Reminders / Announcements

ALEKS Objective #4 is due Sunday

No lab this week. Pre-lab #3 is due Monday,
April 25.
Midterm #1 is on Friday.
Office hours this week (BAG 202):
Today, 11:30am-12:20pm
Tomorrow, 1:30-2:20pm
Last minute questions? Use the discussion
board!

Network Atomic Solids

Unlike metals, network atomic solids
contain strong covalent bonds.
These solids tend to be brittle and
relatively non-conductive (heat and
electricity).
Representative elements for these types
of solids are: carbon and silicon.

Network Solids: Carbon

Network solid: not close-packed. Each atoms
environment is determined instead by covalentbond geometry (think VSEPR).
Carbon occurs in three different atomic forms
(allotropes):
Diamond
Graphite
Fullerenes

Diamond
One giant molecule: web of
CC single bonds, one
connecting each pair of C
atoms, tetrahedral, sp3 C
Hardest natural substance;
must break bonds to deform
mp = 4,440 C; secondhighest-melting natural
substance

Graphite
Planar sheets of fused
hexagonal rings, sp2 C
Sheets held together by
delocalized bonds
(conducts electricity along
sheets). Soft
mp = 4,492 C; highestmelting natural substance.

Atomic Networks

Graphite
behaves more
like a metal,
while
diamond is an
insulator
Diamond

Typical metal

-Electron System in Graphite

Network Solids: Silicon

Silicon is to geology what carbon is to biology
Silicon is right below carbon on the periodic table
So why is SiO2 so different from CO2?

SiO2 at room temperature

CO2 at room temperature

Si is too big to form strong bonds to oxygen

no double bonds as in CO2

Si-O Bond Network in Quartz

Ring structures

Tetrahedral geometry

Examples of silicate anions, all of which are

based on SiO44- tetrahedra

Two-dimensional representations of
(a) a quartz crystal and (b) a quartz glass

When silica is heated above melting and then cooled

rapidly, the result is a glass cooled too quickly for
regular crystalline patterns to form.

soda-lime

aluminosilicate

borosilicate

optical

Ceramic - another silicon-based

substance
Ceramics are made of clays
fired at high temperatures.
They are brittle, non-metallic
materials that consist of
minute crystals of silicates
suspended in a glassy
cement.
Unlike regular glass, ceramic
cannot be melted and remelted.

Other types of solids

While metals and networked solids can be thought of
often as one giant molecule, a few other types of
solids also exist:
Molecular solids: covalently-bonded molecules
occupy the lattice positions and are held together
in the solid state by intermolecular forces.
Examples: ice, sulfur (S8) and white phosphorous
(P4)

Energy Bands In Solids

Band theory is MO theory applied to solid crystals (nearly
infinite groups of atoms).
Instead of well-separated bonding,
non-bonding, and anti-bonding
MOs, a large group of closepacked atoms has very closely
spaced orbitals:
a lower-energy valence band of
filled MOs and a higher-energy
conduction band of empty MOs.

Energy Bands in Solids

Metals have no
band gap (energy
separation) between
the valence and
conduction bands.
Non-metals and
most compounds
have a large band
Non-metal
Typical metal
gap.
Metalloid elements (semiconductors) have a
small band gap. These are B, Si, Ge, As, Sb,
and Te (along periodic-table metal-nonmetal
line).

Metals conduct heat and electricity easily

because they have very mobile electrons

Localized at atom

Energy Bands in Solids

Electrical conductivity (e movement across a crystal lattice):
requires excitation of a few e to mostly empty orbitals
(the conduction band).
Depends on the size of the band gaps
occurs easily in metals
occurs to some extent in metalloids
occurs not at all in non-metals and most compounds.
Conductivity of metals decreases with increasing T because
atomic motion retards the cross-lattice electron movement.
Conductivity of metalloids increases with increasing T
because higher T provides more excitation energy.

Silicon - continued
Elemental silicon has the same structure as diamond,
but the gap between filled and empty MOs is smaller
in silicon:

Diamond

Silicon

The smaller band gap means some electrons can cross the
gap silicon is a semiconductor.

Semiconductors
Pure semiconductors (like silicon) allow only a few
electrons to cross the band gap, BUT they can be doped
with other elements to create greater or fewer valence
electrons available for movement

More electrons: n-type

Fewer electrons: p-type

n-type: conductivity is increased

by doping it with elements that
have more valence electrons
than the host crystal.
For example, silicon doped with
arsenic (1 more e-)

p-type: conductivity is increased by

doping it with elements that have
less valence electrons than the host
crystal, creating a hole.
For example, silicon doped with boron
(1 less e-)

Semiconductors
n-dopant

(electron rich, like arsenic)

p-dopant
(electron deficient, like boron)

Semiconductors
Why are n-type and p-type semiconductors useful?
When you put one of each together, you get a p-n
junction.
When is a p-n junction useful?
Only in those rare circumstances when you want
to plug something into the AC outlet in your wall!
p-n junctions are used in rectifiers to convert AC
to DC
They also form the building blocks of diodes,
transistors, solar cells, LEDs and integrated circuits.

p-n junction good rectifier (converts AC to DC)

Charge buildup on p =
contact potential; prevents
further migration

Reverse bias = no
current flow through
system

Forward bias = current

flows easily

Lasers
p-n junctions also are important
in lasers.
When electrons fall into holes
from the n-type to the p-type
region, they produce photons.
These photons stimulate the
emission of other photons in
the same phase.

Molecular Solids
The same intermolecular forces at work in liquids
exist in solids:
London dispersion forces are fairly weak in nonpolar molecules (like CO2, I2, P4, S8), but increased
molecular weights causes many to be solids at
room temperature.
Polar molecules have greater intermolecular forces
(especially when H-bonding is possible)
These intermolecular forces are still not as strong as
the covalent bonds that hold each molecule together.

Definition of a solution
Solution when the components of a mixture are
uniformly intermingled; the mixture is homogenous
Examples: air, seawater, steel
NOT: water (pure), wood (not homogeneous)
Colloid a suspension of tiny particles in some
medium is called a colloidal dispersion, or a colloid; the
mixture is heterogeneous
Examples: gelatin, fog, butter

Definitions for solutions

Solute - The smaller (in mass) of the components in a solution;
the material dispersed into a solvent.
Solvent - The major component of the solution; the material
that the solute is dissolved into.
Solubility - The maximum amount that can be dissolved into a
particular solvent to form a stable solution at a specified
temperature.
Miscibility - The ability of two substances to dissolve in one
another in any proportion.

Solutions do not need to be liquid

Methods for Quantifying How Much Solute

is in a Solvent

(b)