RIVIERACADEMICJOURNAL,VOLUME3,NUMBER1,SPRING2007

CONJURING HISTORY: THE MANY INTERPRETATIONS OF

THE SALEM WITCHCRAFT TRIALS
SeanPurdy*
M.A.T.inSocialStudiesProgram,RivierCollege
OnFebruary26,2007,myfatherdied.Deathstoleoneofmylifesinspirations
andheroes.For 33years,heservedourcountryintheU.S.Navy,including
serviceinVietnam.Hegavemehisloveofhistory,whichispartiallyresponsible
formypursuitofaMastersdegreeinSocialStudiesEducationatRivier.Heis
lovedandmissedbeyondthecapacityofwordstodescribe.SeanPurdy

The Salem Witchcraft Trials have cast a spell over historians and nonacademics alike. This episode
invokesimagesofreligiousbigotry,unbridledabuseofpower,discrimination,andpersecutionaswellasthe
perilsofasocietypossessedbyirrationalfears.Yet,theTrialsarefascinatingbecausenooneexplanationof
theeventhaseverbeenuniversallyaccepted.Numeroustheorieshavetriedtoelucidatethecausesofthe
Hysteriafromergotpoisoningtoactualwitchcraft.ThroughoutAmericanhistory,peoplehavesummoned
Salemasawarningagainstactionstheyperceiveasboguswitchhunts.Thenumeroushistorical,social,
and literary interpretations reflect the many dimensions ofthisdrama anddemonstrate that no oneall
compassingexplanationcancontainSalemsspirit.TheWitchcrafttrialsareultimatelyalluringbecausethey
areopentomanyinterpretationsformanypurposes,namelytousethepasttoexplainthepresent.

DuringJanuary1692,severalgirlsinSalemVillagehadhystericalfitsandbegantoexhibitbizarre
behaviorlikebabblingincoherentlyandtryingtofly.SomeoftheafflictedgirlsincludedBettyParris,
9,andAbigailWilliams,11,thedaughterandnieceofthetownsminister,SamuelParris.Afterthis
i
behaviorwentonsporadicallyforamonth,adoctordiagnosedthattheywereunderanevilhand. The
girls werepressuredtodeclarewhowasbewitchingthemandtheyaccusedSarahGoodandSarah
Osborne,bothtownoutcasts,andParrisslave,Tituba.
Allthreewereimprisonedandputontrial,butTitubastrialwasthemostsignificant.Shenotonly
confessedtobeingawitchbutclaimedtherewasacovenofwitchesinSalem.Hadshemerelysaidshe
alonewasawitch,thetrialsmaynothavegoneanyfurther.Hertestimonyaboutawitchcabalensured
hertrialwouldnotbethelast.
Bythistime,othergirlsweresufferingafflictions.OnegirlwasAnnePutnam,Jr.,12,whosefather
wasThomasPutnam,afriendofParris.Shebecameoneoftheleadersinthisgroupofaccusers.1692
Salemwasrentbymanysocialdivisions.Atthistime,SalemconsistedofSalemTown(themodernday
seaportofSalem)andSalemVillage(moderndayDanvers).Thereweresocialtensionsbetweenrural,
conservativeSalemVillageandsophisticated,prosperous,maritimeSalemTown.Inaddition,there
wererivalrieswiththePutnamsandtheParrisononesideandotherfamiliesontheotheroverthelocal
powerstructure.Salemwasapowderkegofjealousy,ambitionandanimosityandtheTrialsignitedit.
The Trials turned another corner with the accusation ofMartha Corey. She was a respectable
memberofthechurchandwhenshewasconvicted,nobodywassafe.Bythistime,thegroupofafflicted
girlsincreasedandshiftedbetweententofifteengirls.InJune,thegovernor,WilliamPhips,established
theCourtofOyerandTerminertohandlethecrisis.FromMarchtoSeptember,theWitchcraftTrials

Copyright2007bySeanPurdy.PublishedbyRivierCollege,withpermission.
ISSN15599388(onlineversion),ISSN15599396(CDROMversion).

SeanPurdy

progressed feverously and spread throughout Essex County. Nineteen people were convicted and
ii
executed,onepersonwastorturedtodeathduringquestioningand140peoplewereimprisoned.
Onecontroversialaspectthatpoweredthetrialswastheuseofspectralevidence.Puritansbelieved
thatwitchescouldprojecttheirspiritorspectertoharmpeople.Inthisway,witchescouldharmother
peoplewithoutphysicallymovingorhavingwitnessesseethewitchesactuallyinflictthetorture.Ifone
oftheafflictedgirlsclaimedadefendantwasusingherspectertoattackher,particularlyduringthe
trial,thisclaimwastreatedaslegitimateevidence.AleadingministerintheColony,CottonMather,had
authorizedtheuseofspectralevidencebutadvisedcautioninitsuse.Thiscautionwasgenerallyignored
andspectralevidencedenigratedthelegitimacyoftheTrialsintheeyesofmanyboththenandnow.
AbacklashagainstthetrialsgainedsufficientstrengthbyOctober.Inaddition,thegirlshadbegun
accusing leading ladies in the colony including the governors wife. Phips stopped further
imprisonmentsandfinallydissolvedtheCourtofOyerandTerminerinlateOctober.Althoughsome
trialswouldlimpalongforseveralmonthsdeterminingthefateofthosealreadyimprisoned,mostwere
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foundinnocent.SamuelParriswasforcedoutofSalemVillagein1697. Thatsameyear,Samuel
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SewallbecametheonlyjudgetoapologizeforhisroleintheTrials. Alsoin1697,ReverendJohn
Hale,aparticipantandenthusiasticsupporteroftheTrialsuntilhiswifewasaccused,wroteAModest
Enquiry intotheNatureofWitchcraft,whichwaspartapology,partdefense.Publishedin1702,two
yearsafterhisdeath,hewrotesuchwasthedarknessofthedaythatwewalkedinthecloudsand
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couldnotseeourway. AnnPutnam,Jr.,madeapublicconfessionin1706forheractionsandsaidthe
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wholeincidentwasagreatdelusionofSatan.
Thebattleofhistoricalinterpretationsbegannotlongafterthehangingropesstoppedswinging.
CottonMather,whohadplayedanimportantroleintheTrials,publishedahistoricalaccountin1693
calledWondersoftheInvisibleWorld,followedyearslaterbyotherwritings.DuringtheHysteria,he
hadwaffleduneasilybetweenstrongsupportforthetrialsandattemptingtoreinintheirexcesses.Once
thetrialssubsided,hisversionoftheeventsoughttoaccommodatehisuneasinessaboutthetrials
atrocitiesandhisbeliefinandoppositiontowitchcraft.HedeterminedthatNativeAmericansorcery
was the root cause. He, like many Puritans, believed the Native Americans were devilworshiping
sorcerers.ThesesorcerershadcastaspellonSalemsothecolonistswouldattackoneanotherinsteadof
theNativeAmericans.
His version was immediately attacked by Robert Calef, a Salem merchant with ties to the
persecuted,inhisbookMoreWondersoftheInvisibleWorld.CalefdemonizedMatherandclaimedthe
wholeepisodewasafraud.CalefclaimedthatSamuelParrishadbeatTitubainordertocoerceherinto
afalseconfession.Parrisdidthissoheandhisassociatescouldreasserttheirwaningpowerinthe
village.WhenTitubalaterrecantedherconfession,Calefclaimed,Parrisrefusedtopaythejailfeesthat
werenecessaryforherrelease.CalefalsocriticizedMatherforhisroleinensuringtheexecutionofhis
rival,MinisterGeorgeBurroughs.Athisexecution,Burroughshadaddressedthegatheredcrowdand
saidtheLordsPrayer,somethingawitchwassupposedtobeunabletodo.Matherintervenedandtold
thewaveringaudiencethateventhedevilcouldpretendtobeanangeloflight,therebyguaranteeing
Burroughsdeath.Foryearsafterward,CalefandMatherconductedaheatedexchangethatreflectednot
onlyclassdifferences,butalsoawarforinterpretation.
Fromthattimeforward,partisansofbothinterpretationstooksidesandaddedtheirownviewsand
embellishments. Most explanations can be categorized this way: Supernatural, SocioPolitical and
Natural/Scientific. Atthe core of all of these explanations are the following three questions: What
causedthehystericalfitsofthegirls?WhydidSalemsocietyreactthewayitdid?Whoisultimatelyto
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blame,i.e.,whoisthescapegoat?Thelastquestionisimportantbecausetheissueofascapegoatrecurs
throughoutthenarrative.
Mathers supernatural explanation reflected his preEnlightenment, Puritan mindset that was
obsessedwithsuperstitionsandwitchcraft.AsthePuritaninfluencewanedinMassachusettsinthe
1700s,sodidsocietysbeliefsinwitchcraft.Thomas Hutchinsons1765 TheHistoryofColonyof
MassachusettsBay dispensedwithMatherssuperstitionsandacceptedCalefsinterpretationoffraud
andconspiracy.OtherwritersbegantofocusonsociopoliticalcausesoftheHysteria.In1834,George
BancroftsTheHistoryoftheUnitedStatesofAmericawasthefirstaccounttocallattentiontotheclass
strifeinSalemandultimatelyblamedafew,keyleaders.
CharlesUphams1867 SalemWitchcraft alsohighlightedtheclassandpoliticalstrifeaswell.
Upham,aministerfromSalem,dealtwithnotonlyrivalriesbetweenSalemTownandSalemVillagebut
theintenserivalriesbetweenfamilies.UphamsaccountwasthefirsttohighlightandembellishTitubas
roleinthedrama.AlthoughtherewereonlypassingreferencestoTitubasallegedmagicintheoriginal
documents, Upham put her at the center of the storm. The popular image of Tituba performing
witchcraftwiththeafflictedgirlsandtellingthemscarystoriescomesfromhisaccount.Uphambelieved
TitubasactionsmadethegirlshystericalandthattheParrisPutnamfactionsexploitedthegirlstostrike
attheirrivals.Overacenturyandmanysimilarversionslater,PaulBoyerandStephenNissenbaums
Salem Possessed: The Social Origins of Witchcraft placed the trials as a battle between rural,
conservativeSalemVillageandcosmopolitan,prosperous,maritimeSalemTown.
MaryBethNortonsIntheDevilsSnaretookadifferentapproachbyidentifyingtheIndianwar,
KingWilliamsWar(16891697),astheprimaryandoverlookedcause.Thoughotherauthorsbefore
herhadcitedthewarasoneofmanycauses,Nortonwasthefirsttoclaimitwastheprimarycause.She
mentionedthatthegovernmentheadedbyWilliamPhipshadexperiencedmanydisastersinthiswarand
thatthereweremanyrefugeesfromthiswarinSalem.Nortonattributedtheafflictedgirlsbehaviorto
psychological explanations such as fear and post traumatic stress because some of the girls had
experienced Indian attacks. The Hysteria outbreak in Salem servedas an epiphany to the colonys
leadersthatthedevilwasresponsiblefortheirdefeats.Nortondoesnotclaimthatthegovernment
deliberatelyconspiredtouseSalemtocoverupitsdisasters.ShestatesthattheWitchcrafttrialsgavethe
governmentascapegoatandanexplanationthatmadesense:Thedevilwastoblame.
th

Manyauthorsinthe20 centuryhavesoughtscientificandpsychologicalreasonsfortheepisode.
JohnPutnamDemos EntertainingSatan:WitchcraftandtheCultureofEarlyNewEngland sawthe
trials as psychological reaction to generational tensions between teenagers and adults. Most of the
accuserswereteenagegirlsandmostoftheaccusedwereolderwomen.DemosperceivedtheHysteria
asateenageattackonadultauthority.
ChadwickHansensWitchcraftatSalemwasoneofthefewacademiceffortstoexonerateCotton
Matherbyusingmodernpsychology.HansenstatedthatactualwitchcraftwastakingplaceinSalem.
Forevidenceforwitchcraftinthevillage,hecitedBridgetBishops pseudovoodoodolls andthe
witchcakeMarySibleyclaimedTitubamade.Thoughtheseexamplesmayseemasinnocuousto
modernpeopleascallingapsychichotline,Hansenremindedhisreadersthatin1692,thisbehaviorwas
acapitalcrime.Moreover,thepractitionersbelieveditwasreal.CottonMather,inHansensview,was
merely advocating a crack down on crime. Hansen went on to identify the girls fits as mental
breakdowns.Thegirlswereterrifiedbothbythefrequent,highlydescriptivesermonsagainstwitchcraft
andthewitchcrafttheywitnessedinthevillage.Itwouldbeanalogoustoachildhearingasermonabout
theperilsoflyingandthenhavingabreakdownathomewhentheywitnesstheirparentscheatingon
theirtaxes.
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Otherwritersoffermedicalexplanationssuchasergotpoisoningandencephalitis.In1976,Linnda
R.Carporaelpostulatedthatergot,afungusthatgrowsonbread,hadcausedthegirlsstrangebehavior.
Whenconsumed,ergotcreatedLSDtypehallucinations.Thishasbecomeapopularexplanationandis
theoneofferedtovisitorsoftheWitchHistoryMuseuminSalemtoday.However,otherscientistshave
dismissedthistheory.Thegirlsshowednoothersignsofpoisoningsuchasdisintegratingfingertips.
Also, the Puritans diet consisted of dairy and seafood products that would have counteracted the
vii
poisoning. LaurieWinnCarlsonsAFeverinSalemclaimsencephalitiswasthecause.However,other
viii
scientistshaveexpresseddoubtsaboutthisconclusionafterreviewingCarlsonsdata. Thelimitation
ofboththeoriesistheydonotexplainwhythegirlslookedhealthyduringthetimestheywerenot
experiencingfitsi.e.themajorityofthetime.
Witchcraftconfronts us withideas aboutwomen,withfears aboutwomen,withtheplaceof
womeninsociety,andwithwomenthemselves.Itconfrontsustoowithsystematicviolenceagainst
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women. TheSalemTrialsandtheplaceofwitchcraftinWesternHistorygenerallyaresaturatedwith
theissueofgender.ThroughoutWesternhistory,themajorityofpeopleexecutedforwitchcrafthave
beenwomenwhilemostoftheaccusersandallofthejudgeshavebeenmen.Westernsocieties,suchas
theMassachusettsPuritans,werepatriarchalcommunitieswheremencontrolledallaspectsofwomens
lives. Fathers and husbands dominated their women and if women had neither living fathers nor
husbands,theyweresubordinatedtosonsorbrothers.
Feministhistoriansthereforehaveinterpretedallwitchtrialsgenerallyasanothersocialattribute
designed to clamp down on womens independence. Often, convicted witches are seen as strong,
independentwomenwhodaredtodemonstrateintellectualoreconomicparitywithmen.Thesewomen
areparticularlyvulnerableiftheybehaveinwaysthecommunityfindsshocking.BridgetBishop,who
wasexecutedforwitchcraftduringthe1692Trials,ranatavern,worearedbodice(redwasconsidered
thecolorofpassionatthetime)andwassaidtoactseductivelytowardsmeninthetown.Another
general,witchtrialfacetistheaccusationofsocialoutcasts.InSalem,thefirstthreewitchesaccused,
SarahGood,SarahOsborne,andTituba,weresocialoutcasts.
ThatPuritanMassachusettswasatypicalpatriarchalsocietymakesitaneasytargetforfeminist
criticism.Inaddition,the Puritans had specific religious attitudes towards womenthatmodern day
womenwouldfindappalling.ThoughthePuritansbelievedwomenequallyworthyofsalvation,they
believedwomenwereespeciallyvulnerabletotheDevilstemptations.TheimageofEveintheGarden
ofEdenwasfrequentlyinvokedinPuritansermons.BecauseEvegaveintotheserpentspersuasionto
defyGod,shewasresponsibleformankindsfallenposition.Furthermore,womensinherentsexuality
madethemaliabilitytothePuritans.ThePuritansbelievedwomenatheartwerewontonsexualbeings
whocouldleadmenastray.BecausetheDevilencouragedsuchsexuality,theDevilcouldusethis
weaknesstogaincontroloverwomenandtherebymen.Theimageofthewitchinmanysocietieshas
eitherbeenagrizzledcroneoranenchantinglybeautifulseductress.Puritansfearedthelatter.Inthis
way,iftheDevilwasseekingtodestroyPuritansociety,womenwerethemostvulnerableareaof
defense.
CarolF.KarlsensTheDevilintheShapeofaWomanexaminedthedemographicpatternsofall
witchtrialsincolonialNewEngland.Shediscoveredthatthemajorityoftheaccusedwerewomenand
mostovertheageofforty.Womenoverfortygenerallymadeuptwothirdsoftheaccusedwitchesand
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almostallofthewomenexecuted. AlthoughtheSalemHysteriasawanincreaseinthenumberof
xi
womenunderfortyaccused,onlyoneoftheexecuted,SarahGood,wasunderforty. Karlsenattributed
thispatterntoseveralfeatures.Womenoverfortywerepasttheirchildbearingandchildrearingyears
andweremorelikelytobecarereceiversthancaregivers.Becausethesewomenwerenotengagedin
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the primary function of Puritan women, child rearing, their lack of function made them suspect.
Moreover,theyfitintothepreconceivednotionofawitchasahagandweremoreindangerbecause
oftheirsimilaritytothestereotype.
The Salem Witchcraft Trials, however, featured two aspects that were abnormal in witchcraft
persecutions.One,asignificantnumberoftheTrialsvictimsweremenandsecond,alloftheaccusers
werewomen.SixofthetwentypeoplewhodiedduringtheTrialsweremen.Karlsensdemographic
studynotedthatSalemdidnotfitthenormalwitchtrialpattern.InNonOutbreakcases,namelycases
whereonlyasmallgroupofwitchesisaccused,onlyaboutoneinsixoftheaccused,oneinsixteenof
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theconvictedandoneintwelveoftheexecutedaremen. InSalem1692,menwerealmostonefourth
xiii
of the accused, onesixth of the convicted and almost a third of the death toll. Although in the
xiv
minorityofthoseaccused,almostallmenconvictedofwitchcraftwereexecuted.
AlloftheaccusersintheSalemWitchcrafttrialswerewomenandmostwerebetweentheagesof
nineandtwenty.Thisisindirectcontrasttopasttrialswheremostoftheaccusersweremen.Teenage
girlswereoneofmostpowerlessgroupsinPuritansociety.Theyhadlesspowerthanadultwomenand
almost all facets of their lives were controlled by someone else. Their opportunities in life were
restrictedtomotherhoodandmarriage.Yet,duringtheSalemWitchTrials,agroupofteenagegirls
becamethecenterofsocietysattentionandliterallywieldedthepoweroverlifeanddeath.Theywere
instantcelebrities.TheywerenotonlyabletostrikeoutagainstsocialoutcastslikeSarahOsborneand
otherchildrenlikefiveyearoldDorcasGood(daughterofSarahGood),whowereoutsideoftheir
friendgroup,butalsoagainstotherwomeninthecommunity.
Somehistorians,whobelievetheHysteriawasadeliberateconspiracy,depictthegirlsaspuppets
oftheirparents.OthersbelievethegirlsweremerelyreactingtoSalemsrivalries.BettyParris,for
example,wasprobablywellawareofherfathersdifficultieswithsomeofthetownsresidents.Itis
possibleshewasactingwithoutanydirectinfluencefromherfather.Sheandtheotherafflictedgirls
mayhaveconsciouslyorunconsciouslybeenattackingthosepeopletheysawasattackingtheirfamilies.
OtherhistoriansbelievetherewasagenerationalconflictattherootoftheHysteria.
JohnDemosEntertainingSatan,likeKarlsen,calledattentiontothefactthatmostoftheteenage
accuserstargetswereadultwomen.Hestatedthatthegirlsactionswereateenagerebellion,aresponse
towhatissometimescalledmothersuffocation.Thegirls wereactingoutsubconsciouslyagainst
socialrepressionand directed their attacks onwhatthey perceivedas its source, mothers.Because
mothersweremoreinvolvedinchildrearingthanmen,itispossiblethatthegirlsblamedtheirsituation
ontheirmothers.
In an article written twelve years earlier called Underlying Themes in the Witchcraft of
SeventeenthCenturyNewEngland.,Demosnotedthatmanyofthespectralattackswereoralin
naturesuchasbitingandsucking.This,hepostulated,mayhaveaconnectiontomotherhoodandbreast
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feeding. Also,hehighlightedthatboththegirlsfitsandtheiraccusationswererootedinaggression.
Theirfitsweresymbolicofattacksdirectedatthem.Ontheconsciouslevel,theyfeltthattheywere
tormentedbywitches.Onthesubconsciouslevel,thewitches wereasymbolfortheattacksthata
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repressive society made on them. Also, girls used their accusations as a channel for their own
aggressions.Theywereaggressivetowardsasocietythatwasoppressingthem.Thesegirlsmayhave
xvii
justifiedtheiractionsbythinking,Wearenotattackingthem.Theyareattackingus! Lastly,the
reasonwhyboyswerelesslikelytofightmaternalauthorityinthiswaymayhavebeenrelatedtothe
xviii
factthatboyschorestookthemoutsideofthehomeandtherebyloosenedmaternalcontrol.
Otherhistorians,suchasMaryRyan,haveacceptedonlypartofDemostheory.Theydifferinthat
theybelievethegirlswerenotrebellingagainsttheirmothersbutratheragainsttheconceptof
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xix

motherhood.MotherhoodembodiedthesuffocatingpositiongirlswererelegatedtoinPuritansociety.
Thisepisodethereforewasasubconsciousrejectionofafutureandanadultrolethattheydidnotwant.
JohnHales1702accountoftheTrials,AModestEnquiryintotheNatureofWitchcraft,mayhave
inadvertentlyhituponanotherpossibleexplanation.Hisaccountmentionedthatseveraloftheaccusers
participatedinanEnglishfolkmagicritualthattriedtoforeseethefutureoccupationoftheirhusband.
Whentheritualrevealedtheshapeofacoffin,thegirlshystericalfitsbegan.Thisaccountmaybe
questionablebecausepartoftheintentionofAModestEnquiryisanexhortationagainstsuchfortune
tellingandcitingit,asoneofthecausesoftheHysteria,isonewayofdiscouragingotherdivination
activitiesinthefuture.However,whatisnoteworthyinHalesaccountiswhatitsaysabouttheanxiety
impedingmarriagemighthavecausedthegirls.
FindingahusbandandbearingchildrenwerewomenstwomostimportantrolesinPuritansociety.
Failureatoneorbothwasconsideredatremendousblow.Moreover,Salemin1692wasatownin
transition.Notonlywasthereachangeintheeconomicandreligiousnatureofthecolonyasembodied
intheSalemVillageandSalemTowndynamicmentionedearlier.SalemVillagewaspoorin1692and
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thepossibilityofcouplesfindinglandandraisingafamilywasdecreasing. Thegirlsmayhavefaced
spinsterhoodorrelocationtothedangerousfrontierwiththeirhusbandsaspossiblefutures.Inthisway,
fearofthefuturemayhaveplayedaroleintheepisode.
TheSalemWitchTrialsmayhaveanexplanationthatisinterwovenwithgenderandpsychological
issues.Thefitsmayhavebeenaguiltresponsetoparticipationinfortunetelling.Or,asMaryBeth
Nortondescribed,thefitswerearesultoffearandposttraumaticexperiencescausedbyanIndianwar.
Socialandgenerationaltensionsmaybetherootcause.Or,maybefearandanxietyabouttheirfuture
prospects might have given the girls a mental breakdown. Any number or possibly all of these
ingredientsmayhavecreatedthelethalbrewoftheSalemWitchHysteria.
Titubabringstheissueofraceintothetrials.Shehadthreecharacteristicsthatmadehervulnerable
inPuritanNewEngland:Shewasawoman,ofadifferentraceandanoutsideri.e.notfromthetownof
Salem.ShehasrunthegamutfrombeingthecauseoftheTrialswithherscarystoriestothescapegoat
forthesinsofthecommunity.Shehasalsobecomeasymbolofdifferentthingsfordifferentpeople.For
theblackcommunityinparticular,sheembodiestheirsufferingthroughoutAmericanhistory.Though
blackpeoplehavesufferedsincethefirstslaveshiplandedin1619,Titubaistheoneofthefirstnames
andidentitiesthatmaterializesoutofthatdark,anonymousmassoftorment.Yet,likemuchofthe
Salem story, the historical record is limited and tendency to speculate, romanticize, or intrude the
presentonthepastisstrong.
Herraceitselfispossiblythemostcontentiousbattleground.Symbolsandimagesarepowerfuland
peoplenaturallywishtopossessthem.AlloftheSalemdocumentsrefertoherasanIndian.Sheisat
varioustimesreferredtoasTitubaIndianorTituba,anIndianwoman.Thisdescriptionofherrace
wouldgounamendedforoveracenturyandahalf.
RenownedpoetandwriterHenryWordsworthLongfellowwasthefirsttogiveTitubaanAfrican,
albeitpartially,lineage.Hisplay GilesCoreyofSalemFarms wouldhaveadominoeffectonboth
historiansandwriters.ThoughLongfellowintroducesTitubaasanIndianwoman,inAct1,Scene3,he
revealshermotherwasNativeAmericanbutherfatherwasamanallblackandfierceHewasanObi
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man,andtaught(her)magic. Itisnotentirelyclearwhyhedidthis.Itwasartisticlicensetobesure.
Perhaps,hefeltthatObi,whichisanAfrican/AfricanAmericanformofmagic,hadanexoticquality
thatwouldalluretheaudience.Whateverthereason,thatshiftinpopularimagewouldhavemoreofa
publicimpactthantheplayitself.
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The play itself was not very popular. But, the revised perception of Tituba took flight in the
imaginationsofthepublicandhistorians.In1876,whilerevisinghisAmericanhistorybook,Bancroft
changedTitubasidentityfromIndian(whichithadbeeninallpreviousversions)tohalfIndian,half
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Negro .OtherhistoriansfromSamuelEliotMorrisontoMarionStarkleycontinuedthemixedrace
personaintheirbooks.TheliteraryworldaswellseizeduponthisversionofTituba,WilliamCarlos
WilliamsTitubasChildrenbeingoneexample.
TheliteraryworldagainshiftedheridentitywithArthurMillersTheCrucible.Millermadehera
Negroslave.Hedidthatfortwodramaticreasons.One,MillersTitubaisavoodoopriestesstherefore
theaudienceexpectsablackwoman.Playingtoapreexistingnotioniseasierthancreatinganewone.
Onlyablack,voodoopriestessiscredible.But,herracealsofitsintohisgoaloftheplay,namely
th
demonizingMcCarthyismbywayofthe17 centuryclergy.TheSalemministersandjudgesareeasy
standins for the McCarthy hearings that were challenging Miller and his friends. During Titubas
confessionscene,sheisbadgeredbyaministeruntilshebreaksandconfessestotheiraccusations.
Millers symbolism is obvious. The clergy started their rise to power by subjugating the weakest
segmentofsociety.Thejoyousprayersofthanksgivingatherconfession(whichinspirestheothergirls
tobegintheirwildaccusations)thereforebecomecelebrationsofvictoryintheirrisetopower.As
xxiii
ChadwickHansendescribedit,TitubabecomesanAuntJemimastyletoolforMiller.
Onceagain,thisliteracyshiftinidentityhadarippleeffect.HistorianJohnDemosaslateas1970
hasherasaNegro.Thereisnoapparentreasonwhy.NovelistAnnPetryhasablackTitubaasthemain
characterofthejuvenilebook,TitubaofSalemVillage.BecauseTheCrucibleismostpeoplesframeof
referencefortheTrials,thepublicperceptionisthatofablackTituba.So,iftheevolutionofherracial
designationisclear,whyistheissuestillsocontentious?
TheanswerdependsuponwhetheroneisfightingforthehistoricalpersonnamedTitubaorthe
powerfulsymbol.Salemsabilitytoinvokestrongemotionsmakesitnearlyimpossibletotreatthestory
or its attributes with detachment. Unlike, say, the HamiltonBurr duel, the battle for historical
interpretation goes hand in hand with the possession and usage of symbolism. Even the most
unemotionalhistoriancouldfaceaccusationsoftheirownwhileattemptingtoexplaintheaccusationsof
1692.Studyingthe1692hysteriacouldbringahysteriaofitsowndownupontheheadofascholar.
Such a scholar would receive perhaps an immediate understanding of Bridget Bishop whose
unconventionalworldviewclashedwithherneighbors.But,forthepurposesofthisstudy,theanalytical
startingpointwillbethehistoricalrecord.
TitubaenteredthehistoricalstageinBarbados.Thatfactisdisputedbynoone.Theearliestrecord
xxiv
ofhermaybea1676slavedeed.ThisdeedreferstoagirlnamedTattuba. Notonlywasitan
uncommonnamebutgiventhenumerousvariationsofspellingwordsinthiseragenerally,thereisa
strongpossiblythatthisisthesamegirl.Likewise,thereisnodisputethatReverendParrispurchased
herinBarbadosandbroughthertoSalem.But,argumentsbeginfromthere.
ElaineG.Breslaws Tituba,ReluctantWitchofSalem:DevilishIndiansandPuritanFantasies
takesthepositionthatTitubawasanIndian.Circumstantialevidenceindicatesthatshewasfromthe
coastofSouthAmericaandwasbroughttoBarbadostoworkasaplantationslave.TheBarbadianslave
populationatthetimewasamixtureofAfricanandNativeAmericanswiththeAfricanportiononthe
rise.Breslawstatesthatthesetwopeoplesnaturallybrushedupagainsteachotherculturallyandfrom
thatexchange,TitubacouldhavelearnedAfricanfolklorethoughnotnecessarilyAfricanmagic.
EveryonewhoknewTitubacalledheranIndian.Everydocumentatthetimereferencedheras
such.TherewerebothblackandIndianslavesinSalem.Contemporariesdiddifferentiatebetweenthe
tworacesindocuments.But,werethosedescriptionsaccurate?TheproblackTitubacamparguesno.
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They argue that Salem residents either did not perceive a dual racial identity or that their racial
classificationsarenotasstrictasourown.Obviouslydeterminingaracebysomeoneslookscanbe
inaccurate.Thisisparticularlytrueifapersonslineageismultiracial.Shemighthavelookedlikean
IndianbutthePuritansmightnothaveknownandprobablywouldnothavecaredifshewasofmixed
blood. In addition, this line of argument believes that Puritans were not precise in their racial
classificationeither.BlacksandIndiansweretheotherandthesetermscouldbeusedasacatchall
termdevoidofallexclusivity.TheDevilwasatvarioustimesdescribedasanIndianoranAfrican.
Perhaps,thesamelooseidentificationpertainedtopeople.
Thisdebateshedsasmuchlightuponourcurrentattitudesonraceasitdoesabout1692.Whatare
thequalificationstobeintheblackrace?Thoughscientistsexplainthatracedoesnotreallyexistona
DNAlevel,thesimplefactisthatmostpeoplebelieveitdoesinsomedegree.So,howmuchblack
lineage makes a person black? In the Jim Crow South, one drop of black blood made you black.
Ironically,therearemanyontheoppositesideofthepoliticalspectrumthattakethatviewaswell.Halle
BerryacceptedherOscarasavictoryforblackwomenthoughshehasonewhiteparent.GolferTiger
Woodsislionizedbytheblackcommunitydespitehismixedancestry.IntheCaribbean,thereexistsa
wholesocialstructurewithwhitesontop,peopleofcolor(withsomewhiteandblacklineage)beneath
them and fullblooded blacks below them. The Spanish Colonial Empire in Latin America had an
elaborateclassificationsystemforpeoplebasedoneveryconceivablelineage.IfTitubahadablack
parent,doesthatmakeherblackorsomethingelse?Thereisnooneagreeduponanswer.
Inhistory,legitimatedocumentationistheultimatejudge.TherecordssayshewasafullIndian.
Wecannotknowatthistimeiftheymadeamistakebecausetheywerenotraciallyprecise.Nordowe
knowifperhapstheywereprivytosomeinformationtheydidnotchoosetorecord.Titubamighthave
toldthemshewasanIndian(andhavingexperiencedslaveryintheBarbados,sheknewtheobvious
differencesbetweentheraces).NativeAmericansclearlysawthevisualdifferencesbetweenthetwo
racesthoughitisdebatablewhatthedifferencesmeanttothem.AndifTitubatoldsomeoneherlineage,
givenhowlittlegenerallyiswrittenaboutthislowestofsociallevels,itisnotunlikelythatnobody
thought it noteworthy to write down Titubas revelation. Were it not forthe Trials, Titubas scant
documentaryexistencemighthavebeenrelegatedtoslavedeedsandpassingmentionasParrisslave,
therebynotevenearningherahistoricalfootnote.
Therefore,throughthehistoricalrecord,1692SalemsawherasanIndian.Ifmodernpeoplefeel
otherwise,theburdenofproofisonthem.WhileitmaybetemptingtoturnthetablesandsayProve
thatshewasntblack!,thatistheweakestofallhistoricalarguments.Thehistoricalrecordsayswhatit
saysanditisuptootherstoproveotherwise.Somemayclaimthattherecordisoflimitedaccuracy
because it reflects the biases and failings (however one defines them) of the authors. While
acknowledgingsuchbiasesaswellasthecontext,inwhichanydocumentiswritten,isimportantinany
historicalstudy,itbecomesdangeroustodisqualifydocumentssimplybecausetheywerewrittenby
imperfecthumanbeings.Suchdisqualificationspracticallyinvalidatehistoryitself,whichwoulddefeat
thewholepurposeoftheexercise,whichisprovingtheaccuracyofahistoricalfact,namelyTitubas
heritage. Such invalidation would descend into a relativistic morass where reality is only what the
individualperceivesit.Ifthatisonesinclination,thenhistoryisthelastplaceoneshouldvisit.
Somehavepointedtohernameasevidence.TitubaisaYorubaname.TheYorubaareagroupof
peoplelivinginmoderndayNigeriaandmanyofthemwereenslavedintheslavetrade.TitiinYoruba
xxv
meansendlessorneverendingandfrequentlyoccursinfemalenames. Itisalsoaverbrootthat
xxvi
signifiesapologizeoratone. However,namescanbedeceiving.Afterall,manyslaveownersgave
8

THEMANYINTERPRETATIONSOFTHESALEMWITCHCRAFTTRIALS

theirslavesRomannameslikeJupiterandCicero.ThisdidnotmakethemRoman.MalcolmXsCeltic
firstnamedoesnotmakehimaScottishHighlander.
AnothertheorycontendsTitubasmarriagetoJohnIndianmighthaveconfusedthematter.P.C.
Hoffer,authorof TheDevilsDisciples:MakersoftheSalemWitchcraftTrials andoneoftheonly
majorscholarstoclaimTitubasAfricanheritage,holdsthattheory.HestatesthatTitubaacquiredthe
lastnameIndianuponmarriageandthatinfluencedhowthePuritanssawher.However,thoughthey
referredtoherasTitubaIndian,theyalsodesignatedhersometimesasTituba,anIndianwoman.
Hofferstheoryisthereforeconjecture,intriguingbutyetunproven.Suchspeculationhasthesame
possibilityastheMaybethePuritansknewshewasanIndianforreasonstheyneverwrotedown
theorydescribedearlier.
So, if the historical record says otherwise, why did the shifts in her identity take root in the
historical and popular perception? Chadwick Hansen argues the answer is racism, both open and
subconscious.Longfellow,asfarascanbedetermined,shiftedherracetomakehermoreexoticand
thereforeappealingtotheaudience.Whatisartisticlicenseafterallotherthanatoolanartistusesto
placetheirstamponastoryorartwork?Artisticlicenseisaboutthestorytellerandhowtheymakeit
work for their purposes, rather than the story itself. But, Longfellows device obviously struck
somethinginthepublicconsciousness.
TitubaisoneofTheOtherthemethatrunsthroughoutthestory.Sheisanoutsiderbothracially
and geographically. The concept of The Other in Sociology explains that for reasons of self
identification,peopleandsocietieswillpointtoadifferentgroupofpeopleinordertodifferentiatethe
two.Theotherisdifferentfromyou.Theythinkanddothingsdifferently,theyhavedifferentgoalsand
agendas,andhavedifferentloyalties.Theyaresomeonetobefeared,hated,lookeddownupon,orat
leastviewedsuspiciously.Whendealingwiththem,ifyouhaveto,youmustattackthem,denigrate
them, defend against them and any of their thoughts and viewpoints that might threaten your
community.Attheveryleast,youmustbeeternallysuspiciousandonyourguardagainstthem.
Tituba,therefore,bothin1692andinlaterinterpretationsbecomesthebringerofevil.Shebrings
blackmagicintothecommunityforreasonsofdisruptionandcontamination.DespitelivinginPuritan
societyandexperiencingChristianity,sheisunassimilated(beggingthequestionifassimilationiseven
possible).She,asBernardRosenthaldescribedher,becomesaDarkEve,someonewhobringsdiscord
intoacommunitythathadimagineditstheocracy,itsCityonaHillasatypeofGardenofEden.Even
scholarswhohavenosympathywitheitherthePuritansorracists,mightstillcontendthatTitubacreated
thiswholeepisodethroughheractionsandstories.
But,whatistheconnectionbetweenherraceandherroleasdisrupterandcontaminator?Ifboth
IndiansandAfricanswereconsidereddangerous,whyshouldaracialdesignationmatteriftheyare
interchangeable evils? The answer is time changes what people fear. In the colonial era, Native
Americansscaredthepeoplemore.InthePuritanmindset,theIndianswereDevilWorshiperswho
wantedtopreventthePuritansfromestablishingGodsKingdomintheNewWorld.Toothercolonists
throughouttheBritishcolonies,IndianswerethealliesofthehatedFrenchandSpanish.Theywere
oftendescribedastawnyserpentsandwolvesasiftheywerejustanunpleasantfaunathatneededtobe
exterminated.ThoughNativeAmericansstoppedposingamajorthreattoNewEnglandaftertheendof
theSevenYearsWar(TheFrenchandIndianWar,asitwascalledinNorthAmerica)in1763,the
Indian could still be a psychological fear. Even as the Indian Threat was being dealt with on
increasinglyfurtherWesternstages,theimageofthemenacingIndianhadcurrencywithmostpeople.
BytheCivilWar,theIndianpresenceeastoftheMississippiwasextremelymarginal.Mostof
themweregone,wipedout,pushedWestordriventothemarginsofEasternsocietyi.e.nearlyinvisible

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tothebroaderAmericansocietywhilelivinginplaceslikeNantucketorremoteareasofNorthernNew
England.NewEnglandersgenerallyhadnocontactwithIndiansintheirdailylives.Indians,theymight
havethought,werethosepeopleoutWest.AcommonimageusedinAmericanliterature(SuchasJames
FennimoreCoopersLastoftheMohicans)andthoughtisthatofmorningsnowmeltingasthesunrises
in theday.TheIndians weredisappearing likesnow infrontofthesunofAmerican culturaland
technologicalsuperiority.ThiswastheeraofManifestDestinythatclaimAmericasexpansionwasa
Godordainedmission.History,theyargued,hadshownthatbackwardpeoplealwaysevaporatedinthe
faceofadvancedcivilizations.TheimageoftheterrorizingIndianhadlostitspunch.
Blackpeoplewerenotgone.AllthesocialbaggageofTheOtherregardingblackswasaliveand
well.ThisfearamplifiedaftertheCivilWarendedslavery.Ifblackswerescaryasslaves,seeingthem
walkingaroundasfreepeopleandconsciousoftheirrightstofreedomandequalitymusthavebeen
terrifying.ThescaryimageoftheIndianwasout,andthescaryimageoftheblackwasin.
Longfellow inadvertently tripped this landmine in American Victorian psychology. Just
LongfellowsTitubasmixedheritagewouldhavebothhorrifiedanddisgustedmostwhiteAmericans.
Race mixing was a taboo and in some places, illegal. A mixed race person would have been a
contamination or an abomination, an infectious disease or a freak, depending upon an individuals
viewpoint.Suchapersonwassuitableforahalfdevilsorcerer.
ApersonwithanEnglishdegreewhoistrainedtolookforsymbolismanddeepermessagesin
literatureistemptedtoreadintothespecificracialmixtureofLongfellowscharacter.HerIndianmother
isherfeminine,weakersideandthereforewouldsymbolizetheweakerstrengthofthemenacingIndian
image.Herallblackandfiercefatherishermasculine,strongerside,reflectingthestrongerimageof
thescaryblack.Thisofcourseisspeculationandinterpretation.Literature,unlikehistory,isabout
imaginarythingsandisnotreliantonfacts.So,suchaninterpretationisatleastthoughtprovoking.
ThemixedraceTitubabecamethedominantimageinspiteofthehistory.Onceshebecausea
stereotype,shereceivedallofastereotypesattributes.Becauseshehadbeenaccusedofpracticing
hoodoo(voodoo),shereceivedalltheexpectedattributesofavoodoopriestess.WilliamCarlos
WilliamsplaygaveherdownhomecornponelinessuchMaybeIfeedittodedawgandHegoing
xxvii
towhupmehard.
MarionStarkeysbookdescribesherashalfsavageanddoingheavierchores
xxviii
butnot,onegathers,withenergy.
Titubaprefersidlingwiththelittlegirlsandisatonepoint
xxix
calledthetremblingblackwoman.
Tothispoint,ChadwickHansen,inhisarticleTheMetamorphosisofTitubaorWhyAmerican
IntellectualsCantTellanIndianWitchfromaNegro.,arguesthathistoriansandothershavebecome
knowingly or unknowingly racists.An openracist would point to Tituba as a parable against race
mixingandasademonstrationofthehavocblackswillwreakonwhitesociety.Othersareplayingalong
unknowinglyoutofignorance.Hansenstatesthathistoriansanddramatistsaffecteachothermorethan
theywouldliketoadmit.Onceanimageisinapersonsmind,theymaycontinuetoreinforcethat
stereotype.IfyourimageofTitubaisablack,youmaytakethatimageforgrantedwithoutbotheringto
researchyourignorance.Ifyouhavereadsomethingoverandoverinahistorybookandthatimagehas
beenreinforcedinpopularculture,wouldyounecessarymaketheefforttoseeifthatimageisaccurate?
ArthurMiller,likeLongfellow,trippedapsychologicalminewhenheshiftedherraceagain.Miller
didnotmakeherblackbecausehewasracist.Hetookartisticlicensetomakehisstorydowhathe
wantedittodo.Heplayedtotheaudiencespsychologytodotheworkforhim.Theaudienceexpected
ablackvoodoopriestsohegavethemone.Theaudienceexpectedaslavetobeblack.Millerwantedher
to be the first to break because she represented how the weakest in society are always the first
victimized.Blacksinthe1950s(asinallpreviousAmericanhistory)werethelowestrungsothatis
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wheretheaudienceexpectedtofindablackpersonincolonialtime.Afreeblackperson,whichwas
historicallypossible,wassimplyinconceivabletoMillers1950saudience.SheispresentedasanAunt
Jemimaclichinspeechandactionsbecausethatiswhattheaudienceexpected.(Laterincarnationsof
Titubainotherliteratureandmovieshaveherasayoung,sexywomannotonlybecausethatisamore
appealingandtitillatingbutbecausetheywanttoextendhervictimizationintothesexualrealm.There
willbeadiscussionlateronthistheme.).ShecrumblesjustlikethetremblingwomanfoundinStarkeys
version.
But,theallblackincarnationcameatatimewhenAmericansocietywaschangingitsoutlook
slowly.ThenewTitubafitintohowAmericawasstartingtoalteritsviewsonhistoryandracerelations.
Inadvertently,Millersversionplayedintoapopularmisconception.ThemajorityofAmericansare
ignorantoftheextentofIndianslaveryinColonialhistory.YousayslavetoAmericansandtheypicture
ablackperson.
But,theimageofablackTitubatakesflightforotherreasons.
th
The19 centuryAmericanshaveenormouslyshapedthemodernimpressionofPuritansandtheir
society.TheseVictorianerapeople,nostrangerstosexualrepression,socialconformityorgenderand
racialdiscrimination,projectedtheirattitudesonthePuritans.Contrarytopopularopinions,thePuritans
thoughtsexwasnormalandhealthyalbeitwithintheboundsofmarriage,thoughsomeformsofpre
marital sexwere condoned. These Victorians inserted their RomanticEra fascination of magic and
witchcraftintothestorybyoveremphasingorfabricatingTitubasroleinthedrama.Moreover,aswill
th
bediscussedlater,theyinterjectedtheirracialfearsintothecharacterofTituba.Mostimportantly,19
centuryAmericanswerepeopleinsearchoftheiridentity.Throughtheirhistory,artandliterature,they
soughttounderstandwhatsetAmericaapartfromEurope.ThePuritanpast,coloredbytheTrials,
becameoneofmanymotifsthroughwhichtheysoughttodiscovermeaningofthemselvesandtheir
past.TheseAmericanslikemanypeoplebeforeandsince,haveusedtheSalemepisodeasaformof
therapytoassuagetheirspiritualdilemmas.
WritersandotherartistswereinevitablydrawntotheSalemtragedy.Salemisapotentbrewof
drama, rich characters,the supernatural, strong emotions like fear and ambition, and larger themes
ranging from sin and guilt to corruption to discrimination. Often, artists presentations become
intertwinedwithhistoryandcloudhistoricalaccuracyandpublicunderstanding.Fortheentertainersand
entertainedalike,theWitchTrialshavebecomeboththerapyandentertainment.
TwoexamplesofSalemastherapyareNathanielHawthorneandMaryseCond.Hawthornes
greatgreatgrandfatherwasJohnHathorne,oneofthewitchjudges.Characteristicallyofmanyfamilies,
theHawthorneswerepossessedbyenormousguiltovertheepisodeandinsertedawintotheirlast
nametodistancethemselvesfromtheirancestor.NathanielsobsessionwiththePuritanpastshows
throughouthiswritings.Hiswritingsbecomeacatharsisforhisownguiltandvehiclestocondemn
Puritansins.InYoungGoodmanBrown,hetellsthetaleofamanguiltyofhyperintrospectionand
hypocrisy.LikeotherPuritans,Brownisobsessedwithhisownsalvationandcompulsivelyseeksout
thesinsofothers.Insodoing,hecreatesahellonearthwhereparanoiaandobsessionkillanypotential
forrealredemptionintheformoflove.IntheHouseoftheSevenGables,Hawthorneusedhisancestor
forthemodelofCol.Pyncheon.
MaryseCondsI,Tituba,BlackWitchofSalemisanotherexampleofawriterusingthestoryina
searchforidentityandtherapy.Cond,ablackwomenfromtheCaribbean,createsaTitubawhoisan
Africansorceressendlesslyvictimizedbywhitesociety.TheSalemepisodeisonlyonestoponaparade
of discrimination and brutality. While practically the entire story and Titubas characterization are
Condsinvention,shelikeArthurMillerdoesnotclaimtobeahistorian.TitubaandIlivedforayear
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ontheclosestofterms.Duringourendlessconversationsshetoldmethingsshehadconfidedtonobody
else,Shesaysintheintroduction.AngelaDavis,whowritesanintroductionofherowninthebook
writes,TherearethosewhodisputeherAfricandescent,counteringthatshewasanIndian,perhaps
hoping to stir up enmity between black and Native American women as we seek to recreate our
xxx
respectivehistories. IwasnotinterestedatallinwhatherreallifecouldhavebeenIreally
inventedTituba.Igaveherachildhood,adolescence,anoldage.Atthesametime,Iwantedtoturnher
xxxi
intoasortoffemalehero, Condsaysinaninterviewattheendofthebook.Condsgoalisto
restoretoTitubaanidentitythatwasstolenbyracist,misogynisthistorians.Inthisway,Titubabecomes
anearlyexampleofaminorityandwomanservingasascapegoatfortheillsofwhitesocietyandvictim
ofdiscriminationandculturalmisunderstanding.Obviously,Condsinterpretationismannaforthose
who feel discrimination in the present but feel their modern self and that of their ancestors was
deliberatelyignored,misrepresentedoroutrightfalsified.Despitethisnovelbeinganakedvehiclefor
theauthorsagendasandtherapy,thisnovelisanimportantreminderofTitubasCaribbeanidentity.
PopculturehasembracedSalemasanAmericanTransylvania,repletewithwitches,ghostsand
hauntedhouses.VisitorstoSalemtodaymightthinkthatthewitcheshavefinallytakenoverthetown.
Thecityaboundswithwitchcraftandoccultstores.ThecityisproudtobeconsideredTheWitchCity
andfeatureswitchesandbroomsticksontheirpolicecars(thoughinrecentyears,thecitygovernment
hasemphasizedothertouristattractionssuchasthePeabodyEssexmuseumorthehistoricwaterfrontin
anattempttoshowthereismoretovisitthecitythanwitches).Witchtourismisaboontothecityand
the lucrative month of Halloween culminates with a MardiGras style Halloween celebration.
HollywoodhasmadeseveralmoviesabouttheTrialsfrom TheCrucible (1996)to2002stelevision
movieTheSalemWitchcraftTrials.OthermovieslikeTheDevonsvilleTerror(1983)andIveBeen
WaitingForYou(1998)takeplaceinSalemliketowns,whosewitchburningpastcomesbackwitha
vengeance.WitchcenteredTVshowslikeBewitchedandCharmedhavemadeobligatorytripsthere.
ThemaincharacteronSabrinatheTeenageWitchevenhasablackcat,namedSalem.
Salemhasnotbeenastrangertopulpfictioneither.Asearlyasthe1820s,titlessuchasTheSalem
BelleandATaleofLoveandWitchcraftin1692predateHarlequinromancesbyacenturyandahalf.
Withunrestrainedimaginationandfragmentsofthehistoricalrecord,evenminorplayerssuchasDorcas
Good can be subjects of conjecture. In the historical record Dorcas was the fiveyear daughter of
accusedwitch,SarahGood.Dorcaswasalsofingeredasawitchandimplicatedhermother.Dorcaswas
chainedtoawallinthefetid,Salemjailforseveralmonthsandsufferedsevere,lifelongmentaldamage.
Fifteenyearslater,herfatherrequestedcompensationfromthestateforherimprisonmentwhichhesaid
xxxii
madeherverychargeable(afinancialburden)andhavinglittleornoreasontogovernherself.
Yet,fromthesemeagerstrands,RoseEarhartwrote TheDiaryofDorcasGood,ChildWitchof
Salem.ThisbookdepictsSalemdrenchedinsexualrepressionwheresexandviolenceareintertwined.
Dorcasisphysicallyandsexuallyabusedbyherfather,prostitutedouttoothermenandshewitnesses
varioussundryactivitiessuchasalesbianaffairbetweentwooftheafflictedgirls.Whilethisbook
obviouslyreflectsthetabloidstyletastesofapossiblydepravedmodernsociety,itisinterestingtonote
that the deviant, unrestrained sexual activities that were once directed at witches by the religious
Puritanshavenowbecomedirectedatthem.
WhileSalemhasalwayshadloveandromantictragedyinsertedintoitbytheliteraryworld,sex
hascomerecentlyintothestorylines.TitubausedtobepresentedaseitheranolderAuntJemimatypeor
anoldcrone.Insomerecentversions,sheisasexy,youngwoman.Herhusband,JohnIndian,isnot
evenmentioned.Hernewsexyimageservestwopurposes.One,ithopestostimulateandtitillatethe
postsexualrevolutionaudience.Second,thisimageallowsthewritertoexpandhervictimizationinto
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thesexualrealm.TheSalemWitchTrialsTVmoviehasherbathinginatubwhenRev.Parriswalks
inonher.Thoughhedoesnotactonit,hislustandshameathistemptation(alljuxtaposedwithafailing
marriage) areimplied tobethe driving forceofthe witchtrials.InConds book,sheis sexually
assaultedtomakesureshewillconfesstowitchcraftsotheParriscabalcantakeoverthetown.
WhatsourcesdidArthurMilleruse?
The mostrenowned, fictional interpretation of the Witchcraft Hysteria is Arthur Millers The
Crucible.Forsomepeople,thisplayistheirfirstintroductiontotheeventsandtheplayshapestheir
perceptionsofboththeTrialsandtheantiCommunistMcCarthyhearingsofthe1950s.Millerwrote
theplayasacriticismofthehearings.McCarthyattackedHollywoodandMillersfriendsbecauseof
theirleftistorCommunistpoliticalviews.Millerimmediatelysawtheparallelsbetweenthetwoevents.
Hesawtwosocietiespossessedbyfearthathadfallenundertheinfluenceofademagogue(Parrisand
McCarthy)thatexploitedthatfearforpoliticalgain.Millersplaydealtwiththeissueofunbridled
governmentauthorityinthecharactersofSamuelParrisandJudgesHathorneandDanforth.
Theplayalsomanufacturedalovetrianglebetweenoneoftheaccusers,AbigailWilliams,and
JohnandElizabethProctor.MillermadeAbigailseventeenyearsoldandJohninhismidthirties,the
sameageasMillerwhenhewrotetheplay.Intruth,JohnwasinhissixtiesatthetimeandAbigailwas
xxxiii
only11.But,Millerhimselfbelievedtherereallywasarelationshipbetweenthetwoinreality.
The
lovetriangleintheplaybearsastrongresemblancetothelovetrianglewithMarilynMonroeinMillers
personallifeatthetime,therebyaddinghimtothelistofpeopleusingSalemastherapy.
NotonlywasMillerguiltyofprojectinghisownunsupportedbeliefsandhispersonallifeintothe
play,butalsoheusedatechniquethatentertainersfrequentlyusewhencreatinghistoricallybased
works.Thepurposeofentertainmentisobviouslyentertainmentnoteducation.Manywritersinvoke
dramaticlicenseinordertomakeahistoricalperiodmorerecognizableandcomprehensibletotheir
audience. The love triangle served two purposes. First, the relationship delegitimized the accusers,
symbolized by Abigail, when he shows them motivated by vengeful jealousy and ambition. Miller
insertedafinalcoupdegraceatAbigailandtherebyotheraccusersattheend.Heinventedalegendthat
hasAbigailbecomingaBostonprostituteafterthetrials,completingtheaudiencesdisdainatthewhole
xxxiv
process.
The love triangle serves a second, more important purpose. It makes Salem 1692 seem more
modernandcomprehensibletotheaudienceandstrengthensMillersallegory.Theplaywasmetwith
mixedreviews.Somepraiseditsmessageandthecourageoftheauthor.Critics,likeEricBentley,
xxxv
derided the allegory as nave and trivializing the very real danger of communism.
Famous
xxxvi
playwright,CliffordOdets,ridiculedtheplayasjustastoryaboutabadmarriage.
However,
Miller scored two, important victories against McCarthy. By modernizing Salem, Miller drew the
connection between these two events for people in the 1950s. Also, Millers play has shaped the
interpretations of both events and their interconnection for subsequent generations. He not only
manipulated how people would perceive those events in the present but also ensured that his
interpretationwouldbethepopularversionofhistoryinthefuture.
The Witchcraft Hysteria has been summoned often as a cautionary tale in American politics.
Inherentinthewarningisthebeliefthatneitherreligionnoranytypeoffanaticismmixwellwith
politics.Churchandstatemustbeseparate.Inthe1800s,criticsoftheMormonsscornedtheMormon
xxxvii
fusionofthechurchandpolitics.
SlaveowningSoutherners,citingthefalsehoodofSalemburning
witches, condemned New Englandbased Abolitionists as another incarnation of Yankee witch
xxxviii
burners.
Inthisway,SouthernersusedthefireimagetolinkAbolitionistzealwithwitchburning
fires.ThisperceptioncaughtonintheNorthaswellandinfluencedhownationalhistorywaswritten.
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th

Because19 CenturyAmericansviewedthePuritansthroughthelensoftheTrials,thePilgrimswere
elevated at this time as the symbolic founding fathers of America. Jamestown, VA was similarly
demotedbecauseofslaveryandbecausepostCivilWar,Northernhistorianswerereluctanttocredit
Southernerswithfoundationofthecountry.
The term witch hunt, thanks to the Salem Hysteria, has an instant recognizable, political
meaning.Tocallaninvestigationawitchhuntistodelegitimizeitandchargeboththeinvestigatorand
accuserwithfraud.TheMcCarthyshearingsfacedthataccusation.Morerecently,PresidentBill
Clintons supporters claimed the various scandals, particularly Monica Lewinsky, were witch
xxxix
hunts.
FirstLadyHillaryClintonevenwentsofarastocallthescandalarightwingconspiracy,
denigratinghisaccusersascabalwithdubiousevidence.(Shehassincealteredhermeaning).Child
abuseinvestigationsarefrequentlycalledwitchhuntsandtherearesimilaritiesbetween
these episodes and 1692 Salem. First, the accusers are children. This aspect raises the question of
whether actualabusetook place, whetherthe child made upthestoryin ordertoget attention, or
whethertheyaremerelytellingadultswhattheywanttohear.TheMcMartincaseinCaliforniain1983
sawreligiousmindedparentsfalselychargingadaycarewithusingtheirchildreninanumberofbizarre
Satanicandsexualrites.WhenMassachusettsGovernorJaneSwiftwaspardoningfiveoftheSalem
witchesonHalloween,2001,shewas criticizedforfailingtopardonasexoffendernamedGerald
Amiraultwhoseconvictionwascontroversial.Onewriterdrewthesimilaritybetweenthiscaseandthe
xl
1692accusations.
Yet,theseanalogiesareonlyasgoodastheirsimilaritiestotheevent.Forexample,JeanPaul
SatresMarxistinterpretationof TheCrucible,wheretherichusethetrialstoexploitthepoor,fails
xli
becauseinrealitythereversehappened. Moreover,tolinkadubiousthreatlike1692witchcraftto
modernterrorist,cannotignoretheunquestionablerealityof9/11.
TheterroristattacksonSeptember11,2001andthesubsequentwaronterrorismintheformofthe
PatriotActhavegivenSalemnewlifeasapoliticalallegory.Both9/11andtheWitchTrialspossess
similarities. Both examples are battles against an invisible enemy that strikes and disappears. The
terroristsabilitytohidewithinAmericansocietyinvokestheimageoftheenemyamongusfueling
distrustoftheothersinAmericansociety,namelyMuslimAmericanswholikeParrisslave,Tituba,
areperceivedasbringingcorruptinginfluences(likereligiousextremism,ironically)toAmericaand
perceivedtobeincapableofassimilation.
The comparison gains strength from both President Bush and former Attorney General John
Ashcroftsverypublic,religiousenthusiasm.Criticsfinditeasytolinkthemwiththereligiousbigots
whodrovetheWitchTrials.Whilepromotinghisproactivismbook, HopeDiesLast,StudsTerkel
xlii
startedaNPRradiointerviewwithaSalembasedrantagainstAshcroft. Terkelsimultaneouslycalled
AshcroftareincarnationofandtheactualSamuelParris.Terkel,withtheusualhistoricalinaccuracyof
peopleinvokingtheTrialsasapropfortheirinterpretations,hadParris/Ashcroftshowingupafterthe
Hysteriastarted,manipulatingsomeoneelseschildrenandterrorizingoldwomen.Mostappallingwas
TerkelsimplicationthatthemoderndayterroristthreatwasasoverblownandimaginaryasSalem.
OnewondershowTerkelcouldmakesuchagallingstatementbecausetheterroristsmurderedthree
thousandpeopleonnationaltelevisionon9/11.
Heisnotalone.NotedjournalistHelenThomascriticizedAshcroftinanarticlecalledAshcroft's
PowerGrowsinTerroristWitchHunt.Otherinvestigationsofpeopleaccusedoffundingterrorismfrom
xliii
withintheU.S.arefrequentlyderidedaswitchhunts. Whilemanyofthecomparisonsareguilty
ofmisrepresentingorfalsifyingthehistoricalrecord,theydemonstratetheflexiblecharacterofthe
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WitchcraftTrialsandtheuseoftheirimagery.TheTrialsareguaranteedalonglifeinthepoliticalrealm
becausetheirinterpretationiseasytomanipulateinordertoservemodernneeds.
xliv
AuthorGailCollinsaccuratelydescribestheWitchTrialsasaRorschachtest. Reflectionson
themrevealasmuchabouttheinterpreteroftheeventsastheeventsthemselves.Salemchallenges
historianstosolveitsmystery.Activists,politicians,andotherpublicfiguresoftenusethehistoryasa
proxy for their own modern agendas and interpretations. Entertainers, writers and the public are
enthralled with the Witch Trials potent brew of drama, intense emotions, heroic martyrs, corrupt
villains,thesupernatural,repressedsexuality,andallthethemestheseingredientsbringwiththem.For
allpeople,theSalemWitchTrialsimageryandemotionwillcontinuetoenchantfortheforeseeable
future.
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16

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_____________________________________
1* SEANPURDYisaGraduateStudentwhoiscompletinghisMATforSocialStudiesandhasaSpanishminor.AtUNH,
heearnedundergraduatedegreesinHistoryandEnglishandaGermanminor.HepublishedanarticleabouttheEnglish
CivilWarintheAugust2000issueofMilitaryHistorymagazine.Besideshistory,helikestoread,travelandspendtime
withfriendsandfamily.ThismanuscriptontheWitchTrialsisimportanttohimfortworeasons.One,heisadescendent
ofanaccusedSalemwitch.Second,heisplanningonexpandingthisarticleintoafulllengthbook.

Notes:
1
Hill,Francesed..TheSalemWitchTrialsReader.Cambridge:DaCapoPress,2000,pg.59.
23 Brown,RichardD.andJackTager. Massachusetts:AConciseHistory.Amherst:UniversityofMassachusettsPress,
2000,pg.50.
Norton,MaryBeth.IntheDevilsSnare.NewYork:VintageBooks,2002,pg.309.

4 Ibid,pg.311.
5
Hill,pg.269.
vi

Putnam,Ann.TheConfessionofAnnPutnam.InTheSalemWitchTrialsReader.Hill,Francesed..Cambridge:Da
CapoPress,2000,pg.108.

7 Gottlieb,Jack.SalemWitchcraft:ErgotismRebuttedScienceNews.Vol.111,Issue1,1/1/77,67.
8 Norton,pg.327.
10
Ibid,pg.6467.
9 Karlsen,CarolF.TheDevilintheShapeofaWomen.NewYork:W.W.Norton&Company,1987,pg.xii.
11
Ibid,pg.65.
12
Ibid,pg.4849.
13
Ibid,pg.51.
14
Ibid,pg.4849.
AmericanHistoricalReview,Vol.75,No.5.(Jun.,1970),1325.
16Ibid,pg.1322.
Ibid,pg.1322.
17
18

19
20
21

Ibid,pg.1319.

Ryan,MaryP.WomanhoodinAmericaFromColonialTimestothePresent.NewYork:Harper&Row,1975,pg.79.

Ryan,pg.81.

Hansen,Chadwick.TheMetamorphosisofTitubaorWhyAmericanIntellectualsCantTellanIndianWitchfrom
aNegro.TheNewEnglandQuarterly,Vol.47,No.1(Mar,1974),pg.6.

17

SeanPurdy

22 Ibid,pg.6.
23 Ibid,pg.11.
24
Hill,pg.302.
Vol.30,No.4(Mar.2000),pg.632.
26 Ibid,pg.632.
27 Hansen,pg.9.
28 Ibid,pg.8.
29 Ibid,pg.8.
30
Conde,Maryse.I,Tituba,BlackWitchofSalem.NewYork:Ballantine,1986,pg.xi.
31 Ibid,201.
32 Hill,Francesed..TheSalemWitchTrialsReader.Cambridge:DaCapoPress,2000,pg.295.
33 Miller,Arthur.WhyIwrotetheCrucible(1996).InTheSalemWitchTrialsReader.FrancesHilled.Cambridge:Da
CapoPress,2000,pg386.

34 Miller,Arthur.TheCrucible.NewYork:PenguinBooks,1952,pg.146.
36
35 Martine,JamesJ.TheCrucible:Politics,PropertyandPretense.NewYork:TwaynePublishers,1993,pg.18.
Ibid,pg.16.
37 Adams,GretchenA.TheSpecterofSaleminAmericanCulture.OAHMagazineofHistory,Vol.17,Issue4,July
38
2003,pg.25.

Ibid,pg.25.

39

Lacayo,Richard.WhereTheRightWentWrong:InbackingStarr'switchhunt,conservativesfellinlovewithBig

Government.Time.Dec28,1998Vol.152,Issue26,107.
xl
Pollitt,Katha.Justice,NotSoSwift.TheNation,March18,2002.Interneton
line:http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20020318&s=pollitt
xli
Miller,Arthur.WhyIwrotetheCrucible(1996).InTheSalemWitchTrialsReader.FrancesHilled.Cambridge:
DaCapoPress,2000,pg389.
xlii
Terkel,Studs.InterviewforHopeDiesLast.NPRinterviewon11/07/03.Interneton
line:http://www.wamu.org/dr/2003/drarc_031103.html#friday
xliii
Nuthall,J.P.ActivistssupportbailforaccusedinIraqcharitycase.DailyOrange:OnlinenewspaperofSyracuse
University.1/16/04.Internetonline:
http://www.dailyorange.com/news/2004/01/16/News/Activists.Support.Bail.For.Accused.In.Iraq.Charity.Case
582066.shtmlxlivCollins,Gail.AmericasWomen:400YearsofDolls,Drudges,HelpmatesandHeroines.NewYork:
HarperCollinsPublishers,2003,pg.35.

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