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AntonChekhov
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

AntonPavlovichChekhov(/tkf,f/[1]Russian:

,pronounced[ntonpavlvt
txf]29January1860[2]15July1904)[3]wasa
Russianplaywrightandshortstorywriterwhois
consideredtobeamongthegreatestwritersofshort
fictioninhistory.Hiscareerasaplaywrightproduced
fourclassicsandhisbestshortstoriesareheldinhigh
esteembywritersandcritics.[4][5]AlongwithHenrik
IbsenandAugustStrindberg,Chekhovisoftenreferred
toasoneofthethreeseminalfiguresinthebirthofearly
modernisminthetheater.[6]Chekhovpracticedasa
medicaldoctorthroughoutmostofhisliterarycareer:
"Medicineismylawfulwife",heoncesaid,"and
literatureismymistress."[7]
Chekhovrenouncedthetheatreafterthedisastrous
receptionofTheSeagullin1896,buttheplaywas
revivedtoacclaimin1898byConstantinStanislavski's
MoscowArtTheatre,whichsubsequentlyalsoproduced
Chekhov'sUncleVanyaandpremieredhislasttwoplays,
ThreeSistersandTheCherryOrchard.Thesefourworks
presentachallengetotheactingensemble[8]aswellasto
audiences,becauseinplaceofconventionalaction
Chekhovoffersa"theatreofmood"anda"submerged
lifeinthetext".[9]
Chekhovhadatfirstwrittenstoriesonlyforfinancial
gain,butashisartisticambitiongrew,hemadeformal
innovationswhichhaveinfluencedtheevolutionofthe
modernshortstory.[10]Hemadenoapologiesforthe
difficultiesthisposedtoreaders,insistingthattheroleof
anartistwastoaskquestions,nottoanswerthem.[11]

Contents
1 Biography
1.1 Childhood
1.2 Earlywritings
1.3 Turningpoints
1.4 Sakhalin
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Chekhov

AntonChekhov

Born

AntonPavlovichChekhov
29January1860
Taganrog,RussianEmpire

Died

15July1904(aged44)
Badenweiler,GermanEmpire

Restingplace NovodevichyCemetery,Moscow
Occupation

Physician,shortstorywriter,
playwright

Nationality

Russian

Almamater

FirstMoscowStateMedical
University

Notable
awards

PushkinPrize

Spouse

OlgaKnipper

Signature

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2
3
4
5
6
7
8

1.4 Sakhalin
1.5 Melikhovo
1.6 Yalta
1.7 Death
Legacy
Bibliography
Gallery
Seealso
References
Sources
Externallinks

Biography
Childhood
AntonChekhovwasbornonthefeast
dayofSt.AnthonytheGreat(17
JanuaryOldStyle)29January1860,the
thirdofsixsurvivingchildren,in
Taganrog,aportontheSeaofAzovin
southernRussia.Hisfather,Pavel
YegorovichChekhov,thesonofa
formerserf,wasfromavillage
VilkhovatkanearKobeliaky(Poltava
BirthhouseofAntonChekhov
RegioninmoderndayUkraine)andran
agrocerystore.Adirectoroftheparish
choir,devoutOrthodoxChristian,andphysicallyabusivefather,Pavel
Chekhovhasbeenseenbysomehistoriansasthemodelforhisson'smany
portraitsofhypocrisy.[12]Chekhov'smother,Yevgeniya(Morozova),wasan
YoungChekhovin1882
excellentstorytellerwhoentertainedthechildrenwithtalesofhertravelswith
herclothmerchantfatheralloverRussia.[13][14][15]"Ourtalentswe
gotfromourfather,"Chekhovremembered,"butoursoulfromour
mother."[16]Inadulthood,Chekhovcriticisedhisbrother
Alexander'streatmentofhiswifeandchildrenbyremindinghimof
Pavel'styranny:"Letmeaskyoutorecallthatitwasdespotismand
lyingthatruinedyourmother'syouth.Despotismandlyingso
mutilatedourchildhoodthatit'ssickeningandfrighteningtothink
aboutit.Rememberthehorroranddisgustwefeltinthosetimes
TheTaganrogBoysGymnasiumin
whenFatherthrewatantrumatdinnerovertoomuchsaltinthe
thelate19thcentury.Thecrosson
soupandcalledMotherafool."[17][18]
topisnolongerpresent.

ChekhovattendedtheGreekSchoolinTaganrogandtheTaganrog
Gymnasium(sincerenamedtheChekhovGymnasium),wherehewaskeptdownforayearatfifteenfor
failinganexaminationinAncientGreek.[19]HesangattheGreekOrthodoxmonasteryinTaganrogandin
hisfather'schoirs.Inaletterof1892,heusedtheword"suffering"todescribehischildhoodandrecalled:
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Portraitofyoung
Chekhovincountry
clothes

YoungChekhov(left)withbrother
Nikolaiin1882

Chekhov'sclassiclook:pincenez,hat
andbowtie

Helaterbecameanatheist.[21][22][23]

Whenmy
brothersandI
usedtostandin
themiddleof
thechurchand
singthetrio
"Maymyprayer
beexalted",or
"The
Archangel's
Voice",
everyonelooked
atuswith
emotionand
enviedour
parents,butwe
atthatmoment
feltlikelittle
convicts.[20]

Chekhovfamilyandfriendsin1890.
(Toprow,lefttoright)Ivan,
Alexander,Father(secondrow)
unknownfriend,LikaMizinova,
Masha,Mother,SeryozhaKiselev
(bottomrow)Misha,Anton

In1876,Chekhov'sfatherwasdeclaredbankruptafter
overextendinghisfinancesbuildinganewhouse.[24]Toavoiddebtor'sprisonhefledtoMoscow,wherehis
twoeldestsons,AlexanderandNikolay,wereattendinguniversity.ThefamilylivedinpovertyinMoscow,
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Chekhov'smotherphysicallyandemotionallybrokenbythe
experience.[25]Chekhovwasleftbehindtosellthefamily's
possessionsandfinishhiseducation.
ChekhovremainedinTaganrogforthreemoreyears,boardingwith
amancalledSelivanovwho,likeLopakhininTheCherryOrchard,
hadbailedoutthefamilyforthepriceoftheirhouse.[26]Chekhov
hadtopayforhisowneducation,whichhemanagedbyprivate
tutoring,catchingandsellinggoldfinches,andsellingshortsketches
tothenewspapers,amongotherjobs.[27]Hesenteveryrublehe
couldsparetohisfamilyinMoscow,alongwithhumorouslettersto
cheerthemup.[27]Duringthistime,he
readwidelyandanalytically,including
theworksofCervantes,Turgenev,
Goncharov,andSchopenhauer,[28][29]
andwroteafulllengthcomicdrama,
Fatherless,whichhisbrotherAlexander
dismissedas"aninexcusablethough
innocentfabrication."[30]Chekhovalso
enjoyedaseriesofloveaffairs,one
withthewifeofateacher.[27]
OsipBraz:"Portraitof
AntonChekhov"

Melikhovo,nowamuseum

AntonChekhovin1893

In1879,Chekhovcompletedhis
schoolingandjoinedhisfamilyin
Moscow,havinggainedadmissionto
themedicalschoolatI.M.Sechenov
FirstMoscowStateMedical
University.[31]

Earlywritings
Chekhovnowassumedresponsibility
forthewholefamily.[32]Tosupport
themandtopayhistuitionfees,he
wrotedailyshort,humoroussketches
andvignettesofcontemporaryRussian
life,manyunderpseudonymssuchas
ChekhovandOlga,1901,
ChekhovwithLeoTolstoyatYalta,
"AntoshaChekhonte"(
ontheirhoneymoon
1900
)and"ManwithoutaSpleen"
().His
prodigiousoutputgraduallyearnedhimareputationasasatiricalchroniclerofRussianstreetlife,andby
1882hewaswritingforOskolki(Fragments),ownedbyNikolaiLeykin,oneoftheleadingpublishersof
thetime.[33]Chekhov'stoneatthisstagewasharsherthanthatfamiliarfromhismaturefiction.[34][35]
In1884,Chekhovqualifiedasaphysician,whichheconsideredhisprincipalprofessionthoughhemade
littlemoneyfromitandtreatedthepoorfreeofcharge.[36]
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In1884and1885,Chekhovfoundhimselfcoughingblood,andin1886theattacksworsened,buthewould
notadmithistuberculosistohisfamilyorhisfriends.[16]HeconfessedtoLeykin,"Iamafraidtosubmit
myselftobesoundedbymycolleagues."[37]Hecontinuedwritingforweeklyperiodicals,earningenough
moneytomovethefamilyintoprogressivelybetteraccommodations.
Earlyin1886hewasinvitedtowriteforoneofthemostpopularpapersinSt.Petersburg,NovoyeVremya
(NewTimes),ownedandeditedbythemillionairemagnateAlexeySuvorin,whopaidarateperlinedouble
Leykin'sandallowedChekhovthreetimesthespace.[38]Suvorinwastobecomealifelongfriend,perhaps
Chekhov'sclosest.[39][40]
Beforelong,Chekhovwasattractingliteraryaswellaspopularattention.ThesixtyfouryearoldDmitry
Grigorovich,acelebratedRussianwriteroftheday,wrotetoChekhovafterreadinghisshortstory"The
Huntsman"that[41]"Youhaverealtalent,atalentthatplacesyouinthefrontrankamongwritersinthenew
generation."HewentontoadviseChekhovtoslowdown,writeless,andconcentrateonliteraryquality.
Chekhovrepliedthattheletterhadstruckhim"likeathunderbolt"andconfessed,"Ihavewrittenmystories
thewayreporterswriteuptheirnotesaboutfiresmechanically,halfconsciously,caringnothingabout
eitherthereaderormyself."[42]TheadmissionmayhavedoneChekhovadisservice,sinceearly
manuscriptsrevealthatheoftenwrotewithextremecare,continuallyrevising.[43]Grigorovich'sadvice
neverthelessinspiredamoreserious,artisticambitioninthetwentysixyearold.In1888,withalittle
stringpullingbyGrigorovich,theshortstorycollectionAtDusk(VSumerkakh)wonChekhovthecoveted
PushkinPrize"forthebestliteraryproductiondistinguishedbyhighartisticworth."[44]

Turningpoints
In1887,exhaustedfromoverworkandillhealth,ChekhovtookatriptoUkraine,whichreawakenedhimto
thebeautyofthesteppe.[45]Onhisreturn,hebeganthenovellalengthshortstory"TheSteppe,"whichhe
called"somethingratheroddandmuchtoooriginal,"andwhichwaseventuallypublishedinSeverny
Vestnik(TheNorthernHerald).[46]Inanarrativethatdriftswiththethoughtprocessesofthecharacters,
Chekhovevokesachaisejourneyacrossthesteppethroughtheeyesofayoungboysenttoliveawayfrom
home,andhiscompanions,apriestandamerchant."TheSteppe"hasbeencalleda"dictionaryof
Chekhov'spoetics",anditrepresentedasignificantadvanceforChekhov,exhibitingmuchofthequalityof
hismaturefictionandwinninghimpublicationinaliteraryjournalratherthananewspaper.[47]
Inautumn1887,atheatremanagernamedKorshcommissionedChekhovtowriteaplay,theresultbeing
Ivanov,writteninafortnightandproducedthatNovember.[48]ThoughChekhovfoundtheexperience
"sickening"andpaintedacomicportraitofthechaoticproductioninalettertohisbrotherAlexander,the
playwasahitandwaspraised,toChekhov'sbemusement,asaworkoforiginality.[49]AlthoughChekhov
didnotfullyrealizeitatthetime,Chekhov'splays,suchas"TheSeagull"(writtenin1895),"UncleVanya"
(writtenin1897),"TheThreeSisters"(writtenin1900),and"TheCherryOrchard"(writtenin1903)served
asarevolutionarybackbonetowhatiscommonsensetothemediumofactingtothisday:aneffortto
recreateandexpressthe"realism"ofhowpeopletrulyactandspeakwitheachotherandtranslatingittothe
stageinordertomanifestthehumanconditionasaccuratelyaspossibleinhopestomaketheaudience
reflectupontheirowndefinitionofwhatitmeanstobehuman,wartsandall.Thisphilosophyof
approachingtheartofactinghasstoodnotonlysteadfast,butasthecornerstoneofactingformuchofthe
20thcenturytothisday.MikhailChekhovconsideredIvanovakeymomentinhisbrother'sintellectual
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developmentandliterarycareer.[16]FromthisperiodcomesanobservationofChekhov'sthathasbecome
knownas"Chekhov'sgun",adramaticprinciplethatrequiresthateveryelementinanarrativebenecessary
andirreplaceable,andthateverythingelseberemoved.[50][51][52]
Removeeverythingthathasnorelevancetothestory.Ifyousayinthefirstchapterthatthereis
ariflehangingonthewall,inthesecondorthirdchapteritabsolutelymustgooff.Ifit'snot
goingtobefired,itshouldn'tbehangingthere.
AntonChekhov[52][53]
ThedeathofChekhov'sbrotherNikolayfromtuberculosisin1889influenced"ADrearyStory",finished
thatSeptember,aboutamanwhoconfrontstheendofalifethatherealiseshasbeenwithoutpurpose.[54][55]
MikhailChekhov,whorecordedhisbrother'sdepressionandrestlessnessafterNikolay'sdeath,was
researchingprisonsatthetimeaspartofhislawstudies,andAntonChekhov,inasearchforpurposeinhis
ownlife,himselfsoonbecameobsessedwiththeissueofprisonreform.[16]

Sakhalin
In1890,Chekhovundertookanarduousjourneybytrain,horsedrawncarriage,andriversteamertothe
RussianFarEastandthekatorga,orpenalcolony,onSakhalinIsland,northofJapan,wherehespentthree
monthsinterviewingthousandsofconvictsandsettlersforacensus.ThelettersChekhovwroteduringthe
twoandahalfmonthjourneytoSakhalinareconsideredtobeamonghisbest.[56]Hisremarkstohissister
aboutTomskweretobecomenotorious.[57][58]
Tomskisaverydulltown.TojudgefromthedrunkardswhoseacquaintanceIhavemade,and
fromtheintellectualpeoplewhohavecometothehoteltopaytheirrespectstome,the
inhabitantsareverydull,too.[59]
TheinhabitantsofTomsklaterretaliatedbyerectingamockingstatueofChekhov.
ChekhovwitnessedmuchonSakhalinthatshockedandangeredhim,includingfloggings,embezzlementof
supplies,andforcedprostitutionofwomen.Hewrote,"ThereweretimesIfeltthatIsawbeforemethe
extremelimitsofman'sdegradation."[60][61]Hewasparticularlymovedbytheplightofthechildrenliving
inthepenalcolonywiththeirparents.Forexample:
OntheAmursteamergoingtoSakhalin,therewasaconvictwhohadmurderedhiswifeand
worefettersonhislegs.Hisdaughter,alittlegirlofsix,waswithhim.Inoticedwhereverthe
convictmovedthelittlegirlscrambledafterhim,holdingontohisfetters.Atnightthechild
sleptwiththeconvictsandsoldiersallinaheaptogether.[62]

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Chekhovlaterconcludedthatcharitywasnottheanswer,butthatthegovernmenthadadutytofinance
humanetreatmentoftheconvicts.Hisfindingswerepublishedin1893and1894asOstrovSakhalin(The
IslandofSakhalin),aworkofsocialscience,notliterature,thatisworthyandinformativeratherthan
brilliant.[63][64]Chekhovfoundliteraryexpressionforthe"HellofSakhalin"inhislongshortstory"The
Murder,"[65]thelastsectionofwhichissetonSakhalin,wherethemurdererYakovloadscoalinthenight
whilelongingforhome.Chekhov'swritingonSakhalinisthesubjectofbriefcommentandanalysisin
HarukiMurakami'snovel1Q84.[66]ItisalsothesubjectofapoembytheNobelPrizewinnerSeamus
Heaney,"ChekhovonSakhalin"(collectedinthevolumeStationIsland).[67]

Melikhovo
In1892,ChekhovboughtthesmallcountryestateofMelikhovo,aboutfortymilessouthofMoscow,where
helivedwithhisfamilyuntil1899."It'snicetobealord,"hejokedtohisfriendIvanLeontyev(whowrote
humorouspiecesunderthepseudonymShcheglov),[20]buthetookhisresponsibilitiesasalandlord
seriouslyandsoonmadehimselfusefultothelocalpeasants.Aswellasorganisingreliefforvictimsofthe
famineandcholeraoutbreaksof1892,hewentontobuildthreeschools,afirestation,andaclinic,andto
donatehismedicalservicestopeasantsformilesaround,despitefrequentrecurrencesofhis
tuberculosis.[12][36][68]
MikhailChekhov,amemberofthehouseholdatMelikhovo,describedtheextentofhisbrother'smedical
commitments:
FromthefirstdaythatChekhovmovedtoMelikhovo,thesickbeganflockingtohimfrom
twentymilesaround.Theycameonfootorwerebroughtincarts,andoftenhewasfetchedto
patientsatadistance.Sometimesfromearlyinthemorningpeasantwomenandchildrenwere
standingbeforehisdoorwaiting.[69]
Chekhov'sexpenditureondrugswasconsiderable,butthegreatestcostwasmakingjourneysofseveral
hourstovisitthesick,whichreducedhistimeforwriting.[70]However,Chekhov'sworkasadoctor
enrichedhiswritingbybringinghimintointimatecontactwithallsectionsofRussiansociety:forexample,
hewitnessedatfirsthandthepeasants'unhealthyandcrampedlivingconditions,whichherecalledinhis
shortstory"Peasants".Chekhovvisitedtheupperclassesaswell,recordinginhisnotebook:"Aristocrats?
Thesameuglybodiesandphysicaluncleanliness,thesametoothlessoldageanddisgustingdeath,aswith
marketwomen."[71]
In1894,ChekhovbeganwritinghisplayTheSeagullinalodgehehadbuiltintheorchardatMelikhovo.In
thetwoyearssincehehadmovedtotheestate,hehadrefurbishedthehouse,takenupagricultureand
horticulture,tendedtheorchardandthepond,andplantedmanytrees,which,accordingtoMikhail,he
"lookedafter...asthoughtheywerehischildren.LikeColonelVershinininhisThreeSisters,ashelooked
atthemhedreamedofwhattheywouldbelikeinthreeorfourhundredyears."[16]
ThefirstnightofTheSeagull,attheAlexandrinskyTheatreinSt.Petersburgon17October1896,wasa
fiasco,astheplaywasbooedbytheaudience,stingingChekhovintorenouncingthetheatre.[72]Butthe
playsoimpressedthetheatredirectorVladimirNemirovichDanchenkothatheconvincedhiscolleague
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ConstantinStanislavskitodirectanewproductionfortheinnovativeMoscowArtTheatrein1898.[73]
Stanislavski'sattentiontopsychologicalrealismandensembleplayingcoaxedtheburiedsubtletiesfromthe
text,andrestoredChekhov'sinterestinplaywriting.[74]TheArtTheatrecommissionedmoreplaysfrom
ChekhovandthefollowingyearstagedUncleVanya,whichChekhovhadcompletedin1896.[75]

Yalta
InMarch1897,ChekhovsufferedamajorhemorrhageofthelungswhileonavisittoMoscow.Withgreat
difficultyhewaspersuadedtoenteraclinic,wherethedoctorsdiagnosedtuberculosisontheupperpartof
hislungsandorderedachangeinhismanneroflife.[76]
Afterhisfather'sdeathin1898,ChekhovboughtaplotoflandontheoutskirtsofYaltaandbuiltavilla,
intowhichhemovedwithhismotherandsisterthefollowingyear.Thoughheplantedtreesandflowers,
keptdogsandtamecranes,andreceivedguestssuchasLeoTolstoyandMaximGorky,Chekhovwas
alwaysrelievedtoleavehis"hotSiberia"forMoscowortravelsabroad.HevowedtomovetoTaganrogas
soonasawatersupplywasinstalledthere.[77][78]InYaltahecompletedtwomoreplaysfortheArtTheatre,
composingwithgreaterdifficultythaninthedayswhenhe"wroteserenely,thewayIeatpancakesnow".
HetookayeareachoverThreeSistersandTheCherryOrchard.[79]
On25May1901,ChekhovmarriedOlgaKnipperquietly,owingtohishorrorofweddings.Shewasa
formerprotegeandsometimeloverofNemirovichDanchenkowhomhehadfirstmetatrehearsalsforThe
Seagull.[80][81][82]Uptothatpoint,Chekhov,knownas"Russia'smostelusiveliterarybachelor,"[83]had
preferredpassingliaisonsandvisitstobrothelsovercommitment.[84]HehadoncewrittentoSuvorin:
ByallmeansIwillbemarriedifyouwishit.Butontheseconditions:everythingmustbeasit
hasbeenhithertothatis,shemustliveinMoscowwhileIliveinthecountry,andIwill
comeandseeher...Ipromisetobeanexcellenthusband,butgivemeawifewho,likethe
moon,won'tappearinmyskyeveryday.[85]
TheletterprovedpropheticofChekhov'smaritalarrangementswithOlga:helivedlargelyatYalta,shein
Moscow,pursuingheractingcareer.In1902,OlgasufferedamiscarriageandDonaldRayfieldhasoffered
evidence,basedonthecouple'sletters,thatconceptionmayhaveoccurredwhenChekhovandOlgawere
apart,althoughRussianscholarshaverejectedthatclaim.[86][87]Theliterarylegacyofthislongdistance
marriageisacorrespondencethatpreservesgemsoftheatrehistory,includingsharedcomplaintsabout
Stanislavski'sdirectingmethodsandChekhov'sadvicetoOlgaaboutperforminginhisplays.[88]
InYalta,Chekhovwroteoneofhismostfamousstories,"TheLadywiththeDog"[89](alsocalled"Lady
withLapdog"),[90]whichdepictswhatatfirstseemsacasualliaisonbetweenamarriedmanandamarried
womaninYalta.Neitherexpectsanythinglastingfromtheencounter,buttheyfindthemselvesdrawnback
toeachother,riskingthesecurityoftheirfamilylives.[91]

Death

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ByMay1904,Chekhovwasterminallyillwithtuberculosis.MikhailChekhovrecalledthat"everyonewho
sawhimsecretlythoughttheendwasnotfaroff,butthenearer[he]wastotheend,thelessheseemedto
realiseit."[16]On3June,hesetoffwithOlgafortheGermanspatownofBadenweilerintheBlackForest,
fromwherehewroteoutwardlyjovialletterstohissisterMasha,describingthefoodandsurroundings,and
assuringherandhismotherthathewasgettingbetter.Inhislastletter,hecomplainedabouttheway
Germanwomendressed.[92]
Chekhov'sdeathhasbecomeoneof"thegreatsetpiecesofliteraryhistory,"[93]retold,embroidered,and
fictionalisedmanytimessince,notablyintheshortstory"Errand"byRaymondCarver.In1908,Olga
wrotethisaccountofherhusband'slastmoments:
Antonsatupunusuallystraightandsaidloudlyandclearly(althoughheknewalmostno
German):Ichsterbe("I'mdying").Thedoctorcalmedhim,tookasyringe,gavehiman
injectionofcamphor,andorderedchampagne.Antontookafullglass,examinedit,smiledat
meandsaid:"It'salongtimesinceIdrankchampagne."Hedraineditandlayquietlyonhis
leftside,andIjusthadtimetoruntohimandleanacrossthebedandcalltohim,buthehad
stoppedbreathingandwassleepingpeacefullyasachild...[94]
Chekhov'sbodywastransportedtoMoscowinarefrigeratedrailwaycarmeantforoysters,adetailthat
offendedGorky.[95]SomeofthethousandsofmournersfollowedthefuneralprocessionofaGeneralKeller
bymistake,totheaccompanimentofamilitaryband.[96]Chekhovwasburiednexttohisfatheratthe
NovodevichyCemetery.[97][98]

Legacy
Afewmonthsbeforehedied,ChekhovtoldthewriterIvanBuninthathethoughtpeoplemightgoon
readinghiswritingsforsevenyears."Whyseven?"askedBunin."Well,sevenandahalf,"Chekhovreplied.
"That'snotbad.I'vegotsixyearstolive."[99]
Chekhov'sposthumousreputationgreatlyexceededhisexpectations.
TheovationsfortheplayTheCherryOrchardintheyearofhis
deathservedtodemonstratetheRussianpublic'sacclaimforthe
writer,whichplacedhimsecondinliterarycelebrityonlytoTolstoy,
whooutlivedhimbysixyears.Tolstoywasanearlyadmirerof
Chekhov'sshortstoriesandhadaseriesthathedeemed"first
quality"and"secondquality"boundintoabook.Inthefirst
categorywere:"Children","TheChorusGirl","APlay","Home",
"Misery","TheRunaway","InCourt","Vanka","Ladies","The
Malefactors","TheBoys","Darkness","Sleepy","TheHelpmate",
and"TheDarling"inthesecond:"ATransgression","Sorrow",
Chekhovbiographies
"TheWitch","Verochka","InaStrangeLand","TheCook's
Wedding","ATediousBusiness","AnUpheaval","Oh!The
Public!","TheMask","AWoman'sLuck","Nerves","TheWedding","ADefenselessCreature",and
"PeasantWives."[100]
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InChekhov'slifetime,BritishandIrishcriticsgenerallydidnotfindhisworkpleasingE.J.Dillonthought
"theeffectonthereaderofChekhov'staleswasrepulsionatthegalleryofhumanwasterepresentedbyhis
fickle,spineless,driftingpeople"andR.E.C.Longsaid"Chekhov'scharacterswererepugnant,andthat
Chekhovreveledinstrippingthelastragsofdignityfromthehumansoul".[101]Afterhisdeath,Chekhov
wasreappraised.ConstanceGarnett'stranslationswonhimanEnglishlanguagereadershipandthe
admirationofwriterssuchasJamesJoyce,VirginiaWoolf,andKatherineMansfield,whosestory"The
ChildWhoWasTired"issimilartoChekhov's"Sleepy".[102]TheRussiancriticD.S.Mirsky,wholivedin
England,explainedChekhov'spopularityinthatcountrybyhis"unusuallycompleterejectionofwhatwe
maycalltheheroicvalues."[103]InRussiaitself,Chekhov'sdramafelloutoffashionaftertherevolution,
butitwaslaterincorporatedintotheSovietcanon.ThecharacterofLopakhin,forexample,wasreinvented
asaherooftheneworder,risingfromamodestbackgroundtoeventuallypossessthegentry's
estates.[104][105]
OneofthefirstnonRussianstopraiseChekhov'splayswasGeorgeBernardShaw,whosubtitledhis
HeartbreakHouse"AFantasiaintheRussianManneronEnglishThemes,"andpointedoutsimilarities
betweenthepredicamentoftheBritishlandedclassandthatoftheirRussiancounterpartsasdepictedby
Chekhov:"thesamenicepeople,thesameutterfutility."[106]
IntheUnitedStates,Chekhov'sreputationbeganitsriseslightlylater,partlythroughtheinfluenceof
Stanislavski'ssystemofacting,withitsnotionofsubtext:"Chekhovoftenexpressedhisthoughtnotin
speeches,"wroteStanislavski,"butinpausesorbetweenthelinesorinrepliesconsistingofasingleword...
thecharactersoftenfeelandthinkthingsnotexpressedinthelinestheyspeak."[107][108]TheGroupTheatre,
inparticular,developedthesubtextualapproachtodrama,influencinggenerationsofAmerican
playwrights,screenwriters,andactors,includingCliffordOdets,EliaKazanand,inparticular,Lee
Strasberg.Inturn,Strasberg'sActorsStudioandthe"Method"actingapproachinfluencedmanyactors,
includingMarlonBrandoandRobertDeNiro,thoughbythentheChekhovtraditionmayhavebeen
distortedbyapreoccupationwithrealism.[109]In1981,theplaywrightTennesseeWilliamsadaptedThe
SeagullasTheNotebookofTrigorin.OneofAnton'snephews,MichaelChekhovwouldalsocontribute
heavilytomoderntheatre,particularlythroughhisuniqueactingmethodswhichdifferedfrom
Stanislavski's.
DespiteChekhov'sacclaimduringhislifetimeasaplaywright,somewritersbelievethathisshortstories
representthegreaterachievement.[110]RaymondCarver,whowrotetheshortstory"Errand"about
Chekhov'sdeath,believedthatChekhovwasthegreatestofallshortstorywriters:
Chekhov'sstoriesareaswonderful(andnecessary)nowaswhentheyfirstappeared.Itisnot
onlytheimmensenumberofstorieshewroteforfew,ifany,writershaveeverdonemoreit
istheawesomefrequencywithwhichheproducedmasterpieces,storiesthatshriveusaswell
asdelightandmoveus,thatlaybareouremotionsinwaysonlytrueartcanaccomplish.[111]
ErnestHemingway,anotherwriterinfluencedbyChekhov,wasmoregrudging:"Chekhovwroteaboutsix
goodstories.Buthewasanamateurwriter."[112]AndVladimirNabokovcriticizedChekhov's"medleyof
dreadfulprosaisms,readymadeepithets,repetitions."[113]Buthealsodeclared"TheLadywiththeDog"

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"oneofthegreateststorieseverwritten"initsdepictionofaproblematicrelationship,anddescribed
Chekhovaswriting"thewayonepersonrelatestoanotherthemostimportantthingsinhislife,slowlyand
yetwithoutabreak,inaslightlysubduedvoice."[114]
ForthewriterWilliamBoyd,Chekhov'shistoricalaccomplishmentwastoabandonwhatWilliamGerhardie
calledthe"eventplot"forsomethingmore"blurred,interrupted,mauledorotherwisetamperedwithby
life."[115]
VirginiaWoolfmusedontheuniquequalityofaChekhovstoryinTheCommonReader(1925):
Butisittheend,weask?Wehaveratherthefeelingthatwehaveoverrunoursignalsoritisas
ifatunehadstoppedshortwithouttheexpectedchordstocloseit.Thesestoriesare
inconclusive,wesay,andproceedtoframeacriticismbasedupontheassumptionthatstories
oughttoconcludeinawaythatwerecognise.Insodoingweraisethequestionofourown
fitnessasreaders.Wherethetuneisfamiliarandtheendemphaticloversunited,villains
discomfited,intriguesexposedasitisinmostVictorianfiction,wecanscarcelygowrong,
butwherethetuneisunfamiliarandtheendanoteofinterrogationormerelytheinformation
thattheywentontalking,asitisinTchekov,weneedaverydaringandalertsenseofliterature
tomakeushearthetune,andinparticularthoselastnoteswhichcompletetheharmony.[116]
WhileaProfessorofComparativeLiteratureatPrincetonUniversity,MichaelGoldmanpresentedhisview
ondefiningtheelusivequalityofChekhov'scomediesstating:"HavinglearnedthatChekhoviscomic...
Chekhoviscomicinaveryspecial,paradoxicalway.Hisplaysdepend,ascomedydoes,onthevitalityof
theactorstomakepleasurablewhatwouldotherwisebepainfullyawkwardinappropriatespeeches,
missedconnections,fauxpas,stumbles,childishnessbutaspartofadeeperpathosthestumblesarenot
pratfallsbutanenergized,gracefuldissolutionofpurpose."[117]
AlanTwigg,thechiefeditorandpublisheroftheCanadianbookreviewmagazineBCBookworldwrote,
OnecanargueAntonChekhovisthesecondmostpopularwriterontheplanet.Only
ShakespeareoutranksChekhovintermsofmovieadaptationsoftheirwork,accordingtothe
moviedatabaseIMDb....WegenerallyknowlessaboutChekhovthanweknowabout
mysteriousShakespeare.[118]
ChekhovhasalsoinfluencedtheworkofJapaneseplaywrightsincludingShimizuKunio,YjiSakate,and
AiNagai.CriticshavenotedsimilaritiesinhowChekhovandShimizuuseamixtureoflighthumoraswell
asanintensedepictionsoflonging.[119]SakateadaptedseveralofChekhov'splaysandtransformedthemin
thegeneralstyleofn.[120]NagaialsoadaptedChekhov'splays,includingThreeSisters,andtransformed
hisdramaticstyleintoNagai'sstyleofsatiricalrealismwhileemphasizingthesocialissuesdepictedonthe
play.[120]
Chekhov'sworkshavebeenadaptedforthescreen,includingSidneyLumet'sTheSeaGullandLouis
Malle'sVanyaon42ndStreet.Hisworkhasalsoservedasinspirationorbeenreferencedinnumerousfilms.
InAndreiTarkovsky's1975filmTheMirror,charactersdiscusshisshortstoryWardNo.6.Playsby
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ChekhovarealsoreferencedinFrancoisTruffault's1980dramafilmTheLastMetro,whichissetina
theater.Aportionofastageproductionof"ThreeSisters"appearsinthe2014dramafilmStillAlice.

Bibliography
Gallery

PortraitofChekhovby
hisbrotherNikolay

PortraitbyIsaac
Levitan,1886

ChekhovInternational
TheatreFestivalposter

PortraitbyValentin
Serov,1903

Modernproductionof
TheSeagull

ChekhovMonumentin
Taganrog

GraveofAnton
Chekhov

Chekov'shousein
Yalta[121]

Seealso
MariaChekhova
AnnDunnigan,Englishlanguagetranslator
JeanClaudevanItallie,Englishlanguagetranslator
ListofshortstoriesbyAntonChekhov

References
1."Chekhov"(http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/chekhov).RandomHouseWebster'sUnabridgedDictionary.
2.OldStyledate17January.
3.OldStyledate2July.

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4."Greatestshortstorywriterwhoeverlived."RaymondCarver(inRosamundBartlett'sintroductiontoAbout
LoveandOtherStories,XX)"Quiteprobably.thebestshortstorywriterever."AChekhovLexicon
(http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/classics/story/0,6000,1261403,00.html),byWilliamBoyd,The
Guardian,3July2004.Retrieved16February2007.
5."Stories...whichareamongthesupremeachievementsinprosenarrative."Vodkaminiatures,belchingandangry
cats,(http://books.guardian.co.uk/critics/reviews/0,,489891,00.html)GeorgeSteiner'sreviewofThe
UndiscoveredChekhov,inTheObserver,13May2001.Retrieved16February2007.
6.HaroldBloom,Genius:AStudyofOneHundredExemplaryAuthors.
7.LettertoAlexeiSuvorin,11September1888.LettersofAntonChekhov.(http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6408)
8."ActorsclimbupChekhovlikeamountain,ropedtogether,sharingthegloryiftheyevermakeittothesummit".
ActorIanMcKellen,quotedinMiles,9.
9."Chekhov'sartdemandsatheatreofmood."VsevolodMeyerhold,quotedinAllen,13"Arichersubmergedlife
inthetextischaracteristicofamoreprofounddramaofrealism,onewhichdependslessontheexternalsof
presentation."Styan,84.
10."Chekhovissaidtobethefatherofthemodernshortstory".Malcolm,87"Hebroughtsomethingnewinto
literature."JamesJoyce,inArthurPower,ConversationswithJamesJoyce,UsbornePublishingLtd,1974,ISBN
9780860000068,57"Tchehov'sbreachwiththeclassicaltraditionisthemostsignificanteventinmodern
literature",JohnMiddletonMurry,inAthenaeum,8April1922,citedinBartlett'sintroductiontoAboutLove.
11."Youarerightindemandingthatanartistshouldtakeanintelligentattitudetohiswork,butyouconfusetwo
things:solvingaproblemandstatingaproblemcorrectly.Itisonlythesecondthatisobligatoryfortheartist."
LettertoSuvorin,27October1888.LettersofAntonChekhov.(http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6408)
12.Wood,78.
13.Payne,XVII.
14.Simmons,18.
15.http://www.taganrogcity.com/chekhov_taganrog.html
16.Fromthebiographicalsketch,adaptedfromamemoirbyChekhov'sbrotherMihail,whichprefacesConstance
Garnett'stranslationofChekhov'sletters,1920.
17.LettertobrotherAlexander,2January1889,inMalcolm,p.102.
18.AnotherinsightintoChekhov'schildhoodcameinalettertohispublisherandfriendAlexeiSuvorin:"Frommy
childhoodIhavebelievedinprogress,andIcouldnothelpbelievinginitsincethedifferencebetweenthetime
whenIusedtobethrashedandwhentheygaveupthrashingmewastremendous."LettertoSuvorin,27March
1894.LettersofAntonChekhov.(http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6408)
19.Bartlett,45.
20.LettertoI.L.Shcheglov,9March1892.LettersofAntonChekhov.(http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6408)
21.Tabachnikova,Olga(2010).AntonChekhovThroughtheEyesofRussianThinkers:VasiliiRozanov,Dmitrii
MerezhkovskiiandLevShestov.AnthemPress.p.26.ISBN9781843318415."ForRozanov,Chekhov
representsaconcludingstageofclassicalRussianliteratureattheturnofthe19thand20thcenturies,causedby
thefadingofthethousandyearoldChristiantraditionthathadsustainedmuchofthisliterature.Ontheonehand,
RozanovregardsChekhov'spositivismandatheismashisshortcomings,namingthemamongthereasonsfor
Chekhov'spopularityinsociety."
22.Chekhov,AntonPavlovich(1997).Karlinsky,SimonHeim,MichaelHenry,eds.AntonChekhov'sLifeand
Thought:SelectedLettersandCommentary.NorthwesternUniversityPress.p.13.ISBN9780810114609.
"WhileAntondidnotturnintothekindofmilitantatheistthathisolderbrotherAlexandereventuallybecame,
thereisnodoubtthathewasanonbelieverinthelastdecadesofhislife."
23.RichardPevear(2009).SelectedStoriesofAntonChekov.RandomHouseDigital,Inc.pp.xxii.ISBN9780307
568281."AccordingtoLeonidGrossman,"Inhisrevelationofthoseevangelicalelements,theatheistChekhov
isunquestionablyoneofthemostChristianpoetsofworldliterature.""
24.HehadbeencheatedbyacontractorcalledMironov.Rayfield,31.
25.LettertocousinMihail,10May1877.LettersofAntonChekhov.(http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6408)
26.Malcolm,25.
27.Payne,XX.
28.LettertobrotherMihail,1July1876.LettersofAntonChekhov.(http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6408)
29.Simmons,26.
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30.Simmons,33.
31.Rayfield,69.
32.Wood,79.
33.Rayfield,91.
34."Thereisintheseminiaturesanarrestingpotionofcruelty...ThewonderfullycompassionateChekhovwasyet
tomature.""VodkaMiniatures,BelchingandAngryCats"
(http://books.guardian.co.uk/critics/reviews/0,,489891,00.html),GeorgeSteiner'sreviewofTheUndiscovered
ChekhovinTheObserver,13May2001.Retrieved16February2007.
35.Willis,Louis(27January2013)."Chekhov'sCrimeStories".LiteraryandGenre.Knoxville:SleuthSayers.
36.Malcolm,26.
37.LettertoN.A.Leykin,6April1886.LettersofAntonChekhov.(http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6408)
38.Rayfield,128.
39.Theyonlyeverfelloutonce,whenChekhovobjectedtotheantiSemiticattacksinNewTimesagainstDreyfus
andZolain1898.Rayfield,44850.
40.Inmanyways,therightwingSuvorin,whomLeninlatercalled"TherunningdogoftheTzar"(Payne,XXXV),
wasChekhov'sopposite"ChekhovhadtofunctionlikeSuvorin'skidney,extractingthebusinessman'spoisons."
Wood,79.
41.TheHuntsman.(http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1944).Retrieved16February2007.
42.Malcolm,323.
43.Payne,XXIV.
44.Simmons,160.
45."Thereisascentofthesteppeandonehearsthebirdssing.Iseemyoldfriendstheravensflyingoverthe
steppe."LettertosisterMasha,2April1887.LettersofAntonChekhov.(http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6408)
46.LettertoGrigorovich,12January1888.QuotedbyMalcolm,137.
47."'TheSteppe,'asMichaelFinkesuggests,is'asortofdictionaryofChekhov'spoetics,'akindofsamplecaseof
theconcealedliteraryweaponsChekhovwoulddeployinhisworktocome."Malcolm,147.
48.Fromthebiographicalsketch,adaptedfromamemoirbyChekhov'sbrotherMikhail,whichprefacesConstance
Garnett'stranslationofChekhov'sletters,1920.
49.LettertobrotherAlexander,20November1887.LettersofAntonChekhov.(http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6408)
50.PetrMikhalovichBit
s
illi(1983),Chekhov'sArt:AStylisticAnalysis,Ardis,p.x
51.DanielS.Burt(2008),TheLiterature100:ARankingoftheMostInfluentialNovelists,Playwrights,andPoets
ofAllTime,InfobasePublishing
52.ValentineT.Bill(1987),Chekhov:TheSilentVoiceofFreedom,PhilosophicalLibrary
53.S.Shchukin,Memoirs(1911)
54."ADrearyStory."(http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1883).Retrieved16February2007.
55.Simmons,18691.
56.Malcolm,129.
57.Simmons,223.
58.Rayfield,224.
59.Lettertosister,Masha,20May1890.LettersofAntonChekhov.(http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6408)
60.Wood,85.
61.Rayfield230.
62.LettertoA.F.Koni,16January1891.LettersofAntonChekhov.(http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6408)
63.Malcolm,125.
64.Suchisthegeneralcriticalviewofthework,butSimmonscallsita"valuableandintenselyhumandocument."
Simmons,229.
65."TheMurder"(http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/13419).Retrieved16February2007.
66.Murakami,Haruki.1Q84.AlfredA.Knopf:NewYork,2011.
67.Heaney,Seamus.StationIslandFarrarStrausGiroux:NewYork,1985.
68.Payne,XXXI.
69.Fromthebiographicalsketch,adaptedfromamemoirbyChekhov'sbrotherMikhail,whichprefacesConstance
Garnett'stranslationofChekhov'sletters,1920.

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70.Fromthebiographicalsketch,adaptedfromamemoirbyChekhov'sbrotherMihail,whichprefacesConstance
Garnett'stranslationofChekhov'sletters,1920.
71.NoteBook.(http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12494).Retrieved16February2007.
72.Rayfield,3948.
73.Benedetti,Stanislavski:AnIntroduction,25.
74.ChekhovandtheArtTheatre,inStanislavski'swords,wereunitedinacommondesire"toachieveartistic
simplicityandtruthonthestage."Allen,11.
75.Rayfield,3901.RayfielddrawsfromhiscriticalstudyChekhov's"UncleVanya"andthe"WoodDemon"(1995),
whichanatomisedtheevolutionoftheWoodDemonintoUncleVanya"oneofChekhov'smostfurtive
achievements."
76.LettertoSuvorin,1April1897.LettersofAntonChekhov.(http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6408)
77.OlgaKnipper,"Memoir",inBenedetti,DearWriter,DearActress,37,270.
78.Bartlett,2.
79.Malcolm,17071.
80."Ihaveahorrorofweddings,thecongratulationsandthechampagne,standingaround,glassinhandwithan
endlessgrinonyourface."LettertoOlgaKnipper,19April1901.
81.Benedetti,DearWriter,DearActress,125.
82."Olga'srelationswithVladimirNemirovichDanchenkoweremorethanprofessional."Rayfield,500.
83.HarveyPitcherinChekhov'sLeadingLady,quotedinMalcolm,59.
84."Chekhovhadthetemperamentofaphilanderer.Sexually,hepreferredbrothelsorswiftliaisons."Wood,78.
85.LettertoSuvorin,23March1895.LettersofAntonChekhov.(http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6408)
86.Rayfieldalsotentativelysuggests,drawingonobstetricclues,thatOlgasufferedanectopicpregnancyratherthan
amiscarriage.Rayfield,55657.
87.Therewascertainlytensionbetweenthecoupleafterthemiscarriage,thoughSimmons,569,andBenedetti,Dear
Writer,DearActress,241,putthisdowntoChekhov'smotherandsisterblamingthemiscarriageonOlga'slate
nightsocialisingwithheractorfriends.
88.Benedetti,DearWriter,DearActress:TheLoveLettersofOlgaKnipperandAntonChekhov.
89.Rosamund,Bartlett(2February2010)."TheHouseThatChekhovBuilt".EveningStandard.p.31.
90.Greenberg,Yael."ThePresentationoftheUnconsciousinChekhov'sLadyWithLapdog."ModernLanguage
Review86.1(1991):126130.AcademicSearchPremier.Web.3November2011.
91."Overview:'TheLadywiththeDog'."Charactersin20thCenturyLiterature.LaurieLanzenHarris.Detroit:
GaleResearch,1990.LiteratureResourceCenter.Web.3November2011.
92.LettertosisterMasha,28June1904.LettersofAntonChekhov.(http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6408)
93.Malcolm,62.
94.OlgaKnipper,Memoir,inBenedetti,DearWriter,DearActress,284.
95."Banalityrevengeditselfuponhimbyanastyprank,foritsawthathiscorpse,thecorpseofapoet,wasputinto
arailwaytruck'FortheConveyanceofOysters'."MaximGorkyinReminiscencesofAntonChekhov.
(http://www.eldritchpress.org/ac/gorky.htm).Retrieved16February2007.
96.Chekhov'sFuneral.M.Marcus.TheAntiochReview,1995
97.Malcolm,91AlexanderKuprininReminiscencesofAntonChekhov(http://www.eldritchpress.org/ac/gorky.htm).
Retrieved16February2007
98."NovodevichyCemetery".PassportMagazine.April2008.Retrieved12September2013.
99.Payne,XXXVI.
100.Simmons,p.595.
101.Meister,CharlesW.(1953)."Chekhov'sReceptioninEnglandandAmerica".AmericanSlavicandEast
EuropeanReview12(1):109121.doi:10.2307/3004259.JSTOR3004259.
102.WilliamH.New(1999).ReadingMansfieldandMetaphorsofReform.McGillQueen'sPress.pp.1517.
ISBN9780773517912.
103.Wood,77.
104.Allen,88.
105."Theywon'tallowaplaywhichisseentolamentthelostestatesofthegentry."LetterofVladimirNemirovich
Danchenko,quotedbyAnatolySmelianskyin"ChekhovattheMoscowArtTheatre",fromTheCambridge
CompaniontoChekhov,312.
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106.AnnaObraztsovain"BernardShaw'sDialoguewithChekhov",fromMiles,434.
107.Reynolds,Elizabeth(ed),Stanislavski'sLegacy,TheatreArtsBooks,1987,ISBN9780878301270,81,83.
108."ItwasChekhovwhofirstdeliberatelywrotedialogueinwhichthemainstreamofemotionalactionran
underneaththesurface.Itwashewhoarticulatedthenotionthathumanbeingshardlyeverspeakinexplicitterms
amongeachotherabouttheirdeepestemotions,thatthegreat,tragic,climacticmomentsareoftenhappening
beneathoutwardlytrivialconversation."MartinEsslin,fromTextandSubtextinShavianDrama,in1922:Shaw
andthelastHundredYears,ed.Bernard.F.Dukore,PennStatePress,1994,ISBN9780271013244,200.
109."LeeStrasbergbecameinmyopinionavictimofthetraditionalideaofChekhoviantheatre...[heleft]noroom
forChekhov'simagery."GeorgiiTostonogovonStrasberg'sproductionofThreeSistersinTheDramaReview
(winter1968),quotedbyStyan,121.
110."Theplayslacktheseamlessauthorityofthefiction:therearegreatcharacters,wonderfulscenes,tremendous
passages,momentsofacutemelancholyandsagacity,butthepartsappeargreaterthanthewhole."AChekhov
Lexicon,(http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/classics/story/0,6000,1261403,00.html)byWilliamBoyd,The
Guardian,3July2004.Retrieved16February2007.
111.Bartlett,"FromRussia,withLove"(http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/classics/story/0,,1261382,00.html),
TheGuardian,15July2004.Retrieved17February2007.
112.LetterfromErnestHemingwaytoArchibaldMacLeish,1925(fromSelectedLetters,p.179),inErnest
HemingwayonWriting,EdLarryW.Phillips,Touchstone,(1984)1999,ISBN9780684181196,101.
113.Wood,82.
114.FromVladimirNabokov'sLecturesonRussianLiterature,quotedbyFrancineProseinLearningfromChekhov,
231.
115."Forthefirsttimeinliteraturethefluidityandrandomnessoflifewasmadetheformofthefiction.Before
Chekhov,theeventplotdroveallfictions."WilliamBoyd,referringtothenovelistWilliamGerhardie'sanalysis
inAntonChekhov:ACriticalStudy,1923."AChekhovLexicon"
(http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/classics/story/0,6000,1261403,00.html)byWilliamBoyd,The
Guardian,3July2004.Retrieved16February2007.
116.Woolf,Virginia,TheCommonReader:FirstSeries,AnnotatedEdition,Harvest/HBJBook,2002,ISBN015
602778X,172.
117.MichaelGoldman,TheActor'sFreedom:TowardsaTheoryofDrama,p72.
118.Sekirin,Peter(2011).MemoriesofChekhov:AccountsoftheWriterfromHisFamily,Friendsand
Contemporaries.ForewordbyAlanTwigg.Jefferson,NC:MacFarlandPublishers.p.1.ISBN978078645871
4.
119.Rimer,J.JapaneseTheatreandtheInternationalStage.Leiden,TheNetherlands:KoninklijkeBrillNV.pp.299
311.ISBN9004120114.
120.Clayton,J.Douglas.AdaptingChekhov:TheTextandItsMutations.Routledge.pp.269270.ISBN9780415
509695.
121.Rayfield,Donald(1997).AntonChekhov:ALife.ISBN0002555034.

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Simmons,ErnestJ.,Chekhov:ABiography,UniversityofChicagoPress,(1962)1970edition,ISBN9780226
758053
Stanislavski,Constantin,MyLifeinArt,MethuenDrama,1980edition,ISBN9780413462008
Styan,JohnLouis,ModernDramainTheoryandPractice,CambridgeUniversityPress,1981,ISBN9780521
296281
Wood,James,WhatChekhovMeantbyLife,inTheBrokenEstate:EssaysinLiteratureandBelief,Pimlico,
2000edition,ISBN9780712665575
Zeiger,Arthur,ThePlaysofAntonChekov,ClaxtonHouse,Inc.,NewYork,NY,1945.
Tufarulo,G,M.,LaLunamortaelospecchioinfranto.MitiletteraridelNovecento,vol.1G.Laterza,Bari,
2009ISBN9788882314910.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Chekhov

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Externallinks
Biographical
PetriLiukkonen."AntonChekhov"
(https://web.archive.org/web/20130704043115/http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/tsehov.htm).Booksand
Writers(kirjasto.sci.fi).Archivedfromtheoriginal(http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/tsehov.htm)on4July
2013.
Biography(http://www.onlineliterature.com/anton_chekhov/)atTheLiteratureNetwork
"Chekhov'sLegacy"(http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=3845755)byCornel
WestatNPR,2004
TheInternationalcompetitionofphilological,cultureandfilmstudiesworksdedicatedtoAnton
Chekhov'slifeandcreativework(http://www.tgpi.ttn.ru/)(Russian)
Works
WorksbyAntonPavlovichChekhov(http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Chekhov,+Anton+Pavlovich)
atProjectGutenberg.AllConstanceGarnett'stranslationsoftheshortstoriesandlettersareavailable,
plustheeditionoftheNotebooktranslatedbyS.S.KotelianskyandLeonardWoolfseethe
"References"sectionforprintpublicationdetailsofallofthese.Sitealsohastranslationsofallthe
plays.
WorksbyoraboutAntonChekhov(https://archive.org/search.php?
query=%28%28subject%3A%22Chekhov%2C%20Anton%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Anton%2
0Chekhov%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Chekhov%2C%20Anton%22%20OR%20creator%3A%2
2Anton%20Chekhov%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Chekhov%2C%20A%2E%22%20OR%20title
%3A%22Anton%20Chekhov%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Chekhov%2C%20Anton%22%20
OR%20description%3A%22Anton%20Chekhov%22%29%20OR%20%28%221860
1904%22%20AND%20Chekhov%29%29%20AND%20%28mediatype:software%29)atInternet
Archive
WorksbyAntonChekhov(http://librivox.org/author/147)atLibriVox(publicdomainaudiobooks)
201StoriesbyAntonChekhov(http://www.ibiblio.org/eldritch/ac/jr/index.htm),translatedby
ConstanceGarnettpresentedinchronologicalorderofRussianpublicationwithannotations.
.(http://publiclibrary.ru/Chekhov.Anton/)TextsofChekhov's
worksintheoriginalRussian,listedinchronologicalorder,andalsoalphabeticallybytitle.Retrieved
June2013.(Russian)
(http://ilibrary.ru/author/chekhov/)TextsofChekhov'sworksintheoriginal
Russian.Retrieved16February2007.(Russian)
WorksbyAntonChekhov(https://openlibrary.org/authors/OL19677A)atOpenLibrary
Plays,ThreeSistersbyAntonChekhov(http://classicalnovels.blogspot.com/2015/02/three
sistersplaybyantonchekhov.html).
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anton_Chekhov&oldid=714204446"
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