Cast irons typically contain 2-4 wt% of carbon with a high silicon concentrations and a greater

concentration of impurities than steels. The carbon equivalent (CE) of a cast iron helps to distinguish
the grey irons which cool into a microstructure containing graphite and and the white irons where the
carbon is present mainly as cementite. The carbon equivalent is defined as:

A high cooling rate and a low carbon equivalent favours the formation of white cast iron whereas a low
cooling rate or a high carbon equivalent promotes grey cast iron.
During solidification, the major proportion of the carbon precipitates in the form of graphite or
cementite. When solidification is just complete, the precipitated phase is embedded in a matrix of
austenite which has an equilibrium carbon concentration of about 2 wt%. On further cooling, the
carbon concentration of the austenite decreases as more cementite or graphite precipitates from solid
solution. For conventional cast irons, the austenite then decomposes into pearlite at the eutectoid
temperature. However, in grey cast irons, if the cooling rate through the eutectoid temperature is
sufficiently slow, then a completely ferritic matrix is obtained with the excess carbon being deposited
on the already existing graphite.
White cast irons are hard and brittle; they cannot easily be machined.

The iron-carbon phase diagram showing the eutectic and eutectoid reactions. Reproduced with the
permission of Jud Ready of the Georgia Tech. Joint Student Chapter of ASM/TMS.

Grey cast irons are softer with a microstructure of graphite in transformed-austenite and cementite
matrix. The graphite flakes, which are rosettes in three dimensions, have a low density and hence
compensate for the freezing contraction, thus giving good castings free from porosity.
The flakes of graphite have good damping characteristics and good machinability (because the
graphite acts as a chip-breaker and lubricates the cutting tools. In applications involving wear, the
graphite is beneficial because it helps retain lubricants. However, the flakes of graphite also are stress
concentrators, leading to poor toughness. The recommended applied tensile stress is therefore only a
quarter of its actual ultimate tensile strength.
Sulphur in cast irons is known to favour the formation of graphite flakes. The graphite can be induced
to precipitate in a spheroidal shape by removing the sulphur from the melt using a small quantity of
calcium carbide. This is followed by a minute addition of magnesium or cerium, which poisons the
preferred growth directions and hence leads to isotropic growth resulting in spheroids of graphite. The
calcuim treatment is necessary before the addition of magnesium since the latter also has an affinity
for both sulphur and oxygen, whereas its spheroidising ability depends on its presence in solution in
the liquid iron. The magnesium is frequently added as an alloy with iron and silicon (Fe-Si-Mg) rather
than as pure magnesium.
However, magnesium tends to encourage the precipitation of cementite, so silicon is also added (in
the form of ferro-silicon) to ensure the precipitation of carbon as graphite. The ferro-silicon is known as
an inoculant.
Spheroidal graphite cast iron has excellent toughness and is used widely, for example in crankshafts.
The latest breakthrough in cast irons is where the matrix of spheroidal graphite cast iron is not pearlite,
but bainite. This results in a major improvement in toughness and strength. The bainite is obtained by
isothermal transformation of the austenite at temperatures below that at which pearlite forms.
You can click on the images to enlarge them. Very high resolution images (6 Mbytes each) can also be
downloaded, as can the crystal structures of ferrite, cementite, graphite and austenite.

Grey cast iron, Fe-3.2C-2.5Si wt%,

containing graphite flakes in a matrix
Grey cast iron, Fe-3.2C-2.5Si wt%, which is pearlitic. The lamellar
containing graphite flakes in a matrix structure of the pearlite can be
which is pearlitic. The speckled white resolved, appearing to consist of
regions represent a phosphide alternating layers of cementite and
eutectic. Etchant: Nital 2%
ferrite. The speckled white regions
represent a phosphide eutectic.
Etchant: Nital 2%

Spheroidal Graphite Cast Iron

The chemical composition of the cast iron is similar to that of the grey cast iron but with 0.05 wt% of
magnesium. All samples are etched using 2% nital.

Spheroidal graphite cast iron, FeAn illustration of the ductility of 3.2C-2.5Si-0.05Mg wt%, containing
spheroidal
graphite
cast
iron. graphite nodules in a matrix which is
Photograph reproduced from Physical pearlitic. One of the nodules is
Metallurgy of Engineering Materials , surrounded by ferrite, simply because
by E. R. Petty, with permission from the region around the nodule is
the Institute of Materials.
decarburised as carbon deposits on to
the graphite. Etchant: Nital 2%

Heat Treated Spheroidal Graphite Cast Iron

Spheroidal graphite cast iron usually has a pearlitic matrix. However, annealing causes the carbon in
the pearlite to precipitate on to the existing graphite or to form further small graphite particles, leaving
behind a ferritic matrix. This gives the iron even greater ductility. All samples are etched using 2% nital.

Graphite nodules in a ferritic matrix.

Some carbon deposited during
Graphite nodules in a ferritic matrix.
tempering is also visible. Etchant:
Nital 2%

Austempered Ductile Cast Iron

The chemical composition of the cast iron is Fe-3.52C-2.51Si-0.49Mn-0.15Mo-0.31Cu wt%. All
samples are etched using 2% nital. Colour micrographs are produced by first etching with 2% nital,
followed by open air heat treatment of the metallographic sample at 270oC for 3 h. This oxidises the
sample and produces interference colours which are phase dependent.

Ductile iron as-cast. Nodules of Ductile iron as-cast. Nodules of

graphite, pearlite (dark islands) and graphite, pearlite (dark islands) and
ferrite (light background). Etchant: ferrite (light background). Etchant:
Nital 2%
Nital 2%

Austenitised 950C,
350C for 64 min.

austempered Austenitised at 950C, austempered

at 350C for 64 min.

The following images are of austempered ductile iron automobile components, provided by the
Institute of Cast Metals Engineers. In order to avoid distortion, the crankshaft for the TVR sportscar is
rough-machined after casting, heat-treated to produce the bainitic microstructure, and then properly
machined. It is reported to have excellent fatigue properties; its damping characteristics due to
graphite reduce engine noise.
The Ford Mustang suspension arm was made from austempered ductile iron in order to reduce
weight, noise and cost. It was designed using finite element modelling to optimise strength and
stiffness. Auminium alloys were considered but rejected because the component would then occupy a
much larger space because of their lower strength.
The truck trailer suspension arm was originally made from welded steel, for use on transportation
across the rugged Australian Outback. These failed at the welds and were associated with distortions
which led to accelerated deterioration of the tyres. The suspension made from the cast austempered
ductile iron has proved to be much more robust.

The austempered ductile iron crankshaft for the

TVR sportscar.

TVR Tuscan Speed 6, high-performance sports car

with an austempered ductile iron crankshaft.

Austempered ductile iron suspension arm for a

Ford Mustang Cobra

A truck trailer suspension arm made from

austempered ductile iron, Steele and Lincoln
Foundry.

Blackheart Cast Iron

Blackheart cast iron is produced by heating white cast iron at 900-950 oC for many days before cooling
slowly. This results in a microstructure containing irregular though equiaxed nodules of graphite in a
ferritic matrix. The term "blackheart" comes from the fact that the fracture surface has a grey or black
appearance due to the presence of graphite at the surface. The purpose of the heat treatment is to
increase the ductility of the cast iron. However, this process is now outdated since spheroidal graphite
can be produced directly on casting by inoculating with magnesium or cerium. All samples are etched
using 2% nital.

Blackheart cast iron.

Blackheart cast iron. Etchant: Nital 2%

Wear-Resistant High-Chromium Cast Iron

This cast iron is used in circumstances where a very high wear resistance is desirable. For example,
during the violent crushing of rocks and minerals. It contains a combination of very strong carbideforming alloying elements. Its chemical composition is, therefore, Fe-2.6C-17Cr-2Mo-2Ni wt%.
All samples are etched using Villela's reagent, which is a mixture of picric acid, hydrochloric acid and
ethanol. The material from which these micrographs were obtained was kindly provided by Dr Arnoldo
Bedolla-Jacuinde of Mexico. Details of the iron have been published in the International Journal of
Cast Metals Research, 13 (2001) 343-361.

The white phase is a chromium-rich

carbide known as M7C3. The matrix
consists of dendrites of austenite,
some of which may have transformed
into martensite. There may also be
relatively small quantities of other
alloy carbides.

The white phase is a chromium-rich

carbide known as M7C3. The matrix
consists of dendrites of austenite,
some of which may have transformed
into martensite. There may also be
relatively small quantities of other
alloy carbides.

Welding of Cast Irons

The casting process is never perfect, especially when dealing with large components. Instead of
scrapping defective castings, they can often be repaired by welding. Naturally, the very high carbon
concentration of typical cast irons causes difficulties by introducting brittle martensite in the heataffected zone of the weld. It is therefore necessary to preheat to a temperature of about 450C
followed by slow cooling after welding, in order to avoid cracking.
The materials used as fillers during welding usually contain large nickel concentrations so that the
resulting austenitic weld metal is not sensitive to the pick-up of carbon from the cast iron. The deposits
are soft and can be machined to provide the necessary shape and finish. Of course, nickel is
expensive so when making large repairs, the weld gap is first covered ('buttered') with the nickel-rich
filler and then the remaining gap is filled with less expensive mild-steel filler metals.
Ironbridge
The world's first bridge made of iron in 1779. The entire structure is made of cast iron.

Ironbridge, made of cast iron

Ironbridge, made of cast iron

Ironbridge, made of cast
iron

Cast Iron in a Computer Mouse

The following photographs have kindly been provided by Ben Dennis-Smither, Frank Clarke
and Mohamed Sherif.

The microstructure of the roller ball, which is made

of cast iron, The flakes of graphite are surrounded
Disection of a computer mouse. The item of interest
by ferrite, the brown is the peralite, and there is
is the roller ball.
also the product of the lediburite eutectic which is
not clear at this magnification.

The pearlite is resolved in some regions where the

sectioning plane makes a glancing angle to the
lamellae. The lediburite eutectic is highlighted by
the arrows. At high temperatures this is a mixture of
austenite and cementite formed from liquid. The
austenite subsequently decomposes to pearlite.

The ball is made of cast iron presumably because it

is relatively hard.