Chapter9:Pollution

ToxicityandHealth
toxin:substancethatisinhaledorabsorbedanddamageslivingorganism
Toxicity:thedegreetowhichthetoxinisharmfulbiologically
Doseresponseanalysisisusedtotestfortoxicity,exposingorganismstoatoxinatdifferent
concentrations,recordingdosageatwhichdeathoccurs,resultsindoseresponsecurve
LD50:dosageoftoxinittakestokill50%ofthetestanimals
Poisons:haveanLD50of50mgorlessperkgofbodyweight
ED50:thedoseatwhich50%ofthetestorganismsshowanegativeeffect
Thresholddose:thedosageatwhichnegativeeffectsoccur
Acuteeffect:ashortexposuretoahighleveltoxic(ex:snakebite)Chroniceffect:longterm
exposuretolowlevelsoftoxin(ex:leadpaintinthehouse)
Infection:resultofapathogeninvadingourbodyleadstoDisease:changeinthestateofhealth
Typesofpathogens:Viruses,Bacteria,Fungi,Protozoa,Parasiticworms
Pathogens:attackdirectlyorviaacarrierorganism(vector)
Environmentalfactorsincreaserisk:likelihoodyouwillbecomeillafterexposuretoa
toxin/pathogen(riskassessmentandmanagementtoreducerisk)ex:flushot
AirPollution
sourcesfromnaturalreleasesorcreatedbyhumansincreasedwithIndustrialRev.
Primarypollutants:releaseddirectlyintoloweratmosphere(ex:carbonmonoxide)Secondary
pollutants:comboofprimaryinatmosphere(ex:sulfuroxides+watervapor=acidrain)
Stationarysources:factoriesorpowerplantsMovingsources:cars
Pointsourcepollution:specificlocation,likeafactoryorsiteNonpointsourcepollution:
doesnothaveaspecificpointofrelease
EPASixCriteriaPollutants:
Carbonmonoxide(CO):colorlessandodorlessgas,byproductoffossilfuels/cars
Bindstohemoglobinintheblood,higheraffinity
Lead:releasedintoatmosphereasaparticulate,thensettlesonland/waterand
incorporatedintofoodchaincomesfromleadedgasolineorindustrialsmelting
Partofbiomagnification,causesnumerousnervoussystemdisorders
Ozone(O3):onlytroposphericozoneisapollutantlowerintheatmosphereanda
secondarypollutantcausedbynitrogenoxides,heat,sunlight,andVOCspartofsmog
Nitrogendioxide:combinationofatmosphericNandOwithexposuretohightemps
Occursincombustionengines,utilitiesandindustrialcombustion
Secondarypollutant,componentofsmogandacidrain
Sulfurdioxide:colorlessgasreleasedintoairthroughcombustionofcoal,otherfossil
fuels,metalsmeltingisapowerfulrespiratoryirritant
SO2canreactwithwatervaportoformacidprecipitation
Particulates:smallparticlesofsolidorliquidmaterial(ex:sootorsulfateaerosols)
Humansbreathethemin,particlesactasirritants
VOCs:volatileorganiccompounds,releasedasaresultofindustrialprocesses
Reactintheatmospheretoformtroposphericozone,contributetosmog
Smog:twotypesofsmog
Industrialsmog(graysmog):whenCOandCO2arereleasedbyburningofcoalandoil
Carbonoxidescombinew/particulatematterinatmosphere,aidedbyweather

Photochemicalsmog(brownsmog):nitrogenoxides,VOCs,ozonecombineonhot,
sunnydaysduetointensityofthesunlight
Stratosphericozone:absorbsultravioletradiation,UVlightbreaksdownO2,thenO+O2O3
Decliningozonelevelsfromchlorofluorocarbons(CFCs)inpropellants,hairsprays
UVradiationbreaksCFCapartandreleaseschlorineatoms,convertingO3toO2
OzonelossisgreatestinspringaschlorinebreaksdownozoneintoO2,Antarctica
IncreasedUVrayscankillprimaryproducers,decreaseproductivity,andcausehuman
healthissues(skincancers,weakenedimmunesystems,eyecataracts)
MontrealProtocol:callsforendofCFCproduction,reducedby95%
Acidprecipitation:SO2andnitrogenoxidescombinewithwatertoformacids
RainusuallyhaspHofabout5.6,butacidraincanhaveaslowas2.3
Dryacidparticledeposition23daysafteremission,wetdepositionupto14dayslater
Cancauseleachingofmineralsfromsoil,lowerspHofwaterwhichmayleadtofishkills
moreinsoilwithoutcalciumbecausecalciumisanaturalbuffer
CleanAirActreducesSO2andNOxemitted,NationalAmbientAirQualityStandards
CarsmustmeetEPAstandards,includinghavingacatalyticconverter>oxidizesVOCsand
someCOemittedinexhaust
CorporateAverageFuelEconomy:reducesbothfuelconsumptionandemissions,
standardsforthegasmileageofacar
Electricvehicles:newbatterytechnologyforincreasedenergystorageandreducedcost
(ex:NissanLeafandChevroletVolt)
Indoorairpollutantsremaintrappedunlessthereisairexchangeandventilation
Developingcountries:dung,woodandcropwasteusedtoheathomesandcook,leadsto
particulatematterasindoorpollutants
Volatileorganiccompoundsfoundincarpets,furniture,plastic,oils,paints,adhesives
Carbonmonoxideasaresultofgasleaksorpoorgascombustiondevices(detectors)
Tobaccosmoke(carcinogens!)andradonwhichleadstolungcancer(emittedbyuranium
duringradioactivedecay,seepsupthroughrockandentersbuildings)
Moldspores,mites,animaldanderotherlivingorganisms
Sickbuildingsyndrome:occupantsexperiencesymptoms/illnessduetoindoorpollutants,suchas
irritationofeyes/nose/throat,neurologicalsymptoms,skinirritation,nausea
ClimateChange
slow,steadyriseinearthsaveragetemperaturemeasuredbyIPCC
Increaseinanthropogenicgreenhousegasesofcarbondioxide,methane,nitrousoxide
Lessicesheets,risingoceanlevels,changesinprecipitation,moreseverestorms
Increasedcropyieldsoffsetbylossinotherareaswithdroughts,increasedmosquitos/disease
vectors,morefrequentheatspells
Carbonsequestrationandreductionofemissionsfromenginescanhelp
KyotoAccord:attemptedtodecreasecarbondioxideemissions
ThermalPollution
urbanareasareheatislandsduetoheatabsorptionofbuildings/asphalt,andindustrial
anddomesticmachinesthisincreasesratesofphotochemicalreactionsandsmog
Greenspaceshavelowertemperatures,andlightcoloredroofs
Greenroof:fullycoveredwithplants,reducingrainwaterrunoff,cleaningurbanair,and
keepingthebuildingscoolerinthesummers

Temperatureinversion:warmairistrappedoverthecityandstopspollutedairfromrising,often
occursincitiessurroundedbymountains,leadstorespiratoryproblems
WaterPollution
eventuallyresultedintheCleanWaterActintheUnitedStates
Runoffcancarryexcessnutrientsandpollutants,leadingtodeadzones(ex:GulfofMexico)
Warm,nutrientrichwaterleadstoeutrophication(growthofphytoplanktonand
zooplankton),thenbacteriametabolizedissolvedoxygenwhiledecomposingdetritus
Lackofoxygencreatesahypoxiczone
Agricultural,industrial,andminingactivities
Standingbodiesandgroundwaterdonotrecoverwell,lackofwaterflowpreventspollutantsfrom
beingdiluted,andtheyareverycoldandlowindissolvedoxygen
Majorwaterpollutants:
Excessnutrientslikenitrogenorphosphorus
Organicandtoxicwaste
Sediments,whensoilwasheswithrunoffwaterintostreams
Coliformbacteria,whichindicatesthepresenceoffecalmatterinthewater
Infectiousagents,diseasecausingbacteriacancausecholeraortyphoidfever
Waterqualityfactors:
pHofwater
Hardness(concentrationsofcalciumandmagnesium)
Dissolvedoxygen(abilitytosustainlife?temperaturedependent)
Turbiditydensityofsuspendedparticles
BODtherateatwhichoxygenisconsumedinthewaterbybacteria
Wastewater:anywaterthathasbeenusedbyhumanshumansewage,drainedfromshowers,
dishwashers,sinks,etc.(deliveredtomunicipalsewagetreatmentplants)
Municipalsewagetreatmentplants
Physicaltreatment:filteredthroughscreenstoremovedebris
Primarytreatment:settlingtank,wheresuspendedsolidssettleoutassludge(chemically
treatedpolymersmighthelp)
Secondarytreatment:biologicaltreatmenttoremovebiodegradablewaste
Tricklingfilters:aerobicbacteriadigestwasteasitseepsoverrock
Sludgeprocessor:tankfilledwithaerobicbacteria
Solidremainingisconsideredsludge
Furtherprocessedwithanaerobicbacteriatobreakdownevenorganicmaterial
Wastewaterischlorinatedtoremovelivingcells,andisnowcalledgraywater
Tertiarytreatment:passingwaterthroughseriesofsandandcarbonfilters
Privatewastewatertreatmentusesseptictanksystems,dischargesprimary/secondarytreated
waterintoleachate(drain)fields
CleanWaterActprotectssurfacewaters(reducesdirectpollutantdischarges,financeswastewater
treatmentfacilities,protectsfish
OceanDumpingAct:unlawfultodumpsewageintooceanwaters
SafeDrinkingWaterAct:monitorsandincreasessafetyofdrinkingwatersupply
SolidWaste(Garbage)
hazardouswaste,industrial,ormunicipalsolidwaste
Reduce,reuse,recycle

Primaryrecycling:rebuildingtheexactsameproduct(plastic,aluminum)Secondaryrecycling:
newproductsarecreated,usuallylowerquality(oldtiresmakecarpet)
Composting:organicmaterialinsolidwastedecomposesandisreintroducedintosoil
Sanitarylandfills:federallyregulatedtoprotecthealthandenvironment
Linedwithgeomembranesorplasticsheetsreinforcedwithclay
Coveredwithsoiltoreduceinsects,bacteria,rodents,odor
Decomposedmaterialthatpercolatestobottom(leachate)pipedtotop
Oncefull,cappedwithanengineeredcover,monitored,andcaredfor
WastetoEnergyprogram:whenwasteisincineratedinsteadoflandfillsenergyreleasedfrom
incinerationofwasteisusedtogenerateelectricity
HazardousWaste
wastethatposesadangertohumanhealth,frombatteries,cleaners,paints,pesticides
Corrosive(cancorrodemetal),ignitable(easilycatchesfire),reactive(chemicallyunstable),or
toxic(createshealthriskswhenitcomesintocontact)
Howhazardouswastesaredisposedof:
Somelandfillshavedesignatedareasforhazardouswastes
Surfaceimpoundments:usedforliquidwaste,usesshallowlinedpoolsforevaporation
Deepwellinjection:drillingintogroundandporousrockandinjectingwastethere
Nuclearreactorwaste,fromspentnuclearfuel,manufacturingnuclearweapons(transuranic)
Brownfieldsites:alreadycontaminatedbyhazardouswasteorpollutantsSuperfundprogram
LoveCanalnearNiagaraFalls,NYistheexample(SetbyCERCLAtaxes)
ResourceConservationandRecoveryAct:setscriteriaformunicipalsolidwastelandfillsand
dealswithwastefromcradletograve
ToxicSubstancesControlAct:tracksindustrialchemicalscurrentlyproducedintheU.S.
NoisePollution
anynoisethatcausesstressorhaspotentialtodamagehumanhealth
U.S.NoiseControlAct:setsemissionstandardsformajorsourcesofnoiseliketransportation,
machinery,andconstruction
QuietCommunitiesAct:coordinatesfederalresearchandactivitiesintonoisecontrol