centre-line point
of some other part of the vehicle. If a single number is given, it refers
to the maximum off-tracking
Rearward Amplification The Rearward Amplification is the ratio of the maximum value of the
quantity of interest of a following vehicle unit to that of the first vehicle
unit during some kind of manoeuvre. The quantity of interest may be,
for instance, lateral acceleration or yaw velocity
The results of COST 334 work in the area of vehicle handling are based on the experimental
testing of selected vehicle types in a range of test conditions. These are supported by
theoretical work using widely accepted simulation models of vehicle behaviour, which were
validated by full-scale tests. The vehicles considered were:
A rigid truck, conforming to ISO 3833
A rigid truck and trailer conforming to ISO 3833
An articulated vehicle (tractor and semi-trailer) conforming to ISO 3833
On the basis of the work carried out, it was concluded that:
21. In general, the use of wide single tyres on drive axles, when compared with dual tyres,
improves vehicle under-steering in the direction of increased lateral stability, for the
vehicles and tyres tested.
Because of the increased lateral stiffness confirmed on the range of vehicles and tyre fitments
tested, wide single tyres provide a higher degree of lateral stability to the vehicle, leading to
improved under-steering. This is an important conclusion, since drivers report that this
situation is preferable, in relation to their handling of the vehicle, than over-steer.

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22. In the case of the 2-axle rigid truck, the handling behaviour brought about by the use of
the wide base single tyre on the drive axle also reduced the lateral acceleration phase of
the vehicle during a given driving manoeuvre.
In practical terms, this conclusion implies that the steering phase lag experienced in the
cornering manoeuvre is significantly reduced by the use of wide single tyres. This leads to a
driver perception of increased stability and steering response, thus benefiting vehicle handling
behaviour.
The increased lateral stiffness of the wide single tyre contributes more to vehicle handling
behaviour than the increased spring base that is the result of their use.
One of the benefits previously claimed for the use of wide single tyres is that the wider spring
base they provide leads to increased vehicle stability, i.e. reduced risk of roll-over. This
conclusion supports this view, but suggests that the improvement is mainly due to the
increased lateral stiffness of the tyre.
23. In relation to sudden tyre defects (punctures) in the drive axle tyres, no increased risk due
to the use of wide single tyres was established by the simulated tests carried out.
The simulated tests carried out showed that the over-steering effect caused by the puncture
was in most cases smaller than the benefits to under-steering brought about by the use of
the wide single tyre. The over-steering and subsequent jack-knifing that may be the
consequence of a puncture when a dual tyre assembly was used was replaced by a very
pronounced under-steering effect when wide single tyres were used. The results of the
simulations carried out need to be supported by experimental tests on full-scale vehicles,
and/or by monitoring of accident statistics, to take account of future developments in this area.
The tyre industry should be encouraged to look closely at run-flat systems, inflation pressure
monitoring systems, etc., to stimulate further safety improvements.


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COST 334 addressed the matter of the environmental effects of the use of wide single and
dual tyres in two ways. First, their effects on tyre-road noise emissions was assessed, and
second, their effects on gaseous emissions were assessed by consideration of changes in the
rolling resistance (and thereby fuel consumption) of each tyre fitment.
24. In relation to tyre-road noise emissions, the work found no significant overall difference
between the noise generated by each tyre fitment, when used on drive axles or trailer
axles.
Tests were carried out by two laboratories, and although differences were observed between
the tyre fitments, in one case a significant difference in noise emissions from trailer axles, the
overall difference is considered to be negligible.
25. The use of the wide single tyres generally reduced fuel consumption, and thereby
significantly reduced total CO2 emissions.
The use of the wide single tyre substantially reduced rolling resistance (in some cases by as
much as 20%). This leads to fuel consumption savings and significant environmental benefits
in terms of CO2 emissions. The fuel saved by a long-haul truck in 1 year by the use of wide
single tyres on drive and trailer axles may amount to 1100 litres, equivalent to 2.7 tonnes CO2,
and 60kg of NOx.


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Vehicle Operating Costs (VOC) are significantly affected by the choice of tyre fitment. Thus,
tyres with reduced rolling resistance lead to reduced fuel costs, and tyre fitments lighter than
those used previously bring about potential increases in payload, with associated economic
benefits. The work of COST 334 in the area of VOC made use of the Past, Current, and
possible Future scenarios identified by the Group as being appropriate in Europe. The work
also examined more particular situations, such as the possible use of prototype wide single
tyres on the drive axles of heavy goods vehicles. As a result of this work, it was concluded
that:
26. The choice of tyre fitment on the driven axle of a 40 tonne gross vehicle weight trucksemi-trailer vehicle can affect the VOC by up to 1%, as a result of 2% changes in fuel
consumption.
In the economics of heavy goods vehicle operation, this is a significant saving for truck
operators. The prototype 495/45R22.5 wide single tyre for drive axles is therefore likely to be
taken up by vehicle operators, if or when it becomes commercially available.
27. A further saving of 1% is available to truck operators from the use of lighter tyres and
wheels, when these weight savings are translated into increased payload.
COST 334 were informed of possible future developments by the heavy goods vehicle
industry (including tyre manufacturers) in meeting client demand. These would include the
development of lighter tyres and wheels to carry the same loads as currently apply. The
savings in tare weight that these would allow could be translated into increased payload,
thereby increasing the efficiency of the operation. The benefit of this was estimated to be
about 1% for a standard 40 tonne unit, if, for each trip, the higher payload available from the
use of lighter wheel can be fully utilised.
28. VOCs are strongly influenced by taxes, particularly fuel taxes.
COST 334 were advised that in order to make a pure comparison between the effects of the
use of different tyre fitments in an evaluation of the total economic consequences, then taxes
of the type often referred to as transfer taxes should be removed from the consideration.
However, COST 334 took the view that the examination of the use of different tyre fitments
undertaken by them was not a pure comparison, but more accurately, a commercial
comparison, and the primary results are based on this view. A further examination taking into
account the removal of transfer taxes (or at least those that could be easily identified and
quantified), demonstrated the strong influence of such taxes. Generally in Europe, fuel costs
with taxes account for about 30% of VOC, whereas fuel costs without taxes account for about
10% of VOC for a standard 40 tonne unit.
29.

When VOC is considered without taxes, differences between the past and current tyre
configurations selected by COST 334, and described in the Figure at the beginning of this
Chapter, may be up to 3% in VOCs. A further 0.5% saving is available between the
current and possible future tyre configurations.

The different costs between the past and current configurations arises not only from the
number of axles and their tyre configurations, but also from the trend towards the use of low
rolling resistance tyres.
This conclusion implies that developments in tyre technology over the last 10-15 years have
resulted in significant benefits to heavy vehicle operators, and that future developments are
likely to continue this trend. The application of the Tyre Configuration factor, and the limits on
TCF suggested later, will ensure that these benefits may be balanced by minimising the
additional pavement damage they may cause.
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The work of COST 334 in the various areas noted above was consolidated into an overall view
of the effects of the use of wide single tyres and dual tyres by aggregating their effects in
financial terms. In order to achieve this, costs and values needed to be attributed to each
separate effect, and this was done using, wherever possible, widely accepted figures. This
phase of the work proved to be especially difficult, because of a lack of available data, and
required a number of assumptions. Nevertheless, the results of the aggregation of costs is
believed to be the most reliable that could be obtained.
The estimation of overall costs and benefits was applied to the three situations considered
elsewhere by COST 334, namely:
a)

the past situation, before the introduction of wide base single tyres.

b)

the present situation in which wide base single tyres are widely used on the towed
axles (trailer and semi-trailers), of vehicles, but not on the driven axles of motor
vehicles.

c)

a possible future evolution in which motor vehicle steering axles would be fitted with
wide base single tyres of the size currently used on towed axles, and driven axles
would also be equipped with wide base single tyres - the all-wide-base tyre vehicle.
(The necessary tyre sizes for fitting drive axles are not yet commercially available, but
sufficient data were generously provided by the tyre manufacturing industry to allow
COST 334 to make the computations).

In addition, other possible future configurations were evaluated, to enable comparisons to be


drawn.
The overall results of the estimation of total costs and benefits were as shown in the following
Table.

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RSHUDWRUVJRYHUQPHQWVDQGVRFLHW\ $OOILJXUHVLQ0LOOLRQ" 

Period
(vehicle
and tyre
fitments)

Operator

Government

Pavement
Maintenance
Costs

Tax
Income

Past

Vehicle
Operating
Costs

Non
Non
Pavement
Pavement
Costs - Gov Costs - Ope

Costs Diff.
Related to
Present

2648

785

2686

Present

Ref

747

Ref

Future

-881

699

- 929

Past

6084

+572

4474

- 384

Present

6095

Ref

4275

Ref

Future

6026

- 483

4107

246

Evolution of

Past

6084

572

2648

4474

785

2302

Society

Present

6095

Ref

Ref

4275

747

Ref

Costs

Future

6026

- 483

- 881

4107

699

- 682

NB :
Pavement maintenance costs do NOT include any associated user costs due to traffic
delays brought about by the maintenance operation

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The non pavement costs attributed to the governments are the consequences of the
compensation of the HGV polluting emissions. The ones attributed to the hauliers are the
consequences of the tyres and wheels recycling.
The difference between past and present situation is due to both the tyre characteristics
improvement and the evolution in maximum authorised vehicle weight (38 to 40 tonnes).
With the "diameter model" for the TCF computations, the final differences for the Society
would be very comparable : 2360 and 779 M? instead of, respectively, 2302 and 682
M? in table 7.27.

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30. The benefits of the use of wide single tyres on heavy goods vehicles, in terms of reduced
vehicle operating costs and reduced gaseous emissions, are significantly greater than the
additional pavement maintenance costs they cause.
On the basis of pavement maintenance costs alone, the use of the wide single tyre on this
vehicle combination has been detrimental. However, the advantages in terms of VOC, and
environmental costs, outweigh these additional costs.
Based on the evaluation of the impact of the HGV tyre fitments on annual pavement
maintenance costs, vehicle operating costs and other non-pavement costs (pollution,
manufacturing and disposal), it was found that the use of present vehicle and tyre
configurations (80 series tyres on the motor vehicles, and wide base singles on the towed
axles of 5-axle vehicles with a maximum weight of 40 tonnes) leads to a societal cost
reduction of about 2300 million ? at the EU level when compared to the previous situation (alldual 90 series 22.5" tyres on a 4-axle vehicle with a maximum weight of 38 tonnes).
&RPSDULQJWKHSUHVHQW E VLWXDWLRQWRWKHSRVVLEOHIXWXUH F VLWXDWLRQ
31. On the same basis, it was found that the use of a possible future all-wide-base-single tyre
configuration on the same 5-axle vehicle would lead to a new societal cost reduction,
when compared with the present tyre configuration on that vehicle.
Overall, the possible future scenario would produce savings of about 700 million ?, including
about 60 million ? of pavement maintenance costs.
The possible future all-wide-single tyre configuration would also be beneficial for road safety,
comfort of the driver and payload and would be beneficial to the design of trucks and buses.
However, it was not possible to translate these advantages into reliable financial estimates.
In moving from the current situation to the possible future situation, it would be necessary to
consider several points of view.
From the point of view of the vehicle operator, the introduction of the all-wide-single tyre
vehicle would reduce operating costs. These savings would arise principally as reduced fuel
costs, with some savings also in tyre maintenance costs.
From the point of view of that part of national governments responsible for the road networks,
namely road authorities, the possible future situation would be likely to result in a small
reduction in pavement maintenance costs. This somewhat surprising result is the
consequence of the use of slightly more damaging tyres on the drive axles of the vehicle, and
less damaging tyres on the front axle.
Government environmental authorities would derive benefit from the possible future situation.
Vehicle emissions would be reduced, and it is likely that there would be no impact on road-tyre
noise emissions.
Society at large would benefit from the possible future situation. In addition to the overall
financial benefits of the change, there are likely to be additional benefits to health and safety.

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Other Possible Future situations were also investigated by COST 334, namely:

Using 425/65R22.5 tyres on the towed axles, instead of the present 385/65R22.5. The
reference 80 series tyres would be kept on the motor vehicles. This would increase the
tread width and reduce the tyre inflation pressure on the towed axles and lead to a
reduction of pavement wear and pavement maintenance costs. However, it would
increase the rolling resistance and the tyre and wheel weight, with a negative impact on
the vehicle operating costs and the environmental costs.

Retaining standard 70 or 80 series tyres on the front axles, while using wide-base single
tyres on the driven and standard wide base single tyres on towed axles. This would allow
conclusions to be drawn on the effect of the introduction of prototype wide base single
tyres on driven axles.

32. These results showed that:


32.1

Replacing current 385/65R22.5 by 425/65R22.5 on the towed axles of the


HGV would be less damaging to the pavements, but globally more expensive
at the EU level.

32.2

Retaining the 70-series tyres on steering axles, with 495/45R22.5 wide base
single tyres on the driven axles, and standard wide base single tyres on towed
axles of the vehicles is more damaging to the pavement by about 70 million ?,
but globally less expensive at the EU level, by about 500 million ?.

33. Building on the Tyre Configuration Factor, further work was carried out to include other
economic aspects of tyre performance, namely rolling resistance and mass of the tyrewheel assembly.
2QWKHFXUUHQW/HJDODQG5HJXODWRU\VHWWLQJ
A comprehensive review of the technical standards, Directives and Regulations that might be
suitable for the implementation of the results of COST 334 showed that:
34. There is no current technical standard or piece of legislation that accurately reflects the
findings of this COST action.
35. Introducing or amending a technical standard to incorporate the findings of this COST
action, without the force of legislation, is only likely to have a limited impact in preventing
or reducing road pavement damage.
36. Introducing legislation at the European level that is binding on all Member States both
nationally and internationally would be the most effective way of preventing or reducing
road pavement damage throughout the EU.



5(&200(1'$7,216

On the basis of the work completed by COST 334, and particularly on the conclusions drawn,
it is clear that a number of recommendations can be made to assist the future development of
the European road transport and tyre manufacturing industries, while protecting road
authorities and tax-payers from increased future maintenance costs due to poorly-optimised
tyre fitments. At the same time, such recommendations could lead to other societal benefits
arising in the field of safety and environment.

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In the opinion of COST 334, some of the recommendations to be made will need to be
implemented into current or future legislation, while others may be voluntary. In either case, it
is useful at this point to highlight some of the main points of the current regulatory framework
affecting the use of different tyre fitments.


&XUUHQW/HJDODQG5HJXODWRU\VHWWLQJ

On the basis of the review carried out, and the conclusions it reached, the following
recommendations are made for implementation of the results of COST 334.

$WWKH(XURSHDQ/HYHO

q
q
q
q

The UNECE tyre construction Regulation 54 and the EU tyre construction Directive
92/23/EEC should be amended to include the findings of COST 334.
Directive 96/53/EC on the maximum authorised dimensions and weight of vehicles on an
international journey should be amended to include a link between the findings of this
COST action and the maximum gross and axle weights of lorries and buses.
Directive 97/27/EC should be amended to recognise the findings of this COST action in
the same way that it already recognises a specification for road friendly suspension.
Any future European Vignette system should include the findings of this COST action.

$WWKH1DWLRQDOOHYHO

q
q

To encourage road friendlier vehicle designs Member States should consider linking the
findings of this COST action to national maximum vehicle weight limits.
To encourage improved vehicle designs Member States should consider ways of
introducing or linking fiscal measures to the findings of this COST action.



6SHFLILF5HFRPPHQGDWLRQV

 2QWKHXVHRIW\UHSDUDPHWHUVLQURDGSDYHPHQWGHVLJQ
The development of the Tyre Configuration Factor allows discrimination between different
tyre fitments based on the corresponding damage they cause to road pavements. It is
recommended, therefore, that the TCF should be used by national road authorities in the
design process to better estimate the damaging effect of the traffic that roads are
designed to carry.
Implementation of this recommendation will require that the design authority undertakes
appropriate surveys of the national fleet of road transport vehicles, to establish the
numbers and types of vehicle, their tyre equipment, and other factors. Approximations
can of course be made by the judicious use of sample surveys, the results of which are
extended to the national situation. Alternatively, specific surveys may be carried out for
the design of a given road.
 2QWKHDSSOLFDWLRQRIWKH7\UH&RQILJXUDWLRQ)DFWRUWRW\UHGHVLJQDQGXVH
The results of the COST 334 work show that the use of a limit on TCF can be used to
guide the design of new tyre sizes, and the further development of existing tyre sizes. It is
recommended, therefore, that limiting values of TCF be placed on new and developing
tyre fitments.
The limits to be used should be as follows:

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3URSRVHG7&)OLPLWVIRUD[OHW\SHVLQUHODWLRQWRDSSOLHGD[OHORDG
URXQGHGWRQHDUHVW 
6,5
3URSRVHGOLPLW 
all axle types:
AWF=1,65

7,0

Axle load in tonne


7,5
8,0
9,0 10,0
TCF limits

11,5

      

ie. Steering,
driven and
towed
* with possible exceptions for tyre sizes having a low market share and for special purpose vehicles, such as the
13R22.5, mainly fitted on public works trucks.
COST 334 believes that these limits should be implemented into appropriate EU legislation. In
general, the principles of implementation into the appropriate legislation could be as follows:
a) Include TCF limits in the appropriate legislation. The tyre and vehicle industries
will need an agreed period in which to adapt and focus their efforts on new tyre
design and tyre construction to meet the limits.
b) A period should also be negotiated with the tyre and vehicle industry to allow the
sale of existing, stocked, vehicle types (especially with respect to the tyre
mounting).
F  Finally, negotiations with the tyre and vehicle industry should establish a time
period for the sale of tyres that do not meet the proposed TCF limits. 

 2Q0D[LPXP'HVLJQHG2SHUDWLQJ7\UH,QIODWLRQ3UHVVXUH

In addition to the proposed limits on TCF value of the tyre, it is also recommended that a
maximum limit be placed on the manufacturer-recommended inflation pressure of the
tyre (measured cold) according to the allowable load level of the specific axle on which
the tyre is mounted. This will ensure that the TCF limits cannot be inadvertently exceeded
by the use of increased inflation pressure.
The proposed maximum designed operating tyre inflation pressure (measured cold) is 9
bars.
Much progress has been made in recent years on the development of on-board systems
for the measurement and control of tyre inflation pressures. It is further recommended,
therefore, that consideration is given to introducing legislation requiring the use of such
systems on the largest (5 and 6-axle) vehicles, in order to ensure compliance with tyre
manufacturers recommended inflation pressures for given loads and duty cycles. This will
produce benefits to operators in terms of improved tyre performance (tyre wear and rolling
resistance), and to society in terms of minimised pavement wear and reduced safety risks.


 2QIXUWKHUZRUNWRLPSURYHWKH7\UH&RQILJXUDWLRQ)DFWRU

With further work on a number of tyre parameters, to establish reference values, etc., as
discussed in Chapter 7.10, a more comprehensive index could be established in addition
to the Tyre Configuration Factor. It is therefore recommended that such work is
encouraged and supported. The aspects to be included could cover, but need not
necessarily be limited to, rolling resistance, noise, and mass of the tyre-wheel assembly.
 2QWKHVSHFLILFLVVXHRIWKHSURSRVHGDPHQGPHQWWR(XURSHDQ'LUHFWLYH(&

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This Directive, among other things, limits the use of wide single tyres on axles other than
towed axles stating that for tandem axles of motor vehicles, the allowable load is 19
tonnes if the driving axle is fitted with twin tyres and air suspension." A member state
proposal to modify the Directive to allow the use of wide single tyres on such axles was
deferred until COST 334 had reported.
The COST 334 view on this specific issue is as follows. On the grounds of pavement
wear alone, for which this part of the Directive is intended, the modification should not be
permitted. However, on other grounds, namely the benefits to vehicle operators, and the
potential reduction in gaseous emissions, the modification should be permitted.
Our recommendation, therefore, is that the use of wide single tyres should be allowed for
19 tonnes on a tandem axle of a motor vehicle, provided that the proposed Axle Wear
Factor is complied with for each axle of the motor vehicle.
 2QIXWXUHUHVHDUFKUHTXLUHPHQWV
In the course of its work, COST 334 has identified a number of areas of research that
could lead to improvements for all stakeholders in the road management and road
transport industries. In no order of priority, these are:

Research is necessary on new vehicle/tyre concepts. The guiding principle of such work
should be to examine the total effect on pavement wear, fuel consumption and emission,
etc., per net tonne of loading. It is expected that by studying these elements in an
integrated way a valuable contribution will be taken towards more efficient heavy goods
road traffic, taking into account economic and societal costs.
The effects of different tyre load configurations on concrete pavements, bridges,
viaducts, etc. It is anticipated that the influences of tyre fitment will be strongly dependent
on the materials and structural designs used. Further research is necessary to expand
the present work to other types of structure.
The separation of the effects of different tyre load configurations on thin and medium
pavements
Comparative testing of actual pavement performance in respect of fatigue and secondary
rutting, to enhance the present predictions based on pavement response instead of
performance.
The effects of tyre dynamics with different fitments and sizes of tyres, on pavements of
differing thicknesses.
It is further recommended to those researchers working on this topic that the reporting of
future research concerning tyre-pavement interaction should include not only details of
tyre size, fitment and manufacturer, but also adequate details of the tyre-pavement
contact area. As a minimum, this should include the length, width, area and approximate
shape of the footprint. Where possible, a description of the tread pattern and the fraction
of the footprint area occupied by sipes should also be reported.
Use of the findings of COST 334 to develop an HQYLURQPHQWDOO\IULHQGO\YHKLFOHIn this
context, "environmentally-friendly" means the total economic and ecological environment
in which the vehicle operates.

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