ENGINE:MATERIALS USED TO MAKE ENGINE BLOCK:GREY CAST IRON ALLOYS:Grey cast iron is the first and most material

used for manufacturing of engine

blocks. Though the aluminum alloy also contain many similarities with low weight, it
is still used in the manufacturing of diesel engine blocks because their internal
stresses are higher. Grey cast iron contains 2.5 4 % of carbon, 1 -3 % of silicon,
0.2 - 1% manganese, 0.02 - 0.25 % of sulfur, and 0.02 - 1 % of phosphorus. It has a
excellent damping absorption, good wear and thermal resistance, and it is easily
machinable and less cost due to its availability.

ALUMNIUM ALLOYS:Aluminum alloys main feature for its popularity is its low weight, this reduce the
weight of the engine as well as in the vehicle. But the main disadvantage is their
cost compared with grey cast iron. Aluminum alloy has a good machinability
properties compared with grey cast iron. There are two aluminum alloys that are
mainly used in manufacturing of engine blocks, they are 319 and A356.

319:319 aluminum alloy contains 85.8 - 91.5 % of aluminum, 5.5 - 6.5 % of silicon, 3 - 4
% of copper, 0.35% of nickel, 0.25% of titanium, 0.5% of manganese, 1% of iron,
0.1% of magnesium, and 1% of zinc. This alloy has good casting features, corrosion
resistance, and good thermal conductivity. Under the heat treatment of T5
process, it generates high strength and rigidity for the engine block.

A356:-

A356 aluminum alloy contains 91.1 - 93.3 % of aluminum, 6.5 - 7.5 % of silicon, 0.25
- 0.45 % of magnesium, 0.2% of copper, 0.2% of titanium, 0.2% of iron, and 0.1% of
zinc. Although the mechanical properties are similar to 319, when it is under the
heat treatment process T6 it gains higher strength than 319. But it has lower
modulus of elasticity (72.4 GPa) than 319 with modulus of elasticity of 74 GPa .

CGI (COMPACTED GRAPHITE IRON):CGI casts much like gray iron, but offers more hardness, more fatigue
strength, superior ductility and greater tensile strength sort of a
happy medium between gray iron and ductile iron.
Although not as strong as ductile iron, CGI is 500% more fatigue
resistant than aluminum and 200% as resistant to fatigue compared
with gray iron.
For example, Audi V8 diesel blocks are cast from CGI
As a result of mechanical properties improvements, a design study
conducted by AVL
Austria (Sorger & Holland, 1999) has evaluated downsizing
opportunities for a 1.8 L diesel engine cylinder block, converting from
gray iron to CGI. The benefits of this conversion included:

9% reduction in overall weight of the finished engine.

22% reduction in weight of machined cylinder block.
15% reduction in overall length of the finished engine.
5% reduction in both; height and width of the finished engine.

MATERIALS USED TO MAKE OTHER COMPONENTS

OF AN ENGINE
Piston one of the major parts of the engine are also

made of cast irons and aluminum but in IC engines

(Internal combustion engine ) aluminum is used
because of its high thermal conductivity (approximately 3
times that of cast iron). Therefore aluminum alloy piston has
less variation in temperature from the crown to the piston
rings and Density of aluminum is about one third that of cast
iron. Therefore light weight construction and less inertial
forces.
The crankshaft are manufactured from steel either by forging or
casting. The main bearing and connecting rod bearing liners are
made of Babbitt, a tin and lead alloy. Forged crankshafts are
stronger than the cast crankshafts, but are more expensive.
Forged crankshafts are made from SAE 1045 or similar type
steel. Forging makes a very dense, tough shaft with a grain
running parallel to the principal stress direction. Crankshafts are
cast in steel, modular iron or malleable iron. The major advantage
of the casting process is that crankshaft material and machining
costs are reduced because the crankshaft may be made close to
the required shape and size including counterweights.
Exhaust valves are typically made of nitrogen-bearing chromenickel alloys possessing excellent high temperature strength,
hardness and corrosion resistance to combustion products.
Inconel is another material called a super alloy that is often
used in exhaust valves where there are very high temperatures.
Its use is growing among turbo and supercharged applications.
Stellite facing alloys are being used in high heat, high combustion

applications such as CNG, marine and also turbo diesel

applications.

HOW IS AN ENGINE MADE?

The first steps in making a car engine are installing the piston rings
on the piston. The breaks in the rings will be lined up, so that the
engine can consistently burn oil. Using a ring compressor, the rings
are compressed into the pistons, which set the pistons in the
cylinder holes. The cylinder walls are lubricated with an oil
treatment. This is to protect the engine until the oil pump is
installed to lubricate the engine. The crankshaft is laid down at the
bottom of the cylinder, and the bearing caps are installed. The
bearings caps are what hold the crankshaft in place. Then the oil
pump is put in its location. The camshaft is installed and the timing
marks are lined up properly. The camshaft pushes up against the
valves to open them. Next, the rocker arms and pushrods are
installed and, depending on the kind of engine, will determine the
amount of torque specs on the rocker arms. The intake manifold
uses RTV on their gaskets to hold them into place. Finally, the valve
covers are put in and the engine is put into the vehicle by using bolts
to secure it into the engine compartment. After this, the rest of
the accessories are installed, such as the fuel injection, carburetor
and fuel pump.

PAINTS USED IN AUTOMOBILES:Paint typically consists of pigment, resin, solvent and additives:
Pigment - to provide color, hiding and control gloss. Pigments are
usually divided into two groups. One called 'Prime Pigments' includes
pigments such as Titanium Dioxide (white), Chrome Green Oxide,
Yellow and Red Iron Oxides, etc.
There are two primary types of car paint water-based and
solvent-based paints. Both use a liquid that holds the pigment in
suspension so it can be sprayed. In both cases, the liquid evaporates,
leaving the pigment behind. Pigments are ultra-fine or Nano-scale
natural and man-made particles that are a paint's color.
Solvent paints use a resin to hold the pigment in suspension and to
help the pigment stick to the car body. A solvent is added to dilute
the resin and pigments so they can be sprayed.
Water-based paints, on the other hand, use additives like binding
agents, but use few or no solvents. Water dilutes the pigment and
carries it to the car body.

Solid paint
Almost all cars other than the most expensive ones are available in a
no-cost basic, solid color. The most common options are white, red, blue
or black, and chances are that is a paint color doesnt add to the cost
of your car, then its a solid, non-metallic paint. In basic form, the solid
paint is a single application of the color, followed by a lacquer coat

(called a clear coat) above it to protect the paint from chips, scratches
and the weather.

Metallic
Metallic paints are effectively the same as solid paints, only with a
small quantity of powdered metal added. The size and type of metal
added varies depending on manufacturer choices, but its commonly
about 1 part in 50 of aluminum powder.

Matte finishes

Its not common to see matte finishes, but some niche vehicles are
available in a variety of matte colours, usually grey or black. Sometimes
this is a more reflective satin or silk finish than true matte, but the
principles are roughly the same.There are a number of ways its nonshiny look can be achieved, but in most cases its the same as regular
solid paint, with either a high epoxy content primer coat, a high PVC
content in the paint coat itself or a flattening agent in the clear
lacquer coat to achieve the dull effect.

HOW ITS MADE?

Pigment manufacturers send bags of fine grain pigments to paint

plants. There, the pigment is premixed with resin (a wetting agent that
assists in moistening the pigment), one or more solvents, and additives
to form a paste. The paste mixture for most industrial and some
consumer paints is now routed into a sand mill. The mixture is then
filtered to remove the sand particles. Instead of being processed in
sand mills, up to 90 percent of the water-based latex paints designed
for use by individual homeowners are instead processed in a high-speed
dispersion tank. Whether created by a sand mill or a dispersion tank,
the paste must now be thinned to produce the final product.
The finished paint product is then pumped into the canning room

CHASSIS

CARBON FIBRE:-

HOW ITS MADE:The raw material used to make carbon fiber is called the precursor.
About 90% of the carbon fibers produced are made from
polyacrylonitrile (PAN). The remaining 10% are made from rayon or
petroleum pitch. All of these materials are organic polymers,
characterized by long strings of molecules bound together by carbon
atoms. During the manufacturing process, a variety of gases and liquids
are used. Acrylonitrile plastic powder is mixed with another plastic,
like methyl acrylate or methyl methacrylate, and is reacted with a
catalyst in a conventional suspension or solution polymerization process
to form a polyacrylonitrile plastic. The spinning step is important
because the internal atomic structure of the fiber is formed during
this process. The fibers are then washed and stretched to the desired
fiber diameter. The stretching helps align the molecules within the
fiber and provide the basis for the formation of the tightly bonded
carbon crystals after carbonization. Before the fibers are carbonized,
they need to be chemically altered to convert their linear atomic
bonding to a more thermally stable ladder bonding. This is
accomplished by heating the fibers in air to about 390-590 F (200300 C) for 30-120 minutes. This causes the fibers to pick up oxygen
molecules from the air and rearrange their atomic bonding pattern.
Once the fibers are stabilized, they are heated to a temperature of
about 1,830-5,500 F (1,000-3,000 C) for several minutes in a furnace
filled with a gas mixture that does not contain oxygen. The lack of
oxygen prevents the fibers from burning in the very high

temperatures. As the fibers are heated, they begin to lose their noncarbon atoms, plus a few carbon atoms. After carbonizing, the fibers
have a surface that does not bond well with the epoxies and other
materials used in composite materials. To give the fibers better
bonding properties, their surface is slightly oxidized. The addition of
oxygen atoms to the surface provides better chemical bonding. After
the surface treatment, the fibers are coated to protect them from
damage during winding or weaving. This process is called sizing.

WHY IT IS USED?

t is lightweight, strong and incredibly stiff. Carbon fiber can also be

formed into structures accurately. Its very flexible - so for example it
can be used for weak components such as wing elements or strong
components such as a suspension pieces. Because of this flexibility, it is
possible to make components that shatter easily to absorb impact. And
the monocoque can be formed into an incredibly solid safety cell. This
makes carbon fiber improve driver safety.
As well as being lighter than aluminum, it can also be used to make very
rigid and stiff components. Stiffness and rigidity keeps vibrations out
of the car structure and into the suspension, greatly improving
handling. it doesnt shatter on impact

ALUMINUM

Aluminum provides both strength and lightweight properties. The

drawback is their cost and that additional cost contributes to the
overall cost of the vehicle but high end vehicle buyers are usually
willing to pay the increased overall cost if their preference is
performance and above average driving dynamics. Pure aluminum weighs
around one third the weight of steel but pure aluminum is not always
used for chassis components. In many instances an aluminum alloy is
used allowing different parts of the frame to be stiffer than others
depending on the percentage of the mixture of the materials. The
aluminum chassis provides the best of both worlds when it relates to
chassis design and manufacturing. A chassis, being the frame of the
vehicle has to be rigid or strong to absorb and retain movements and
vibrations from the engine, suspension and axles. It should also be as
light as possible to improve the vehicle's performance and fuel
efficiency. The design of a chassis can also affect factors such as the
center of gravity, better weight distribution and other performance
attributes. The design and dimensions of the chassis determines the
wheelbase of the vehicle and possibly the track (the distance between
the center of the left and right wheel) for increased stability.
All of the above factors that the chassis contributes to indicates that
the chassis forms an integral part of a vehicle's platform. These
factors and benefits can be incorporated when using a lightweight
chassis. Aluminum is stronger and lighter than steel, with strong
corrosion resistance. Replacing steel construction with aluminum can
easily shed 20% weight of an automobile, which results in better fuel
economy and shorter braking distances. Aluminum also improves crash
safety significantly. Manufactures claims that aluminum can absorb
twice the energy than steel during an impact, which makes it an ideal
candidate for building crash structures.

BODY OF THE CAR

MATERIALS USED IN BODY OF THE CAR

Aluminum
There are a wide variety of aluminum usage in automotive powertrain,
chassis and body structure. Use of aluminum can potentially reduce the
weight of the vehicle body. Its low density and high specific energy
absorption performance and good specific strength are its most
important properties. Aluminum is also resistance to corrosion. But
according to its low modulus of elasticity, it cannot substitute steel
parts and therefore those parts need to be re-engineered to achieve
the same mechanical strength, but still aluminum offers weight
reduction. Aluminum usage in automotive industry has grown within past
years. In automotive powertrain, aluminum castings have been used for
almost 100% of pistons, about 75% of cylinder heads, 85% of intake
manifolds and transmission. For chassis applications, aluminum castings
are used for about 40% of wheels, and for brackets, brake
components, suspension, steering components and unstriment panels.
Aluminum is used for body structures, closures and exterior
attachments such as crossbeams, doors or bonnets.

CARBON FIBRE:Carbon fiber also known as graphite fibre is widely used in formula 1
cars. Formula 1 underwent the beginnings of a revolution that has
become its hallmark today: the use of carbon composite materials to
build the chassis.

Today, most of the racing car chassis - the monocoque, suspension,

wings and engine cover - is built with carbon fiber. This material has
four advantages over every other kind of material for racing car
construction:
It is super lightweight.
It is super strong.
It is super stiff.
It can be easily molded into all kinds of different shapes.

Many other kinds of materials are used to make/complete a car, its

components which make the car run as it is designed for.

Muhammad Hamza (me151084)