Академический Документы
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Культура Документы
USING
PR ESTRESSED BEAMS
ON
p pp
B A NICHOLSON
11
ISBN 0 95000347 2 X
Typeset by B. A. Nicholson.
Design by G. Ballantyne.
Printedby UniskillLtd.
111
CONTENTS
FOREWORD
STANDARD BEAMS
1.1 History
1.2 Bridge deck types
1.3 Choice of section
1.4 Standard sections
1.5 Practical site considerations
2
2
4
6
6
8
12
GRILLAGE MODEL
3.1
Introduction
3.2 SuitabilityofGrillage Analysis
3.3 Grillagemodelsfor prestressed beamdecks
3.4 Deck idealisation
3.5 Section properties
3.6 Edge stiffening
3.7 Torsion
14
14
14
16
18
20
22
24
CALCULATION OF LOADS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Definitions
4.3 Highway loading
4.4 Wind load
4.5 Pedestrian live load
4.6 Temperature effects
4.7 Shrinkage
26
26
26
28
APPLICATION OF LOADS
5.1 LoadCombinations
5.2 Selection ofCritical LoadCases
5.3 Input to Grillage Analysis
38
38
38
40
44
44
44
46
50
56
60
66
32
32
32
36
iv
FINISHINGS
7.1
Introduction
7.2 Bearings
7.3 Waterproofing andsurfacing
7.4 Joints
7.5
Parapets
68
68
68
80
82
84
86
86
88
90
FOREWORD
For several years, the Prestressed Concrete Association has run a basiccourse
on prestressed concretebridge design. This one day course hasbeen held in
various parts of the country, and uses lecturers both from within the PCA
member companies and from outside consultants.
This book contains a development of some of the material presented in the
course. The original course notes were prepared by H. J. Lloyd, I. M. Gibb,
and A. E. Gamble. This book has been prepared by B. A. Nicholsonbased on
the material in those course notes.
The bulk ofthe booktakesthe form ofa worked example ofthe designof the
beams for a simply-supportedsingle span beam-and-slabdeck. The final section
is a partial design example of an inverted T beam deck, included in order to
illustrate the extra calculations required for a solid slabdeck.
By following the workedexamples, together with the additional commentary,
it is hoped that the reader will be ableto designsimple bridgesusing standard
precast beams,whetherthey are ofbeam-and-slab, or solid slab construction.
STANDARD BEAMS
1.1
HISTORY
The use ofprecast prestressed beams in bridge decks in the post World War II era
owes its success inthe mainto the foresight ofthe Prestressed Concrete Development
Group, whichin the 1950's developed the firststandard beam sectionsto be available
from the beam manufacturers.
This enabled factory production ofthe beamson a large scale, and, with the dawnof
major road construction in the late 1950'sand its philosophy ofgrade separation for
motorways and trunk roads, it gave bridge engineers scope to rationalise design
procedures using up-to-date load distribution theories.
The standard beam sections available at that time have of course themselves been
developed and modified, and in essence only one really remains today with any
significant usage. This beam,the inverted T beam,is usedin bridge decks in spans up
to about 20 metres.
The Y beam now has three variants: the TY beam, the Y beam, and the SY beam.
Together these cover all span ranges up to 45m. It is expected that in due course
inverted T beams and M beams will cease to be used in favour of the enhanced
properties ofthe Y beamranges.
STANDARD BEAMS
Inverted T beam
H
M beam
TY beam
U beam
Y beam
SY beam
1.2
Slab decks can be solid or voided, and provide simply supported spans ofup to 20
metres. These decks usestandard TY or inverted T beamsplacedside by side. The
space between them is then filled with in-situ concrete, and an overall covering of
75mm completes the deck.
Continuity ofthese decks can quite easilybe achieved by usingreinforcement in the
in-situ concreteover the supports. Suspended spansusing TYbeams or inverted T
beamscan be lightenedby introducingvoid formers into the spacebetween the beams.
Pseudo-slab Decks
This type of bridge structure is currentlynot quite so popular. Precast beams are
incorporated into avoidedslabtype ofdeck by eitheraddingan in-situ bottom flange
andtop flange, as with the original M beamdecks, or by usingvoidedbeams(e.g. box
beams).
STANIAiu BEAMS
1.3
CHOICE OF SECTION
For the types of superstructure indicated above, the beam manufacturers provide
standard details ofthe individual sectionsand theirranges together with an indication
of typical span ranges for decks incorporating these beams and carrying standard
highway loads.
Althoughthe various types of standard beam sections are well documented in terms
ofdimensions and structural properties, it is important to point outthat thesefactory
produced beams are standard only to the extent that they are manufactured using
standard shaped sections. The amount and magnitude ofprestress applied to each
beam is dependent on its individual situation, andmustbe determined by the designer
prior to manufacture. The standard sectionsshow where prestressing strands may
be located, but it is the responsibility ofthe designer to determine which ofthese are
to be used.
In their literature, the manufacturers give suggestions for gooddesign details. These
should be adhered to, as they leadto economy and good workmanship.
Manufacture
Precastprestressedbeamsare manufacturedin long lines ofseveralunits usingstraight
strands. These are debonded for varying distances at the endsofeach beam within
the mould. This is necessary to maintain the stress in the beam at an acceptable level
as the self-weight bendingmomentreduces approaching the supports.
Once the concrete in the moulds reaches the minimum transferstrength,detensioning
can take place, the strands between the beam can be cut, and the beams removed to
the storage areaprior to deliveryto site.
STANDARD BEAMS 7
Span in
metres: 12
14
16
20
18
22
Beams at im centres
24
26
28
Beams at 2m centres
Beam selection chart for the Y beam range, taken from PCA literature.
-4-4-
1300
-1-4-
-4--I-
1200
4--I-
-I--I-
1100
-4--I-
-I--I-
1000
4--I-
-4--I-
900
800
+4--I--I-
260
210
160
-4-
-4-
4-
110
60
0
30
32
1.5
It is ofobvious importance that there is suitable access to the bridges in order for the
beamsto be delivered and lifted offthe trailerby suitably located cranes. Ofcourse,
this also applies to the route to the construction site which must allow the delivery
lorriesto manoeuvre theirlengthy loads.
Thereis generally no problem inthe transportation ofbeams ofthe lengthsdescribed
in this book.
Camber
Variation in camber ofprestressedbeams is inevitablewhen oneconsidersthetolerance
been borne in mindby the designer that an occasional failure to meet the specified
tolerance on soffit level variationdoes not resultin impossible constructionconditions.
The carefulpositioning ofadjacent beamsin a deck should nearlyalways resultin an
evening out ofdifferential camber.
Edge Details
STANDARD BEAMS
in-situ concrete
Cast by manufacturer
10
Skew
Although it is possibleto manufacture precast beamswith skew ends,the increase in
cost for eachunit and the problems that skew presentsshould be considered in detail
at the design stage.
Firstly, it should be remembered that even a very smallchange in skew anglerequires
a new stop end for the mould. A change from say 300 to 31 increases the widthby
12mm for an M beam. To rationalise a range ofangles with a variation of 10, say,
would be a useful andeconomic possibility
Structural problems created by skewin the ends ofprecast beams relate specifically
to the acute corner, wherethe formation ofcracks can cause the cornerofthe flange
to spall when the beamcambers during transfer. Although notstructurally significant,
this is undesirable, and is best prevented by blocking out the corner to give a local
square end.
An additionalproblemthatpresents itselfwith skewbeams isthat oflocatingtransverse
reinforcement through the webholes. It is recommended that the standard webholes
permit reinforcement to be placedfor skews up to about35. Higherskewsthan this
would require special non-standard web holes, whichwould increase the costofthe
beamssignificantly, and may even affect the shear capacity ofthe section. For high
skewbridges, it is normally better toplace the transverse deck reinforcement atrightanglesto the beams ratherthan parallel to the abutments.
Transverse Reinforcement
For the transverse reinforcement through the webholes ofprecast beams, it is usually
better to usea numberofsmaller bars rather than a single large diameter bar, as lap
lengths are reduced andhandling becomes easier. For some awkward skew situations
it may even be sensible to use untensioned prestressing strand threaded through the
web holes instead ofreinforcing bars, as it is more flexible.
The positioning oftransverse deck reinforcement whenusing solid edge beamsmay
require the use of couplers at the edge beam interface.
Temporary Support
It is important to ensure that the beamsarc supported so that they cannot topple over
on site. Deeper beams,particularly when beingjacked to their final level and during
bearing installation, must be assessed to eliminate this risk.
STANDARD BEAMS 11
tDecks1ab
Diaphragm
M beam
L
Web hole at end ofM beam,
for diaphragm reinforcement
to M beam
330 wide
Diaphragm
800 wide
The righthand pages show the numerical calculations involved at each stage, and the
left hand pages contain explanatory comments and further information.
The example bridgehas the following design requirements:
26.6lm single span
7.3m carriageway, plus I .0m hard strip each side
1 .5m footpath each side
HA
Loading
plus 37.5 units HB
Surfacing 100mmthick (minimum) plus20mmwaterproofing
Span
Width
= 50 N/mm2
Precast concrete
fd =40N/mm2
= 40 N/mm2
In-situ concrete
Prestressing strand
= 1820 N/mm2
Area = 165 mm2 per strand
The edge detail was chosen for aesthetic reasons, and the outerbeams placedas near
to the edges ofthe bridgewithinthis limit. This led to the beam spacing of 1.275m.
The span charts for Y beams give spans for beams at I and 2 metre spacings. It is
straightforward to interpolate from this information to make an initial selection of
beam size, in this case Y8.
Clearly alternatives would have been possible, for example eleven Y6 beams could
have been used, at about 1 metre spacing. However, it has been foundthat unless it
is necessary to make the deck as shallow as possible, it is usually preferable to use
fewer but largerbeams.
DESIGNEXAMPLE 13
13350
llatdstn'p
540
1500
rniagew
1000
7300
1275
Cross
Overall
1275
se/of
bridgedecfordes#/,exgir/e
1000
fw
1500
540
14
GRILLAGE MODEL
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Early bridgedecks were analysed on a strip basis. Abnormal andwheel loads were
crudely distributed and conservative designs resulted. Experimental data became
available to determinethetransverseload carryingcharacteristicsofdecks to determine
the correct level oftransverse strength provision andto distribute loadmorelogically
to the longitudinal members. For example, in the 1950'sMorice andLittledeveloped
a Distribution Coefficient method which was a simple hand method based on
experiments which allowed for the overall distribution of loads on a plate structure
suchas a bridgedeck. It was satisfactory for skews up to 200. This method was one
ofseveral similartechniques extensively usedindesignoffices forapproximately 15
years, until the advent ofcomputer techniques which enabled larger andmore complex
structurestobe analysed moreaccurately usinggrillage, finite strip andfinite element
methods. Ofthesethreemethods grillages offer the widest range ofstructures which
can be analysed. Popular opinion suggests they are also the easiest to use and
understand.
No analysis method gives a rigorous solution, and some degree of error must be
accepted, usuallyrangingup to 10% or20% depending on complexity. Theseerrors
come from several sources, including the idealisation ofthe geometry and material
properties, and idealisation ofthe structural behaviour.
Grillage analysishas found favour as a bridge engineer's design tool because it is
perceived to have the following advantages:
Grillage beams can be positioned to correspond with physicalbeamsin
the real structure, or wheremaximum effects are anticipated.
Modern PC versions have 'user friendly' input, often designed by
engineers, anduse pre- andpost-processorsto ease subsequent checking,
searching andanalysis.
Familiarity ofuse in thedesign office enables rapid analysisandchecking,
which is vital in a competitive market.
Programs are relatively cheap, thusmaking analysis economic.
GRILLAGE MODEL
NILLAfiANAL418/8
Thiskm/ge wi/Ike aira/ysed withagill/agea#a/qsiS.
"
fingi#reei (fiarope)L4iilted
84711 Cwe#Mw
thegui/age.
15
16
U-beamdecks, although basically beam and slab decks, behave differently because
the transverse stiffness alternates across the deck between stiffthrough the beams
and flexible between the beams. The beams are positioned to try andequalise the top
slab spans between andacrossbeams. Onemethod ofmodelling a U-beamdeck is to
place longitudinalelementsonthe centre lineofeachweb. The longitudinalproperties
for each grillagebeam are then taken as halfthat ofthe composite box section. As
with the inverted T-beam decks, careis required in evaluating the outputsincethere
are now two longitudinal elements representing onephysical beam.
1
n
\U/ \U/
p
\
p
n
p
GRILLAGE MODEL
oft/re deck
The bridge
looks like
thi;
co#tribite 10
teS
The ci
t/reremre'
17
18
GRILLAGE MODEL
n//aae mvde/
Thegill/age.wode/is/towitbe/ow
The(fr-stdkgcasts/towsthe i,odeirHmbers,aitdfrtdicates
sti/'orts
a cfrc/e.
31
46i
15
61
76-
38
53
68
75
90
91
106
30
45
60
105
120
121
135
136
150
151
165
Thesecoirddhigram s/towstheitenrbern#mbethrg.'
t5t
152
-1 ii
16
164
15
18 19
50
249
262
263
290
156
ISP
158
159
304
130
19
20
The Y beams have standard notches 50 mm deep alongthe top edges. These allow
formwork to be placed between the beamsto support the deck concrete. In thiscase,
20 mmthickpermanent formwork is used,so thatthe beamprotrudes30 mm into the
deck slab. The overall height of the section is 1.590 m. The composite section
properties are calculated by assuming the section is made up from the Y8 beam, a
rectangular slab which overlaps it by 30 mm, and the small overlap areawhich must
be subtractedas it hasbeen counted twice.
The code permits stiffnesses to be represented on the gross concretesection ignoring
the reinforcement or strand. This is the most straightforward, since the amount of
reinforcement andstrand hasnot yetbeen accurately determined atthe analysis stage.
In some situations, suchas continuous bridges at supports, the transformed section
may be important and should be used.
Under transient applied forces the short term elastic modulus should be used, and
under applied deformations or long term loads the long term modulus should be
used. To save analysis time for these two situations a value between long and short
may be chosen, ideally reflecting the proportion ofpermanent to transienteffects.
Almost all analyses are executed on elastic models, even though the code allows
plastic methods with the approval of the bridge authority. An elastic analysis is
appropriateforthe serviceabilitylimit state,whichis the most importantfor the design
ofthe pretensioned beams. The use ofan elastic model for the ultimate limit state is
simple and conservative. It is a lower bound solution in which the structure is in
equilibrium andyield isnot reached.
GRILLAGE MODEL
$ectloir Propemes
&am ilo,,e.'
bean,,
9=0.639 m'
I = 0,1188s,
Comt'os/te
8/ab cocretef,=40N/nrm'2,
=31itN/m'nr
=34kN/m'm't
0220
&an,cocretef =50N/mwr,
Mod#/arratio = 31/34 =0.91
1.370
re4jiiredforca/cu/at/oiloftheseiwe,'ht
othetwie Memodular ratio willbeappliedto theslab.
The actualarea
Actual
8/ak
Overlap
'/8
ffect,Ve
area
0.280
-0.012
0.585
0.255
1,480
0,378
-0.011
1.385
-0.015
0.585
0.639
0.374
0.853m' 0.829sr
Totals
The valuesforA('y-?
94/M
A(i-7
area
0.0891 0.0011
-0.0027 0.0000
0.0366 0.1188
O.737m
O.2429m'
ir Mi tableca,,oit/qbefl//ed4rafterqhasbee,,ca/cilIated
=0.737/0.829 =0.889m'
(from'bottomofbean,)
I =0.2429si
$ectioir moduilicait owbe calculated'
=0.273n,3
ofbean,,
Top ofslab,
=0.347m3
Top
= "(1400-7,)= 0.475 ,3
=I/(l.590-9)
Z
i
Thi lastvalue
ot
Zk
ot th/
Q,
21
22
GRILLAGE MODEL
dge &am
tj
tstage, tiredecicast
edgebeams.
toiitside tire
ofthestagetwo coirstriict/o.'r
The weiht
siq'poned
= O,O2 m
9 =O.875m
I =O.24Om
dicoirt4uuousparapetOHdownstairdfascki.
oftirecross-sect/oir
The
shaded OH
Actualarea =1.044m2
= 1,003 m
7 =l,022m
effectiVeArea
=0.316m4
Parapetedgemember'
slabmembers;
Theserepreseirta1. 900m sect/oir slab;
There
of
= 0.00153m4
I =mbt/12= 0.911.9000.2203/12
so the slab
represeirt0. 950m ofslab;
=
=
I mbd/L2 0.91 x 0.950 x 0.220/12 =0.00077m4
isHo eNddkiphragm,
eHd
members s41rplq
23
24
3.7 TORSION
Torsional inertiacan be difficult to calculate precisely. A reasonable estimate can be
madeby dividing the section up into rectangles. The torsional inertia ofthe section is
approximately givenby the sum ofthe inertias ofthe individual rectangles. In beam
and slab bridges, the torsional inertia is normally small compared to the bending
inertia, so this approximate methodofcalculation is sufficiently accurate.
For rectangularsections,
C = k1b3d
b is the length ofthe shortside
d is the length ofthe long side
and k1 is a factordepending on the ratio d/b
where
This formula should not beused for elements which represent sections ofa wide slab.
In thiscase, the valueusedfork1 mustbe reflect the whole slabaction, and should not
be calculatedforthe individualelements. Slabstwist inboth longitudinalandtransverse
directions, so the value ofC is halved for eachdirection to reflectthisdouble action.
Additionally,the slabelements shouldbe transformed in accordance with the modular
ratio. The torsional inertia ofslab elements is thus givenby:
C = '/6mb3d
Torsionless Design
For many composite beams, as here, the torsional inertia is an order of magnitude
less than the bendinginertia. The analysisofsuchbridges canbesimplifiedby ignoring
the torsion constraints. In otherwords, torsionless design can be used.
The resulting load distribution is less effective andthis gives riseto slightly increased
bending moments. The correspondingly increased design strength is considered
adequate to carry the torques which would be associated with a full torsionmodel.
Torsionlessdesigns should not be usedfor significantskews or boxbeamdecks which
maybe chosen for theirhigh torsion stiffness properties or where torsional strength is
a significantrequirement.
Torsion should also not be ignored in UM beams and thick edge beams such as YE
beams, even ifinternalbeams are consideredtorsionless. Edge beams can be subjected
to considerable torsion due to loads from the parapet cantilever, and cracking of
thesebeams couldoccuriftorsion is ignored in the design.
GRILLAGE MODEL
of
I127.5x0.220
0.540x1,080
T
fi$ca/cii/ate
1.
0.,50x 0.290
two waqs/a
ofa wider
6 frfb3d/6
Th,
80
=O.91OL203xL2P5/6
=0,0021,?
d/b = L080/0.34o
=3.18
'1
3.'
= 0.P5o/o.29o=2,59
=(1-0.63k/d)/3 = (1-0.63/2.59)/3 =0252
C ='1b5d =O,252x0.29OO,750
d/b
=00046i?
Total
s/o#ali',ern,,
C =00021#0.0113 + 0.0046
=0.018,?
forcostparisoir,
Theken'd4rg 4lerthT
1=0.255,?
To,%#wi/IMerefore be #regleced
25
26
CALCULATIONOF LOADS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The Departmental Standard BD 37/88, Loads for Highway Bridges, is currently used
to determine the loading on UK bridges. BD 37/88 effectively supersedes
BS 5400 Part2 inthe UK, pending revision ofthis Standard, anditis usedthroughout
this design example.
The loads generally specified in the Standard are nominal loads appropriate to a
return period of 120 years. Design loads will be obtainedlater by multiplying the
nominalloads by load factors given in the Standard. An additional factor, y0, is
also introduced to obtain the design load effects (moments, shears, etc.) from the
design loads. Values of are givenin BS 5400Part 4 for concretebridges.
4.2 DEFINITIONS
Superimposed
Dead Load
LiveLoads
PrimaryLive Loads
Secondary
LiveLoads
Permanent
Loads
Transient
Loads
CALCULATIONOF
Los 27
C7ILCUL74TIONOTLOAD
DeadLoad
DeadloadwY/becar/iedbqthebeastsacf-l'tg%n'e, with/tocosipos/te acz'Ion'.
/f3 &asta/oite
=0,584x24kN/st
= 14.03k/V/st
= Q584P(f8,)+Q,2c5Q5(s/ab)-0.0120(oven'ap)
/irterna/beam'
=0,85325,2
We/g.*t =0,c5532st224kN/st3
=20.48k/V/st
idgebeam
Area
=0.5848) +0.4592(s/ab+caitt#ever)
=1.044st2
We,kt =1,044s,224kN/sr5
=25.05k/V/st
8uperh'rposedDeadLoad
Thi load4rg
app/ledto thecostposiebeast&s/akstrkc$Hre.
-f
$DL =0.165st24k/V/st3
= 4.Ok/V/st2x. 1.275rn
Verge.'
The
=4.0k/V/rn2
=5,1k/V/stperbeast
wei,toftirefootpath,andnon-structural(d/scontzsruouis) str4tgcourseandfasck
wi/Iallbe takenas$DL
of
28
4.3 HIGHWAYLOADING
Notional lanes
For the purposes of calculating the loads to be applied to the bridge deck, the
carriageway is split into notional lanes. In this context, the carriageway is taken as
the distance between raised kerbs, thus including the hard shoulders (see Clause
3.2.9.1). Clause 3.2.9.3 then defines how the carriageway should be split into notional
lanes. Note that in this example there are three notional lanes for loadingpurposes,
even thoughthe deck will be marked out for only two lanes oftraffic.
HA Loading
W = 336(IIL)'67
where L is the loaded length (in metres) andW is the load per metre ofnotional lane.
The KEL per notional lane is always taken as 120 kN.
The UDLand KEL are uniformlydistributed over the full widthofthe notional lane
to which they apply. However, not all lanescarrythe full HAload at the same time,
and this is dealt with by means of lane factors. These are functions of the loaded
length and the lane width, and are specified in Table 14 ofthe Standard.
The single 100 kN wheel loadalternativeto the UDL andKEL canbeplaced anywhere
onthe carriageway,andoccupies eithera circular areaof340mmdiameter ora square
areaof300mm side. The single wheelload is only significant in the local analysis of
the deck slab, which is not covered in this design example.
CALCULATIONOF LOADS
l-/iahwatLoads
6am'gewa.iwidth
= 1,0 (*ardstr') + 73
=93m
Three iiot/ona/Iawesarerei/red'
Not/offallaMe width,
/174 load'
kL
Loadedleirgt/r
/1AUDL =336(1/L)6'
=536(1/26.61)
k/V/rn
HAAL =120k/V
= 100k/V('si'rgIeload)
Wheelload
L)3,/&s Thkle14.'
LaMefactorskasedoit
a2
=0,90
&stlaMefactoi /3 = a2 =0.90
$ecoffdlaNefactoi /2 = a2 =090
ThIrdlaNefactoi
133
= 0.60
29
30
HB Loading
HB loading represents abnormal vehicle loading. An example might be a low load
trailer carrying a power station transformer, with tractor units at front and rear.
For all public highway bridges in GreatBritain the minimum numberofunits oftype
HB loading that mustnormallybe considered is 30, butthisnumbermay be increased
up to 45 units.
For thisdesignexample, the client has specified37.5 units ofHB load.
The HB vehicleas defined in the Standard represents fouraxles with fourwheels per
axle. Oneunit ofload represents 10 kN per axle. Thusthe full 45 units maximum is
equal to 450 kN per axle or 112.5 kN per wheel.
As with the HA wheel load the contact surface may be taken as circularor square
with a contactpressure of 1.1 N/mm2.
Note that in thisexample the HB wheel load is less than the HAwheel load. For slab
design the HA wheelwill therefore be critical.
Longitudinal andtransverse loading
CALCULATION OF
Thibridge
/15 load'
AyJeload=37,5xl0kN =375k/V
=375 kN/4
= 1500k/V
=9375 k/V
Jorion'ta/Loads,'
Thi
=250kA/+(8k/V/rnx2.6rn)
=463k/V
/13
appliedto on'en'otion'a/lan'e,
lon'gituidin'a/ load
a s4tglepo4ttloadof300 k/V
acti.Yg4,an'qd,tecti'n('parallelto theroadsurface)
Los 31
32
The effective bridge temperature range is then used for designing the bearings and
expansion joints, or if this movement is restrained then in determining the stress
resultants in the structure.
CALCULATION OF LOADS
WZ'tdload
t*i
Wi,dload
speci%'al/icalc/atedfor
2 wi//notbecritical
/'ridge.
footpathLoads
Nom4ya//,VeloadforfootpathsigiVen/it Clause 6.5,1,1as
5i('N/m.
h'icethisbridgecarr,skikwa.i/oad/itgaswe//asthefootpath,
thereductionfactorof0.8 app/is.
Neducednom/iualload be applied = 0.8 x 5.0 = 4.0 kN/m
Temperature Nange
from
180
Max/mumshadealt
+3606
fromf#uire 9, bridgeconstruction
from Tab/es 10and11,
type 4.
= 47C
Coefficient ofthermale.q.'ansiin = 12x1Ct6/C
Lengthbetweeneansi'nj/iuts = 27m (approx)
Temperaturerange
= 47x
x27=0. 0152m
= 76mm
Nangeofmovement
(121O6,)
movement
Nange
fromcentra/posi'tt'n
of
33
34
Temperature Difference
Positive temperature differences occurwithinthe superstructure whenconditions are
such that solar radiation andothereffects cause a gain in heatthrough the top surface
ofthe deck. Conversely, reverse temperature differences occurwhen conditions are
suchthat heatis lost from the top surface ofthe bridge deck as a resultofre-radiation
and othereffects.
Temperature gradient diagrams for each ofthesestatesare shown on Figure 9 in the
Standard. For surfacing ofthickness other than 100mm these can be modified by
reference to Appendix C.
The coefficient ofthermalexpansion for concrete and steel is takenhere as I2x 106.
For concrete with limestone aggregates, a reduced coefficient ofthermalexpansion
of9x 10-6 can be used.
In a simply supported deck there is no axial restraint at the ends, and no moment
restraint. The axial and moment components of these stresseswill be relievedby
overall lengtheningandhogging ofthe deck. A self-equilibratingsetofinternalstresses
will remain; they will exist without any external forces or reactions on the deck.
Theseinternalstresses are calculatedby subtractingthe axial and moment components
from the stresses calculated for the fully restrainedcondition.
Stresses due to negative temperature differences also need to be calculated. These
are not presented here, but exactly the same procedure is followed.
It is worth noting that the serviceability limit state stressesdetermined from these
temperature difference diagrams are subject to a load factorof0.8.
CALCULATION OF LOADS
TestfleratureD/fferen'ce
9ofD37/88
PositiVeteratu1red7ereHce/
k,=0 Jim
*3
15.5CC
0,25mfl
=020m2.5CC
Cross
JOiN/mm'
$tresses 41fui/4irestrained
Temperature
deck
Difference
=iaT
Ca/cu/ateam/forcea#dmomentcomponentsofthesestresses.
A
1
1,275x0.15
1,2,75x0,07
2
4
//
0.626
0651
0516
1,12
1,275x0J5
1.95
0.96
0.44
0.51
0.4.zx0.18
0.75x0.20
0.375
0.086
0.037
0.077
0391
-0.822
Am/force =
74Y
0214
0154
0.245
0,044
0015
-0.063
= 0787MN
= o.S7SMNm
st'/qsupportedbridge,ne/theraxia/forceormomentare4ifactrestra4rea so locked4t
502N/mm
1,02 N/mm'
Nestrainedstresses
fromtopdhtgram
086N/mm'
095N/mm'
095
re/ease
098N/mm'
j37d
3,18N/mm'
144N/m.w'
Moment
$eif- eqii/ibrat4ig
re/ease
temperature stresses
35
36
4.7 SHR[NKAGE
Whenthe in-situtop is cast on the precast beamssome ofthe shrinkage ofthe beams
has already occurred. Hence differential shrinkage occurs betweenthe precast and
in-situ concretes, andthis results in the development ofa pattern ofinternal stresses.
Clause 7.4.3.4 statesthatthe Table29 shrinkagevaluesmay be adopted. It is reasonable
(and usual) to assume that half of the beam shrinkage has occurred at the time of
casting the top slab. Hence the differential shrinkage assumed in the calculation is
halfofthe Table 29 shrinkage value.
The effects ofdifferential shrinkage will be reduced by creep. Allowance is madefor
thisin the calculations byusingareduction coefficient, 4. A valueof 0.43 is normally
usedfor this coefficient, as given in Clause 7.4.3.4.
CALCULATION OF LOADS 37
$rirkage
/tZassiimed/a4
Different/alskr4t.(-age stra4r,
__________________
I
I&I
Nestra/nirgforce
Nestra/n4rg stonrent
A
'
= x. x x..
= -15010 x 31000 .x. (L2,5x 0.220)x 0.43
= -0,561 MN (tensi2w)
= -0.561 x eccentric/tJ,f
=-0.561X('1,480- 0.889)
=-0,332MNm'
Ca/ri/at/onofinternalstresses
= -2.0N/m'm
Ax/al re/ease = ('0.561MN,)/1"O. 829nr,) = -0.68 N/mnr
Montentrelease = A4/Z1, = -0.332/0.381 = -0,5,N/m'm' attopofslab, etc.
Nestrai'redstress =
x.
x. 0
Total4,terna/stressesares/townontheri/tthanddiigram;
-2.0N/,m
-062N/mi,r
-067
4N15N/mm
-054
N/mm-
-0,66 N/mi
Nestra,'red
stresses
Ax/al
Mom'ent
&/f-eii/likrat4rg
re/ease
re/ease
skr4rtagestresses
38
APPLICATIONOF LOADS
5.1
LOADCOMB1NATIONS
BD 37/88 considers five combinations ofloads. These are listed in detailin Table 1
of the Standard, which also gives load factors to be used in each case. The five
combinations can be summarised as follows:
Comb.
1:
Comb. 2:
Comb. 3:
Comb. 4:
Comb. 5:
of BD 24/92.
APPLICATION OF LOADS
APPL/CA1/ONOfLO74D TO 5N/LM
Load Cases
HA alone'
L,neJ
Combination 1 at
and11L
Combinati'on3 at
L'
Combiratin 1 at
Combi'tat,kn
3 at
and 11L
Combi',at,n 3 at
LandUL
HA with37.5an/tsH
to max/miseshearandreactins
in lane 1.'
Combination1
Combination 1 at
Le2
krne3
at$Land UL$
iL
/14 130.9 iL
HA, /330.6, iL
HA, J3,=O.9,
vehicle
HA,
132=0.789
HA,
/3=O.9 AL
HA, 132=0.789
H
I
HA,
vehicle
/3=O.9, AL
H, ye/ride
HA, 132=0.789
H4 J3=0.9,
/(.zL
39
40
Uniformly distributed loads are generally applied as member loads along the main
elements. A patchload is statically distributed acrossthe members beneath the patch.
Line loads can be applied as member loads, but the HA knife-edge load in this
exampleis appliedasjoint loads. Similarly, the HB wheel loadsare staticallydistributed
between the nearest joints, and applied as joint loads.
HA loading alone
In the example opposite, Load I is the HA UDL loading for lanes 1 and2, multiplied
by the lane factor of0.9 for these lanes. Elements 179 to 234 represent four main
longitudinalbeams, andreceive member loads representing a width ofdeck ofI .275m.
The basic HA UDL is 37.3 kN/ni on a notional lane width of 3,lm, so the load
applied to members 179 to 234 is:
Member load=(1.275m/3.lm)x 37.3 kN/mx0.9= 13.81 kN/m
The remaining load is allocated to the beams represented by members 165 to 178,
and 235 to 248. So for members 165 to 178:
Member load = (0.1875m / 3.lm) x 37.3 kN/m x 0.9 = 2.03 kN/m
The last section of data shows how the individual loads are combined with factors
x as given in BD 37/88 Table 1 for Combination 1
equivalent to the factors
at SLS.
\I)
/14 [3=O.9,
ALL
\ ft)\
rii/aaei'rpiitdata
The itpI1tdaia
LOAD1 /14
UDL
A4tjl4[N LOAD
165
TO
MNL1&2 (/3=0.9)
205
178 UN!
235
TO
248 UN!
15.81
-9.88
theloadsoirthisd/agrtrnf/
_____________
LIMe!
LOAD2HAUDLL4A/i3(/3=O,6)
ML4V1?NLOAD
L,.ye2
LIe3
____________
-2.61.7
c -9205
-1354
LOAD 3 Af M!D-PAN
10INTLOAD
3853 68 83f'f-44,42
25
98
-6.53
ff3J.79
LOAD 4 TOO7WA'f
MtA4,SLN LOAD
165
151
LOADS.$UNfA6/NC
ML44BL7<LOAD
179 TO 276 UN!
LOAD 6
-5.1
VfDL
Mbl4EN LOAD
16S TO 178 277 TO 290 UN!
LOAD COM 7 (SLSCOMB. 1
12
Sf2
2 1.2
61.0
5 1,2
f -14,6
f/A ALONL)
4 1.0
f/A, /3 =0.6, !L
APPLICATION OF LOADs
riilaaei',piitdata
The
irptdataforsomeofMeCombirat/oir 1 loadcases
L074D1
AA/f$1&2 (13=0.9)
/174 //DL
MA4&N LOAD
165 TO 178 WA/I
179 TO 234 WA/I
235 TO 248 WA/I
LC)AD2HA
WDL
-2.03
-13.81
-9.88
Meloadso#i tk/digram'
/14 $=O.9, AL
/14 13=0.9, /(tL
LAM3 (13=0.6)
Mt.M&NLOAD
235 TO 248 WA/I
c -2.617
-9.205
/174,
-1.354
LOAD 3 AL A4/D-MA/
JOINTLOAD
38 53 68 83ff-44,42
f'f -6,53
23
98
ff 3J,79
LOAD 4 fOO7WA'f
MtJ14N LOAD
165 TO 178 277 TO 290 WA/I
151 TO 164 291 TO 304 WA/I
'
-5.10
-0.90
LOADS$WNM6IA/
MfMN LOAD
-5,1
6 VfN( SDL
MMN LOAD
11.2
51.2
21.2
61.0
31.2
/174
ALOM)
41.0
#3=0.6,
AL
41
42
The page opposite shows the input data for load cases in which the HB vehicle is
positioned formaximum edge zone longitudinal bending. Note the absence ofKEL
in the straddled lane next to the HB lane. A similarload layout is alsorequiredwith
the HB vehiclein the central lane.
The datafor Load 1 is for 37.5 units ofHB (375 kN per axle,or93.75kN per wheel).
The wheel loads are distributed between the nearest grillagejoints, and applied as
point loads. Loads 2 to 7 are similar to Loads 1 to 6 on the previous page. Loads 8
and 9 represent Combination 1 at SLS and ULS respectively.
As before, the combinations are made from applying the andy1 factors from Table
= 1.1. Thus the factor applied to
1 of BD 37/88. Note that for ULS loadings,
Load 1 in the final set of datais:
164
165
21
72
25
26
361
193
51
J9
52
55
56
206
234
221
235
98
249
113
265
128
2Z
178
L LL
291
248
- - --
262
276
304
Grillage output
Each software package has its own convention for output display. Generally the
memberend moments at the samejoint in any element string (eg. main longitudinal
member) are averaged to find the maximum designmoment at that joint. The sign
convention may give opposite senses for each moment in a sagging effect, or they
may be given the same sign, so care is therefore necessary in the interpretation. The
design shear forces and twistingmoments are evaluated in the sameway.
Someprogramsenvelope a group ofanalysis resultsto provideeasy identification of
maxima.
APPLICATION OF LOADS 43
/1
LOAD 1
L,4iV. 1
JOINTL04D
66 67 70 71 f'f -93,75
51 525556 f'f -140.625
36 37 40 41 -93,75
21 22 25 26 -46.875
ff
LOAD2!-IA
I/B
LAN2(f3=.789)
MM&N LOAD
221 TO 234 U/Vt c-12,1
f7'4,
-8.66
-8.66
MMBL LOAD
249 TO 276 UN!
235
-13,81
-3,93
-2.03
TO 248 UN!
TO 290 UN!
277
LOAD kZL
JOINTLOAD
M3
M!DSPAN
143
f-12,63
-6.53
LOADS fOO7WA'f
MtMBN LOAD
165 TO 178 277
164 291
151
TO
LOAD
68UIfAC!N
TO 290 UN!
TO 304 UN!
-5.1O
-O.9O
Mfjl4BNLOAD
LOAD
MMBNLOAD
165 TO 178 277 TO 290 UN!
-14.6
1 1.43
ve/ilcle
0.789
/3=09 AL
44
6.1 GENERAL
The left hand pages in this section are in the form ofa commentary on the example
design calculations on the right hand pages.
All references to clauses and Tables in this section refer to BS 5400: Part 4: 1990.
The units used in the calculations are Meganewtons and metres. These have been
chosenin order to avoidthe need to use largenumberofpowers often, andto avoid
the need to convert between different units withincomplicated expressions. Itshould
be noted that the unit ofstress ofMN/rn2 is numerically the same as N/mm2,and so
stresseshave been quoted in the latter unit.
6.2 DESIGN BENDING MOMENTS
The grillageanalysis doesnot include the dead load ofthe beams andthe in-situ slab,
as these loads are carried by the prestressed beamsalone. Theseloads mustbe added
by hand. Appropriate load factors for the different load combinations have been
included in the grillage analysis, but need to be applied to the dead loads at this stage.
valuesare obtained from BD 37/88 Table 1. Note that a valueof1.2 has been
taken for the dead load at ULS. The Standard permits a lower value of 1.15 to be
adopted, but the onus is on the designer to ensure that the assumed unit weight of
the structure is not exceeded. Consequently most designers preferthe conservative
value of 1.2 at this stage ofthe design.
The
The value for is taken as 1.1, as given in Clause4.2.3 for methods of analysis
otherthan plastic methods, for which a value of 1.15 should be adopted.
These wi//al/beident/cj4
so tiredesi,'q#risfort/re worstcase
Des4vr&nd4igMoments
iscariiedbqtireprecast beamacti'rga/one.
The deadloadbendingmoment
Loadsare.'
= 20.48 N/m
DL precast = 14.03 kN/m
Total DL
DL lit-sit/i
= 6,45 k/I/rn
6/8
6/8
= 1242k/Vm' = 1.242MNm
= 571 kNm
=0.571 MAIm
factorshavebeen/irc/uided4,theana/qsis, so thegri//ageoutputgiVesthefactoredmornents. In
thetablebelo thebend4rg momentsforloadcases3 and 4 aretakenfromthegri/lage output
formidspan ofanX#erna/beam. tachcasei'rcludes SDL, footpathloads, and/IAload 3endi'rg
moments4rthetableareal/%iA4Nm'
$L
Comb4iat,'n 1
Load case
1.' DLprecast
2.' DL ,'isitui
3.' Th4('uidl+ke/)
4.' 37.5 /I8
Nom4ral
moment
,,
i'iored
moment
WL
Combitatin3
'
,,
Combi'rat,n 1
factored
moment
1.242
0571
2117
2.980
factored
moment
1.21, 1
1,21, 1
1.639
0753
3,493
4261
45
46
The table in the calculations opposite list the relevantstresses due to all the different
loadings that need to be considered. Load cases 3 and 4 refer to the grillage load
cases for which the moments are listed on the previous page. Note that these all
include SDL, footpath loads and HA loads in the appropriate combination. The
stressesinthe table forthese load cases are simplyobtained from thebending moments
by dividing by the section moduli.
if
Compression:
Clause4.2.2(para3) specifiesthatthe section should be checked incompression
under the full Load Combination 1 and3 loadings. Table 22 gives the allowable
This gives 16 N/mm2for the slab and 20 N/mm2
compressive stress as 0.4
for the precast beam. However this value can be increased by 25% for the
upper surfaceofthe precast unitincontactwith in-situ concrete(Clause 7.4.3.2.)
provided that failure would be by tendon yield, because the in-situ concrete
confines the precastconcrete. This increase is not used in this example; it will
be seen in the ULS bending checklater in the calculations that thisconditionis
not satisfied.
PRESTRESSED BEAMDESIGN 47
Stresses atMidspan
Thebendi'rgmomentsHeed tobe conve4ed
Z#o
in ordertocarr,'o#tSLSdesiqn.
'8
4 = 0,156 m3
4 =-0,fst3
cfr'lllage
Z1, = 0.381 m5
= 0.475 m
Zkb =-0.273m5
Temperature
c'
comb/nations,iftire.yirave anadverse
SLS Comb4rati'on 1
Section
Load case
Precast
1.' DL &am
2.' DL Slab
Composite
y
796
3.66
3.' HA
6.67
4.'37.5frI
860
5.35
6.90
-6.68
-3.07
-930
5,'Pos Temp
6.'Neg Temp
7.'Sirruirkage
Totals
HA
37.5 i-Is
Stress l4ilts
SLS Comb4rat,'on3
1.38
-0.54
6.67
8.60
1835
1990
-1959
<16
<20
-0
(-0.52)
5,56
7.82
2.54
7.96
3.66
-6.68
-3.07
4.46
6.27
-7.76
(-0.69)
(-1.65) 0.74
(-0.52) 1.38
810
-1092
(1.15)
-1.25
-0.54
10.36
18.20 -1930
20,01 -22.46
<'16
<'20
>-3,2
48
The chosen strand pattern should always have strands located at the
manufacturers' standard positions.
Prestress Des/a,,
I j*
= -19.59N/msr'
0.7
P
P
Pe
=+
A
Z
0.5847
+ PxO,370
0.186
=7.565A4N
tens/onper
strand1s210,(N
No,
$trandpatteriri'sing37strands,'
No, ofstrands
/1ei*tofrowabovesoffit
x
x
8
12
x.
11
1200mm
950mm
160mm
110mm
60mm
=
=
=
=
=
37
Cent,ro,d
4800
1900
1280
1320
660
9960
= 9960/37
= 269mmfromsoffit
= 0.269m
7 = 0.639m
= 0,639 - 0.269
..
eccentricit,'
= Q.370m
(asassi/med)
36strands(m/'/rllm)
49
50
The elastic loss at transfer is calculated at the centroid of the tendons, and is
due to the compression arising from the prestressing force, after the initial
relaxation loss prior to transfer, and the self-weight of the beam. The latter is
included because the beam cambers during transfer, and hencehas to carry its
self-weight as a simply supported beam.
The change in strand stress =
(E / E )
The net forceafter transfer= initial force - relaxation loss - elastic loss.
The stress limits for compression are given in Clause 6,3.2.2(b) and Table 23,
and for tension in Clause 6.3.2.4(b)(l). The strength ofthe concrete at transfer
In this case it is
is referred to as d which is less than the final strength
=
assumedthat f. 40 N/mm2.
Loss ofrestress
Ii /a/restressirg force
P=
370,210
=7.770MN
at
Ne/ax.atio,,loss
(i)
= 7673MN
P = 0. 987-5x 7770
()
loss attrairsfee
zlast/cs*o4eni1gloss,
x,
x (strandarea)
= (200/31)(1&09N/mm2)(37O.OOO165m2)
= 0.713MN
Transferprestressi?rgforce, afterlosses
'tressesattransferarenowca/cii/atedandckec-edagairsta/lowable stresses.
Transferstressesdietoprestressa/one;
ZEf- 6.960
0.5847
= 11.90 -16.51
6.9600,370
0.156
= -4.61 N/mm'
mtllar4i
05847
0.186
t,e
Miri'iuim stressattop,
$ectin
b=
-1.0N/mm'
sat/sfactor9 attransfer
51
52
in excess of 40 N/mm2. However, ifthe stress exceeds one third ofthe cube
strength, the creep is no longer proportional to stress, and has to be increased
by a factor varyingbetween 1.0 and 1.25dependingon the stress. A modification
factor, k, is used:
= f/2
= 20 N/mm2
k = 1.25 when
= 13.33N/mm2
k = 1.0 wheny6
fd/3
=
In this case,
19.07 N/mm2
so k = 1.22 by interpolation
The design stresses in the precast beamare the stresses dueto the final prestress
afterall losses, as calculated on the opposite page,plusthe stress combinations
tabulated on page 47. These stresses are then compared with the allowable
tensile and compressive stresses, also given on page 47.
f,'ral losses
rirlcageloss
(i)
(II)
0 per
at t.4'ecelltro/doftelldons,
N/mm2
= 16.05 N/mm-'
= x.3x.A=(1.22X48X1U6X16,Q5)y(20010)
(37x0.000165)
= 1.148MN
Nelaxuzt%9n ofstralld
(th)
ir
fPe
A Z
5.349
0.5847
5.349x,0,370 = 9.15-12,69=
-3,54N/mm2
0.156
95.349X0,370
= 915+10,64=19,79N/mm2
$Lstress/Z'rn'tsafterfiiralprestresslosses.'
C/reck,
$tress atbottomofbeam,
->0
=16,47N/m,ir'
<20N/mm2
$tress at topofbeam,
$ect%,'ratmidspair
Gb
satf.factortir tens,wa.'rdcompress/o.'r.
53
BEAMS
54 SIMPLE BRIDGE DESIGN US[NG PRESTRESSED
The prestressing force and eccentricity previously calculated are for midspan
wherethe dead and imposed load moments are maxima. At othersections the
moments are smaller, and in order to satisfy the stress limits, the eccentricity
needs to be reduced. This can be achieved by either debonding or deflecting
some of the strands. In this example debonding has been adopted. Some
manufacturers prefernot to use deflected strands, andwill ask to manufacture
Stress limits at transfer will be criticalat all sections otherthan midspan. The
computer program specifies thedebonding required to limit the transferstresses
to f/2 in compression and -l N/mm2 in tension.
This calculation couldalternatively be carried out by hand withoutdifficulty.
Debond4rgofsti'ands
4 computer
,/2 it
it
Theprogramdetermiresastrandpatterir (compat/kle
The resultsareas
/I/ows
Strairdpatteri,atnridspan'
/e,'htofrowakovesoffit
No, ofstrands
11
60mm
110mm
160mm
950mm
1200mm
12
8
2
4
DekoirdZ.igDetails
ir
&ct,wm.
tram/s row
fromsipt
13,31
11 12
11 12
11 12
11 12
9 12
9 12
9 12
7 12
7 12
5 12
3 10
11.97
10.64
9.31
7.98
6.65
5,57
3,99
2.66
1.33
0.00
8 2
8 2
8 2
8 2
8
8
8
8
8
8
2
2
2
2
2
2
8 2
TransferN/mm2
raIN/mm2
o
3.38
3.30
3.06
2.67
2.84
2.13
1.26
0.96
-0.25
-0.84
-0.96
1908
4.42
13.21
1914
1933
1965
4.35
13.26
13.39
412
3.74
3.67
2.98
13.61
2.14
1.63
1419
0.47
1481
1926
-0.33
14,87
1719
-0.79
1406
1847
1902
19.70
18.89
1983
13,26
13.68
14.06
55
The pre-strain in the strands is determined forthe condition afterall losses have
occurred.
The strains in the diagram are the additional strains due to loads. Hence the
pre-strain has to be addedto the strand strain at each level to obtain the total
strain.
Note that the strainat the top ofthe slab is takenas 0.0035, the failure strainof
concrete. Ultimate failure is by crushing ofthe concrete, not by yielding ofthe
strands.
PRESTRESSED
Bx
DESIGN
flexut-c
W/fi'irpfe
15<53
1266
$fress4fra/,,cuitvefor
15. 2mm / 1)0cmstraird
ref fe3,?r?$54O0Pa44
'O'
0'
00055
Presfra4',,,sfra,,ds,
=5.349MN/(200 103x57x0.000165sr9
= 0. 0043
Tiq eufcalax/s
C4
C-5
0.0035
= O.OO44+(O.&50/0.630,)X0.0035
= 0.0091
= 0.0044 + (0.800/0.630)x 0.0035
= 0.00&34
= 0.0044 + (O.OJ0/O.63O,)0.0035
= 0.00446
= 0.0044- (O.240/O.63O,)O.OO35
= 0.0030,
2
1
57
58
Knowing the total strains, the strand stresses at each level canbe obtained from
the stress- strain curve.
has been
For this calculation, a constant compressive stress block of 0.4
Part
4
would
in
the
concrete.
BS
5400
assumed
However,
strictly require the
parabolic rectangular stress block in Figure 1 to be used,becausethe neutral
axisis not in the flange (Clause 6.3.3.1(b)). A computer programme would
be required to perform the calculation rigorously. The approach adopted in the
example is conservative and adequate for most situations.
Because the outermost tensions have not yielded, Clause 6.3.3.1 requires the
momentofresistance to be at least 1.15 timesthe design moment.
c#rveare
$tres$es(torn
(0.01292-0.00633)
317 + 1266
1403 N/rnrn2
= 1387N/rnrn2
(00oj
(4 0.00446x200x103
(5= 0.00307x200x10
= 892N/mm2
= 614N/mrn2
force.'
7 =ll0.0001651414 = 2.566
7 =12x0.000165 x1403 = 2.778
= 8xO.000165x1357 = 1,831
= 20,000l65y c392 = 0.294
= 4x0,00016.5 614 = 0.405
i5
T =7.87MN
(forces/
= 0.4x40x.1,27-5x0220
= 4.4&3MN
= 0,4x50x(0.40#O.36)x0,410
= 3.477MN
.C=4.4&3+3.477
= 7.97MN
U=C (d/crept7Hcf
Tak4rg
1%)
o,,4i
ofa//force8
#era/j
MT
=(2.566X0.900)+(2.778X0,850)+(1,&31X0,&OO)
M6
+(O294.)(QO1O)+(O4Q5XQ24O) =6.O4MNm'
To.ta/
.'.
Morne.#ofNes,$a,,ce
= 9O9MNrn
= 909MA/rn
1,
= 6.65 MA/sr
..
37.5
/13,
frompage 45)
/'r flex/ire
WL.
59
60
6.6 SHEAR
A prestressed concretebeam can fail in two basic modes (see Clause 6.3.4.1):
By an inclinedweb crack developing independently of a flexural crack.
This type of failure can occur at any section of the beam (cracked or
uncrackeddue to flexure). BS 5400refers to this mode as a V0 failure.
(ii) By aflexuralcrackdeveloping into an inclined shear crack. Thistype of
(i)
A partial load factor ofeither 0.87 or 1.15 has to be applied to the compressive
stress at the centroidal axis due to prestress,
Obviously, 0.87 results in a
lower value ofV0, and so this value is used in the calculation.
f.
The full prestress is not developed within the transmission length, which is
given in clause6.7.4. Hence,ifthe support is withinthe transmission length, a
reduced value of prestress should be used in the calculations. Clause 6.7.4
states that a linear development ofstress withinthe transmission length should
be assumed.
*etablebe/owt/tefactoredskearforcesfor/oadcases3 ai,d 4
grit/age
Nomi,a/
earforce
Load 6ase
1. DL'recast
L DL4tsltii
3.
4,
017
and/nc/#derelevantfactorsand$DL, etc.
ULLoad Comb/natIon1
'y x.
1,2x. 1,1
1,2x1.1
0.06
/174
37,5H
Max/mum
0247
0114
0,396
0.584
be
6lase7.4.2.2.(a)(1)
= 0.67bnJf2
Q7ff
w/rere
Ii = 1400mm
b =216mm(min)
= 0.24/5
= 1.70 N/mm2
=prestressatcentroidofbeam
fromdebondi'igca/ca/atiirs,prestressatsppoti
= -0.79N/mm2
= 14.06 N/mm2
I.'rterpo/atlirgto
Idthestressatthecentroki 0.639mfromthebottom,
= 14.06 +(0.639/1.400)x.(-0.79-14.06)
=
7.28N/mm2
V= 0,670,216x1,400J1.702 0.871.707.28
= 0.749MN
62
At the quarter span point the section is cracked in flexure at ULS. Henceboth
modesofshear failure should be considered.
As for shear atthe supports, the calculation for V0 is based on the precast beam
acting alone.
O.4bd- V
74 V+0.87
= 0.000536ii
= 0,536 mm2/mm
forT12/,,ks,
use 712
74
0.945 +Q,4O,216f,53O-Q.749
0,87x460x 1.530
l,sat400mm centres.
earatQuarter'.e'an
s/reara/so.'reeds to be checked atotherposit/9ns along thebeam' ThesearetheIIL$ loadsat
thequarterspanposition. The centralportin ofthebeam wi/Ibe des/,'9nedfortheseloads, with
theendquartersre/irforcedascalculatedabove. The sectionatqjiarterspanmustbecheckedboth
ascrackedandasuncrackeditflexure.
Load Case
1. DLprecast
2. DL ,'rs/tu
3. /174
4. 37,5/-/
Nomital
Nom4i'al
shear
Coi,cident
force
moment
0094
0043
0.932
0447
factored
shearforce
factored
coirc,de.# moment
1.2x.1.1 0124
1.2x.1.1 005.7
0.297
1.230
0590
2.789
3.290
0458
=0.639
/1B"
atquarterspandue toprestressandDL
stressesdue toprestressalonearecalcu/atedbqsubtractitgtheeffectoftheDL,'
The del'ondingca/cu/ati'onsgivestresses
fromthese,
63
64
In the case ofthe shear resistance for a section cracked in flexure, the calculation
based on the composite section is not too complicated, and results in a higher
value of Vcr than ifthe beam assumedto act alone. The method based on the
composite section is adopted here.
Clause 6.3.4.3 gives an expression for the crackingmoment corresponding to
the ultimate tensile stress beingreachedat the extreme tensile fibre:
Mcr = (0.37'If +
f) I/y
f)
f.
Note that Mcr is less than the total moment at ULS. Hence the section would
be flexurally cracked at ULS.
()'ect/oHcraclced4fflexufre/ V
forcosiposite
wi/Ikecalculated
f,brereache8(O,3+f,)=Q,37XJ3+Q,87l&69=1&&3fl//stsr2,
airdthesromeittacti'rgoirthecomt'os/te sectioir.'
DL m'oste.',t =
DLstress =
= (18.88-7.41)Z,,,
= 11,47x0,273
=3.I3IMNm
V,= 0.037bdJ?J+V
The ceNtrold
= 0,037x.0,216x.1,309/
.x,0,639
= 0.638 MN
V
<V
V =
so V
crItical' V
=V
0639.> V = 0.638
A V+
0,4ba.-
t'
soshearrei/rforcemeHt/
reqjl"ed'
_0,639+0.4X0,2161,53Q-Q,638
0.874601,530
0.87fa
= 0,000218st
= 0.218 srm2/m'm
for T12I,s,
Maxlnrnrnspaciirg
(a) 0.75d
(b)4b
=864srnr
65
66
The shear capacity depends on the contact surface at the interface. It is usual
to assume a"roughas cast" surface,which only requires cleaning ofthe surface,
but no special preparation. This is defined as surfacetype 2.
Both at the supports, and at midspan, the reinforcement provided for vertical
shear has also been found to be just adequate for longitudinal shear at the
interface. Note, however, that the calculated reinforcement requirement for
vertical shear atmidspan was only 0.000218 m2/m, which would not have been
enough for longitudinal shear. More reinforcement than this was provided in
order to avoid exceeding the maximum permitted spacing.
the
The
theortgiYes /ong/'tHd/ta/shearas
V1
= VA9/I
1,275
thesectionabovethe/ongitHd/iia/shearphvre,
otherwordstheshadedareaiiithedhgram.
1.570
imp/ifbiassiirnZ'rga
themodularratio, butiwor/#fg the
s.'na//over/apbetweenthebeamands/al',
4rc/adi'rg
= 0.584MN
A = 1,25mxQ,22OmxQ,91 = 0255m
9 = f.37Q+(Q.22Q/2)-O,&39 = 0.591rn
V
I =02429m4
Thesurface
(a)
(b)
(frompage2l)
= VA/I=(0.54MN)X(O255m)x(0.59P&/(0,2429m)
V,
= 0.362 MN/rn
= 0.09X('40N/mm2)(0.400m)
k1f1,L8
= 1.44MN/m
->
so 0/c'
= 0.382MN/m
->
soo/'
V = 0.45(3MN
...
t'=0.284MN/m
forthevertia'alshearre4rforcementofT12lurks at800mmcentres, Ae
+ 0.7Af = 0.291 MN/rn
->
so 0/c'
0.000283 rn
atqularterspan.
67
68
FINISHINGS
7.1
INTRODUCTION
The finishings ofa bridge deck can be defined as:
Bearings
Joints
Waterproofing andsurfacing
Parapets
Although they round off the design and detailing of a bridge deck, they should be
given very early consideration as they can have an important effect on the bridge
analysisand performance. For example, the bearing positionon an abutment can
affect the span, accessfor inspection,maintenanceandreplacement. The consideration
of carriageway surfacing profile affects loading (eg. crowningor vertical curves).
The parapet type needs to be adequately anchored into the deck edge.
7.2 BEARINGS
Althoughthe technology of bearing design can be left to the specialist suppliers'
mechanical engineers, the bridge designer should develop an appreciation of the
different bearing types to avoidproblems and failures.
There are two main types of bearing commonly used with precast beams, namely
elastomeric andpot bearings. Elastomeric bearings have been chosen for the design
example, and they are by far the most common, probably due to their lower initial
cost. However, they may prove with time to have a more limited life.
Elastomeric bearings are generally laminated, and consist ofalternate layersofsteel
andrubberbonded together. Capacities depend on the area, height, numberand size
ofthe layers. Theyaccommodate vertical loads by compression, translation by shear
deformation, and rotation by variablecompression.
In pot bearings, the confined elastomer is heavily loaded and is assumed to act like a
fluid to accommodate rotation. Translations are enabled by a sliding interface of
PTFE and stainless steel.
For elastomeric bearings, there are generally two possiblemethods ofresisting the
horizontal forces. A pin can be provided at one end and a guide at the other end,
which carryall the horizontal forces. Alternatively, as in the example, the forces can
be resisted by the horizontal stiffness of the bearings; this situation is known as a
'floatingdeck'.
FINISHINGS
Thi l'ridgewi//we18keathrg, 9
A
deci( a
e&c/ efid
Plaitofbridgedec.
<
>
LoitgitiiditaImovemeittxossib/e
atbotir em/s oftirebridge
<
>
69
70
All bearings should be bedded horizontally, even when the bridge deck has a
longitudinalfall.
Care is needed on skew bridges to keep the axis of the principal movements
and rotations in harmony with the bearing axes. This may require a wider
bearing shelf.
Bearings need to be inspected andmaintained. Ifthey need to be replaced, the
bridgedeck will have to be temporarilyjackedup. Access to the bearing shelf,
and drainage of the bearing shelf, must be provided for in the design of the
abutments (and also the piers, in the case ofmulti-span bridges). A bearing
shelf with a drainagechannel at the front is easierto clean, but increases the
spanandpossibly the abutment thickness. For largerbridges, an abutment with
an internal access gallery is sometimes justified. This gives easy access to
bearings and expansion joints, at the costofa substantially largerabutment:
End
Diaphragm
Y8 beam
Abutment
FINISHINGS 71
Deck slab
'/8 beas,
fJastoirericbeariirg
&ariHgp/x#ith
15Oi,hih
&ar4Yg
25 ,irnvfalltorear
ONC elid
ofthe
i'a
se#i
showx'rgcross
Dra4fagechaNNel
aklltmeHt keari'igshe/fan'd
72
The bridge designer should carry out calculations of the range of loads and
movements that the bridgebearings will sustain. Theseare then specified on a
bearing schedule, and a bearing complying with these specifications will then
beselected(often bythe contractor)using data suppliedbybearing manufacturer.
On the example bridge, all 18 bearings will be identical. On bridges where a
floating deck is not used,movements will be smallerat the pinnedend than at
the guidedend, anddifferent bearings mightbe needed.
Nominal horizontal loads have been calculated for the design example at the
same time as other nominal loads. The maximum horizontal loads for each
bearing are now calculated from these loads.
Verticalloads are obtained from the grillage analysis, exceptfor the dead load.
The permanent vertical load on the bearings needs to be specified, as well as
both the maximum andminimum loads. On continuous bridges, as well as on
some skew simply-supported bridges, the minimum load can be less than the
permanent load.
FINISHINGS
LNlNDtlA/C74L6WLATl0N'
i, al/directionsatLHeedto becalcalatedforentry1'rto t.*ebearing
Loads and
schedule.
Loads
Longitdiiral load,'
/174 load
X critiai
Nom/iral load
= 463 KN
9 bearings atoneend
Assiinreeqjially
= 463/9 = 51.4KN
51.4xJ.0,1,0 = 51,4AN
Nosri#ralloadperbear4rg
Lloadperbeathrg
514 YYfLXYf3
Transverseload,'
= 300 MI
Nonrmalload
Ifthisloadoccars nearoneendof
bridge,
thi
loadwi/Ike resitedbybearings at
endonly.
Nomiralloadperbeathrg 300/9 = 33.3 l'N
$L'/oadperbearig33,31,O1,O = 33,3K/V
both /ririrgm andmax,'i#rnr loadsare req#ired
M4,imusrload=permanentload= DL + 'DL
Vern'calload'
DL
=
20.48KN/mx('span/2)x'yfxyf3
= 20.48
l(N/m13,3m1,0xJ,Q
= 272KN
= 4.OKN/nt2x
l.27SmX('span/2)XYILxy13
= 4.0KN/m2X1.275m13,3mxj,21,Q
= 81K/V
Mi>rmrirnrbeari'rg load
DL + $'DL
Maxi,iim
reactiin fromcompiiteranalysi,
= 456KN
and
/1. loaa trcldi'rg
($DL
y)=
MaK/m#mbear4rgload = DL + 456
73
74
creep
shrinkage
BS 5400: Part 9: Clause 5.15.1 gives general guidance on the forces and
movements tobe considered for bearings together with the relevantlimit states.
Forthe design example, reversible and irreversible translations androtations at
SLS are required.
Clause 6.7.2 ofBS 5400: Part 4 gives guidance on shrinkage and creep, with
Clause 6.7.2.4 referringspecifically to shrinkage,andClause 6.7.2.5 specifically
to creep.
FINISHINGS
Moves,e,#s
Trverse/
assumed that
Megli/k/e.
geaitdcreep,
'hritk,ageofcoNcrete
- assumethatha/ftotalshrLiMageoccursbeforebeamsarep/aced 011
bear#igs,
'hnage/HMitle#gth = 300 x 1 total
... Total shr4ri(age = 300 x 1
x, 26600mm= &0mm
'/2shthitage ocdum'fg afterbeamsareplaced= & 0/2 = 4.0 mm
Creep ofco#crete
bear/itgs.
fromcalcuilati2itsforprestressedbeam
des/g.sr,
stress
at
ce#ttroid
10
N/mm'
average
Totalcreep=48xlC76x26600mmxlO/v/mm2=12,8mm
'4 creepoccufr/ifg afterbeams areplaced =12.8/2 = 6.4 mm
74551/me that total
ofshmtAageaitdcreepshorten4ig
= lox 1.Oxi,2
sharedeqjia/4' ateachend
5.2 mm
= 5,2mm
Temperatuireraitge
Nom/naltemeratuirerange= 47C
Coeffi'/eitt ofthermalexpansion= 121 06/06
...
Nomlscralra,rgeofmovement
Assume bear4rgsareff)(ed/ncen'treofraitge
...
ofmovement = 75 mm
Nomth'alraitge
Temperatureeffectsaretheon4ieffects(excepttransinttrafficloads)caHs4lgreversible
trans/atloits, Assume thesereversible movementsaresharedetpiallq'
the two
abu,tments.'
75
76
Irreversible rotations due to the self-weight of the precast beams take place
before the bearingsare fixed in position, so do not affect the bearings. However,
rotations due to the dead load of the slab and the superimposed dead loads
must be absorbed by the bearings, and are calculated opposite.
be calculated.
Reversible rotations dueto live loads can be extracted from the grillageanalysis.
Allgrillage load cases in the design example include SDL, which must therefore
be subtractedto get the reversible effect only.
FINISHINGS
Xotatiiir
i'ofa
made
of
of
Deadloadofslab
$IabDLrotation'
(0.00645iWI/m,)x(26,6m)
24x(34000MN/m)x(0.11&3m4)
=0.00125rad,n's
iperftttposedDL =5,1 N/m = 0.0051,Wv'/m
'DL rotation' = wl3/24.zI
(usurg forcomposite section')
(0.OO5IMN/m,)x(26,6m)3
24 x(34000MN/mi,)x (0.2429m4)
= 0,00048rad,mn's
Irreversible rotation'at
factors
atL
Neversublerotation'
thebearfttgrotatesun'dertheweuIttoftheftr-situ slabi
= 0.00125radkin's
= (6.45 kN/m)x. (26.6m)/2
Neaction = wl/2
= 85.8N
Nate = rotation/lOOk/V
= 0.00125/0.858
Notation'
=0. OOl46radhmn's/lOOkN
when'
77
78
Bearing Schedule
The results ofthe calculations from the previous pages are entered into a bearing
schedule. BS 5400: Part 9.1 contains a standard form of bearing schedule.
The completed schedule for the design example is shown below, and the page
opposite shows how abearing can be chosen from amanufacturers' catalogue,
and checked for compliance with the schedule.
Numberoff
Seatingmaterial
Upper surface
Lowersurface
Upper face
Allowable average
contactpressure
Lowerface
(N/mm)
Design load
effects(kN)
Serviceability
limit state
Ultimate
limit state
Vertical
t,t'oxgMonar
f7oxgMortar
Serviceability
Ultimate
.20
Serviceability
Ultimate
maximum
.20
permanent
minimum
553
353
,28
Transverse
33,3
Longitudinal
51,4
Vertical
Transverse
Longitudinal
Irreversible
Transverse
Longitudinal
Transverse
5,2
Reversible
Longitudinal
Transverse
3.8
Irreversible
Reversible
Longitudinal
Transserse
Irreversible
Longitudinal
Transverse
Longitudinal
Transverse
000183
Reversible
Longitudinal
Transverse
0.00223
Maximum rate
Maximum
(radians/IOOkN)
Upper surface
Longitudinal
Transverse
bearing
dimensions
Lowersurface
Longitudinal
Transverse
000146
400
300
400
300
Translation
(mm)
Serviceability
limit state
Ultimate
limit state
Rotation
(radians)
Serviceability
limitstate
(mm)
Longitudinal
Overall height
Tolerable movementofbearing
under transient loads (mm)
Allowable resistance totranslation
under serviceability limit state(kN)
Allowable resistance torotation
underserviceability limitstate (kNm)
Type offixing required
Vertical
Transverse
Longitudinal
Transverse
Longitudinal
Transverse
Longitudinal
Upper surface
Lower surface
ioo
1
1
1.2.5
20
40
t,oxgMortar
poxgMortar
FINISHINGS
4025-02-08/3.
from CCL
=0.00183+0.00223
= 0.OO4O6radirns
=523.8
=90mm
rotationcapac/tifat 90mmshear =
Notati,, capacitq
adeajiate.
Mix/i,wm vertia/reaction.i'ecifled=
Vern'a/ca/aci'tq, no shearorrotatXw
728k/V
=1882 k/V
adequate.
Checkstiffnesses.'
Vern'a/(compressiVe) stiffiress,
Deflectiiratmaximum load
=1745k/V/mm
= 732k/V/1745
= 0.42mm
(from catalogue)
resitanceto trans/at,,r
= 4.29k/V/mm
= 90mm
= 90 .x. 4.29
= 38,6k/V
(fromcatalogue)
a/so0A
Max/mum(transiwt)/ongitud/'ra/loadonbearirg = 51.4k/V
Moveme,rtundertra,rs,'ent/oad= 51. 4/Ks = 51.4/4.29
=12.0mm
Thi less than the 12.5mmspecifieaso transi,rtmovemeirt/ w/thi'r tolerance.
79
80
40 mm
60 mm
10 mm
wearingcourse
regulating course
waterproofing
FINISHINGS 81
Wai'erprooflurgdetail
82
7.4 JOINTS
The function ofanyjoint is to bridgeany gap or discontinuity between the deck and
the abutment, whilst allowing horizontal movement and rotation ofthe deck to take
place.
Theyare subject to all the effects applied to bearings, andare dividedinto two main
categories: buriedjoints and mechanicaljoints.
Buriedjoints have continuous surfacing over the structural discontinuity, and are
usually reserved forsituations where the movements are less than 15 mm. The design
example uses asphaltic plug joints at each end of the bridge span. A steel plate
bridges the gap between the deck and the abutment, and a strip of flexible asphalt
placedover it along the line ofthejoint.
Larger movements are oftenaccommodated with mechanical joints. In thiscase the
surfacing is discontinuous. An example is illustrated below.
Surfacing
Mechanical expansionjoint,
beddedon epoxy resin,
and bolted to deck and abutment
usingresin anchors.
/
__
-Deck
I
___
Abutment
wall
FINIsHINGs 83
__ \/_
'iitfaci'rg
..
Dec1(-s/ak
1'
20mm PVC
h'c3
dra4i
7lbHtme1#
wa/I
Waterprooflurg tai(e/rdowH
kack of
ai ak#tme#ts
84
7.5 PARAPETS
There are five parapetgroups for highwaybridgesreferredto in Highways Agency
Standard BD 52/93:
P1 are required
locations.
P2 are required for all purpose roads. Metal versions have a traffic face
mesh where pedestrians are allowed. They are subdivided into P2 (80)
and P2 (113) depending on the prevailing speed restrictions at the site.
P2 (48) are also occasionally found at urban sites.
P4 are usedon bridleways.
PS are required over railways, and usually have Pt strength requirements.
Theseare taller, and have solid infihl panels.
P6 are high containment parapets for use at high risk locations.
Standard metal versions in steeloraluminium are available from the various suppliers
listed in BS 6779 Part 1. There are differences between the types which affect the
edge plinth detailing and spacing of posts. Reinforcement should be detailed to
accommodatestandardapprovedanchorage cages. Mostdesigners give the contractor
the choice ofsteelor aluminium parapets, although individual clientauthorities may
have preferences relatingto maintenance aspects.
Concrete can also be used for the P1 and P2 containment requirements, sometimes
facedor sandwiched with othermaterials such as brick.
P6 high containment parapets are often provided in the form of precast concrete
panels, which are either cast into the edge ofthe deck, or bolted down onto it. The
edge ofthe deck must be designed to resist the high transverse bending moment that
a vehicle hittingthe parapetcan generate; seeBS 6779: Part2. The bendingmoment
is too high to be resisted by the bending strength of a standard deck slab, or the
torsional strength of M orYbeams. A torsionally stiffedge beamshould beprovided,
or the base of the parapetpanels should span over two adjacent beams.
Precast parapet
panels, 2.5m long,
bolted to deck.
A typical edge detail for a bridge deck with a high containment parapet.
FINISHINGS
P2(1131t'/i)c/am4ihrntpra1e'et
coitcreteHpstafldky
wasker$alldp/8t/'s1eeves.
Mes%,//
croiitbelowparapet base
Parapetdetails
85
86
8.1
INTRODUCTION
The design ofprestressed beamsin a solid slab deck follows the samepattern as for
a beam& slab deck. This section consists ofa partial design example ofa solid slab
bridge deck, to demonstrate how to deal with the transverse moments and shears
using reinforcement threadedthrough the web holes ofthe precast beams.
The example bridge has the following designrequirements:
9.089m between bearings (singlespan)
6.5m carriageway (two 3.25m lanes)
I .Om footpath each side
21
Skew
HA load to BD 37/88
Loading
No HB load is required for this private development
Surfacing 180mmtotal maximum thickness (including waterproofing)
Span
Width
Inverted T beamswere chosen as the most suitable form ofconstruction for thisshort
span. The beamselection charts indicate that T2 beamsare appropriate for a span of
about9m. The beams are placedsideby side in this form ofconstruction, so for the
width ofdeckrequired, eighteenT2 beams are needed. The bridge could alternatively
have been designed usingtwelve TY2 beams.
In-situ concrete provides the infill between the beams, andthe topping over the beams.
The standard thickness for the topping is 75mm, and this is usedhere. The topping
should neverbe specifiedless than 75mmthick.
9300
Overa//widM
400
1000
6500
C'vsssecfloit of9089m
1000
400
si'ir,i'/q
askewof2f.
kteen71? keastsaresedata saci'rgof.5Osrnr.
The kridgedeck/ta8
,t tireX'tf#/co#crete.,rdereachfoot aM.
Thi tirecrosssecfioirskowi'rgoir4iMest-rctiira/e/eme,rt-s.
Thetirickiress,r tiremiddle oftire deck 495mm,
87
88
BS 5400: Part4: Clause 7.4.1 doesnot require a modular ratioto beused for concrete
strengths varyingby ION/mm2, and so no account hasbeen taken ofthe difference
between the precast andthe in-situ concrete in the analysis ofthisbridge. The section
properties of the internal longitudinal members are therefore based on a simple
rectangularshape.
The edge members have different properties, due to the geometry ofthe edge detail,
and the presence ofservice ducts under the footpath.
Transverse members have been provided to divide the spaninto eightequal segments
of 1.1 36m. The beams oversail the bearings by 0.605m on thisbridge, so the members
alongthe line ofthe bearings represent a similarwidth ofslabto the members within
the span.
Because the skew of210 is not too large, the transversemembers have been positioned
parallel to the abutments. This leads to a simple grillagelayout, and is reasonably
accurate for small skew angles. Decks with a large skew should be analysed with a
grillageinwhichthe transverse members are at right angles to the longitudinalbeams.
Because of the discontinuous nature of the deck in the transverse direction, it is
normal (and conservative) to assume that the transverse members can be represented
by a solid slabdownto the centre ofthe webholes, which is 175mm above the soffit
ofthe inverted T beams.
= 9.089m
1,016
1.136
Area
= 0,495 1,016
= O,503m2
I =(0.4953l.016)/l2 =0.0103m4
c = (o,4953 1.016)/a = 0.0205m4
ect,on'roeimsoftraitsverse members(rereseirti'rg 1. 136m widthofslab)'
Thici(wess slabassumedfortran'sversemembers isdown'to web irolesof Tbeams,
wir/c.*are0, l7imabovesoffitofbeams.
of
slabtkii'kn'ess = 0.495-0.175
Area
I
C
= 0.320 x, 1,136
= (0.320x 1.136)/12
= (0.320x 1.136)/a
= 0.320 m
= 0.364 m2
= 0.0031 m4
= 0.0062m4
89
90
Note that the depth to the reinforcement is the same as the depthassumed forthe slab
inthe analysis.
Note that Clause 5.3.3.2 also has a requirement for additional longitudinal shear
reinforcement in the tensile zone. Inthiscase, thisonly amounts to 83mm2 per 0.610m
section. This requirement is easily fulfilled by the excess ofbendingreinforcement
provided. Furthermore, the maximum bending andthe maximum shear will not occur
at the same place, so thisrequirement will rarelyactually result in extra reinforcement
beingneeded.
Clearly the concreteand the tensile steel have plenty of capacity to resist the shear
between the beams. The interface between the precast beamsandthe in-situconcrete
also needs to be considered. The shape of the precast beams allows shear to be
transferred by interlocking between the beams andthe in-situ concrete. Additionally,
shear can be assumed to be transferred by dowel action ofthe reinforcement through
the web holes:
f)
verse$agg/ngMoment
Tra
fromthegri//ageana4fs/
max11L transversesagging momentfora 1.136iire/ement
= 101 ,VVm
d = 0.320 m
D'Mto
k =0.610m
= 40 N/mm2
= 460 N/mm
z = 0,95 d = 0.304 m (assumed)
Width ofsectX9n,
Leverarm,
M=(0.87f)A8z
= 446mm2
= 603 mm2)
z =
rovi'ded
Checi(
(i- 1'1f8)d
so cony?mrirgassumptionof .z
(1
1.1X460X0.000603) = 0.961d
40x0.610x0.320
= 0.95 d
Tran'ersehe,r
MamULshear,'ta
fromgri//age,
$hearper0.610msecttn
V = 123(-N= 0.123MN
= (Ol0/l.136,)xO.123 = 0.0660MN
.i'ercentage reiorcement
0.31 %
=112
=
from Tak/e9
1,12x0.50 = 0.56 N/mm'
= 0.56 N/mm'
adeqjate.
91
92
Hogging moments can occur in this bridge deck near the edge beams, if the
edges ofthe deck are loaded, but thereis no loadnear the centre. Note that the
maximum hoggingmomentis muchlower thanthe maximum sagging moment
on the previous page.
A142 mesh will be used in the toppingthroughout the deck. This nominal
reinforcementis used in the topping concrete which is predominantly in
compression. However, at the edges of the deck where hogging occurs, this
reinforcement is not enough, and T6 bars are added.
TraHsve/e
frorn
egnYageaMa4fs/',
x/llirn.'1Logg/Mg
1. 136rn e/ern&#
ofslab
Dek
= 32kA/rn
(a'prox)
= 265rnrn2/rn
TheA142rneskprovidesa
of142 rnrn''/ wirith
hogg4i'gattheedges ofthedeci( Add/t/Haltrailsverse re4fforcerneilt of2s,/en'gths of76bars
at200rnrn ceiltres wiYltltereforebeadded/it thetoppi'igateachsideoft/fedecA
Thta/re4rforcerneittarea
> 265rnrn2/rn
reqjixved
PCA4
01
6 2536161
Fe\OI
I5I48
.1