LTE Introduction &

Tutorial
LTE, Long Term Evolution is the successor to 3G UMTS and
HSPA providing much higher data download speeds and
setting the foundations for 4G LTE Advanced. Discover more
about LTE basics in this tutorial.

Table of Contents
LTE Long Term Evolution Tutorial & Basics ............................................................................................................ 3
3G LTE evolution ........................................................................................................................................................... 3
LTE basics:- specification overview ............................................................................................................................... 4
Main LTE technologies .................................................................................................................................................. 5
LTE OFDM, OFDMA SC-FDMA & Modulation ......................................................................................................... 6
LTE modulation & OFDM basics .................................................................................................................................... 6
LTE channel bandwidths and characteristics ................................................................................................................ 6
LTE OFDM cyclic prefix, CP ............................................................................................................................................ 7
LTE OFDMA in the downlink ......................................................................................................................................... 7
Downlink carriers and resource blocks ......................................................................................................................... 8
LTE SC-FDMA in the uplink ............................................................................................................................................ 8
LTE MIMO: Multiple Input Multiple Output Tutorial.............................................................................................. 9
LTE MIMO basics ........................................................................................................................................................... 9
LTE MIMO...................................................................................................................................................................... 9
LTE MIMO modes ........................................................................................................................................................ 10
LTE FDD, TDD, TD-LTE Duplex Schemes ............................................................................................................... 11
Duplex schemes .......................................................................................................................................................... 11
Advantages / disadvantages of LTE TDD and LTE FDD for cellular communications .................................................. 12
LTE TDD / TD-LTE and TD-SCDMA ............................................................................................................................... 13
LTE Frame and Subframe Structure ..................................................................................................................... 14
Type 1 LTE Frame Structure ........................................................................................................................................ 14
Type 2 LTE Frame Structure ........................................................................................................................................ 14
LTE TDD / TD-LTE Subframe allocations ...................................................................................................................... 15
LTE Physical, Logical and Transport Channels ...................................................................................................... 16
3G LTE channel types .................................................................................................................................................. 16
3G LTE physical channels ............................................................................................................................................ 16
LTE transport channels................................................................................................................................................ 18
LTE logical channels .................................................................................................................................................... 18
LTE Frequency Bands & Spectrum Allocations ..................................................................................................... 19
FDD LTE frequency band allocations........................................................................................................................... 19
TDD LTE frequency band allocations .......................................................................................................................... 20
LTE UE Category & Class Definitions.................................................................................................................... 22
LTE UE category rationale ........................................................................................................................................... 22
LTE UE category definitions ........................................................................................................................................ 22
LTE Category 0............................................................................................................................................................. 23
LTE UE category summary .......................................................................................................................................... 24
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LTE SAE System Architecture Evolution ............................................................................................................... 25

Reason for SAE System Architecture Evolution .......................................................................................................... 25
SAE System Architecture Evolution basics .................................................................................................................. 26
LTE SAE Distributed intelligence ................................................................................................................................. 28
LTE SON Self Organizing Networks ...................................................................................................................... 29
LTE SON development................................................................................................................................................. 29
Major elements of LTE SON ........................................................................................................................................ 29
LTE SON and 3GPP standards...................................................................................................................................... 30
Voice over LTE - VoLTE Tutorial........................................................................................................................... 31
Options for LTE Voice .................................................................................................................................................. 31
Voice over LTE, VoLTE formation ................................................................................................................................ 32
Voice over LTE, VoLTE basics ...................................................................................................................................... 32
VoLTE codecs............................................................................................................................................................... 33
VoLTE IP versions ........................................................................................................................................................ 34
4G LTE Advanced Tutorial ................................................................................................................................... 35
Key milestones for ITU-R IMT Advanced evaluation................................................................................................... 35
LTE Advanced development history ........................................................................................................................... 35
LTE Advanced key features ......................................................................................................................................... 36
LTE Advanced technologies......................................................................................................................................... 37
LTE CA: Carrier Aggregation Tutorial ................................................................................................................... 39
LTE carrier aggregation basics..................................................................................................................................... 39
RF aspects of carrier aggregation................................................................................................................................ 40
Carrier aggregation bandwidths ................................................................................................................................. 41
LTE aggregated carriers............................................................................................................................................... 42
Carrier aggregation cross carrier scheduling .............................................................................................................. 42
4G LTE CoMP, Coordinated Multipoint Tutorial ................................................................................................... 44
LTE CoMP and 3GPP .................................................................................................................................................... 44
LTE CoMP - the advantages......................................................................................................................................... 44
What is LTE CoMP? - the basics .................................................................................................................................. 45
Downlink LTE CoMP .................................................................................................................................................... 46
Uplink LTE CoMP ......................................................................................................................................................... 47
Overall requirements for LTE CoMP ........................................................................................................................... 47
LTE Advanced Heterogeneous Networks, HetNet ................................................................................................ 48
LTE heterogeneous network basics ............................................................................................................................ 48
LTE HetNet features .................................................................................................................................................... 48

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LTE Long Term Evolution Tutorial & Basics

- developed by 3GPP, LTE, Long Term Evolution is the successor to 3G UMTS and HSPA providing much higher data
download speeds and setting the foundations for 4G LTE Advanced. Discover more about LTE basics in this tutorial.

LTE, Long Term Evolution, the successor to UMTS and HSPA is now being deployed and is the way forwards
for high speed cellular services.
In its first forms it was a 3G or as some would call it a 3.99G technology, but with further additions the
technology fulfilled the requirements for a 4G standard. In this form it was referred to as LTE Advanced.
There has been a rapid increase in the use of data carried by cellular services, and this increase will only
become larger in what has been termed the "data explosion". To cater for this and the increased demands
for increased data transmission speeds and lower latency, further development of cellular technology have
been required.

The UMTS cellular technology upgrade has been dubbed LTE - Long Term Evolution. The idea is that 3G LTE
will enable much higher speeds to be achieved along with much lower packet latency (a growing
requirement for many services these days), and that 3GPP LTE will enable cellular communications services
to move forward to meet the needs for cellular technology to 2017 and well beyond.
Many operators have not yet upgraded their basic 3G networks, and 3GPP LTE is seen as the next logical
step for many operators, who will leapfrog straight from basic 3G straight to LTE as this will avoid providing
several stages of upgrade. The use of LTE will also provide the data capabilities that will be required for
many years and until the full launch of the full 4G standards known as LTE Advanced.

3G LTE evolution
Although there are major step changes between LTE and its 3G predecessors, it is nevertheless looked
upon as an evolution of the UMTS / 3GPP 3G standards. Although it uses a different form of radio
interface, using OFDMA / SC-FDMA instead of CDMA, there are many similarities with the earlier forms of
3G architecture and there is scope for much re-use.
In determining what is LTE and how does it differ from other cellular systems, a quick look at the
specifications for the system can provide many answers. LTE can be seen for provide a further evolution of
functionality, increased speeds and general improved performance.

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WCDMA
(UMTS)

HSPA
HSDPA / HSUPA

HSPA+

LTE

Max downlink speed

bps

384 k

14 M

28 M

100M

Max uplink speed

bps

128 k

5.7 M

11 M

50 M

Latency
round trip time
approx

150 ms

100 ms

50ms (max)

~10 ms

3GPP releases

Rel 99/4

Rel 5 / 6

Rel 7

Rel 8

Approx years of initial roll out

2003 / 4

2005 / 6 HSDPA
2007 / 8 HSUPA

2008 / 9

2009 / 10

Access methodology

CDMA

CDMA

CDMA

OFDMA / SC-FDMA

In addition to this, LTE is an all IP based network, supporting both IPv4 and IPv6. Originally there was also
no basic provision for voice, although Voice over LTE, VoLTE was added was chosen by GSMA as the
standard for this. In the interim, techniques including circuit switched fallback, CSFB are expected to be
used

LTE basics:- specification overview

It is worth summarizing the key parameters of the 3G LTE specification. In view of the fact that there are a
number of differences between the operation of the uplink and downlink, these naturally differ in the
performance they can offer.
LTE basic specifications
Parameter

Details

Peak downlink speed

64QAM
(Mbps)

100 (SISO), 172 (2x2 MIMO), 326 (4x4 MIMO)

Peak uplink speeds

(Mbps)

50 (QPSK), 57 (16QAM), 86 (64QAM)

Data type

All packet switched data (voice and data). No circuit switched.

Channel bandwidths
(MHz)

1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20

Duplex schemes

FDD and TDD

Mobility

0 - 15 km/h (optimised),
15 - 120 km/h (high performance)

Latency

Idle to active less than 100ms

Small packets ~10 ms

Spectral efficiency

Downlink: 3 - 4 times Rel 6 HSDPA

Uplink: 2 -3 x Rel 6 HSUPA

Access schemes

OFDMA (Downlink)
SC-FDMA (Uplink)

Modulation types supported

QPSK, 16QAM, 64QAM (Uplink and downlink)

These highlight specifications give an overall view of the performance that LTE will offer. It meets the
requirements of industry for high data download speeds as well as reduced latency - a factor important for
many applications from VoIP to gaming and interactive use of data. It also provides significant
improvements in the use of the available spectrum.

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Main LTE technologies

LTE has introduced a number of new technologies when compared to the previous cellular systems. They
enable LTE to be able to operate more efficiently with respect to the use of spectrum, and also to provide
the much higher data rates that are being required.

OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex): OFDM technology has been incorporated into
LTE because it enables high data bandwidths to be transmitted efficiently while still providing a high
degree of resilience to reflections and interference. The access schemes differ between the uplink
and downlink: OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access is used in the downlink;
while SC-FDMA(Single Carrier - Frequency Division Multiple Access) is used in the uplink. SC-FDMA
is used in view of the fact that its peak to average power ratio is small and the more constant
power enables high RF power amplifier efficiency in the mobile handsets - an important factor for
battery power equipment.
MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output):
One of the main problems that previous
telecommunications systems have encountered is that of multiple signals arising from the many
reflections that are encountered. By using MIMO, these additional signal paths can be used to
advantage and are able to be used to increase the throughput.
When using MIMO, it is necessary to use multiple antennas to enable the different paths to be
distinguished. Accordingly schemes using 2 x 2, 4 x 2, or 4 x 4 antenna matrices can be used. While
it is relatively easy to add further antennas to a base station, the same is not true of mobile
handsets, where the dimensions of the user equipment limit the number of antennas which should
be place at least a half wavelength apart.

SAE (System Architecture Evolution): With the very high data rate and low latency requirements
for 3G LTE, it is necessary to evolve the system architecture to enable the improved performance to
be achieved. One change is that a number of the functions previously handled by the core network
have been transferred out to the periphery. Essentially this provides a much "flatter" form of
network architecture. In this way latency times can be reduced and data can be routed more
directly to its destination.

A fuller description of what LTE is and the how the associated technologies work is all addressed in much
greater detail in the following pages of this tutorial.

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LTE OFDM, OFDMA SC-FDMA & Modulation

- LTE, Long term Evolution uses the modulation format, OFDM - orthogonal frequency division multiplex, adapted
to provide a multiple access scheme using OFDMA and SC-FDMA.

One of the key elements of LTE is the use of OFDM, Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex, as the signal
bearer and the associated access schemes, OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex) and SCFDMA (Single Frequency Division Multiple Access).
OFDM is used in a number of other of systems from WLAN, WiMAX to broadcast technologies including
DVB and DAB. OFDM has many advantages including its robustness to multipath fading and interference. In
addition to this, even though, it may appear to be a particularly complicated form of modulation, it lends
itself to digital signal processing techniques.
In view of its advantages, the use of ODFM and the associated access technologies, OFDMA and SC-FDMA
are natural choices for the new LTE cellular standard.

LTE modulation & OFDM basics

The use of OFDM is a natural choice for LTE. While the basic concepts of OFDM are used, it has naturally
been tailored to meet the exact requirements for LTE. However its use of multiple carrier each carrying a
low data rate remains the same.
Note on OFDM:
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex (OFDM) is a form of transmission that uses a large number of close spaced
carriers that are modulated with low rate data. Normally these signals would be expected to interfere with each
other, but by making the signals orthogonal to each other there is no mutual interference. The data to be transmitted
is split across all the carriers to give resilience against selective fading from multi-path effects..

The actual implementation of the technology will be different between the downlink (i.e. from base station
to mobile) and the uplink (i.e. mobile to the base station) as a result of the different requirements between
the two directions and the equipment at either end. However OFDM was chosen as the signal bearer
format because it is very resilient to interference. Also in recent years a considerable level of experience
has been gained in its use from the various forms of broadcasting that use it along with Wi-Fi and WiMAX.
OFDM is also a modulation format that is very suitable for carrying high data rates - one of the key
requirements for LTE.
In addition to this, OFDM can be used in both FDD and TDD formats. This becomes an additional
advantage.

LTE channel bandwidths and characteristics

One of the key parameters associated with the use of OFDM within LTE is the choice of bandwidth. The
available bandwidth influences a variety of decisions including the number of carriers that can be
accommodated in the OFDM signal and in turn this influences elements including the symbol length and so
forth.
LTE defines a number of channel bandwidths. Obviously the greater the bandwidth, the greater the
channel capacity.
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The channel bandwidths that have been chosen for LTE are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

1.4 MHz
3 MHz
5 MHz
10 MHz
15 MHz
20 MHz

In addition to this the subcarriers spacing is 15 kHz, i.e. the LTE subcarriers are spaced 15 kHz apart from
each other. To maintain orthogonality, this gives a symbol rate of 1 / 15 kHz = of 66.7 s.
Each subcarrier is able to carry data at a maximum rate of 15 ksps (kilosymbols per second). This gives a 20
MHz bandwidth system a raw symbol rate of 18 Msps. In turn this is able to provide a raw data rate of 108
Mbps as each symbol using 64QAM is able to represent six bits.
It may appear that these rates do not align with the headline figures given in the LTE specifications. The
reason for this is that actual peak data rates are derived by first subtracting the coding and control
overheads. Then there are gains arising from elements such as the spatial multiplexing, etc.

LTE OFDM cyclic prefix, CP

One of the primary reasons for using OFDM as a modulation format within LTE (and many other wireless
systems for that matter) is its resilience to multipath delays and spread. However it is still necessary to
implement methods of adding resilience to the system. This helps overcome the inter-symbol interference
(ISI) that results from this.
In areas where inter-symbol interference is expected, it can be avoided by inserting a guard period into the
timing at the beginning of each data symbol. It is then possible to copy a section from the end of the
symbol to the beginning. This is known as the cyclic prefix, CP. The receiver can then sample the waveform
at the optimum time and avoid any inter-symbol interference caused by reflections that are delayed by
times up to the length of the cyclic prefix, CP.
The length of the cyclic prefix, CP is important. If it is not long enough then it will not counteract the
multipath reflection delay spread. If it is too long, then it will reduce the data throughput capacity. For LTE,
the standard length of the cyclic prefix has been chosen to be 4.69 s. This enables the system to
accommodate path variations of up to 1.4 km. With the symbol length in LTE set to 66.7 s.
The symbol length is defined by the fact that for OFDM systems the symbol length is equal to the
reciprocal of the carrier spacing so that orthogonality is achieved. With a carrier spacing of 15 kHz, this
gives the symbol length of 66.7 s.

LTE OFDMA in the downlink

The OFDM signal used in LTE comprises a maximum of 2048 different sub-carriers having a spacing of 15
kHz. Although it is mandatory for the mobiles to have capability to be able to receive all 2048 sub-carriers,
not all need to be transmitted by the base station which only needs to be able to support the transmission
of 72 sub-carriers. In this way all mobiles will be able to talk to any base station.
Within the OFDM signal it is possible to choose between three types of modulation for the LTE signal:
7|Page

1. QPSK (= 4QAM) 2 bits per symbol

2. 16QAM 4 bits per symbol
3. 64QAM 6 bits per symbol
Note on QAM, Quadrature Amplitude Modualtion:
Quadrature amplitude modulation, QAM is widely sued for data transmission as it enables better elvels of spectral
efficiency than other forms of modulation. QAM uses two carriers onth e same frequency shifted by 90 which are
modulated by two data streams - I or Inphase and Q - Quadrature elements.

The exact LTE modulation format is chosen depending upon the prevailing conditions. The lower forms of
modulation, (QPSK) do not require such a large signal to noise ratio but are not able to send the data as
fast. Only when there is a sufficient signal to noise ratio can the higher order modulation format be used.

Downlink carriers and resource blocks

In the downlink, the subcarriers are split into resource blocks. This enables the system to be able to
compartmentalise the data across standard numbers of subcarriers.
Resource blocks comprise 12 subcarriers, regardless of the overall LTE signal bandwidth. They also cover
one slot in the time frame. This means that different LTE signal bandwidths will have different numbers of
resource blocks.
Channel bandwidth
(MHz)

1.4

10

15

20

Number of resource blocks

15

25

50

75

100

LTE SC-FDMA in the uplink

For the LTE uplink, a different concept is used for the access technique. Although still using a form of
OFDMA technology, the implementation is called Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access (SCFDMA).
One of the key parameters that affects all mobiles is that of battery life. Even though battery performance
is improving all the time, it is still necessary to ensure that the mobiles use as little battery power as
possible. With the RF power amplifier that transmits the radio frequency signal via the antenna to the base
station being the highest power item within the mobile, it is necessary that it operates in as efficient mode
as possible. This can be significantly affected by the form of radio frequency modulation and signal format.
Signals that have a high peak to average ratio and require linear amplification do not lend themselves to
the use of efficient RF power amplifiers. As a result it is necessary to employ a mode of transmission that
has as near a constant power level when operating. Unfortunately OFDM has a high peak to average ratio.
While this is not a problem for the base station where power is not a particular problem, it is unacceptable
for the mobile. As a result, LTE uses a modulation scheme known as SC-FDMA - Single Carrier Frequency
Division Multiplex which is a hybrid format. This combines the low peak to average ratio offered by singlecarrier systems with the multipath interference resilience and flexible subcarrier frequency allocation that
OFDM provides.

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LTE MIMO: Multiple Input Multiple Output Tutorial

- MIMO is used within LTE to provide better signal performance and / or higher data rates by the use of the radio
path reflections that exist.

MIMO, Multiple Input Multiple Output is another of the LTE major technology innovations used to improve
the performance of the system. This technology provides LTE with the ability to further improve its data
throughput and spectral efficiency above that obtained by the use of OFDM.
Although MIMO adds complexity to the system in terms of processing and the number of antennas
required, it enables far high data rates to be achieved along with much improved spectral efficiency. As a
result, MIMO has been included as an integral part of LTE.

LTE MIMO basics

The basic concept of MIMO utilises the multipath signal propagation that is present in all terrestrial
communications. Rather than providing interference, these paths can be used to advantage.

General Outline of MIMO system

The transmitter and receiver have more than one antenna and using the processing power available at
either end of the link, they are able to utilise the different paths that exist between the two entities to
provide improvements in data rate of signal to noise.
Note on MIMO:
Two major limitations in communications channels can be multipath interference, and the data throughput
limitations as a result of Shannon's Law. MIMO provides a way of utilising the multiple signal paths that exist
between a transmitter and receiver to significantly improve the data throughput available on a given channel with its
defined bandwidth. By using multiple antennas at the transmitter and receiver along with some complex digital
signal processing, MIMO technology enables the system to set up multiple data streams on the same channel,
thereby increasing the data capacity of a channel.

MIMO is being used increasingly in many high data rate technologies including Wi-Fi and other wireless
and cellular technologies to provide improved levels of efficiency. Essentially MIMO employs multiple
antennas on the receiver and transmitter to utilise the multi-path effects that always exist to transmit
additional data, rather than causing interference.

LTE MIMO
The use of MIMO technology has been introduced successively over the different releases of the LTE
standards.

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MIMO has been a cornerstone of the LTE standard, but initially, in releases 8 and 9 multiple transmit
antennas on the UE was not supported because in the interested of power reduction, only a single RF
power amplifier was assumed to be available.
It was in Rel. 10 that a number of new schemes were introduced. Closed loop spatial multiplexing for SUMIMO as well as multiple antennas on the UE.

LTE MIMO modes

There are several ways in which MIMO is implemented in LTE. These vary according to the equipment
used, the channel function and the equipment involved in the link.

Single antenna: This is the form of wireless transmission used on most basic wireless links. A
single data stream is transmitted on one antenna and received by one or more antennas. It may
also be referred to as SISO: Single In Single Out or SIMO Single In Multiple Out dependent upon the
antennas used. SIMO is also called receive diversity.
Transmit diversity: This form of LTE MIMO scheme utilises the transmission of the same
information stream from multiple antennas. LTE supports two or four for this technique.. The
information is coded differently using Space Frequency Block Codes. This mode provides an
improvement in signal quality at reception and does not improve the data rate. Accordingly this
form of LTE MIMO is used on the Common Channels as well as the Control and Broadcast channels.
Open loop spatial multiplexing: This form of MIMO used within the LTE system involves sending
two information streams which can be transmitted over two or more antennas. However there is
no feedback from the UE although a TRI, Transmit Rank Indicator transmitted from the UE can be
used by the base station to determine the number of spatial layers.
Close loop spatial multiplexing : This form of LTE MIMO is similar to the open loop version, but as
the name indicates it has feedback incorporated to close the loop. A PMI, Pre-coding Matrix
Indicator is fed back from the UE to the base station. This enables the transmitter to pre-code the
data to optimise the transmission and enable the receiver to more easily separate the different
data streams.
Closed loop with pre-coding: This is another form of LTE MIMO, but where a single code word is
transmitted over a single spatial layer. This can be sued as a fall-back mode for closed loop spatial
multiplexing and it may also be associated with beamforming as well.
Multi-User MIMO, MU-MIMO: This form of LTE MIMO enables the system to target different
spatial streams to different users.
Beam-forming: This is the most complex of the MIMO modes and it is likely to use linear arrays
that will enable the antenna to focus on a particular area. This will reduce interference, and
increase capacity as the particular UE will have a beam formed in their particular direction. In this a
single code word is transmitted over a single spatial layer. A dedicated reference signal is used for
an additional port. The terminal estimates the channel quality from the common reference signals
on the antennas.

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LTE FDD, TDD, TD-LTE Duplex Schemes

- information, overview, or tutorial about the LTE TDD and LTE FDD duplex schemes used with LTE and including
TD-LTE.

LTE has been defined to accommodate both paired spectrum for Frequency Division Duplex, FDD and
unpaired spectrum for Time Division Duplex, TDD operation. It is anticipated that both LTE TDD and LTE
FDD will be widely deployed as each form of the LTE standard has its own advantages and disadvantages
and decisions can be made about which format to adopt dependent upon the particular application.
LTE FDD using the paired spectrum is anticipated to form the migration path for the current 3G services
being used around the globe, most of which use FDD paired spectrum. However there has been an
additional emphasis on including TDD LTE using unpaired spectrum. TDD LTE which is also known as TD-LTE
is seen as providing the evolution or upgrade path for TD-SCDMA.
In view of the increased level of importance being placed upon LTE TDD or TD-LTE, it is planned that user
equipments will be designed to accommodate both FDD and TDD modes. With TDD having an increased
level of importance placed upon it, it means that TDD operations will be able to benefit from the
economies of scale that were previously only open to FDD operations.

Duplex schemes
It is essential that any cellular communications system must be able to transmit in both directions
simultaneously. This enables conversations to be made, with either end being able to talk and listen as
required. Additionally when exchanging data it is necessary to be able to undertake virtually simultaneous
or completely simultaneous communications in both directions.
It is necessary to be able to specify the different direction of transmission so that it is possible to easily
identify in which direction the transmission is being made. There are a variety of differences between the
two links ranging from the amount of data carried to the transmission format, and the channels
implemented. The two links are defined:

Uplink: the transmission from the UE or user equipment to the eNodeB or base station.
Downlink the transmission from the eNodeB or base station to the UE or user equipment.

Uplink and downlink transmission directions

In order to be able to be able to transmit in both directions, a user equipment or base station must have a
duplex scheme. There are two forms of duplex that are commonly used, namely FDD, frequency division
duplex and TDD time division duplex.

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Note on TDD and FDD duplex schemes:

In order for radio communications systems to be able to communicate in both directions it is necessary to have what
is termed a duplex scheme. A duplex scheme provides a way of organizing the transmitter and receiver so that they
can transmit and receive. There are several methods that can be adopted. For applications including wireless and
cellular telecommunications, where it is required that the transmitter and receiver are able to operate
simultaneously, two schemes are in use. One known as FDD or frequency division duplex uses two channels, one for
transmit and the other for receiver. Another scheme known as TDD, time division duplex uses one frequency, but
allocates different time slots for transmission and reception.

Both FDD and TDD have their own advantages and disadvantages. Accordingly they may be used for
different applications, or where the bias of the communications is different.

Advantages / disadvantages of LTE TDD and LTE FDD for cellular

communications
There are a number of the advantages and disadvantages of TDD and FDD that are of particular interest to
mobile or cellular telecommunications operators. These are naturally reflected into LTE.
Comparison of TDD LTE and FDD LTE Duplex Formats
Parameter
Paired spectrum

Hardware cost

LTE-TDD

LTE-FDD

Requires paired spectrum with sufficient frequency

Does not require paired spectrum as both transmit
separation to allow simultaneous transmission and
and receive occur on the same channel
reception
Lower cost as no diplexer is needed to isolate the
transmitter and receiver. As cost of the UEs is of
major importance because of the vast numbers
that are produced, this is a key aspect.

Channel propagation is the same in both

Channel reciprocity directions which enables transmit and receive to
use on set of parameters

Diplexer is needed and cost is higher.

Channel characteristics different in both directions

as a result of the use of different frequencies

UL / DL capacity determined by frequency

allocation set out by the regulatory authorities. It is
It is possible to dynamically change the UL and DL therefore not possible to make dynamic changes
UL / DL asymmetry
capacity ratio to match demand
to match capacity. Regulatory changes would
normally be required and capacity is normally
allocated so that it is the same in either direction.
Guard period /
guard band

Guard period required to ensure uplink and

downlink transmissions do not clash. Large guard Guard band required to provide sufficient isolation
period will limit capacity. Larger guard period
between uplink and downlink. Large guard band
normally required if distances are increased to
does not impact capacity.
accommodate larger propagation times.

Discontinuous
transmission

Discontinuous transmission is required to allow

both uplink and downlink transmissions. This can
degrade the performance of the RF power
amplifier in the transmitter.

Continuous transmission is required.

Cross slot
interference

Base stations need to be synchronised with

respect to the uplink and downlink transmission
times. If neighbouring base stations use different
uplink and downlink assignments and share the
same channel, then interference may occur
between cells.

Not applicable

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LTE TDD / TD-LTE and TD-SCDMA

Apart from the technical reasons and advantages for using LTE TDD / TD-LTE, there are market drivers as
well. With TD-SCDMA now well established in China, there needs to be a 3.9G and later a 4G successor to
the technology. With unpaired spectrum allocated for TD-SCDMA as well as UMTS TDD, it is natural to see
many operators wanting an upgrade path for their technologies to benefit from the vastly increased
speeds and improved facilities of LTE. Accordingly there is a considerable interest in the development of
LTE TDD, which is also known in China as TD-LTE.
With the considerable interest from the supporters of TD-SCDMA, a number of features to make the mode
of operation of TD-LTE more of an upgrade path for TD-SCDMA have been incorporated. One example of
this is the subframe structure that has been adopted within LTE TDD / TD-LTE.
While both LTE TDD (TD-LTE) and LTE FDD will be widely used, it is anticipated that LTE FDD will be the
more widespread, although LTE TDD has a number of significant advantages, especially in terms of higher
spectrum efficiency that can be used by many operators. It is also anticipated that phones will be able to
operate using either the LTE FDD or LTE-TDD (TD-LTE) modes. In this way the LTE UEs or user equipments
will be dual standard phones, and able to operate in countries regardless of the flavour of LTE that is used the main problem will then be the frequency bands that the phone can cover.

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LTE Frame and Subframe Structure

- information, overview, or tutorial about the LTE frame and subframe structure including LTE Type 1 and LTE Type
2 frames.

In order that the 3G LTE system can maintain synchronisation and the system is able to manage the
different types of information that need to be carried between the base-station or eNodeB and the User
Equipment, UE, 3G LTE system has a defined LTE frame and subframe structure for the E-UTRA or Evolved
UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access, i.e. the air interface for 3G LTE.
The frame structures for LTE differ between the Time Division Duplex, TDD and the Frequency Division
Duplex, FDD modes as there are different requirements on segregating the transmitted data.
There are two types of LTE frame structure:
1. Type 1: used for the LTE FDD mode systems.
2. Type 2: used for the LTE TDD systems.

Type 1 LTE Frame Structure

The basic type 1 LTE frame has an overall length of 10 ms. This is then divided into a total of 20 individual
slots. LTE Subframes then consist of two slots - in other words there are ten LTE subframes within a frame.

Type 1 LTE Frame Structure

Type 2 LTE Frame Structure

The frame structure for the type 2 frames used on LTE TDD is somewhat different. The 10 ms frame
comprises two half frames, each 5 ms long. The LTE half-frames are further split into five subframes, each
1ms long.

Type 2 LTE Frame Structure

(shown for 5ms switch point periodicity).
14 | P a g e

The subframes may be divided into standard subframes of special subframes. The special subframes
consist of three fields;

DwPTS - Downlink Pilot Time Slot

GP - Guard Period
UpPTS - Uplink Pilot Time Stot.

These three fields are also used within TD-SCDMA and they have been carried over into LTE TDD (TD-LTE)
and thereby help the upgrade path. The fields are individually configurable in terms of length, although the
total length of all three together must be 1ms.

LTE TDD / TD-LTE Subframe allocations

One of the advantages of using LTE TDD is that it is possible to dynamically change the up and downlink
balance and characteristics to meet the load conditions. In order that this can be achieved in an ordered
fashion, a number of standard configurations have been set within the LTE standards.
A total of seven up / downlink configurations have been set, and these use either 5 ms or 10 ms switch
periodicities. In the case of the 5ms switch point periodicity, a special subframe exists in both half frames.
In the case of the 10 ms periodicity, the special subframe exists in the first half frame only. It can be seen
from the table below that the subframes 0 and 5 as well as DwPTS are always reserved for the downlink. It
can also be seen that UpPTS and the subframe immediately following the special subframe are always
reserved for the uplink transmission.
Uplink-downlink
configuration

Downlink to uplink
switch periodicity

Subframe number
0

5 ms

5 ms

5 ms

10 ms

10 ms

10 ms

5 ms

Where:

D is a subframe for downlink transmission

S is a "special" subframe used for a guard time
U is a subframe for uplink transmission
Uplink / Downlink subframe configurations for LTE TDD (TD-LTE)

15 | P a g e

LTE Physical, Logical and Transport Channels

- overview, information, tutorial about the physical, logical, control and transport channels used within 3GPP, 3G
LTE and the LTE channel mapping.

In order that data can be transported across the LTE radio interface, various "channels" are used. These are
used to segregate the different types of data and allow them to be transported across the radio access
network in an orderly fashion.
Effectively the different channels provide interfaces to the higher layers within the LTE protocol structure
and enable an orderly and defined segregation of the data.

3G LTE channel types

There are three categories into which the various data channels may be grouped.

Physical channels: These are transmission channels that carry user data and control messages.
Transport channels: The physical layer transport channels offer information transfer to Medium
Access Control (MAC) and higher layers.
Logical channels: Provide services for the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer within the LTE
protocol structure.

3G LTE physical channels

The LTE physical channels vary between the uplink and the downlink as each has different requirements
and operates in a different manner.

Downlink:
o Physical Broadcast Channel (PBCH): This physical channel carries system information for
UEs requiring to access the network. It only carries what is termed Master Information
Block, MIB, messages. The modulation scheme is always QPSK and the information bits are
coded and rate matched - the bits are then scrambled using a scrambling sequence specific
to
the
cell
to
prevent
confusion
with
data
from
other
cells.

The MIB message on the PBCH is mapped onto the central 72 subcarriers or six central
resource blocks regardless of the overall system bandwidth. A PBCH message is repeated
every 40 ms, i.e. one TTI of PBCH includes four radio frames.
The PBCH transmissions has 14 information bits, 10 spare bits, and 16 CRC bits.
Physical Control Format Indicator Channel (PCFICH) : As the name implies the PCFICH
informs the UE about the format of the signal being received. It indicates the number of
OFDM symbols used for the PDCCHs, whether 1, 2, or 3. The information within the PCFICH
is essential because the UE does not have prior information about the size of the control
region.
A PCFICH is transmitted on the first symbol of every sub-frame and carries a Control Format
Indicator, CFI, field. The CFI contains a 32 bit code word that represents 1, 2, or 3. CFI 4 is
reserved for possible future use.

16 | P a g e

The PCFICH uses 32,2 block coding which results in a 1/16 coding rate, and it always uses
QPSK modulation to ensure robust reception.
Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH) : The main purpose of this physical channel is
to carry mainly scheduling information of different types:
Downlink resource scheduling
Uplink power control instructions
Uplink resource grant
Indication for paging or system information

The PDCCH contains a message known as the Downlink Control Information, DCI which carries the control
information for a particular UE or group of UEs. The DCI format has several different types which are
defined with different sizes. The different format types include: Type 0, 1, 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 2, 2A, 2B, 2C, 3,
3A, and 4.
Physical Hybrid ARQ Indicator Channel (PHICH) : As the name implies, this channel is used
to report the Hybrid ARQ status. It carries the HARQ ACK/NACK signal indicating whether a
transport block has been correctly received. The HARQ indicator is 1 bit long - "0" indicates
ACK, and "1" indicates NACK.

The PHICH is transmitted within the control region of the subframe and is typically only
transmitted within the first symbol. If the radio link is poor, then the PHICH is extended to a
number symbols for robustness.

Uplink:
o

Physical Uplink Control Channel (PUCCH) : The Physical Uplink Control Channel, PUCCH
provides the various control signalling requirements. There are a number of different
PUCCH formats defined to enable the channel to carry the required information in the most
efficient format for the particular scenario encountered. It includes the ability to carry SRs,
Scheduling Requests.
The basic formats are summarised below:

PUCCH Format

Uplink Control Information

Modulation
Scheme

Bits per Subframe

Format 1

SR

N/A

N/A

Format 1a

1 bit HARQ ACK/NACK with or without SR

BPSK

Format 1b

2 bit HARQ ACK/NACK with or without SR

QPSK

Format 2

CQI/PMI or RI

QPSK

20

Format 2a

CQI/PMI or RI and 1 bit HARQ ACK/NACK

QPSK + BPSK

21

Format 2b

CQI/PMI or RI and 2 bit HARQ ACK/NACK

QPSK + BPSK

22

Format 3

Provides support for carrier aggregation.

o
o

17 | P a g e

Notes

Physical Uplink Shared Channel (PUSCH) : This physical channel found on the LTE uplink is
the Uplink counterpart of PDSCH
Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH) : This uplink physical channel is used for random
access functions. This is the only non-synchronised transmission that the UE can make
within LTE. The downlink and uplink propagation delays are unknown when PRACH is used
and therefore it cannot be synchronised.

The PRACH instance is made up from two sequences: a cyclic prefix and a guard period. The
preamble sequence may be repeated to enable the eNodeB to decode the preamble when
link conditions are poor.

LTE transport channels

The LTE transport channels vary between the uplink and the downlink as each has different requirements
and operates in a different manner. Physical layer transport channels offer information transfer to medium
access control (MAC) and higher layers.

Downlink:
o Broadcast Channel (BCH) : The LTE transport channel maps to Broadcast Control Channel
(BCCH)
o Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH) : This transport channel is the main channel for
downlink data transfer. It is used by many logical channels.
o Paging Channel (PCH) : To convey the PCCH
o Multicast Channel (MCH) : This transport channel is used to transmit MCCH information to
set up multicast transmissions.
Uplink:
o Uplink Shared Channel (UL-SCH) : This transport channel is the main channel for uplink
data transfer. It is used by many logical channels.
o Random Access Channel (RACH) : This is used for random access requirements.

LTE logical channels

The logical channels cover the data carried over the radio interface. The Service Access Point, SAP between
MAC sublayer and the RLC sublayer provides the logical channel.

Control channels: these LTE control channels carry the control plane information:
o Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) : This control channel provides system information to
all mobile terminals connected to the eNodeB.
o Paging Control Channel (PCCH) : This control channel is used for paging information when
searching a unit on a network.
o Common Control Channel (CCCH) : This channel is used for random access information, e.g.
for actions including setting up a connection.
o Multicast Control Channel (MCCH) : This control channel is used for Information needed
for multicast reception.
o Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH) : This control channel is used for carrying user-specific
control information, e.g. for controlling actions including power control, handover, etc.
Traffic channels:These LTE traffic channels carry the user-plane data:
o Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH) : This traffic channel is used for the transmission of user
data.
o Multicast Traffic Channel (MTCH) : This channel is used for the transmission of multicast
data.

It will be seen that many of the LTE channels bear similarities to those sued in previous generations of
mobile telecommunications.

18 | P a g e

LTE Frequency Bands & Spectrum Allocations

- a summary and tables of the LTE frequency band spectrum allocations for 3G & 4G LTE - TDD and FDD.

There is a growing number of LTE frequency bands that are being designated as possibilities for use with
LTE. Many of the LTE frequency bands are already in use for other cellular systems, whereas other LTE
bands are new and being introduced as other users are re-allocated spectrum elsewhere.

FDD and TDD LTE frequency bands

FDD spectrum requires pair bands, one of the uplink and one for the downlink, and TDD requires a single
band as uplink and downlink are on the same frequency but time separated. As a result, there are different
LTE band allocations for TDD and FDD. In some cases these bands may overlap, and it is therefore feasible,
although unlikely that both TDD and FDD transmissions could be present on a particular LTE frequency
band.
The greater likelihood is that a single UE or mobile will need to detect whether a TDD or FDD transmission
should be made on a given band. UEs that roam may encounter both types on the same band. They will
therefore need to detect what type of transmission is being made on that particular LTE band in its current
location.
The different LTE frequency allocations or LTE frequency bands are allocated numbers. Currently the LTE
bands between 1 & 22 are for paired spectrum, i.e. FDD, and LTE bands between 33 & 41 are for unpaired
spectrum, i.e. TDD.

LTE frequency band definitions

FDD LTE frequency band allocations

There are a large number of allocations or radio spectrum that has been reserved for FDD, frequency
division duplex, LTE use.
The FDD LTE frequency bands are paired to allow simultaneous transmission on two frequencies. The
bands also have a sufficient separation to enable the transmitted signals not to unduly impair the receiver
performance. If the signals are too close then the receiver may be "blocked" and the sensitivity impaired.
The separation must be sufficient to enable the roll-off of the antenna filtering to give sufficient
attenuation of the transmitted signal within the receive band.

19 | P a g e

FDD LTE Bands & Frequencies

LTE Band
Number

Uplink
(MHz)

Downlink
(MHz)

Width of Band
(MHz)

Duplex Spacing
(MHz)

Band Gap (MHz)

1920 - 1980

2110 - 2170

60

190

130

1850 - 1910

1930 - 1990

60

80

20

1710 - 1785

1805 -1880

75

95

20

1710 - 1755

2110 - 2155

45

400

355

824 - 849

869 - 894

25

45

20

830 - 840

875 - 885

10

35

25

2500 - 2570

2620 - 2690

70

120

50

880 - 915

925 - 960

35

45

10

1749.9 - 1784.9

1844.9 - 1879.9

35

95

60

10

1710 - 1770

2110 - 2170

60

400

340

11

1427.9 - 1452.9

1475.9 - 1500.9

20

48

28

12

698 - 716

728 - 746

18

30

12

13

777 - 787

746 - 756

10

-31

41

14

788 - 798

758 - 768

10

-30

40

15

1900 - 1920

2600 - 2620

20

700

680

16

2010 - 2025

2585 - 2600

15

575

560

17

704 - 716

734 - 746

12

30

18

18

815 - 830

860 - 875

15

45

30

19

830 - 845

875 - 890

15

45

30

20

832 - 862

791 - 821

30

-41

71

21

1447.9 - 1462.9

1495.5 - 1510.9

15

48

33

22

3410 - 3500

3510 - 3600

90

100

10

23

2000 - 2020

2180 - 2200

20

180

160

24

1625.5 - 1660.5

1525 - 1559

34

-101.5

135.5

25

1850 - 1915

1930 - 1995

65

80

15

26

814 - 849

859 - 894

30 / 40

27

807 - 824

852 - 869

17

45

28

28

703 - 748

758 - 803

45

55

10

29

n/a

717 - 728

11

30

2305 - 2315

2350 - 2360

10

45

35

31

452.5 - 457.5

462.5 - 467.5

10

10

TDD LTE frequency band allocations

With the interest in TDD LTE, there are several unpaired frequency allocations that are being prepared for
LTR TDD use. The TDD LTE bands are unpaired because the uplink and downlink share the same frequency,
being time multiplexed.
TDD LTE Bands & Frequencies
LTE Band
Number

Allocation (MHz)

Width of Band (MHz)

33

1900 - 1920

20

34

2010 - 2025

15

20 | P a g e

TDD LTE Bands & Frequencies

LTE Band
Number

Allocation (MHz)

Width of Band (MHz)

35

1850 - 1910

60

36

1930 - 1990

60

37

1910 - 1930

20

38

2570 - 2620

50

39

1880 - 1920

40

40

2300 - 2400

100

41

2496 - 2690

194

42

3400 - 3600

200

43

3600 - 3800

200

44

703 - 803

100

There are regular additions to the LTE frequency bands / LTE spectrum allocations as a result of
negotiations at the ITU regulatory meetings. These LTE allocations are resulting in part from the digital
dividend, and also from the pressure caused by the ever growing need for mobile communications. Many
of the new LTE spectrum allocations are relatively small, often 10 - 20MHz in bandwidth, and this is a cause
for concern. With LTE-Advanced needing bandwidths of 100 MHz, channel aggregation over a wide set of
frequencies many be needed, and this has been recognized as a significant technological problem. . . . . . . .
.

21 | P a g e

LTE UE Category & Class Definitions

- LTE utilizes UE or User Equipment categories or classes to define the performance specifications an enable base
stations to be able to communicate effectively with them knowing their performance levels. Some like LTE Cat 3,
LTE Cat 4 and LTE Cat 0 are widely quoted and used. Other like LTE Cat 7 and LTE Cat 8 are much newer.

In the same way that a variety of other systems adopted different categories for the handsets or user
equipments, so too there are 3G LTE UE categories. These LTE categories define the standards to which a
particular handset, dongle or other equipment will operate.

LTE UE category rationale

The LTE categories or UE classes are needed to ensure that the base station, or eNodeB, eNB can
communicate correctly with the user equipment. By relaying the LTE UE category information to the base
station, it is able to determine the performance of the UE and communicate with it accordingly.
As the LTE category defines the overall performance and the capabilities of the UE, it is possible for the
eNB to communicate using capabilities that it knows the UE possesses. Accordingly the eNB will not
communicate beyond the performance of the UE.

LTE UE category definitions

There are 9 different LTE UE categories that are defined. As can be seen in the table below, the different
LTE categories have a wide range in the supported parameters and performance. LTE category 1, for
example does not support MIMO, but LTE UE category five supports 4x4 MIMO.
It is also worth noting that UE class 1 does not offer the performance offered by that of the highest
performance HSPA category. Additionally all LTE UE categories are capable of receiving transmissions from
up to four antenna ports.
A summary of the different LTE UE category parameters is given in the tables below.
Headline data rates for LTE Categories
LTE UE Category
Link

Downlink

10

50

100

150

300

300

300

1200

Uplink

25

50

50

75

50

150

600

It can be seen that the headline data rates for category 8 exceed the requiremetns for IMT-Advanced by a
considerable margin.
While the headline rates for the different LTE UE categories or UE classes show the maximum data rates
achievable, it is worth looking in further detail at the underlying performance characteristics.

UL and DL parameters for LTE UE Categories 1 - 5

LTE Category

22 | P a g e

Parameter

LTE Cat 1

LTE Cat 2

LTE Cat 3

LTE Cat 4

LTE Cat 5

Max number of DL-SCH transport block

bits received in a TTI

10 296

51 024

102 048

150 752

302 752

Max number of bits of a DL-SCH block

received in a TTI

10 296

51 024

75 376

75 376

151 376

Total number of soft channel bits

250 368

1 237 248

1 237 248

1 827 072

3 667 200

Maximum number of supported layers

for spatial multiplexing in DL

Max number of bits of an UL-SCH

transport block received in a TTI

5 160

25 456

51 024

51 024

75 376

Support for 64-QAM in UL

No

No

No

No

Yes

UL and DL parameters for LTE UE Categories 6, 7, 8

LTE Category
Parameter

LTE Cat 6

LTE Cat 7

LTE Cat 8

Max number of DL-SCH transport block bits

received in a TTI

299 552

299 552

1 200 000

Max number of bits of a DL-SCH block received

in a TTI

TBD

TBD

TBD

Total number of soft channel bits

3 667 200

TBD

TBD

Max number of bits of an UL-SCH transport

block received in a TTI

TBD

TBD

TBD

Support for 64-QAM in UL

No

Yes, up to RAN 4

Yes

Maximum number of supported layers for

spatial multiplexing in DL

From this it can be seen that the peak downlink data rate for a Category 5 UE using 4x4 MIMO is
approximately 300 Mbps, and 150 Mbps for a Category 4 UE using 2x2 MIMO. Also in the Uplink, LTE UE
category 5 provides a peak data rate of 75 Mbps using 64-QAM.
Note:
DL-SCH = Downlink shared channel
UL-SCH = Uplink shared channel
TTI = Transmission Time Interval

LTE Category 0
With the considerable level of development being undertaken into the Internet of Things, IoT and general
machine to machine, M2M communications, there has been a growing need to develop an LTE category
focussed on these applications. Here, much lower data rates are needed, often only in short bursts and an
accompanying requirement is for the remote device or machine to be able to draw only low levels of
current.
To enable the requirements of these devices to be met using LTE, and new LTE category was developed.
Referred to as LTE Category 0, or simply LTE Cat 0, this new category has a reduced performance
requirement that meets the needs of many machines while significantly reducing complexity and current

23 | P a g e

consumption. Whilst Category 0 offered a reduced specification, it still complied with the LTE system
requirements.
LTE Category 0 Performance Summary
Parameter

LTE Cat 0 Performance

Peak downlink rate

1 Mbps

Peak uplink rate

1 Mbps

Max number of downlink spatial layers

Number of UE RF chains

Duplex mode

Half duplex

UE receive bandwidth

20 MHz

Maximum UE transmit power

23 dBm

The new LTE Cat 0 was introduced in Rel 12 of the 3GPP standards. And it is being advanced in further
releases.
One major advantage of LTE Category 0 is that the modem complexity is considerably reduced when
compared to other LTE Categories. It is expected that the modem complexity for a Cat 0 modem will be
around 50% that of a Category 1 modem.

LTE UE category summary

In the same way that category information is used for virtually all cellular systems from GPRS onwards, so
the LTE UE category information is of great importance. While users may not be particularly aware of the
category of their UE, it will match the performance an allow the eNB to communicate effectively with all
the UEs that are connected to it.

24 | P a g e

LTE SAE System Architecture Evolution

- information, overview, or tutorial about the basics of the 3G LTE SAE, system architecture evolution and the LTE
Network

Along with 3G LTE - Long Term Evolution that applies more to the radio access technology of the cellular
telecommunications system, there is also an evolution of the core network. Known as SAE - System
Architecture Evolution. This new architecture has been developed to provide a considerably higher level of
performance that is in line with the requirements of LTE.
As a result it is anticipated that operators will commence introducing hardware conforming to the new
System Architecture Evolution standards so that the anticipated data levels can be handled when 3G LTE is
introduced.
The new SAE, System Architecture Evolution has also been developed so that it is fully compatible with LTE
Advanced, the new 4G technology. Therefore when LTE Advanced is introduced, the network will be able
to handle the further data increases with little change.

Reason for SAE System Architecture Evolution

The SAE System Architecture Evolution offers many advantages over previous topologies and systems used
for cellular core networks. As a result it is anticipated that it will be wide adopted by the cellular operators.
SAE System Architecture Evolution will offer a number of key advantages:
1. Improved data capacity: With 3G LTE offering data download rates of 100 Mbps, and the focus of
the system being on mobile broadband, it will be necessary for the network to be able to handle
much greater levels of data. To achieve this it is necessary to adopt a system architecture that lends
itself to much grater levels of data transfer.
2. All IP architecture: When 3G was first developed, voice was still carried as circuit switched data.
Since then there has been a relentless move to IP data. Accordingly the new SAE, System
Architecture Evolution schemes have adopted an all IP network configuration.
3. Reduced latency: With increased levels of interaction being required and much faster responses,
the new SAE concepts have been evolved to ensure that the levels of latency have been reduced to
around 10 ms. This will ensure that applications using 3G LTE will be sufficiently responsive.
4. Reduced OPEX and CAPEX: A key element for any operator is to reduce costs. It is therefore
essential that any new design reduces both the capital expenditure (CAPEX)and the operational
expenditure (OPEX). The new flat architecture used for SAE System Architecture Evolution means
that only two node types are used. In addition to this a high level of automatic configuration is
introduced and this reduces the set-up and commissioning time.

25 | P a g e

SAE System Architecture Evolution basics

The new SAE network is based upon the GSM / WCDMA core networks to enable simplified operations and
easy deployment. Despite this, the SAE network brings in some major changes, and allows far more
efficient and effect transfer of data.
There are several common principles used in the development of the LTE SAE network:

a common gateway node and anchor point for all technologies.

an optimised architecture for the user plane with only two node types.

an all IP based system with IP based protocols used on all interfaces.

a split in the control / user plane between the MME, mobility management entity and the gateway.

a radio access network / core network functional split similar to that used on WCDMA / HSPA.

integration of non-3GPP access technologies (e.g. cdma2000, WiMAX, etc) using client as well as
network based mobile-IP.

The main element of the LTE SAE network is what is termed the Evolved Packet Core or EPC. This connects
to the eNodeBs as shown in the diagram below.

LTE SAE Evolved Packet Core

As seen within the diagram, the LTE SAE Evolved Packet Core, EPC consists of four main elements as listed
below:

Mobility Management Entity, MME: The MME is the main control node for the LTE SAE access
network, handling a number of features:

26 | P a g e

Idle mode UE tracking

Bearer activation / de-activation

Choice of SGW for a UE

Intra-LTE handover involving core network node location

Interacting with HSS to authenticate user on attachment and implements roaming

restrictions

It acts as a termination for the Non-Access Stratum (NAS)

Provides temporary identities for UEs

The SAE MME acts the termination point for ciphering protection for NAS signaling. As part
of this it also handles the security key management. Accordingly the MME is the point at
which lawful interception of signalling may be made.

Paging procedure

The S3 interface terminates in the MME thereby providing the control plane function for
mobility between LTE and 2G/3G access networks.

The SAE MME also terminates the S6a interface for the home HSS for roaming UEs.

It can therefore be seen that the SAE MME provides a considerable level of overall control functionality.

Serving Gateway, SGW: The Serving Gateway, SGW, is a data plane element within the LTE SAE.
Its main purpose is to manage the user plane mobility and it also acts as the main border between
the Radio Access Network, RAN and the core network. The SGW also maintains the data paths
between the eNodeBs and the PDN Gateways. In this way the SGW forms a interface for the data
packet network at the E-UTRAN.
Also when UEs move across areas served by different eNodeBs, the SGW serves as a mobility
anchor ensuring that the data path is maintained.

PDN Gateway, PGW: The LTE SAE PDN gateway provides connectivity for the UE to external
packet data networks, fulfilling the function of entry and exit point for UE data. The UE may have
connectivity with more than one PGW for accessing multiple PDNs.

Policy and Charging Rules Function, PCRF: This is the generic name for the entity within the LTE
SAE EPC which detects the service flow, enforces charging policy. For applications that require
dynamic policy or charging control, a network element entitled the Applications Function, AF is
used.

LTE SAE PCRF Interfaces

27 | P a g e

LTE SAE Distributed intelligence

In order that requirements for increased data capacity and reduced latency can be met, along with the
move to an all-IP network, it is necessary to adopt a new approach to the network structure.
For 3G UMTS / WCDMA the UTRAN (UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network, comprising the Node B's or
basestations and Radio Network Controllers) employed low levels of autonomy. The Node Bs were
connected in a star formation to the Radio Network Controllers (RNCs) which carried out the majority of
the management of the radio resource. In turn the RNCs connected to the core network and connect in
turn to the Core Network.
To provide the required functionality within LTE SAE, the basic system architecture sees the removal of a
layer of management. The RNC is removed and the radio resource management is devolved to the basestations. The new style base-stations are called eNodeBs or eNBs.
The eNBs are connected directly to the core network gateway via a newly defined "S1 interface". In
addition to this the new eNBs also connect to adjacent eNBs in a mesh via an "X2 interface". This provides
a much greater level of direct interconnectivity. It also enables many calls to be routed very directly as a
large number of calls and connections are to other mobiles in the same or adjacent cells. The new
structure allows many calls to be routed far more directly and with only minimum interaction with the core
network.
In addition to the new Layer 1 and Layer 2 functionality, eNBs handle several other functions. This includes
the radio resource control including admission control, load balancing and radio mobility control including
handover decisions for the mobile or user equipment (UE).
The additional levels of flexibility and functionality given to the new eNBs mean that they are more
complex than the UMTS and previous generations of base-station. However the new 3G LTE SAE network
structure enables far higher levels of performance. In addition to this their flexibility enables them to be
updated to handle new upgrades to the system including the transition from 3G LTE to 4G LTE Advanced.
The new System Architecture Evolution, SAE for LTE provides a new approach for the core network,
enabling far higher levels of data to be transported to enable it to support the much higher data rates that
will be possible with LTE. In addition to this, other features that enable the CAPEX and OPEX to be reduced
when compared to existing systems, thereby enabling higher levels of efficiency to be achieved.

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LTE SON Self Organizing Networks

- LTE, Long Term Evolution and the requirements for LTE SON, Self Organising Networks

With LTE requiring smaller cell sizes to enable the much greater levels of data traffic to be handled, there
networks have become considerably more complicated and trying to plan and manage the network
centrally is not as viable. Coupled with the need to reduce costs by reducing manual input, there has been
a growing impetus to implement self-organizing networks.
Accordingly LTE can be seen as one of the major drivers behind the self-organizing network, SON
philosophy.
Accordingly 3GPP developed many of the requirements for LTE SON to sit alongside the basic functionality
of LTE. As a result the standards for LTE SON are embedded within the 3GPP standards.

LTE SON development

The term SON came into frequent use after the term was adopted by the Next Generation Mobile
Networks, NGMN alliance. The idea came about as result of the need within LTE to be able to deploy many
more cells. Femtocells and other microcells are an integral part of the LTE deployment strategy. With
revenue per bit falling, costs for deployment must be kept to a minimum as well as ensuring the network is
operating to its greatest efficiency.
3GPP, the Third Generation Partnership Programme has created the standards for SON and as they are
generally first to be deployed with LTE, they are often referred to as LTE SON.
While 3GPP has generated the standards, they have been based upon long term objectives for a 'SONenabled broadband mobile network' set out by the NGMN.
NGMN has defined the necessary use cases, measurements, procedures and open interfaces to ensure that
multivendor offerings are available. 3GPP has incorporated these aspirations into useable standards.

Major elements of LTE SON

Although LTE SON self-optimising networks is one of the major drivers for the generic SON technology, the
basic requirements remain the same whatever the technology to which it will be applied.
The main elements of SON include:

Self configuration: The aim for the self configuration aspects of LTE SON is to enable new base
stations to become essentially "Plug and Play" items. They should need as little manual intervention
in the configuration process as possible. Not only will they be able to organise the RF aspects, but
also configure the backhaul as well.

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Self optimisation: Once the system has been set up, LTE SON capabilities will enable the base
station to optimise the operational characteristics to best meet the needs of the overall network.

Self-healing: Another major feature of LTE SON is to enable the network to self-heal. It will do this
by changing the characteristics of the network to mask the problem until it is fixed. For example,
the boundaries of adjacent cells can be increased by changing antenna directions and increasing
power levels, etc..

Typically an LTE SON system is a software package with relevant options that is incorporated into an
operator's network.
Note on SON, Self Organizing Networks:
SON mainly came out of the requirements of LTE and the more complicated networks that will arise. However the
. concepts behind SON can be applied at any network enabling its efficiency to be increased while keeping costs low.
Accordingly, it is being used increasingly to reduce operational and capital expenditure by adding software to the
network to enable it to organise and run itself

LTE SON and 3GPP standards

LTE Son has been standardised in the various 3GPP standards. It was first incorporated into 3GPP release 8,
and further functionality has been progressively added in the further releases of the standards.
One of the major aims of the 3GPP standardization is the support of SON features is to ensure that multivendor network environments operate correctly with LTE SON. As a result, 3GPP has defined a set of LTE
SON use cases and the associated SON functions.
As the functionality of LTE advances, the LTE SON standardisation effectively tracks the LTE network
evolution stages. In this way SON will be applicable to the LTE networks.

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Voice over LTE - VoLTE Tutorial

- operation of Voice over LTE VoLTE system for providing a unified format of voice traffic on LTE, and other systems
including CSFB, and SV-LTE.

The Voice over LTE, VoLTE scheme was devised as a result of operators seeking a standardised system for
transferring traffic for voice over LTE.
Originally LTE was seen as a completely IP cellular system just for carrying data, and operators would be
able to carry voice either by reverting to 2G / 3G systems or by using VoIP in one form or another.

From around 2014 Phones like this iPhone6 incorporated VoLTE as standard
However it was seen that this would lead to fragmentation and incompatibility not allowing all phones to
communicate with each other and this would reduce voice traffic. Additionally SMS services are still widely
used, often proving a means of set-up for other applications.
Even though revenue from voice calls and SMS is falling, a format for voice over LTE and messaging, it was
as necessary to have a viable and standardized scheme to provide the voice and SMS services to protect
this revenue.

Options for LTE Voice

When looking at the options for ways of carrying voice over the LTE system, a number of possible solutions
were investigated. A number of alliances were set up to promote different ways of providing the service. A
number of systems were prosed as outlined below:

CSFB, Circuit Switched Fall Back: The circuit switched fall-back, CSFB option for providing voice
over LTE has been standardised under 3GPP specification 23.272. Essentially LTE CSFB uses a variety
of processes and network elements to enable the circuit to fall back to the 2G or 3G connection
(GSM, UMTS, CDMA2000 1x) before a circuit switched call is initiated.
The specification also allows for SMS to be carried as this is essential for very many set-up
procedures for cellular telecommunications. To achieve this the handset uses an interface known as
SGs which allows messages to be sent over an LTE channel.

SV-LTE - Simultaneous Voice LTE:

SV-LTE allows packet switched LTE services to run
simultaneously with a circuit switched voice service. SV-LTE facility provides the facilities of CSFB at

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the same time as running a packet switched data service. It has the disadvantage that it requires
two radios to run at the same time within the handset which has a serious impact on battery life
which is already a major issue.

VoLGA, Voice over LTE via GAN: The VoLGA standard was based on the existing 3GPP Generic
Access Network (GAN) standard, and the aim was to enable LTE users to receive a consistent set of
voice, SMS (and other circuit-switched) services as they transition between GSM, UMTS and LTE
access networks. For mobile operators, the aim of VoLGA was to provide a low-cost and low-risk
approach for bringing their primary revenue generating services (voice and SMS) onto the new LTE
network deployments.

One Voice / later called Voice over LTE, VoLTE: The Voice over LTE, VoLTE scheme for providing
voice over an LTE system utilises IMS enabling it to become part of a rich media solution. It was the
option chosen by the GSMA for use on LTE and is the standardised method for providing SMS and
voice over LTE.

Voice over LTE, VoLTE formation

Originally the concept for an SMS and voice system over LTE using IMS had been opposed by many
operators because of the complexity of IMS. They had seen it as far too expensive and burdensome to
introduce and maintain.
However, the One Voice profile for Voice over LTE was developed by a collaboration between over forty
operators including: AT&T, Verizon Wireless, Nokia and Alcatel-Lucent.
At the 2010 GSMA Mobile World Congress, GSMA announced that they were supporting the One Voice
solution to provide Voice over LTE.
To achieve a workable system, a cut down variant of IMS was used. It was felt that his would be acceptable
to operators while still providing the functionality required.
The VoLTE system is based on the IMS MMTel concepts that were previously in existence. It has been
specified in the GSMA profile IR 92.

Voice over LTE, VoLTE basics

VoLTE, Voice over LTE is an IMS-based specification. Adopting this approach, it enables the system to be
integrated with the suite of applications that will become available on LTE.
Note on IMS:
The IP Multimedia Subsystem or IP Multimedia Core Network Subsystem, IMS is an architectural framework for
delivering Internet Protocol, IP multimedia services. It enables a variety of services to be run seemlessly rather than
having several disparate applications operating concurrently.

In order that IMS was implemented in fashion that would be acceptable to operators, a cut down version
was defined. This not only reduced the number of entities required in the IMS network, but it also
simplified the interconnectivity - focussing on the elements required for VoLTE.

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Reduced IMS network for VoLTE

As can be seen there are several entities within the reduced IMS network used for VoLTE:

IP-CAN IP, Connectivity Access Network: This consists of the EUTRAN and the MME.

P-CSCF, Proxy Call State Control Function: The P-CSCF is the user to network proxy. In this respect
all SIP signalling to and from the user runs via the P-CSCF whether in the home or a visited network.

I-CSCF, Interrogating Call State Control Function: The I-CSCF is used for forwarding an initial SIP
request to the S-CSCF. When the initiator does not know which S-CSCF should receive the request.

S-CSCF, Serving Call State Control Function: The S-CSCF undertakes a variety of actions within the
overall system, and it has a number of interfaces to enable it to communicate with other entities
within the overall system.

AS, Application Server: It is the application server that handles the voice as an application.

HSS, Home Subscriber Server: The IMS HSS or home subscriber server is the main subscriber
database used within IMS. The IMS HSS provides details of the subscribers to the other entities
within the IMS network, enabling users to be granted access or not dependent upon their status.

The IMS calls for VoLTE are processed by the subscriber's S-CSCF in the home network. The connection to
the S-CSCF is via the P-CSCF. Dependent upon the network in use and overall location within a network, the
P-CSCF will vary, and a key element in the enablement of voice calling capability is the discovery of the PCSCF.
An additional requirement for VoLTE enabled networks is to have a means to handing back to circuit
switched legacy networks in a seamless manner, while only having one transmitting radio in the handset to
preserve battery life. A system known as SRVCC - Single Radio Voice Call Continuity is required for this.

VoLTE codecs
As with any digital voice system, a codec must be used. The VoLTE codec is that specified by 3GPP and is
the adaptive multi-rate, AMR codec that is used in many other cellular systems from GSM through UMTS
and now to LTE. The AMR-wideband codec may also be used.
The used of the AMR codec for VoLTE also provides advantages in terms of interoperability with legacy
systems. No transcoders are needed as most legacy systems now are moving towards the AMR codec.
In addition to this, support for dual tone multi-frequency, DTMF signalling is also mandatory as this is
widely used for many forms of signalling over analogue telephone lines.

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VoLTE IP versions
With the update from IPv4 to IPv6, the version of IP used in any system is of importance.
VoLTE devices are required to operate in dual stack mode catering for both IPv4 and IPv6.
If the IMS application profile assigns and IPv6 address, then the device is required to prefer that address
and also to specifically use it during the P-CSCF discovery phase.
One of the issues with voice over IP type calls is the overhead resulting from the IP header. To overcome
this issue VoLTE requires that IP header compression is used along with RoHC, Robust Header
Compression, protocol for voice data packet headers.

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4G LTE Advanced Tutorial

- overview, information, tutorial about the basics of LTE Advanced, the 4G technology being called IMT Advanced
being developed under 3GPP.

With the standards definitions now available for LTE, the Long Term Evolution of the 3G services, eyes are
now turning towards the next development, that of the truly 4G technology named IMT Advanced. The
new technology being developed under the auspices of 3GPP to meet these requirements is often termed
LTE Advanced.
In order that the cellular telecommunications technology is able to keep pace with technologies that may
compete, it is necessary to ensure that new cellular technologies are being formulated and developed. This
is the reasoning behind starting the development of the new LTE Advanced systems, proving the
technology and developing the LTE Advanced standards.
In order that the correct solution is adopted for the 4G system, the ITU-R (International
Telecommunications Union - Radiocommunications sector) has started its evaluation process to develop
the recommendations for the terrestrial components of the IMT Advanced radio interface. One of the main
competitors for this is the LTE Advanced solution.
One of the key milestones is October 2010 when the ITU-R decides the framework and key characteristics
for the IMT Advanced standard. Before this, the ITU-R will undertake the evaluation of the various
proposed radio interface technologies of which LTE Advanced is a major contender.

Key milestones for ITU-R IMT Advanced evaluation

The ITU-R has set a number of milestones to ensure that the evaluation of IMT Advanced technologies
occurs in a timely fashion. A summary of the main milestones is given below and this defines many of the
overall timescales for the development of IMT Advanced and in this case LTE Advanced as one of the main
technologies to be evaluated.

Key Milestones on the Development of 4G LTE-Advanced

Milestone

Date

Issue invitation to propose Radio Interface Technologies.

March 2008

ITU date for cut-off for submission of proposed Radio Interface Technologies.

October 2009

Cutoff date for evaluation report to ITU.

June 2010

Decision on framework of key characteristics of IMT Advanced Radio Interface

Technologies.

October 2010

Completion of development of radio interface specification recommendations.

February 2011

LTE Advanced development history

With 3G technology established, it was obvious that the rate of development of cellular technology should
not slow. As a result initial ideas for the development of a new 4G system started to be investigated. In one
early investigation which took place on 25 December 2006 with information released to the press on 9
February 2007, NTT DoCoMo detailed information about trials in which they were able to send data at
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speeds up to approximately 5 Gbit/s in the downlink within a 100MHz bandwidth to a mobile station
moving at 10km/h. The scheme used several technologies to achieve this including variable spreading
factor spread orthogonal frequency division multiplex, MIMO, multiple input multiple output, and
maximum likelihood detection. Details of these new 4G trials were passed to 3GPP for their consideration
In 2008 3GPP held two workshops on IMT Advanced, where the "Requirements for Further Advancements
for E-UTRA" were gathered. The resulting Technical Report 36.913 was then published in June 2008 and
submitted to the ITU-R defining the LTE-Advanced system as their proposal for IMT-Advanced.
The development of LTE Advanced / IMT Advanced can be seen to follow and evolution from the 3G
services that were developed using UMTS / W-CDMA technology.

Comparison of LTE-A with other Cellular Technologies

WCDMA
(UMTS)

HSPA
HSDPA / HSUPA

HSPA+

LTE

LTE Advanced
(IMT Advanced)

Max downlink speed

bps

384 k

14 M

28 M

100M

1G

Max uplink speed

bps

128 k

5.7 M

11 M

50 M

500 M

Latency
round trip time
approx

150 ms

100 ms

50ms (max)

~10 ms

less than 5 ms

3GPP releases

Rel 99/4

Rel 5 / 6

Rel 7

Rel 8

Rel 10

Approx years of initial roll out

2003 / 4

2005 / 6 HSDPA
2007 / 8 HSUPA

2008 / 9

2009 / 10

2014 / 15

Access methodology

CDMA

CDMA

CDMA

OFDMA / SCFDMA

OFDMA / SCFDMA

LTE Advanced is not the only candidate technology. WiMAX is also there, offering very high data rates and
high levels of mobility. However it now seems less likely that WiMAX will be adopted as the 4G technology,
with LTE Advanced appearing to be better positioned.

LTE Advanced key features

With work starting on LTE Advanced, a number of key requirements and key features are coming to light.
Although not fixed yet in the specifications, there are many high level aims for the new LTE Advanced
specification. These will need to be verified and much work remains to be undertaken in the specifications
before these are all fixed. Currently some of the main headline aims for LTE Advanced can be seen below:
1. Peak data rates: downlink - 1 Gbps; uplink - 500 Mbps.
2. Spectrum efficiency: 3 times greater than LTE.
3. Peak spectrum efficiency: downlink - 30 bps/Hz; uplink - 15 bps/Hz.
4. Spectrum use: the ability to support scalable bandwidth use and spectrum aggregation where noncontiguous spectrum needs to be used.

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5. Latency: from Idle to Connected in less than 50 ms and then shorter than 5 ms one way for
individual packet transmission.
6. Cell edge user throughput to be twice that of LTE.
7. Average user throughput to be 3 times that of LTE.
8. Mobility: Same as that in LTE
9. Compatibility: LTE Advanced shall be capable of interworking with LTE and 3GPP legacy systems.
These are many of the development aims for LTE Advanced. Their actual figures and the actual
implementation of them will need to be worked out during the specification stage of the system.

LTE Advanced technologies

There are a number of key technologies that will enable LTE Advanced to achieve the high data throughput
rates that are required. MIMO and OFDM are two of the base technologies that will be enablers. Along
with these there are a number of other techniques and technologies that will be employed.

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplex, OFDM OFDM forms the basis of the radio bearer. Along
with it there is OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access) along with SC-FDMA
(Single Channel Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access). These will be used in a hybrid
format. However the basis for all of these access schemes is OFDM.

Multiple Input Multiple Output, MIMO: One of the other key enablers for LTE Advanced that is
common to LTE is MIMO. This scheme is also used by many other technologies including WiMAX
and Wi-Fi - 802.11n. MIMO - Multiple Input Multiple Output enables the data rates achieved to be
increased beyond what the basic radio bearer would normally allow.

For LTE Advanced, the use of MIMO is likely to involve further and more advanced techniques including the
use of additional antennas in the matrix to enable additional paths to be used, although as the number of
antennas increases, the overhead increases and the return per additional path is less.
In additional to the numbers of antennas increasing, it is likely that techniques such as beamforming may
be used to enable the antenna coverage to be focused where it is needed.

Carrier Aggregation, CA: As many operators do not have sufficient contiguous spectrum to
provide the required bandwidths for the very high data rates, a scheme known as carrier
aggregation has been developed. Using this technology operators are able to utilise multiple
channels either in the same bands or different areas of the spectrum to provide the required
bandwidth.

Coordinated Multipoint : One of the key issues with many cellular systems is that of poor
performance at the cell edges. Interference from adjacent cells along with poor signal quality lead
to a reduction in data rates. For LTE-Advanced a scheme known as coordinated multipoint has been
introduced.

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LTE Relaying: LTE relaying is a scheme that enables signals to be forwarded by remote stations
from a main base station to improve coverage.

Device to Device, D2D: LTE D2D is a facility that has been requested by a number of users, in
particular the emergency services. It enables fast swift access via direct communication - a facility
that is essential for the emergency services when they may be on the scene of an incident.

With data rates rising well above what was previously available, it will be necessary to ensure that the core
network is updated to meet the increasing requirements. It is therefore necessary to further improve the
system architecture.
These and other technologies will be used with LTE Advanced to provide the very high data rates that are
being sought along with the other performance characteristics that are needed.

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LTE CA: Carrier Aggregation Tutorial

- 4G LTE Advanced CA, carrier aggregation or channel aggregation enables multiple LTE carriers to be used
together to provide the high data rates required for 4G LTE Advanced.

LTE Advanced offers considerably higher data rates than even the initial releases of LTE. While the
spectrum usage efficiency has been improved, this alone cannot provide the required data rates that are
being headlined for 4G LTE Advanced.
To achieve these very high data rates it is necessary to increase the transmission bandwidths over those
that can be supported by a single carrier or channel. The method being proposed is termed carrier
aggregation, CA, or sometimes channel aggregation. Using LTE Advanced carrier aggregation, it is possible
to utilise more than one carrier and in this way increase the overall transmission bandwidth.
These channels or carriers may be in contiguous elements of the spectrum, or they may be in different
bands.
Spectrum availability is a key issue for 4G LTE. In many areas only small bands are available, often as small
as 10 MHz. As a result carrier aggregation over more than one band is contained within the specification,
although it does present some technical challenges.
Carrier aggregation is supported by both formats of LTE, namely the FDD and TDD variants. This ensures
that both FDD LTE and TDD LTE are able to meet the high data throughput requirements placed upon
them.

LTE carrier aggregation basics

The target figures for data throughput in the downlink is 1 Gbps for 4G LTE Advanced. Even with the
improvements in spectral efficiency it is not possible to provide the required headline data throughput
rates within the maximum 20 MHz channel. The only way to achieve the higher data rates is to increase the
overall bandwidth used. IMT Advanced sets the upper limit at 100 MHz, but with an expectation of 40 MHz
being used for minimum performance. For the future it is possible the top limit of 100 MHz could be
extended.
It is well understood that spectrum is a valuable commodity, and it takes time to re-assign it from one use
to another in view - the cost of forcing users to move is huge as new equipment needs to be bought.
Accordingly as sections of the spectrum fall out of use, they can be re-assigned. This leads to significant
levels of fragmentation.
To an LTE terminal, each component carrier appears as an LTE carrier, while an LTE-Advanced terminal can
exploit the total aggregated bandwidth.

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RF aspects of carrier aggregation

There are a number of ways in which LTE carriers can be aggregated:

Types of LTE carrier aggregation

Intra-band: This form of carrier aggregation uses a single band. There are two main formats for
this type of carrier aggregation:
o

Contiguous: The Intra-band contiguous carrier aggregation is the easiest form of LTE carrier
aggregation to implement. Here the carriers are adjacent to each other.

Contiguous aggregation of two uplink component carriers

The aggregated channel can be considered by the terminal as a single enlarged channel from the RF
viewpoint. In this instance, only one transceiver is required within the terminal or UE, whereas more are
required where the channels are not adjacent. However as the RF bandwidth increases it is necessary to
ensure that the UE in particular is able to operate over such a wide bandwidth without a reduction in
performance. Although the performance requirements are the same for the base station, the space, power
consumption, and cost requirements are considerably less stringent, allowing greater flexibility in the
design. Additionally for the base station, multi-carrier operation, even if non-aggregated, is already a
requirement in many instances, requiring little or no change to the RF elements of the design. Software
upgrades would naturally be required to cater for the additional capability.
o

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Non-contiguous:
Non-contiguous intra-band carrier aggregation is somewhat more
complicated than the instance where adjacent carriers are used. No longer can the multicarrier signal be treated as a single signal and therefore two transceivers are required. This

adds significant complexity, particularly to the UE where space, power and cost are prime
considerations.

Inter-band non-contiguous: This form of carrier aggregation uses different bands. It will be of
particular use because of the fragmentation of bands - some of which are only 10 MHz wide. For
the UE it requires the use of multiple transceivers within the single item, with the usual impact on
cost, performance and power. In addition to this there are also additional complexities resulting
from the requirements to reduce intermodulation and cross modulation from the two transceivers

The current standards allow for up to five 20 MHz carriers to be aggregated, although in practice two or
three is likely to be the practical limit. These aggregated carriers can be transmitted in parallel to or from
the same terminal, thereby enabling a much higher throughput to be obtained.

Carrier aggregation bandwidths

When aggregating carriers for an LTE signal, there are several definitions required for the bandwidth of the
combined channels. As there as several bandwidths that need to be described, it is necessary to define
them to reduce confusion.

LTE Carrier Aggregation Bandwidth Definitions for Intra-Band Case

LTE carrier aggregation bandwidth classes

There is a total of six different carrier aggregation, CA bandwidth classes which are being defined.
Carrier Aggregation
Bandwidth Class

Aggregated Transmission
BW Configuration

Number of component carriers

100

100

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Carrier Aggregation
Bandwidth Class

Aggregated Transmission
BW Configuration

Number of component carriers

100 - 200

NB: classes D, E, & F are in the study phase.

LTE aggregated carriers

When carriers are aggregated, each carrier is referred to as a component carrier. There are two categories:

Primary component carrier: This is the main carrier in any group. There will be a primary downlink
carrier and an associated uplink primary component carrier.

Secondary component carrier: There may be one or more secondary component carriers.

There is no definition of which carrier should be used as a primary component carrier - different terminals
may use different carriers. The configuration of the primary component carrier is terminal specific and will
be determined according to the loading on the various carriers as well as other relevant parameters.
In addition to this the association between the downlink primary carrier and the corresponding uplink
primary component carrier is cell specific. Again there are no definitions of how this must be organised.
The information is signalled to the terminal of user equipment as part of the overall signalling between the
terminal and the base station.

Carrier aggregation cross carrier scheduling

When LTE carrier aggregation is used, it is necessary to be able to schedule the data across the carriers and
to inform the terminal of the DCI rates for the different component carriers. This information may be
implicit, or it may be explicit dependent upon whether cross carrier scheduling is used.
Enabling of the cross carrier scheduling is achieved individually via the RRC signalling on a per component
carrier basis or a per terminal basis.
When no cross carrier scheduling is arranged, the downlink scheduling assignments achieved on a per
carrier basis, i.e. they are valid for the component carrier on which they were transmitted.
For the uplink, an association is created between one downlink component carrier and an uplink
component carrier. In this way when uplink grants are sent the terminal or UE will know to which uplink
component carrier they apply.
Where cross carrier scheduling is active, the PDSCH on the downlink or the PUSCH on the uplink is
transmitted on an associate component carrier other than the PDCCH, the carrier indicator in the PDCCH
provides the information about the component carrier used for the PDSCH or PUSCH.
It is necessary to be able to indicate to which component carrier in any aggregation scheme a grant relates.
To facilitate this, component carriers are numbered. The primary component carrier is numbered zero, for
all instances, and the different secondary component carriers are assigned a unique number through the
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UE specific RRC signalling. This means that even if the terminal or user equipment and the base station,
eNodeB may have different understandings of the component carrier numbering during reconfiguration,
transmissions on the primary component carrier can be scheduled.

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4G LTE CoMP, Coordinated Multipoint Tutorial

- 4G LTE Advanced CoMP, coordinated multipoint is used to send and receive data to and from a UE from several
points to ensure the optimum performance is achieved even at cell edges.

LTE CoMP or Coordinated Multipoint is a facility that is being developed for LTE Advanced - many of the
facilities are still under development and may change as the standards define the different elements of
CoMP more specifically.
LTE Coordinated Multipoint is essentially a range of different techniques that enable the dynamic
coordination of transmission and reception over a variety of different base stations. The aim is to improve
overall quality for the user as well as improving the utilisation of the network.
Essentially, LTE Advanced CoMP turns the inter-cell interference, ICI, into useful signal, especially at the cell
borders where performance may be degraded.
Over the years the importance of inter-cell interference, ICI has been recognised, and various techniques
used from the days of GSM to mitigate its effects. Here interference averaging techniques such as
frequency hopping were utilised. However as technology has advanced, much tighter and more effective
methods of combating and utilising the interference have gained support.

LTE CoMP and 3GPP

The concepts for Coordinated Multipoint, CoMP, have been the focus of many studies by 3GPP for LTEAdvanced as well as the IEEE for their WiMAX, 802.16 standards. For 3GPP there are studies that have
focussed on the techniques involved, but no conclusion has been reached regarding the full
implementation of the scheme. However basic concepts have been established and these are described
below.
CoMP has not been included in Rel.10 of the 3GPP standards, but as work is on-going, CoMP is likely to
reach a greater level of consensus. When this occurs it will be included in future releases of the standards.
Despite the fact that Rel.10 does not provide any specific support for CoMP, some schemes can be
implemented in LTE Rel.10 networks in a proprietary manner. This may enable a simpler upgrade when
standardisation is finally agreed.

LTE CoMP - the advantages

Although LTE Advanced CoMP, Coordinated Multipoint is a complex set of techniques, it brings many
advantages to the user as well as the network operator.

Makes better utilisation of network: By providing connections to several base stations at once,
using CoMP, data can be passed through least loaded base stations for better resource utilisation.

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Provides enhanced reception performance: Using several cell sites for each connection means
that overall reception will be improved and the number of dropped calls should be reduced.

Multiple site reception increases received power: The joint reception from multiple base stations
or sites using LTE Coordinated Multipoint techniques enables the overall received power at the
handset to be increased.

Interference reduction: By using specialised combining techniques it is possible to utilise the

interference constructively rather than destructively, thereby reducing interference levels.

What is LTE CoMP? - the basics

Coordinated multipoint transmission and reception actually refers to a wide range of techniques that
enable dynamic coordination or transmission and reception with multiple geographically separated eNBs.
Its aim is to enhance the overall system performance, utilise the resources more effectively and improve
the end user service quality.
One of the key parameters for LTE as a whole, and in particular 4G LTE Advanced is the high data rates that
are achievable. These data rates are relatively easy to maintain close to the base station, but as distances
increase they become more difficult to maintain.
Obviously the cell edges are the most challenging. Not only is the signal lower in strength because of the
distance from the base station (eNB), but also interference levels from neighbouring eNBs are likely to be
higher as the UE will be closer to them.
4G LTE CoMP, Coordinated Multipoint requires close coordination between a number of geographically
separated eNBs. They dynamically coordinate to provide joint scheduling and transmissions as well as
proving joint processing of the received signals. In this way a UE at the edge of a cell is able to be served by
two or more eNBs to improve signals reception / transmission and increase throughput particularly under
cell edge conditions.

Concept of LTE Advanced CoMP - Coordinated Multipoint

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In essence, 4G LTE CoMP, Coordinated Multipoint falls into two major categories:

Joint processing: Joint processing occurs where there is coordination between multiple entities base stations - that are simultaneously transmitting or receiving to or from UEs.

Coordinated scheduling or beamforming: This often referred to as CS/CB (coordinated scheduling

/ coordinated beamforming) is a form of coordination where a UE is transmitting with a single
transmission or reception point - base station. However the communication is made with an
exchange of control among several coordinated entities.

To achieve either of these modes, highly detailed feedback is required on the channel properties in a fast
manner so that the changes can be made. The other requirement is for very close coordination between
the eNBs to facilitate the combination of data or fast switching of the cells.
The techniques used for coordinated multipoint, CoMP are very different for the uplink and downlink. This
results from the fact that the eNBs are in a network, connected to other eNBs, whereas the handsets or
UEs are individual elements.

Downlink LTE CoMP

The downlink LTE CoMP requires dynamic coordination amongst several geographically separated eNBs
transmitting to the UE. The two formats of coordinated multipoint can be divided for the downlink:

Joint processing schemes for transmitting in the downlink : Using this element of LTE CoMP, data
is transmitted to the UE simultaneously from a number of different eNBs. The aim is to improve the
received signal quality and strength. It may also have the aim of actively cancelling interference
from
transmissions
that
are
intended
for
other
UEs.
This form of coordinated multipoint places a high demand onto the backhaul network because the
data to be transmitted to the UE needs to be sent to each eNB that will be transmitting it to the UE.
This may easily double or triple the amount of data in the network dependent upon how many
eNBs will be sending the data. In addition to this, joint processing data needs to be sent between all
eNBs involved in the CoMP area.

Coordinated scheduling and or beamforming: Using this concept, data to a single UE is

transmitted from one eNB. The scheduling decisions as well as any beams are coordinated to
control
the
interference
that
may
be
generated.
The advantage of this approach is that the requirements for coordination across the backhaul
network are considerably reduced for two reasons:

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UE data does not need to be transmitted from multiple eNBs, and therefore only needs to
be directed to one eNB.

Only scheduling decisions and details of beams needs to be coordinated between multiple
eNBs.

Uplink LTE CoMP

Joint reception and processing: The basic concept behind this format is to utilise antennas at
different sites. By coordinating between the different eNBs it is possible to form a virtual antenna
array. The signals received by the eNBs are then combined and processed to produce the final
output signal. This technique allows for signals that are very low in strength, or masked by
interference
in
some
areas
to
be
receiving
with
few
errors.
The main disadvantage with this technique is that large amounts of data need to be transferred
between the eNBs for it to operate.

Coordinated scheduling: This scheme operates by coordinating the scheduling decisions amongst
the
ENBs
to
minimise
interference.
As in the case of the downlink, this format provides a much reduced load in the backhaul network
because only the scheduling data needs to be transferred between the different eNBs that are
coordinating with each other.

Overall requirements for LTE CoMP

One of the key requirements for LTE is that it should be able to provide a very low level of latency. The
additional processing required for multiple site reception and transmission could add significantly to any
delays. This could result from the need for the additional processing as well as the communication
between the different sites.
To overcome this, it is anticipated that the different sites may be connected together in a form of
centralised RAN, or C-RAN.

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LTE Advanced Heterogeneous Networks, HetNet

- LTE heterogeneous network, HetNet technology, how LTE HetNets work and details about their operation and
deployment..

LTE heterogeneous networks, HetNet are fast becoming a reality.

Within LTE and LTE Advanced, operators see the need to very significantly increase the data capacity of all
areas of the network while also reducing the costs as cost per bit rates are falling.
Whilst LTE HetNet technology is starting to be defined, many operators are seeking to utilise the concepts
to ensure that the delivery of service to the users meets expectations under the very varying conditions
and scenarios that users are placing on the networks.

LTE heterogeneous network basics

To achieve this LTE and LTE Advanced operators need to adopt a variety of approaches to meet the needs
of a host of scenarios that will occur within the network.
Different types of user will need use the network in different places and for different applications. Coupled
to this operators introducing LTE and LTE Advanced networks will have many legacy systems available. In
any LTE heterogeneous network it will be necessary to accommodate other radio access technologies
including HSPA, UMTS and even EDGE and GPRS. In addition to this other technologies including Wi-Fi also
need to be accommodated.
These solutions for LTE heterogeneous networks need to incorporate not only the radio access network
solutions, but also the core network as well. In this way a truly heterogeneous network can become
functional.
To ensure the best use is made of the available capabilities, all the various elements need to be operated in
a manner that is truly seamless to the user. The user should be given the best experience using the best
available technology at any given time. The performance and hence the user experience should also be
very much the same whatever the location and whatever the application.
Note on Heterogeneous Networks, HetNet:
The concept of the Heterogeneous Network or HetNet has arisen out of the need for cellular telecommunications
operators to be able to operate networks consisting of a variety of radio access technologies, formats of cells and
many other aspects, and combining them to operate in a seamless fashion.

LTE HetNet features

There are a number of features for LTE that can be incorporated into an LTE heterogeneous network above
and beyond some of what may be termed the basic wireless heterogeneous network techniques..Although
they could conceivably be used with other forms of wireless heterogeneous network, they are currently
found in LTE.

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Carrier aggregation: With spectrum allocated for 4G networks, operators often find they have a
variety of small bands that they have to piece together to provide the required overall bandwidth
needed for 4G LTE. Making these bands work seamlessly is a key element of the LTE heterogeneous
network operation.

Coordinated multipoint: In order to provide the proper coverage at the cell edges, signal from two
or more base stations may be needed. Again, providing the same level of service regardless of
network technology and areas within the cell can prove to be challenging. Adopting a
heterogeneous network approach can assist in providing he same service quality regardless of the
position within the cell, and the possibly differing cell and backhaul technologies used for the
different base stations.

Heterogeneous networks are now an established concept within LTE networks. The requirement to provide
a better level of coverage and performance in a greater variety of situations means that a greater variety of
techniques is required. Making all the different technologies from radio access networks to base station
technologies and backhaul paths all come together needs careful planning. Early cellular systems had a far
more standard approach, where base stations were characterised by the mast and antennas. Now a much
greater variety of approaches is needed.

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