J Mater Cycles Waste Manag (2009) 11:96103

DOI 10.1007/s10163-008-0231-3

SPECIAL FEATURE: ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Springer 2009

Solid Waste Management in Asia and Pacific Islands 1

Agamuthu Periathamby Fauziah Shahul Hamid

Kahlil Khidzir

Evolution of solid waste management in Malaysia: impacts and implications

of the solid waste bill, 2007

Received: April 28, 2008 / Accepted: November 23, 2008

Abstract Solid waste generation and its implications for

people and the environment are global issues. The complexity of the waste composition and the ever-increasing percapita waste generation is a challenge for waste managers,
particularly in developing countries. Thus, the need to have
a clear policy on waste management and legislation to
realize that policy is imperative. Malaysia is developing
rapidly and problems such as the waste generation associated with development and industrialization are evident.
The Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management Bill,
which was approved in August 2007 after a 10-year delay,
is envisaged to have serious consequences in waste management practices and implementation in Malaysia. This article
explores the main features of this all-encompassing bill and
its impacts on the waste management scenario in Malaysia.
In addition, a comparative evaluation is also discussed to
explore the policies/legislation of selected countries vis-vis the Malaysian bill.
Key words MSW management Developing countries
Malaysia SWPCM Bill

Introduction
The increase in the worlds population has resulted in a
tremendous amount of solid wastes being generated. In
2000, the estimated global waste generation was 318 million
tonnes.1 With an annual increase of approximately 6%,
global solid waste generation is expected to reach about 518
million tonnes in 2008 and 585 million tonnes in 2010.
However, due to the lack of proper data collection, the
actual figures for worldwide waste generation are not available. Data from developed countries are more accessible
due to their well-established policies and proper waste manP. Agamuthu (*) S.H. Fauziah K. Khidzir
Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of
Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Tel. +603-7967-6756; Fax +603-7967-4178
e-mail: agamuthu@um.edu.my

agement systems that make continuous improvement feasible. In contrast, weak enforcement, lack of technology,
and ineffective policy implementation make the management of waste in developing countries inefficient with a very
low possibility of improvement. Various factors contribute
toward the status of waste management in a given country.
Being a rapidly developing country, Malaysia faces similar
problems: technologies and facilities are insufficient to cope
with the ever-increasing rate of waste generation.2 This
article discusses trends and the current waste management
system in Malaysia, presents critical views on the impacts
and implications of the newly approved solid waste Bill
2007, and compares the future waste management scenario
in Malaysia with those of three other Asian countries.

Malaysias waste generation trends

Malaysia, with an area of 329 750 km2, had a population of
approximately 24.8 million in 2007, with a per-capita GDP
of $14 400.3 In Peninsular Malaysia (West Malaysia), the
daily generation of waste escalated from 13 000 tonnes in
1996 to 19 100 tonnes in 2006.4,5 Generation of municipal
solid waste (MSW) in Malaysia has increased more than
91% over the past 10 years, due, in particular, to the rapid
development of urban areas, ruralurban migration,
increase in per-capita income, and the change in consumption patterns brought about by development. The urban
population, which constitutes more than 65% of the total
population, is the main waste generator. Table 1 shows the
trends of waste generation in major urban areas in Peninsular Malaysia from 1970 to 2006.
The MSW generated increased to 6.0 million tonnes in
1998 due to the average per-capita generation of 0.50.8 kg/
day (Fig. 1).6,7 By the year 2000, production of domestic and
commercial waste reached 8.0 million tonnes/year, and onequarter of the total solid waste was generated in the Klang
Valley.8,9
The solid waste generation rate in the 1980s was 0.5 kg/
day, and this had increased to 1.3 kg/day by 2006. The

97
Table 1. Generation of municipal solid waste in major urban areas in Peninsular Malaysia
(19702006)
Urban centre

Solid waste generated (tonnes/day)

Kuala Lumpur
Johor Bharu (Johor)
Ipoh (Perak)
Georgetown (P. Pinang)
Klang (Selangor)
Kuala Terengganu (Terengganu)
Kota Bharu (Kelantan)
Kuantan (Pahang)
Seremban (N. Sembilan)
Melaka
a

1970

1980

1990

2002

2006a

98.9
41.1
22.5
53.4
18.0
8.7
9.1
7.1
13.4
14.4

310.5
99.6
82.7
83.0
65.0
61.8
56.5
45.2
45.1
29.1

586.8
174.8
162.2
137.2
122.8
121.0
102.9
85.3
85.2
46.8

2754
215
208
221
478
137
129.5
174
165
562

3100
242
234
249
538
154
146
196
186
632

Estimated figures

Table 2. Waste composition (percentage of wet weight) in Malaysia from 1975 to 2005
Waste composition

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

Organic
Paper
Plastic
Glass
Metal
Textiles
Wood
Others

63.7
7.0
2.5
2.5
6.4
1.3
6.5
0.9

54.4
8.0
0.4
0.4
2.2
2.2
1.8
0.3

48.3
23.6
9.4
4.0
5.9
NA
NA
8.8

48.4
8.9
3.0
3.0
4.6
NA
NA
32.1

45.7
9.0
3.9
3.9
5.1
2.1
NA
4.3

43.2
23.7
11.2
3.2
4.2
1.5
0.7
12.3

44.8
16.0
15.0
3.0
3.3
2.8
6.7
8.4

NA, not available

per capita generation of

waste (kg/day)

1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

198 5

1 99 5

Year

200 0

2 0 03

20 07

Fig. 1. Increasing trend in per-capita generation of municipal solid

waste from 1985 to 2007

current rate is expected to reach 1.5 kg/day in most cities.10

This increasing trend could be the result of changes in consumption habits as well as the increasing affordability of
consumer goods.
Waste in Malaysia is dominated by organic waste, which
comprises more than 40% of the total waste stream. The
average organic waste content was approximately 50% in
the 1980s and 1990s and mainly consisted of processed
kitchen waste and food waste. Table 2 depicts the composition of waste generated in Malaysia from 1975 to 2005. The
generation of plastic and paper waste was high in 1985 due
to the implementation of the Malaysian Food Regulations
(1985), which recognized the use of various types of plastics
and paper as safe and suitable packaging materials.11 The

trend decreased slightly from 1990 to 1999 due to the economic downturn, but shot up again in 2000 with the introduction of more hygienic types of plastic- and paper-based
packaging materials into the market. This resulted in a
decreasing percentage of organic waste in the MSW stream.
However, in 2007, putrescible waste contributed approximately 46%, followed by paper waste (14%) and plasticbased waste (15%).2,6
Solid waste management programs in Malaysia have
developed in phases. Municipal solid waste management
was quite primitive until the late 1970s. The local district
health offices cleaned only the streets and hauled away
household wastes to municipal disposal sites assigned as
authorized dumping grounds. However, with the rapid
increase in MSW generation, the collection frequency
improved slightly to prevent detrimental health impacts to
the community. At this phase, the waste management
system was still unsatisfactory. In order to increase efficiency further, the government delegated waste management to four private consortia. The privatization of urban
solid waste management in Malaysia was initiated in 1993
with the objective of providing an integrated, effective, efficient, and technologically advanced solid waste management system. It was also expected to resolve the problems
of solid waste management faced by the local authorities
(LAs) such as finance, lack of expertise, illegal dumping,
open burning, and a lack of proper solid waste disposal
sites. However, privatization did not really solve the issues,
but only transferred the problems from LAs to the private
companies.

98
Table 3. Methods of waste disposal in Malaysia10
Treatment

Recycling
Composting
Incineration
Inert landfill
Sanitary landfill
Other disposal sites
Total

Percentage of waste disposed

2002

2006

Target 2020

5.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
5.0
90.0

5.5
1.0
0.0
3.2
30.9
59.4

22.0
8.0
16.8
9.1
44.1
0.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

The steady increase in MSW generation over the years

resulted in government-funded public information campaigns to establish awareness and to create environmental
consciousness among the general public. In 1988, the government introduced the Action Plan for a Beautiful and
Clean (ABC) Malaysia, and recycling campaigns followed
in consecutive years. However, due to minimal responses
from the general public, the campaigns failed, although
environmental awareness and knowledge on waste management among the public did increase slightly. A survey
carried out in 1999 showed that 59% of respondents were
moderately aware with some basic knowledge and were
mildly alert to solid waste issues.12

Current waste generation in Malaysia

Daily MSW generation in Peninsular Malaysia today
exceeds 19 000 tonnes. Approximately 75% of this is collected and disposed off in 130 landfills and dumps.10 An
estimated 20% is burned or dumped into rivers or at illegal
sites, while 5% is recycled. Malaysias main option of waste
disposal has been landfilling, although alternatives have
been explored. Table 3 indicates the current waste management methods in practice since 2002 and it also indicates
the proposed technologies to be used by 2020. The Malaysian government proposes to gradually establish several
MSW incineration plants, simultaneously emphasizing the
3Rs (reduce, reuse, and recycle) in the future, as envisioned
in Part X of the solid waste bill.
The Malaysian government has been debating a solid
waste bill for 10 years but only put forward the bill in 2007.
The Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management
(SWPCM) Bill 2007 is expected to bring major changes and
new challenges in waste management in Malaysia.

waste management from Japan, Denmark, Switzerland,

Germany, and the United States, focused mainly on public
cleanliness management. The main strategies are to implement efficient solid waste treatment, interim treatment, and
final disposal of solid waste. Also integrated in the strategies are the 3R issues, which cover the management and
regulations.13 The Bill includes the management of amenities from roads and toilets to drains, food courts, and grassed
areas by the roadside. The Bill covers the management of
solid waste from commercial centers, public sites, construction sites, households, industrial zones, and institutions, as
well as imported solid wastes.
Main features of the SWPCM Bill
Prior to the implementation of the bill, solid waste management and public cleansing were the responsibility of the
LAs, and were normally subcontracted to smaller waste
management service providers. Having smaller designated
parties to service specified areas resulted in more efficient
management at the early stages of implementation.
However, with the increasing costs of waste management,
the situation resulted with subcontractors not being paid
promptly, leading to drastically reduced efficiency. With the
passing of the Bill, the authority governing solid waste and
public cleansing is shifted from state governments and LAs
to the federal government. The management cost will be
shared between these two former parties. LAs will direct
funds to a federal corporation that directly manages solid
wastes. This avoids the unsustainable system encompassing
subcontractors and unprofessional contractors.
The function of the appointed federal corporation
encompasses every aspect that is deemed necessary to
ensure the implementation and success of an effective and
integrated solid waste management plan. It includes recommending and implementing policies and strategies pertaining to solid waste management services, implementing
improvement measures for existing solid waste management services, enforcing the law, and establishing institutions to undertake research activities. It also covers the
recommendation and implementation of relevant standards,
monitoring of compliance, and promoting participation and
awareness among the public.
Funding

Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management Bill

In order to cope with expenditure in waste management

costs, a fund has been administered. The Solid Waste and
Public Cleansing Management Corporation Fund consists
of:

The 88-page SWPCM Bill had been under review for 10

years before it was approved in August 2007. The Bill is
administered by the Ministry of Housing and local government. The main objective of the Bill is to improve and
ensure high-quality services in solid waste management.
The Bill, adapted from best management practices in solid

The corporations income from investments

allocations provided by the parliament to manage solid
waste and public cleansing
income sourced from property of the corporation
consultancy fees from services provided by the
corporation
interest on money loaned by the corporation

99

profit from the operation of projects

donations and contributions received from any source
other money lawfully obtained by the corporation
other sources.

The finance issues are tackled proactively to ensure that

it will not become a stumbling block toward an effective
waste management system. This is a lesson learned from
failed privatization of the solid waste management systems
from the 1980s to early 2007. The failure was attributed to
the lack of funds and the inability among some of the concessionaires to generate income to cover their expenditure.
The interim agreement with the concessionaires prevented
the companies from expanding investment and obtaining
bank financing.14 It is hoped that the inclusion of the financial section in the Bill will overcome this problem.

Payment
Punitive measures are provided in the Bill to tackle the
problem of consumers who refuse to pay waste disposal
fees. The failure to settle the collection fees will allow the
licensed concessionaire to take the case to the Tribunal for
Solid Waste Management. A fine of up to RM5000
(US$1316) and RM50 (US$13) for each day of the continuation of the offence is proposed. Charges will be imposed
on the owners of facilities, the occupiers of residents,
LAs, or any individual who receives solid waste management services.

Responsibilities of waste generators

The Bill also listed the responsibility of the waste generator
to conduct waste separation in order to promote recycling
and retrieving valuable components from the waste stream.
Under clause 74 of the Bill, it is an offence if a person
fails to separate solid waste generated by the premises. On
conviction for the offence, the person is liable to a fine of
up to RM1000 (US$263). The act defines solid waste as
unwanted material generated by any process that requires
disposal by the act or any written law. The definition
excludes scheduled wastes that are prescribed under the
Environmental Quality Act 1974 (Act 127).15 The term
controlled solid waste, utilized throughout the Bill,
includes waste generated from the commercial and construction sectors, households, industry, institutions, and the
waste import sector. It also covers the waste generated in
public places under the LAs. Therefore, parties involved
in generating these wastes are liable under the approved
Bill.

Enforcement
Enforcement is improved by the enforcement provision
clause in part IX of the SWPCM Bill. According to the
clause, an authorized officer has the right to:

examine, copy, and extract any information pertaining to

the matters covered by the act;
visit, enter, inspect, and examine with or without previous
notice any solid waste management facility;
investigate to ensure proper maintenance and sanitation,
matters related to safety and health; the effects of any
operation or practice; and the presence and accumulation
of noxious gas in any solid waste management facility,
land, or other premises; and
take samples of any material found at solid waste management facilities on land, in water, or in the air.
On failure to comply with the regulations stated in the act,
the convicted solid waste management facility can be
ordered by the court to cease operation.
Stricter regulations are imposed on the licensees that
undertake or provide any solid waste management services.
Among others, the act requires the licensees to comply with
all provisions under the act and the condition of the license,
including assigning, sublicensing, or transferring of the
granted license. Noncompliance will result in suspension or
revocation of the license. This regulation will prevent problems of illegal subcontracting of services by unethical
licensees.
The authorized officers are also empowered to stop,
search, and seize vehicles suspected of carrying anything
prohibited by the regulations to curb the increasing rate of
illegal dumping faced by the LAs. A stricter penalty can be
imposed on a person who is convicted of this offence, which
includes a fine of up to RM10 000 (US$2632), up to 6 months
imprisonment, or both. For continued offences, the offender
is liable to a fine of up to RM1000 (US$263) for every day
or a part of a day during which the offence continues after
conviction.
The 3Rs: reduce, reuse, and recycle
The implementation and enforcement of the 3Rs are also
listed in the Bill under Part X, in which solid waste generators are required to reduce the generation of solid waste; to
use environmentally friendly materials; to limit the generation, import, use, discharge, and disposal of specified products; to implement coding and labeling on products to
promote recycling; and to utilize any method to reduce the
adverse impacts of MSW on the environment, i.e., to reduce,
reuse, and recycle MSW. Although waste minimization is
emphasized in the Bill, the techniques to reduce waste generation are not specified and the options are too generalized. Failure to comply will make the offender liable to a
fine of up to RM10 000 (US$2632) or up to 6 months imprisonment, or both.
The Bill also introduced the take-back and depositrefund systems. These apply to the manufacturer, assembler, importer, or dealer and oblige them to take back
specified products for the purpose of recycling or disposal.
The deposit-refund system can be implemented in order to
ensure the efficiency of the take-back system. Failure to
comply can result in a fine of up to RM10 000 (US$2632) or
up to 6 months imprisonment, or both.

Yes34,35
Incineration, recycling, landfills.
Waste minimization is
extensively practiced
3 (1989)34
16.8 (2003)36

Yes21,22
Incineration,19 recycling, landfills.
Waste minimization is extensively
practiced
48.0 (2004)23
49.0 (2005)23
51.0 (2006)23
Increasing recycling rates are
positive indicators of successful
education campaigns
Yes. Encouraged by conveniently
located waste separation bins

Yes
Landfills, recycling

5.0 (2002)
5.5 (2006)

Yes. Noncompliance will result

in fines

There are laws encouraging

this but exact program
schematics have yet to be
announced

3R issues addressed
Options used in solid
waste treatment

Rate of recycling
(stated % of total
solid waste
generated)

Waste separation
practiced?

Encourage producer/
manufacturers
responsibility?

Yes manufacturers take back

recyclable material from
consumers18

Several government units are tasked with

incorporating waste management
education in the school syllabus and
addressing the public43:
a. Departments of Education and
Environmental and Natural Resources
b. Technical Education and Skills
Development Authority
c. Commission on Higher Education
d. Department of Interior and Local
Governments
Yes43,44
Landfills, recycling

Existing. Japan is working toward

becoming a Sound Material
Cycle Society and education
plays an important role33

a. Minimization of solid wastes

(implemented in 2006)
b. Recycling awareness programs
(implemented in 2001)20
Culminating in zero landfill and
zero waste generated campaign19

None are planned for now

Japan is working toward becoming

a Sound Material Cycle Society
and industrial waste generators
are required to recycle and be
responsible for their wastes37

Yes

Yes

Yes32

Yes

Distinction between
various types of solid
wastes
Education campaigns

200042
National Solid Waste Management
Commission (NSWMC)42

197030
Ministry of Environment31

March 2009
Solid Waste Management
Corporation

10.7 (2001)40
10.0 (2003)41
Ecological Solid Waste Management Act
(Republic Act 9003)42

52.4 (2000)28
54.9 (2001)29
Waste Treatment and Public
Cleansing Law24

2.5 (2001)17
5.2 (2006)18
a. Environmental Pollution Control
Act, Cap. 94A19
b. Environmental Public Health
Act, Cap. 95A19
c. Hazardous Waste (Control of
Export, Import and Transit) Act,
Cap. 122A19
Various dates
Ministry of the Environment and
Water Resources and the
National Environmental Agency
of Singapore19
Yes

6.0 (1998)
8.0 (2000)
Solid Waste Management and
Public Cleansing
Management Bill

Segregation at source and segregation of

household waste is mandated by
law44,45
The National Ecological Center and
waste manufacturers were charged
with recyclable waste reclamation
programs43,44

In Metro Manila only45:

13 (2000)
25 (2003)

330039

33 80027

49 00016

14 400

300 00039
91.039

Philippines

377 835
127.427

27

700
4.516

Japan

329 750
24.8

Singapore
16

Malaysia

Date of implementation
Authority responsible

Size (km )
Population (2007, in
million people)
GDP (2007, in US
dollars)
Solid waste generation
(in million tonnes)
Name of legislation

Table 4. Comparison of solid waste management policies implemented in Asian countries

100

3R, reduce, reuse, and recycle

Effectiveness of waste
management policy

Plight of scavengers
addressed?

Enforcement

Implementation expected in
March 2009

In the form of fines that

compound in value for every
day of the offence
Fines imposed for:
a. Nonauthorized
transportation of solid
wastes
b. Not separating solid wastes
c. Manufacturers not taking
back recyclable wastes
Issuing of licenses will be
controlled.
Officers have right to:
a. Inspect premises without
warning
b. Collect waste samples for
analysis or evidence
Not explicitly addressed but
law prohibiting unauthorized
transportation could affect
scavenging activities

Deterrence options

Outsourcing of
operations?

There will be funds from the

federal and state
governments for managing
the wastes but income is
also expected from project
implementation, investment
profits, rent and
consultations
Possible this aspect has yet
to be finalized

Source of funding

None existing

Only one existing landfill which is

offshore25 and only accessible by
motor vehicle there is no
scavenging, due to effective
waste separation and policy
favoring incineration26
Effective

Effective

Existing

Reliable and efficient enforcement

exists24

In the form of fines24

Waste collection is outsourced2022

Operations of municipal waste

treatment facilities are funded
by the local municipalities. The
construction of these facilities
may subsidize a part of the cost
while the operational cost is the
responsibility of the local
government32
Yes. Recent revisions to legislation
allow more flexibility in
contracting operations38
In the form of fines and penalties,
including remediation costs

Operations are funded by the state

government

Is not explicitly addressed but cannot be

avoided due to the low income levels
of certain groups, especially in urban
areas. There is a law authorizing a
study of the health of waste collectors
and scavengers to be conducted by the
Department of Health43
Hindered by financial/technical
constraints, lack of enforcement,
fragmented/overlapping
responsibilities, poor agency
coordination,48 bureaucracy and
emphasis on infrastructural
development49
December 2007: Philippines Senate
resolved to investigate NSWMC for
failing to develop the Solid Waste
Management Framework50

Local governments can create specific

local ordinances for effective
enforcement.43,44
Qualified individuals and organizations
can be deputized by the NSWMC as
Solid Waste Management Officers.

In the form of fines

Yes

In general, funding is provided by the

federal government46 and endowments
but operations are also funded by fines
collected and proceeds from the
issuance of permits or licenses47

101

102

Under the control of the waste generation clause, unauthorized persons are not allowed to deposit, transport, separate, or store MSW, or to allow the escape of solid waste
from their possession. A fine of between RM10 000
(US$2632) and RM100 000 (US$26 320) or a jail term for up
to 5 years can be imposed on offenders. This clause has
removed the role of scavengers in increasing the rate of
recycling in the country. Positively, this would prevent the
adverse impacts related to the unsanitary conditions faced
by scavengers and curb the theft of materials such as aluminum- and iron-based components that can be sold as
scrap metal.
In general, the Bill is postulated in a manner such that it
should tackle the main issues attributed to inefficient solid
waste management in Malaysia and allow drastic improvement in the current solid waste management system.
However, implementation of the Bill has been postponed
March 2009. It is hoped that improvements in the integrated
waste management system will drive the current Malaysian
scenario to emulate the success stories achieved in Japan,
Singapore, and Denmark.
Table 4 compares the SWPCM with the solid waste management policies of three Asian countries. This shows the
current scenarios in Malaysia, Singapore, Japan, and the
Philippines. In Malaysia, there is no incineration of MSW
except on selected islands, and there is also currently no
waste segregation. Although the solid waste Bill specifically
mentions waste minimization with a recycling target of
22% by 2020, the current rate of recycling in Malaysia is
only 5%.

Conclusion
Generally, the SWPCM has many similar traits to the successful waste management policies of Asian countries
such as Japan and Singapore. However, the SWPCM does
lack two important measures: incentives for waste separation and the pay as you throw approach. The inclusion
of these measures is essential if any integrated waste management strategy is to be successful. Low levels of legislative enforcement and administrative inefficiencies are
important issues that must be avoided. This may be possible because the Malaysian Solid Waste Management
Corporation is a private business that expects to operate
profitably. While the SWPCM is expected to have serious
implications on waste management in Malaysia, it remains
to be seen what kind of changes will evolve in the Malaysian waste management scenario when the Bill is
implemented.

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