Bernoulli equation

Daniel Bernoulli (1710-1782)

Bernoulli: preamble
Want to discuss the properties of a moving fluid.
Will do this initially under the simplest possible
conditions, leading to Bernoullis equation. The
following restrictions apply.
Flow is inviscid, there are no viscous drag forces
Heat conduction is not possible for an inviscid
flow
The fluid is incompressible .
The flow is steady (velocity pattern constant).
The paths traveled by small sections of the fluid
are well defined.
Will be implicitly using the Euler equations of
motion (discussed later)

Coordinates and streamlines

Each piece of fluid has velocity v .

Steady flow, nothing changes with time at given
location. All particles passing through (1) end
up at (2) with velocity v
The trajectories followed by the particles are
called streamlines.
Describe motion is terms of distanced traveled
along streamline, s .
Velocity given by |v| =
.
is n

ds
dt

. Normal to velocity

Stream-line can bend, R is radius of curvature.

Coordinates and streamlines

Using body fixed coordinates. If the particles change

speed along stream-line, or if stream-line bends, then
accelerations must be present.
The tangential acceleration
dv
v ds
v
as =
=
=v
dt
s dt
s
The normal acceleration
v2
an =
R
The radius of curvature R changes along the
streamline.

Streamline coordinates
It is convenient to use a coordinate system defined in
terms of the flow streamlines. The coordinate along
the streamline is s and the coordinate normal to the
streamline is n . The unit vectors for the streamline
.
coordinates are s and n
The direction of s will be chosen to be in the same
direction as the velocity. So v = vs .
y
s = s2

n = n2
n = n1

s = s1
s=0

n=0
Streamlines
^

The flow plane is covered with an orthogonal curved

net of coordinate lines and v = v(s, n)s and
s = s(s, n) for steady flow.

Forces on streamlines

Any particle travelling along the streamline will be

subjected to a number of forces.
The relevant Forces for Bernoullis equation are
gravity and pressure.

Streamlines F = ma

Will resolve forces in directions parallel s and

to particles motions. y is out of
perpendicular n
page, z is down, x is horizontal.
X
v
Fs = m as = m v
s
v
= V v
s

Streamlines F = ma
Resolve forces
Ws = W sin = V sin
Ws would be zero for horizontal motion.
The pressure changes with height. Let p be pressure
in middle of fluid slab. Let p + ps be pressure in
front of slab and p ps be pressure behind slab.
From Taylors series
p s
ps =
s 2
The net pressure force
Fps

= (p ps )ny (p + ps )ny
p
p
= 2ps ny = sny = V
s
s

Net force
Fs = Ws + Fps


p
=
sin
V
s

Bernoulli equation
Equate two expressions for Fs


p
v
Fs = sin
V = V v
s
s


p
v
sin
= v
s
s
The change in in fluid particle speed along a
streamline is accomplished by a combination of
pressure and gravity forces.
Now use sin =
And v dv
ds =
And dp =

dz
ds

1 dv 2
2 ds

p
s ds

p
n dn

Along streamline dn = 0
dz dp

ds ds

1 dv 2

2 ds

Bernoulli, compact expression

Now making the assumption that density is constant,
Bernoullis equation is obtained
1 dv 2

= 0
2 ds
1 2
v
= 0
2
1 2
z + p + v = Constant
2

dz dp

+
+
ds
ds

d
z + p +
ds

The constant density assumption (incompressible

flow) is good for liquids (sometimes gases at low
speed). Bernoullis equation presented in 1738
monograph Hydrodynamics by Daniel Bernoulli.
If one has compressible fluid
Z
dp 1 2
+ v + gz = Constant

2
and knowledge of how varies with p .

Forces normal to streamline

The acceleration normal to the streamline is an =

where R is the local radius of curvature of the
streamline.
X
(m)v 2
V v 2
Fn =
=
R
R

v2
R

Forces normal to streamline

A change in stream direction occurs from pressure
and/or and gravity forces. Resolve forces
Wn = W cos = V cos
Wn would be zero for vertical motion.
The pressure changes with height. Let p be pressure
in middle of fluid slab, p + pn is pressure at top of
slab and p pn be pressure at bottom of slab.
From Taylors series
p n
pn =
n 2
The net pressure force, Fpn
Fpn

= (p pn )s y (p + pn )s y
p
p
= 2pn n y = n s y = V
n
n

Need to combine pressure and weight forces to get

net Force

Forces normal to streamline

Combine weight and pressure forces
Fn = Wn + Fpn


V v 2
p
V =
=
cos
n
R
Pressure and weight forces imbalance produces the
curvature. For gas flows it is common to use
p
v 2
=
n
R
The pressures increases
with distance away from
the center of curvature
p
is negative since
( n
v 2 /R is positive).
For straight parallel streamlines (in gases),
No pressure change across streamlines

p
n

=0.

Forces normal to streamline

Will consider fluid parameters normal to stream line


p
v 2
cos +
+
=0
n
R

p
n

dp
dn

cos =

since s is constant.

dz
dn

and so for incompressible flows

dp
dz
v 2
+
+
=0
dn
dn
R
dp
dz
v 2
+
+
=0
dn
dn
R
d
v 2
(p + z) +
=0
dn
R
Z 2
v
p + z +
dn = Constant
R
For a compressible substance, the best reduction is
Z
Z 2
dp
v
+
+ gz = Constant

Interpretation for incompressible flows

Along the streamline
1
z + p + v 2 = Constant
2
Across the streamline
Z 2
v
p + z +
dn = Constant
R
The units of Bernoullis equations are J m3 . This
is not surprising since both equations arose from an
integration of the equation of motion for the force
along the s and n directions.
The Bernoulli equation along the stream-line is a
statement of the work energy theorem. As the
particle moves, the pressure and gravitational forces
can do work, resulting in a change in the kinetic
energy.

Dynamic and static pressures

1 2
p + v + gz = constant
2
Static pressure is the pressure as measured moving
with the fluid. (e.g. static with fluid). This is the p
term in Bernoullis equation. Imagine moving along
the fluid with a pressure gauge.
Some times the gz term in Bernoullis equation is
called the hydrostatic pressure. (e.g. it is the change
in pressure due to change in elevation.)
Dynamic pressure is a pressure that occurs when
kinetic energy of the flowing fluid is converted into
pressure rise. This is the pressure associated with
the 12 v 2 term in Bernoullis equation.

Dynamic and static pressures

The static pressure at 1 can be estimated by the
height of the column.
Open

p1 = h31 + p3
= h31 + h43

(4)

h4-3

= h

h3-1

(3)
(1)

V1 = V

(2)
V2 = 0

The dynamic pressure at 2 is estimated by

p2

1 2
= p1 + v1
2

The additional pressure due to the dynamic pressure

will cause the fluid to rise a height of H > h .
The point (2) is called a stagnation point.

The stagnation point

Stagnation point

Stagnation streamline

Stagnation point
(a)

(b)

When fluid flows around any stationary body, some

of the streamlines pass over and some pass under the
object. But there is always a stagnation point where
the stagnation streamline terminates. The
stagnation pressure is
pstagnation

1 2
= p + v
2

v is velocity at some point on stream-line away from

obstruction.
The total pressure, pT
pT

1 2
= p + v + z
2

is sum of static, dynamic and hydrostatic pressures.

The pitot tube

Knowledge of static and stagnation pressures makes
it possible to determine the fluid velocity. Geometry
arranged so that elevation differences have little
impact. The free stream pressure is p .
(3)

Stagnation pressure
1 2
p2 = p3 = p + v
2

(4)

(1)

V
p

(2)

Static pressure is just p1 = p p4 . Combining

equations
1 2
p = p4 = p3 v
2
Rearranging leads to
v=

p3 p 4

The pitot tube: complications

The main question is design of pitot tubes is where
to place the orifice to measure the static pressure.

American Blower company

The static pressure does

vary along the length of
the tube. More complicated analysis than
Bernoulli required here.
Also make mouth of tube smooth.

National Physical laboratory (England)

American Society of Heating & Ventilating Engineers

The free jet

The free jet result was first obtained in 1643 by
Evangelista Torricelli.

1 2
1 2
p1 + v1 + z1 = p2 + v2 + z2
2
2
1 2
v2
z1 =
2
p1 = patm = 0 ; gauge pressure
v1 0 ; large surface, so v1 << v2
p2 p4 = patm = 0 ; streamlines parallel
between (2) and (4) . Radius of curvature is
infinite.
z1 = h . (z2 = 0 )

The free jet

z1
v2

1 2
=
v2
2
s
2h p
=
= 2gh

Outside nozzle, stream continues to fall and at (5)

p
v2 = = 2g(h + H)

Result v = 2gh is speed of freely falling body

starting from rest.
For the fluid, all the potential energy is converted to
kinetic energy when jet leaves tank. (assume no
viscous forces).

Free jet, fine details

Horizontal nozzle, velocity at center line v2 is
slightly smaller than v3
and slightly larger than
v1 .
For d  h , OK to use
v2 as average velocity.
Streamlines cannot follow sharp corner exactly.
Would take an infinite pressure gradient to achieve
zero radius of curvature
(i.e. R = 0 ). Uniform velocity only occurs at a-a line.
Vena Contracta effect.
Jet diameter, dj
is
slightly smaller than
hole diameter dh .

Free jet, Vena contracta effect

The contraction coefficient, Cd = Aj /Ah is the ratio

of the jet area Aj , and hole area Ah .

Flow rates
How much water flows down a channel or through a
pipe?

The volume flow rate,

Q1 is defined as the volume of fluid that flows
past an imaginary (or
real) interface.
Volume of fluid leaving V = v1 tA1
Rate of volume change

V
t

= v 1 A1

The volume flow rate Q = v1 A1

Mass of fluid leaving m = v1 tA1
Rate fluid leaving m
=

dm
dt

= v1 A1

Equation of continuity
For a steady state situation, the mass of fluid going
into the tank must be the same as the mass of fluid
leaving the tank.

Mass of water in = Mass of water out

1 A 1 v 1 = 2 A 2 v 2
This is the continuity equation and for
incompressible flow
A1 v1 = A 2 v2

or

Q1 = Q2

The equation of continuity and the Bernoullis

equation are used into conjunction to analyze many
flow situations.

Flow rate: Example 1

Given the water velocity
at (2) is 8.0 m/s and
the pipe diameter is 0.10
m , what are the volume
and mass flow rates?
Q = vA = v(d/2)2
= 8.0 0.0502 = 0.06283 m3 /s
The mass flow is just Q so
dm
dt

= 1000 0.06283 = 62.83 kg/s

Flow rate: Example 2

A stream of water of waflows
ter d = 0.10 m
steadily from a tank of
diameter D = 1.0 m
as shown in the figure.
What flow-rate is needed
from the inlet to maintain
a constant water volume
in the header tank depth?
The depth of water at the
outlet is 2.0 m .
Can regard outlet as a free jet (note water level at
(1) is not going down).
p

v2 =
2gh = 2 9.8 2.0 = 6.26 m/s

Q2 = A2 v2 = (0.050)2 6.26 = 0.0492 m3 /s

= Q1

Flow rate measurement

One way to measure flow-rate is to place a
constriction in a pipe. The resulting change in
velocity (continuity equation), leads to a pressure
difference. The absolute fluid velocity can be
determined from pressure difference between (1) and
(2) .

The Orifice, Nozzle and Venturi meters analysis here

ignores viscous, compressibility and other real-world
effects.

Flow rate measurement: 2

Want to determine flow rate, need v2
v1 A1 = v 2 A2
A2
v1 =
v2
A1
1 2
1 2
p2 + v2 = p1 + v1
2
2
1 2 1 2
v2 v1 = p2 p1
2
2
1 2 1 A22 2
v2 2 v2 = p2 p1
2
2 A1
2(p2 p1 )
2


v2 =
A22
1 A2
1

So the flow rate is

v
u 2(p p )
u
2
1

Q = A2 t 
A22
1 A2
1

The pressure differences give the flow rate. Real

world flows are 1% to 40% smaller.

Bernoulli and Cavitation

The temperature at which water boils depends on
pressure.
T
10

(o C)

pvap (kPa)
1.23

(1)

(2)

(3)

20

2.34

(Absolute
pressure)
Small Q

30

4.24

40

7.34

Moderate Q

pv
Large Q
0

Incipient cavitation

The process of cavitation involves

Fluid velocity increases
Pressure reduction
If p < pvap , water boils
Bubbles collapse when reach high pressure part
of fluid

Bernoulli and Cavitation

Pressure transients exceeding 100 MPa can be

produced. These transients can produce structural
damage to surfaces.

Sluice gate flow rate

The height of water in the channel can be used to

determine the flow rate of water out the reservoir.
v
u 2g(z z )
p
u
1
2
z2 b 2gz1
Q = z 2 bt
z22
1 z2
1

(b) is the width of the reservoir.

Venturi meter problem

Determine
flow
rate as a function
of the diameter of
the tube.

0.2 m

Q
D

0.1 m

Use venturi meter equation

v
u 2(p p )
u
2
1

Q = A2 t 
A22
1 A2
1

A2 = D2 /4 m2
p2 p1 = 0.20 = 9800 0.20 = 1960 Pa
= 1000 kgm3
1 A22 /A21 = 1 D2 /0.102 = 1 100D 2 m2
D2
Q =
4

3920
2
=
D
1000(1 100D2 )

0.245
(100D2 1)

Sharp crested weir

Between (1) and (2) pressure and gravitational

forces cause fluid to accelerate from v1 v2 .
p1 = h and p2 0 forces cause fluid to
accelerate from v1 v2 .
Assume flow is like free jet. Average velocity

across weir is C1 2gH , C1 = constant.

Flow rate is
p
p
Q = (Hb) C 2gH = C1 b 2gH 3
The parameter C1 is determined empirically.

The energy line and hydraulic grade line

Consider Bernoulli equation divided by = g
p 1 v2
+
+ z = H = Constant on streamline
2 g
The dimensions of the equation are in length. There
is the pressure head, velocity head, and elevation
head. The sum, H is called the total head.
The energy line gives the total head available to a
fluid. It can be measured by measuring the
stagnation pressure with a pitot tube.
The Hydraulic grade line is the line produced from
the pressure and elevation heads. It is measured with
a static pitot tube.

The energy line and hydraulic grade line

The energy line will be horizontal along the

stream line as long as Bernoulli assumptions are
valid.
The hydraulic grade line will not be horizontal if
the fluid velocity changes along the stream line.
If forces are present (this does occur in pipe
flows), then there will be a loss in energy and
the energy line will not be constant.

Example: EL and HGL

A scale drawing can be used to depict the pressure in
the tank/pipe system.

The energy line is horizontal

The elevation head at (2) is converted into
increased pressure head p2 / and velocity head
v22 /(2g) . The HGL decreases.
At (3) , pressure is atmospheric. So the HGL to
the level of the pipe and the elevation head has
been converted entirely into a velocity head
v32 /(2g) .

EL and HGL
The EL and HGL can depict whether there is
positive pressure p > patm or negative pressure
p < patm .

The water velocity will be constant in curved

pipe (equation of continuity).
The pressure head will increase or decrease as
the elevation head changes. Useful to know for
leaking pipes.

Limitations on Bernoulli equation

A number of problems can invalidate the use of the
Bernoulli equation, these are compressibility effects,
rotational effects, unsteady effects.
Compressibility effects
When can compressibility effects impact on gas
flows? Consider stagnation point
Stagnation pressure is greater than static
pressure by 12 v 2 (dynamic pressure), provided
constant.
will not changes too much as long as dynamic
pressure is not too large when compared to
static pressure.
So flows at low v will be incompressible
But dynamic pressure increases as v 2 , so
compressibility effects most likely at high speed.

Compressibility effects
The isothermal model for an ideal gas, p = R T
Z
dp 1 2
C =
+ v1 + gz1

2
Z
dp 1 2
+ v1 + gz1
C = RT
p
2
1
C = RT ln p1 + v12 + gz1
2
This can be used to get
RT
v22
v12
+ z1 +
ln(p1 /p2 ) =
+ z2
2g
g
2g
Now write as p1 /p2 = 1 + (p1 p2 )/p2 = 1 + p/p2
and use ln(1 + x) = x for x  1 .
v12
RT
+ z1 +
ln(1 + p/p2 ) =
2g
g
v12
RT
+ z1 +
(p/p2 )
2g
g

v22
+ z2
2g
v22
+ z2
2g

This can be reduced to the standard Bernoulli

equation. Bernoulli recovered as long as pressure
differences are not large.

Compressibility effects: Isentropic flow

This is the situation that applies when there is no
heat transfer or friction during the flow (reasonable
for many gases). This gas law is p = k D where k
depends on specific heat capacities. Introduce the
Mach number, Ma = v/c (ratio of the flow speed to
the speed of sound). Consideration of the pressure
ratio between free stream and stagnation points
leads to
p2 p 1
p1
p2 p 1
p1

kMa21
incompressible
=
2
#
"
 k
k1
k1
1 compressible
=
1+
2 +
Ma1
0.3

0.2

p2 p1
______

Incompressible
(Eq. 3.26)

p1

The compressible and

incompressible expressions agree to 2% for
Ma < 0.3 .

Compressible
(Eq. 3.25)

0.1

k = 1.4
0
0

0.2

0.4
Ma1

0.6

0.8

Unsteady effects
Implicit in the discussion was an assumption that
the fluid flows along steady state streamlines, so
v = v(s) is a function of position along the stream
and does not contain any explicit time dependence.
If v = v(s, t) then then it would be necessary to
include this when integrating along the streamline.
Z t2
1 2
p
1 2
p1 + v1 + z1 = p2 + v2 + z2 +
ds
2
2
t1 s
The additional term does complicate matters and
can only be easily handled under restricted
circumstances. There are quasi-steady flows where
some time dependence exists, but Bernoullis
equations could be applied as if the flow were steady
(e.g. the draining of a tank).

Rotational effects

Model of wake behind insect

Y. D. Afanasyev, Memorial University of
Newfoundland
Bernoulli equation describes motion of fluid particles
along streamline. If particles spin about the
streamline then Bernoulli is no longer valid.
Need to characterize irrotational and rotational flows.