Ancient Indian Mathematics and Astronomy

The impression that science started only Europe was deeply embedded in the minds of
educated people all over the world until recently. The alchemists of Arab countries were
occasionally mentioned but there was very little reference to India and China. But thanks to
studies of Indian National science Academy and other learned bodies, it is becoming clear that
India has consistently been a scientific country, right from the ancient to modern times. And it
is now universally acknowledged that much of the mathematical knowledge originated in India
and moved from East to West.
But what is actually meant by the term ancient?
An idea about the about the time span would be very useful in this context, over which period
the scientific knowledge in various streams existed in India.
1. c 3000- c 1300 > Indus Valley Civilisation
2. c 1500bce-c1100bce. > Early Vedic period
3. c1100bce c500bce.> Later Vedic period
4. c400bce - c200 ce .> Jain period
5. c 400ce - c1600 ce. > Classical period
[bce- before common era, ce common era]
Vedas: They are the religious scriptures of the Hindus. They were the truths revealed to the
sages and were orally transmitted through their disciples. Later they were compiled by sage
Krsna Dvaipayana into four divisions :Rg, Sam, Yajur and Atharva.
Each Veda in its turn was divided into four parts:
1. Samhitas contain the Mantras like concise formulas ,in verse forms
2. Brahmanas-contain the explanation of the mantras to be performed during sacrificial
rituals
3. Aranyakas- contains questions about self exploration
4. Upanisadas- knowledge about knowing the Supreme self and the relation between ones
own self and the supreme self.
All the four Vedas were written in Sanskrit.

Mathematics in Vedic period:

Two branches of Mathematics that were found in the Vedic period are Sulva(geometry ) and
Jyotisa( Astronomy).This is because during the Vedic period ,Sacrifice(Jajnas )was the chief
religious avocation of the people .)This they have to do on sacrificial alters (jajnabedikas) of
specific size and shape and also on a specific date of the year and at a specific time of the day.
They believed that any alteration in the size and shape of the alter and time and date of the
sacrifice would nullify the object of the ritual and even might lead to adverse effects.
The term ganita, meaning the science of calculations occurs frequently in Vedic literatures. At
that time, the term ganita included arithmetic, astronomy and algebra.
1. Arithmetic in Vedic period:
Use of large numbers was known: references of numbers up to 10^10 were found in
Yajurveda Samhita.
There were specific names for
(A) Nine numerals:
Eka(1),dvi(2),tri(3), catur(4), panca(5), sat(6), sapta(7), asta(8) and nava(9)

(B) Multiples of ten:

Dasa(10), Vimsati(20), Trimsat(30), Catvarinsat(40), Pancasat(50), Sasti(60),
Saptati(70),
Asiti(80), Navati(90)
12
(C)Powers of ten up to 10
0
1
2
3
4
Eka- 10 , Dasa- 10 , Sata- 10 , Sahasra- 10 Ayuta- 10

106 , Arbuda- 107 , Nyarbuda- 108 ,

9
Samudra- 10

5
Niyuta - 10 , Prayuta-

10
,Madhya- 10 ,

11
Anta- 10

12
Paradha- 10 .

Thus any number can be expressed verbally by the nine word numerals and names indicating
multiples and powers of ten.
The concept of decimal system originated in India. The decimal notation derives its
power from two strokes of genius.
1.The concept of place-value and
2.notion of zero as a number.
The place-value principle assigns to each digit in a number, a certain value, by virtue of its
position in that number. The place at extreme right has a place-value one; the next place has a
value ten, the next hundred, and so on. Thus each place-value is a certain power of 10.
In early layers of Vedic literature, instances of decimal place-value notation appear as sapta
satani vinsatih(720) or sahasrni sata dasa(1110).
The concept of Zero (0) appeared to the Vedic people as the tenth numeral. It was denoted by
the term Sunya which means void.
The journey of Sunya to Zero.
Sunya(Sanskrit)>>>Sifr(Arabic)>>>Cifra(German)>>>Zephirum(Latin)>>>Zero(English)
2.Geometry in the Vedic period:
Sulva Sutra(Aphorisms of the chords):propose constructions of various rectilinear figures and
their different combinations.
The mathematician Budhayanas(8th Century bce) Sulva Sutra contain
a) Famous Sutra : The rope stretched along the length of a rectangle makes an
area which the vertical and horizontal sides make together- concept very much
similar to that of famous theorem that goes by the name Pythagoras
Theorem(c540bce).
b) Examples of Pythagorean triples such as (3,4,5) ,(5,12,13), (8,15,17) and so on.
c) Finding the value of square root of 2.
d) Theorems regarding circling of a square
e) Theorems showing diagonals of a rectangle intersect each other, diagonals of a rhombus
bisect each other at right angles, area of a square formed by joining the middle points of
a square is half its original value, and many others
The other mathematicians Apastamba and Katyayana also gave Sulva Sutras (theorems)
corresponding to Pythagoras in almost identical terms.
So we see that the theorem credited to Pythagoras (c540bce) was known to Vedic people at a
much earlier date.
3.Algebra at Vedic period:
Panini(c520bce -c460bce)the Sanskrit Grammarian whose works include early use of
Booleanlogic and concept of null operator.
Pingala(c300bce-c200bce) the musical theorist, authored Chadas Shasta, a Sanskrit
treatise on prosody. He worked on syllabic combinations which gave rise to the ideas
corresponding to Pascals triangle (1965 ce) which he termed as Meru Prastra.

[It is important to note that the Meru Prastra method is set forth in connection with the
problem of determining the number of combinations of a given number of syllables in which a
short or the long sound in a pada with all the syllables may occur once, twice ,etc up to the
total number of syllables. In the following expositions, a and b represent the short and long
sounds, and 1,2,3 etc the number of syllables. For example, in the case of a metre with four
4
syllables, a pada may contain all the four short sounds( a ),three short sounds and a long(
3

a b ),two short and two long sounds( a b

the for long sounds( b

), one short and three long sounds(a

),or all

).
1
1
1
1
1

1(a) +1(b).
2
2
1( a ) + 2(ab) +1( b ).

1
2
3
4

3
6

1
1
4

(a+ b)1
=

(a+ b)2
(a+ b)3

3
2
2
3
1( a ) +3( a b) +3(a b ) +1( b )

4
3
2 2
3
4
1( a ) + 4( a b)+6( a b ) +4(a b ) +1( b ).

4
=( (a+ b)

Concepts of Binomial co-efficient and Fibonacci numbers(Maatra Meru was his

terminology) was there with him, much before the Pascals triangle with its full implication
for the expansion of a binomial power series.
4.Commerce in Vedic age:
Kautilya (4th century bce) ,author of Arthasastra. His book describes a sophisticated
system of book keeping for income with dates and times,; a ledger for expenditure and a ledger
for balances. There are chapters on auditing, insurance, current vs differed receipts, fixed vs
variable cost. These led to concept of negative numbers.

Jain period:
Jain Mathematicians freed Mathematics from the religious and ritualistic constraints of the Vedic
age. They devised notations for powers and exponents of numbers and so could define simple
algebraic equations.(Beejganita samikaran).Some important workers of that time are:
Bhadrabahu(298bce) :authored astronomical text
Yativrisham Acharya(176bce): worked on mathematical text
Umasvati(150bce):author of philosophy and metaphysical texts.

The classical age

Mathematics in this period broadened into various branches. Some stalwarts in mathematics of
this era are:
Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, BhaskaraI, Mahavira, Bhaskara II, Madhava,
Shridhar, Nilakanta, Aryabhata II, Manjula, Narayana, Bhattahari.
Their contributions in mathematics spread to Asia, Middle East and Europe.

Some texts of the classical age

Surya Siddhanta(c400ce), authorship unknown, contain roots of modern trigonometry.
Aryabhatiya written by Ayarbhata(476-550)ce. Here fundamental principles of Mathematics
are written in 332 shlokas which contains:
Quadratic equations and its solutions
Simultaneous equations and their solutions
Value of pi, correct to 4 decimal places
Definition of sine (jya), cosine(Kojya), and versions (utkrama jya)
Tables of sine, cosine and versions values, in 3.75 degree intervals from 0 to 90 degrees, up to
4 decimal place accuracy.
Spherical trigonometry
Accurate calculations of astronomical constants
Pancha Siddhanta by Varahamihira(505-587)ce. Here the author studied
Sine and cosine tables up to 4 decimal places accuracy
Coined the following formulas of Trigonometry
(Sinx)^2 +(cosx)^2 =1
(1- Cos2x)/2=(sinx)^2
Brahma Sphuta Siddhanta by Brahmagupta (628ce)
Here two fields of Mathematics Algebra and Arithmetic are treated which later
emerged into two fields Bija-Ganitaa and Pati-Ganita. His works include:
Area of cyclic quadrilateral
Area of rational triangle
Solution of quadratic equations
Finding integral solution of equation, which was later named after Pell.
[Example: Find integers such that X^2 -92y^2=1.
The solution provided by Brahmagupta was x=1151 & y=120.]
Bhaskara I(600-680, Virasen(8th century), Mahavira Acharya (800-870), Shridhar
Acharya(870-930), Manjula(10th century) are some of the important Mathematicians who
made substantial contributions in the field of Mathematics from 6 th through 10th century. The
most significant contribution was made by
Bhaskara II (1114-1185)ce, whose contributions in the field of mathematics as well as
astronomy is equally notable .His contributions were transmitted to Middle and Europe. He
made many important contributions in the following fields:
Interest calculations
Arithmetic and Geometric Progression
Plane Geometry
Solid Geometry
Indeterminate Cubic and quartile equation
Indeterminate higher order polynomials
He also
Gave a proof for division by zero yields infinity
Recognised that positive numbers have two square roots
Gave a proof of the Pythagoras theorem
Conceived differential equation
Stated Rolles theorem ,a special case of mean value theorem
Computed value of pi, correct to 5decimal places
Calculated the length of Earths revolution around the Sun to 9 decimal places
Developed spherical geometry

Developed trigonometric formulas

sin(a+b)= sina cosb+cosa sinb
sin(a-b)=sina cosb-cosa sinb

Astronomy in ancient India

Astronomy in the Vedic age(c1500bce-c500bce.
Oldest available treatise on Astronomy is Vedanga jyotisa(c 1300bce) by sage Lagadha.
The extant text is dated to the final centuries BCE
Vedanga Jyotisa is one of the six auxiliary disciplines whose knowledge helped in
understanding the 4 Vedas.(They are Siksha, Kalpa, Jyotisa, Chanda, Vyakarana and
Nirukta.)
Notion of twenty seven constellations, twelve signs of Zodiac, Solar and Lunar Eclipses were
known and dealed with in that treatise .
Truths of Astronomy found in other Vedas:
In Rg-Veda there are references for axial rotation and heliocentric revolution of the Earth.
Aiteriya Brahmana,Chandogya Upanisadaand Visnu Puran have shlokas which mean
In reality,the Sun never rises nor sets
Skanda Puran states that the Earth is revolving like a bhramarika or a spinning top. The
concept of precession movement was also there and was known as Ayan chalan.
A revered name in ancient Indian Astronomy is Vrddha Garg.He is frequently referred to in the
post Vedic treatise and in the epic Mahabharata.
Astronomy in the classical age (400ce-1600ce)
Some noted astronomers:
1.Aryabhata(5th century ce) : pioneer in modern concepts of astronomy. His work
Aryabhatiyam influenced Indian Astronomy and Mathematics for more that 1000 years.
He was a meticulous observer and experimenter. His record of many astronomical constants
are still in good agreement with the modern calculations.
Some of his highlights:
1. Principle of Axial rotation of Earth.He explained thus the apparent westward motion of the
stars.
2. Correct observation of difference between duration of solar day and sidereal day
[Solar day is the time taken by sun to go round the earth once relative to a terrestrial observer.
i.e. time interval between two successive sunrises. Sidereal day is the time taken by earth to
rotate round its own axis once]
3. Accurate estimate of sidereal day:
Results/Principles
Authors and/or Text
Adaption/Rediscovery in
Europe
Area of a square of
Stated in Sulbasutras of
Pythagoras(500bce)
diagonal of a rectangle is
Baudhayana, Apastamba,
equal to the sum of the
Katyayana
areas on the horizontal and (800bce)
vertical side
To draw a square equal in
Known to the authors of Taittariya
Euclid(300bce)
area to a given rectangle
Samhita(3000bce)and Satapatha
Brahmana(2000bce)
Decimal system(place
value and zero)
Stated by Medhatithi in Yajurveda
Concept of powers of10
Mentioned by Pingala & Panini

Zero
Decimal notation
Binary Representation
Meru Prstara/Pascals
Triangle
Algebraic formula for
combinations
Fundamental Arithmetic
operations; fractions, rule
of three, commercial
arithmetic
Basic principles of Algebra;
symbols, variables and
operations
Zero as integer, defined as
a-a=0
Negative numbers; rules of
operations
ax0=0,(-a)x(+b)=-ab etc
Formation and clearance of
equations; solution of
quadratic equation; A P
Series, G P Series
Indeterminate
(Diophantine)Eqns
Ax-by=c (to be solved in
integers
Kuttaka(pulverization
principle)
Geometry of cyclic
quadrilaterals; formula for
area, diagonals,
circumradius
Principle of axial rotation of
earth

Anonymous; well known by the time

of Aryabhata(500ce)
Pingala(3rd century
bce),Halayudha(10th -11th
century
Mahavira(850ce)

Advocated by
Fibonacci(1202ce)
Leibniz(17th century ce)

Awareness reflected in
Sulvasutras(800bce)Arthasastra
(321bce);well established before
Aryabhata(500ce)
Systematic exposition by
Brahmagupta(628ce)

15th-16th centuries
(transmitted through Arabs)

Systematic exposition by
Brahmagupta(628ce)

Newton(17th century)

P Herigone(1634)ascal(16
ce)

Viete and others~1600ce

Aryabhata(500ce),Brahmagupta
(628ce),
Sridharacarya(7500ce)
Sulvasutras(800bce)
Aryabhata(500ce)

Diophantus(250ce)
Bachet(1621ce0
Fermats descent(17th
century)

Brahmagupta(628ce),
Paramesvara(15th century)

Ptolemy(150ce),Snell(161
Huler(1782),Fibonacci(12
,
Viete(1580),Bachet(1621
Copernicus(1543),Galileo
10)
Newton: Theoretical(1687

Rg Veda, Skanda Purana,

Aryabhata(500ce)

his estimate:23hrs 56 mins 4.1secs.

current value:23hrs 56 mins 4.091secs.
4. Accurate estimate of sidereal solar year:
His value : 365.25868days
Current value: 365.25636days
5. Introduction of Samskara(reform) :culture of revising data from fresh observations.
6. Conceived Gola-yantra-a spherical apparatus representing the celestial sphere. He
prescribed the construction of the sphere. It was designed to rotate uniformly at the rate of
Earths rotation.
7. Observation of the fact that the cause of shinning of the moon is the reflected sunlight.
2. Brahmagupta(598-668)ce: author of BrahmasphutaSiddhanta,which was translated
into Arabic in around 771ce and has a major impact on Islamic Mathematics and Astronomy.
His highlights:
Reinforced aryabhatas idea of anther day beginning at midnight.
Gave correct equations for computations of eclipse taking care of the parallax
He theorised that all bodies with mass are attracted to the Earth.

3. Varahamihira(505ce):compiled five of the earlier astronomical texts of ancient India called

Siddhantas (established theories) as Pancasiddhantika. Among this, Surya Siddhanta is
still a popular text among traditional astronomers, especially for computations of calendars.
4.Bhaskara I(629ce): composed Mahabhaskariya, Laghubhaskariya and
Aryabhatiyabhashya. The last one is a commentary on Aryabhatiya.
5.Vatesvara(880ce):author of Vatasvarasiddhanta
6.Lalla(8th century): author of Sisyadhivrddhida-which corrects several assumptions of
Aryabhata.Here planetary motion calculations along with graphical representation are given
7.Bhaskara II: authored Siddhantasiromoni(1114ce).he headed the observatory at Ujjain
where planetary movements were observed

Important Landmarks of Science in ancient India

SOME ASTRONOMER-MATHMATECIAN AND THEIR MAJOR TEXTS
Author
Baudhayana
Apastamba
Katyayana

Texts
Sulba-Sutra

Date
800bce

Remarks
Oldest extant
mathematics text

Lagadha

Vedanga -Jyotisa

1300bce(original
)
500bce(present)

Oldest extant
astronomy text

Ayrabhata

Ayarbhatiya
500ce
Aryasiddhanta

Varahamihira
(born 505ce)

Pancasiddhantika
Brhatsamhita

Bhaskara I

Mahabhaskariya
Laghubhaskariya
Aryabhatiyabhasya
Brahmasphutasidd
hana

Brahmagupta

6th century ce

6268ce
655ce

Khandakhadyaka
Sridharacarya Patiganita

750ce

Lalla

768ce

Sisyadhivrddhida,
Patiganita,

Mahavira
Prthudakasva

ganitasarasanigrah
a
Commentary on

850ce
860ce

First astronomy
text with a
chapter on
mathematics
lost
Compilations of
five earlier
siddhanta
texts(with
refinements)
Important
commentary on
Aryabhatiya
Astronomy text
containing a
separate chapter
on Algebra

Astronomy test
based on
Aryabhatiya
lost
Text on
arithmetic
Endorsed

min

Brahmasphutasidd
hana

Gobindasvam
in
Vatesvara
Manjula
AryabhataII
Bhaskara II

Govindakrti

860ce

Vatesvarasiddhanta
Laghumanasam
Mahasiddhanta
Siddhantasiromoni,
including
Lilavati&Bijaganita
GanitaKaumudi
Bijaganitavarisa
Venvaroha

880ce
932ce
950ce
1150ce

Tantrasamamgraha
Aryabhatiyabhasya
Yuktibhasa

1500ce

Narayana
Pandita
Madhavacary
a
Nilakanta
Jyesthadeva

Aryabhatas
principle of axial
rotation
lost

1356ce
14th century

Original lost, but

profusely quoted
by later authors

16th century

For History of mathematics

Author unknown

Bhaksali
Manuscript

Uncertain dates,
Probably 3rd -4th
century ce
Original-c400ce;
Present 6th-12th
century

Anonymous

Surya
Siddhanta

Medhatithi

Pingalacarya

Vajasaneyi
Samhita
(sukla
Yajurveda)
Chandas sutra

3rd century bce

Kautilya

Arthasastra

4thcenturybce

Panini

A treatise of
Sanskrit
grammar

Text on algebra,
arithmetic &
mensuration
Popular text on
astronomy
Earliest extant
exposition of
powers of 10
Mention and use
of zero; Binary
arithmetic;
Pascal s triangle
Accounting and
commercial
arithmetic
Boolean logic

Architecture,shipbuilding,internationaltrade,miningand agriculture in Ancient

India
Introduction
The people of ancient India were well versed with what we today call Architecture,
Engineering and Technology.The proof of such knowledge can be seen in:
1 Remains of Mohenjo-daro,,Harappa
2 Literature sources like KautilyasArthasastraand many more
3 Religious monuments like Buddhist Stupas, Lingarajtemple

4 Historical monuments like Ajanta & Ellora, Taj Mahal etc

Indus Valley Civilization (3000-1300) bce
oThis was the Bronze age. The remains of this era have been unearthed at Mohenja-daroand
Harappa-now in Pakistan, Lothal-in Gujrat, Kaliabaganin Rajasthan. Highlights of the then
cities were:
1 Wide paved roads varying from 10m to 5.5m; alignment either north to South or east
to west, crossing each other at right angles.
2 Houses were made from well burnt bricks of different sizes. Most had more than one
floor. They had mastered the technique of load distribution. A typical house included a
central courtyard, 4-5 living rooms, a paved bath and due provisions for sanitary
amenities -a sewer pipe protected by brick ran beneath the floor into the public drains
in the street.
3 Use of pulley wheel for drawing water from the wells was known
4 Well defined system of weights and measurements were in vogue. Graduated scales
made of shell, bronze and ivory have been found. Tera-cotta plumb bobs and
instruments for measuring angles of 45,90 & 180 degrees have also been excavated.
Indus Valley Civilization) II
Impressive structures include:
1 Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro: The dimensions of the Great Bath is about
54mx33m,with a swimming pool measuring 12m x 7m and verandahs on all sides. On
each side the pool is a raised platform and flight of steps. The pool was lined with
bricks after proper damp proofing treatment.
2 Great Granary at Harappa: The Great Granary consisted blocks of parallel walls
2.7m wide and 15.9 m long, divided by a passage 7 m broad. The total measurement
was 51.5m x 41m
3 Marine architecture In Lothal: Defense mechanism against floods -the town was
raised on mud bricks and thick mud walls reinforced with burnt bricks. Dock with a
wharf 260m long and a warehouses of floor area 1,930m2. The dock was built off the
main stream to avoid silting and flooding. Ships would enter the dock at high tide and
there was a mechanism to float the ships at low tide. The inner walls were vertical so
that cargo could be loaded and unloaded directly. The warehouse was adjacent to the
dock and stood on a 4m high platform. There were 64 blocks of mud-brick, each block
3.6m2 and 1m high, interspersed with 1m wide passages to allow ventilation and easy
access to goods
Literary sources
oThe Vedic people were mainly pastoral. Still there were references of private houses mainly
constructed of wood. The houses were spacious with arrangement for water supply. References
of forts and detailed descriptions of chariots with names of its different parts were also found.
oIn the post Vedic period, references of towns and cities (janapadas) are found. Around 7th
century bce, important janapadaslike Ayodha, Varanasi, Ujjaini, Vaishalietcflourished.
oKautilyasArthasatra(4thcebturybce)gives us an idea of the Indian approach to town
planning. Different chapters talk construction of royal buildings and houses for different
categories of citizen. Roads of different dimensions were prescribed for different purposes. The
layout and organization of forts are portrayed in a meticulous way.
oFrom writings of Fa Hien, we know that by the time Chandragupta II(380-413bce), city life
became more and more organized. From the time of Asoka(269-232bce), use of stone
became important in buildings
Religious monuments: Buddhist

oIn the construction of religious edifices like stupas(to heap) and caiitya-grha(altar room),
the Buddhists showed their engineering skill.
oThe early stupasbuilt by Asoka were made of bricks and mud mortar. Later stupas gained in
size & grandeur. A solid hemispherical dome (anda) was placed on tiered bases and
surmounted by a railed pavilion (Harmica)
oThe Sanchistupa(1stcentury bce) in MdhyaPradesh is of developed form and included a
circular passage and a railing around it with gates(torana). Later specimen showed more ornate
forms like in Nalandaand Ratnagiri.
oAnother Buddhist structure is the caiitya-grha, a stupacum-sanctuary. Initially the stupa
was the object of worship. Later, an image of Buddha was placed on it. A caiitya-grhausually
had an apsidal ground plan with stupa at its apsidal end and a central nave separated from the
side aisles by a row of pillars. Many examples of rock cut caiitya-grhastill exists.
oAt Ellora, in Maharastra, the Bishwakarmacave is a developed example of Chaityagrhawith two tier roof .
oThe Buddhist temple at Sarnathhas a tower 33.4 metreshigh and with seven clearly marked
receding floors demonstrates the engineering skills of those days. The remains of Nalanda,
the ancient University town shows a 33.4metre high stupa.
Religious monuments: Hindu I
oDuring the Gupta period(300-600 ce), temples were constructed on the basis of the
following structural principles
1 A square sanctum(garbha-grha) for the image
2 A small pillared portico(mukhamandapa)
3 A covered circumambulatory passage(pradikshinapatha) around the sanctum.
4 The early temples had a flat roof. Spire type (Sikhara) came up later.
5 Early temples were built of stone. Later use of bricks came in vogue
6 oTwo broad temple architectural styles emerged
7 North Indian style called nagaraand
8 South Indian style known as vimanaor dravida
Religious monuments: Hindu II
oThe North Indian temples showed vaulted roof sikharas, linear in elevation. The
Rajaranitemple & Lingarajtempleshave sikharasclustered around the Janga(bottom portion
of the spire). The temple components are Ardha-mandapa(entrance porch), mandapa(hall),
antarala(vestibule) and the garbhagrha(sanctum).
oKhajurahosnagara(970-1030ce)style temple in Madhya pradeshhas a plain Sikharawith no
embellishment of miniature spires (uru-srngas).
The Brahmanicaltemple in Ellora
oKailasatemple at Ellora(556-773ce),in Maharashtrashow the highest artistry and
craftsmanship. It was made by cutting away more than 50 million tonnes of rock from the
slopping hill by means of hammer and chisel. First, a massive block of stone (60mx30mx30m)
was to be isolated, it was then carved from the top downwards and hollowed out in the form of
a temple with its intricate carvings.
oBrahmanicalcaves at Badami, Ellora, Elephantaand Mahabalipuramhave beautifully
curved-out sculpture
The south Indian temples(Vimanastyle )
oThe South Indian temples are characterised by pyramidal sikharas, large mandapas,
Gopuram(gateway to the temple enclosure) and nasikas(arched opening above the
superstructure wall, projecting over the faade). The shrine is either of salastype (miniature
oblong shrine with barrel vault roof or karna-kutas(miniature square shrine at the corner of
the roof). A typical temple of this category is found in the Mahabalipuram(Tamil Nadu).

Taj-Mahal,themuslimarchitecture
Today it is one of the most famous and recognizable buildings in the world
It extends over 55.5 acresand was complete by 1648 ce.
Components of the complex:
Mausoleum: is the symmetrical white marble tomb; a cubic building with chamfered corners,
with arched recesses . In plan, it has a near perfect symmetry about 4 axes
It is topped by a large dome(35m in height) and several pillared, roofed chhatris. The dome
shape is emphasisedby four smaller domed chhatrisplaced at its corners.
the lower basement chamber containing the tombs of Jahanand Mumtaz,
The main chambercontainingidentical cenotaphs of the tombs below in a much more
elaborate chamber, an ambulatory storey and a roof terrace.
At the corners of the plinth standminarets:four large towers each more than 40metrestall.
Shipbuilding & sea voyages of Ancient India I
oShipbuilding too has an ancient tradition. We know these from archaeological finds,
indigenous literature and accounts of foreigners.
oThere are evidences that Indus Valley people carried on trade with civilisations of Egypt,
Sumer, Persia, Crete and Central Asia. Ruins unearthed at Lothal (once on Arabian
Sea)shows the existence of a huge dock. Also seals discovered at Harappa depict ships and
anchors meant for deep water use.
oRig-Veda clearly indicates existence of sea vessels and merchants that journeyed across the
ocean to distant countries in pursuit of wealth. A kind of vessel called plavais described which
can withstand battering of storms. There are descriptions of archaic stabilisers and rudders of a
ship.
oAstadhyayimakes distinctions were made between coastal island cargoes and mid-ocean
Island cargoes.DighaNakaya( fifth century bce) mentions use of birds by Mariners to
ascertain directions.
oArthasastramentions ship building activities. The navadhyaksawas in charge of navigation
in the ocean along with port duties. Vessels were made of timber, bamboo and inflated leather
bags.
Shipbuilding & sea voyages II
oStone Inscriptions speak of Emperor Asokasending abroad missionaries to propagate
Buddhism to Sri Lanka. The Palichronicle Mahavamsanarrates the conquer of Sri Lanka by
Vijaysimhaof Bengal with seven hundred men. It was later named Simhalaafter his name.
oThe cave paintings of Ajanta bear evidence of shipbuilding activities between 2nd and 8th
century bce.
oThe Yukti-kalpataruattributed to king Bhoja(11th century bce), offers an elaborate and
analytical study of shipbuilding. It mentions four classes of wood, but only Ksatriyawood
which is light but hard and can be joined only with difficulty is recommended for making of
ships. It warns about use of iron at the ship bottom. The text divide ships into 2 major
categories: Samanyafor inland river traffic & Visesafor sea vessels. These two types are
again divided into several types and detailed measurement of each of them with their
advantages and disadvantages are given in details in this very book.
oAlso the above text suggests that a ship with four masts should be painted white, that with
three red, with two yellow and ship with a single mast should be of blue colour.
Shipbuilding & sea voyages III
oThe Indian ship builders used various metals like gold, silver, copper to decorate their vessels.
Figures of many animals along with celestial figures were carved on the ship body.
oMagasthenessaccount speaks of shipbuilders of the Mauryakings. The admiral of the fleet
used to let out ships on hire for the transport of passengers and merchandise. Plinyobserved
that Mauryaships weighed 75 tons. Navigators were aware of the fact that sea between
mainland India and island Sri Lanka is not of equal depth and ships were like wise constructed.

oThe Greek historian Arrianmentions the construction of Dockyard and existence of a tribe
called Xathroi(most probably Ksatriyas), who specialized in making oars and transport vessels.
They had built Alexanders thirty-pared galleys and trading vessels to carry the Greek army
down the Indus.
oThe Ain-I-Akbari by AbulI Fazlspeaks of maintenance of a naval department by Akbar
where sea going ships were constructed. Mogul emperors maintained a well functioning naval
department.
oThomas Bowrey, an English traveler to India between 1669 and 1679, has left an account of
various types is ships and boats that were made in India.
International trade I
oThough India is guarded in the north by massive mountain ranges, yet a number of mountain
passes provided natural access from India to Central Asia and to West Asia and China
oIndias commercial and cultural contacts with Central Asia, West Asia and Egypt extended
to prehistoric times. International maritime trade with the Roman Empire flourished
oA national highway, Uttarapatha,spanned the whole of North India from Manipur in the
north-east to Purusapura(near Peshawar in Pakistan) in the north west. It passed
through Maharashtra, Gauda, Pundravardhana, Vaishali, Kapilavastu,
Indrapastha,Takxilaand Purusapura. From Indraprastha, a branch extended towards
Bolan Pass connecting Agroha,andMulastana(Multan);another turned south towards
Arabian Sea via Mathura and Ujjaini. Taxilaand Purusapuraon either side of the Indus was
linked with Tamraliptaon Bay of Bengal and with Broach and Minnagaraon Arabian Sea.
oTaxila,thecapital city of Gandhara, played an important and strategic position in the inland
and foreign trade. The most important western route passed through Purusapuraand
Kapistato Bactria. Purusapurawas like gateway to India, being situated at the entrance of
the all weather Khyber Pass.
International trade II
oAround 2nd century bce, Bactria developed into an international trading centre and a clearing
mart for Indian goods. It was the normal converging point of several routes like BabylonBactria, Susa-Heart-Bactria in the west and Tashkent-Samarkand Bactria in the
north, and a number of routes from Kashgarhon the west.
oSea route: India had a trade relation with Sumerian cities through maritime activities along
the Persian Gulf.These can be ascertained from archaeological finds at Mohenjo-daro,
Harappa, and extensive literature dug up in the cities of Mesopotamia.
oThe most popular items of International trade were Pepper, Ginger, Cardamom,
Cinnamon, Gum-resins, Indigo, sugar, fragrant woods like ebony, teak and
sandalwood, Copper ,Iron and steel, precious stones like diamond, quartz, opal and
crystallised silica.
Mining
oEvidence of mining in ancient India is strictly circumstantial. Hatti gold mine (c760bce)in
Karnataka and the Daribacopper mine area in Rajastan(c1260bce)have been properly
dated
oGold, silver, copper, tin and lead were known to the Indus Valley people. Ganeshwaransite in
Rajastanyielded about one thousand copper objects belonging to middle of third millennium
bce. Use of iron started in the middle of 2nd millennium bce.
oLiterary data supports this archaeological evidence. Arthashastracaptures in detail issues
like gems-testing, mining equipment, mineral handling etc. There are references to mines of
diamond, gold, ruby, diamond, copper, lead and iron in Ain-I-Akbari
oGeological literature has many references to ancient mine workings encountered in course of
field work. Some of these sites are:-a) Baragunda& Moasbanicopper mines (Singbhum), b)

Gnigundalacopper mine (Guntur), c) Wynadgoldfields (South India), d) Gavulabhavilead

deposit(Andhra Pradesh, e) copper workings in Kulu(Himachal Pradesh)
Agriculture I
oAgriculture was the corner stone of the Indus Valley Civilisation economy. The crops
cultivated were wheat, barley, peas, lentils, flax and cotton while among the fruits grown were
date and melon.
oThe variety of wheat unearthed at Mohenjo-daro& Harappa is still cultivated in Punjab.
Charred rice grains was discovered in Lothal & Rangpur in Gujrat. This is the oldest record of
use of rice in the world.
oIn the Vedic period agriculture was the chief occupation of people. Rig Veda mentions:
1 Sowing of grain by means of plough (drawn by 6, 8 or 12 oxen),
2 use of manure and importance of irrigation,
3 conservation of rain water and digging wells,
4 rotation of crops in a particular land and fallowing to restore its fertility,
5 use of sickle to cut ripe grains and binding in bundles,
6 beating the harvested crop on the floor of the granary to separate the grain from the
straw.
Agriculture II
oYajur-Vedamentions 12 grains: Vrihi(rice), yava(barley), godhuma(wheat), masura(lentil),
tila(sesame) etc some among them.
oTaittiriyaSamhita mentions agricultural seasons -barley to ripen in summer, rice in autumn,
beans and sesame in winter. It is mentioned that in a course of year, two crops can be
harvested in the same field.
oThe post Vedic literature provides more detailed information on agriculture in its different
aspects: land and soil, manure, tillage ,crops and seeds, irrigation, protection of crops from
diseases and pests.
1 Land and soil: Panini(5th century bce) refers to cultivated land (karsa), wasteland(
usara)and pasture (gocara). Susruta& Charaka(1st century ce) divided land into
jangala(barren), anupa(moist) & sadharana(ordinary)
2 Manure: Kautilyasuggests use of bone & cow dung. Agni Puranarefer to application
of fish, animal excreta, bone, beef. Bharat Samhita identified usefulness of seed
treatment prior to sowing
3 Tillage: Arthasastraspeaks of field preparation by ploughing the field 3 times in heavy
rains. Mahabhasyasuggests the use of oxen for ploughing and removal of weeds,
stones, thorns prior to ploughing

The Upanishads
The words 'Upanishat' occurs in apposition to the word 'Nishat' as early as in Rigveda Khila. According to Max
Mueller, Upanishad literally means "sit down near" (Upa - near, ni - down, shad - sit) which meant that the
spiritual aspirant had to sit devotedly near the teacher to learn the doctrine. This suggestion has caught on rapidly,
and is accepted by many modern scholars like Dr. Sarvapalli Radakrishnan. However, many traditional scholars
frown upon this etymology and point out that it is ungrammatical. The earliest definitions of the word 'Upanishad'
are available in the extant fragments of Vakyakara, Brahmandin and Bhashyakara Dramidacharya - two pre
Shankaracharya commentators on Vedaanta who are quoted profusely by later Vedaantins like Sudarshana Suri.
Following are these fragments:
Vakyakara: "Upanisannatvad upanisat"- "The term Upanishad derives from the fact that it is put down."
Dramidabhasyakara: Gahane hiyam vidya samnivista"- "For this meditation is contained in the Mysterious
One (that it is called Upanishad)"

These definitions are not very far from what Max Mueller has proposed, but certainly highlight the 'mysterious' or
the 'esoteric' nature of their doctrine. In other words, the doctrine was secret (rahasyam) and was taught only to
a chosen few. In fact, the word 'Upanishad' has been used in the sense of 'secret' by Panini in his Ashtadhyaayi.
ENUMERATION OF THE UPANISHADS
The total number of extant Upanishads exceeds 200. Most of these texts are clearly late, and are not considered
authoritative by all Hindus. The Muktika Upanishad, a text dating to around 1000 C.E., lists 108 Upanishads.
By tradition, fourteen are considered as the principal Upanishads. They are Isha, Kena, Katha, Prashna, Mundaaka,
Maandukya, Taiitriya, Aitreya, Chaandogya, Brhadaaranyaka, Shvetaashvatara, Kaushitaki, Mahaanaaraayana and
Maitri. Recently, the following ancient Upanishads have been discovered in manuscript and have been published:
Arsheya, Chhagaleya, Shaunaka, Pranava, Katha Shiksha and Baskhalamantra. The last even has a commentary
attached to it, which closely resembles the other commentaries of Shri Shankaracharya.
It is noteworthy that there are several other texts embedded in the Vedas and elsewhere that resemble the
Upanishads very closely in their thought. Examples are: The Brahmasukta of the Atharvaveda, the Adhyatma
Patala of the Apastamba Dharmasutra and so on.
While many of these Upanishads present Vedaantic thought, some late ones are sectarian, or are inclined towards
Yoga and Sannyasa. Apparently, these texts were named as Upanishads because the word had acquired an aura or
simply because these texts represent the esoteric, secret spiritual doctrines of their respective sects.
RELATIONSHIP OF UPANISHADS WITH VEDIC LITERATURE
It is generally believed that the mantras, the Braahmanas and parts of the Aranyakas constitute the karma kaanda
or the works section of the Vedas, the Upanishads are the jnaana kaanda or the knowledge section. In reality
however, the mantras are ancient collections covering a wide range of topics including rituals, ethics, spirituality,
cosmology and so on. The Braahmanas are theological treatises, largely dealing with Vedic ritual, and rubricating
these mantras in the rituals expounded. Often appended to these Braahmanas are esoteric texts called the
Aranyakas. And in these Aranyakas, are embedded the Upanishads. However, many Upanishads are stand alone
texts which might not have been integral with the Aranyakas. While the subject of the karma kaanda is dharma,
the subject of the jnaana kaanda is Brahman or reality. The Upanishads are also called the Vedaanta (Veda scripture, anta - end of) or the end of the Veda i.e., the final purport of the Vedas. This is because of two reasons:
They generally occur at the end of the Samhita-Braahmana-Aranyaka literature; and because they represent a
culmination or the 'final view, or essence' (siddhanta) of the Vedic philosophy.
All extant Upanishads are traditional classified under one of the 4 Vedas. Sometimes, this classification is opposed
to the correct ancient placement of the Upanishads in the Vedic cannon, and in the case of late Upanishads, such a
classification often appears artificial. Appendix 1 groups the various ancient Upanishads under different Shakhas of
the Vedas.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE UPANISHADIC DOCTRINE
The modern theory voiced in some quarters that the Upanishads represent the revolt of the critical minded
kshatriya against the ritualistic brahmin, finds little support in the texts themselves. For not only do brahmin
teachers outnumber kshatriya teachers in the Upanishads, it was only the brahmins who fully developed the
teachings of the Upanishads as presented in the various schools of Vedaanta. A kshatriya teaching brahma vidhya
or knowledge of reality to a brahmin, is no argument, since tradition allowed all the three top castes to learn
Vedaanta and it is not unusual for a spiritually inclined kshatriya to possess higher knowledge of Brahman than the
average brahmin. And again such cases are exceptions and not the norm.
Another modern assertion that the Upanishads are against the sacrificial religion of the Braahmanas is not wholly
true. As noted before the Vedas are a whole spiritual package and each section - the hymns, the sacrifices, the
philosophical discussions - have their validity and usefulness at a certain stage. The sacrificial religion served the
religious needs of the masses and also helped in the purification of oneself. At the householder stage they're the
main source of revenue for the brahmin. No orthodox thinker would object to that, which has so much social,
spiritual and religious utility. So the Upanishads are not against the sacrifices per se, but only against their
ultimate validity i.e., their ability or rather the lack of it, to effect liberation. While the sacrificial religion is to be
practiced in the householder stage, when one moves to the forest dweller stage one is supposed to meditate on
the symbolism and spiritual value of the sacrifices. During the samnyaasin stage one's life (worldly life with all its
attachments) itself is said to be the sacrifice.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE UPANISHADS

The Upanishads are truly the fount of all Indian philosophy. All the BrAhmanical schools derive their philosophies
from the Upanishads and show an almost pathetic eagerness to find common ground between their doctrines and
the Upanishads. Not only is Jainism with its duality of matter and Selves influenced by the Upanishads, even the
Buddhist doctrines of annata, kshanikavaada, shunyavaada, vijnaanavaada and the two levels of reality are all
derived from the Upanishads.
Numerous scholars have felt compelled down the ages to compose their own commentaries or sub-commentaries
on the Upanishads. The commentaries of Shankaracharya are the most ancient available ones, and also the most
popular. These are written from an Advaita Vedaanta perspective. The commentaries of Purnapraajna Anandatirtha
(also called Madhvacharya) are written from a Dvaita Vedaanta perspective, whereas Rangaramanuja has written
his commentaries from a Vishishtadvaita Vedaanta perspective. A partial list of these commentaries in Appendix B
will give an idea of how prolific their commentarial tradition has been.
PHILOSOPHY OF THE UPANISHADS
The Upanishads do not represent systematic philosophy. They represent teachings of the sages who experienced
or rather became reality (brahma vid brahmaiva bhavati - the knower of Brahman becomes Brahman). The
purpose of the Upanishads is not mere intellectual satisfaction, but a practical solution to the ultimate problems of
life. It is best expressed in the dialogue between Yama and Nachiketas in the Katha Upanishad. Nachiketas, a
braahmana boy questions Yama (the God of Death) as to what happens to one's self after death. Does one exist or
does he not, then? Yama tries to dissuade the boy from seeking an answer to a question, which even Gods find
difficult to understand. Instead he offers a wide array of earthly comforts : long life, wealth, gold, elephants,
horses, land, beautiful women etc. Nachiketas turns them down saying that all these are transient and only serve
to wear out the senses of men. And when one has seen him i.e., Yama or death, how could anybody enjoy these
things of sense? And having understood the transience of objects of sense and the implicit suffering contained in
them, who would wish for a longer life?
As all phenomena are transient in nature worldly life ultimately leads to disappointment and suffering. Death puts
an end to all our hopes and ridicules our achievements in life. To be born again is only to go through the same
grind. So the end of suffering is not to be born at all and to become immortal. This according to the Upanishads
can be achieved when we know the true nature of our Self (Atman).
The teaching of the Upanishads can be best understood under the following three categories :
1. the Self or essence of man - Atman
2. the Self or essence of the world - Brahman
3. the relation between Atman and Brahman
According to the Upanishads when knowledge of one's Self (Atman) is acquired, knowledge of the essence (Self)
of the world (Brahman) as well as the relationship between Atman and Brahman is known.
ATMAN
We find a clear exposition of the doctrine of the Atman and the practical path leading to it in the dialogue between
the sage Prajaapathi and Indra in the Chaandogya Upanishad. Indra, the king of Gods and Virochana, the king of
demons both approached Prajaapathi to learn the doctrine of the Self. Prajaapathi first teaches them that the Self
is unborn, uncreated, eternal, cannot be destroyed and beyond suffering. Then he identifies the Self with the body.
While Virochana returns home satisfied, Indra is not convinced. How can the immortal Self be the body, which is
prone to change, decay and destruction? So he approaches Prajaapathi again and tells him of his confusion.
Prajaapathi next identifies the Self with the subject of the dream state. Indra is again not convinced. How could
the subject of the dream state be the eternal Self? Though devoid of defects of the body, it still experiences
emotions in dreams - it is happy, sad, terrified, conscious of pain etc The Self being eternal cannot be subject to
such limitations. So again he goes back to Prajaapathi and tells him his doubts. Prajaapathi now tells him that the
enjoyer of the deep sleep state is the Self. But Indra is unconvinced by this too, for in deep sleep, there's no
conscious or awareness. We neither feel anything, nor know anything, nor will anything. So what good is there in
such a state?
When he approaches Prajaapathi again, the sage well pleased with his discriminatory powers says : Dear Indra!
The body and the subject of the dream state are not the Self though they exist for the Self. The Self is not an
abstract principle of the deep sleep state too. Yet it is something, which persists through these three states or else
we would not have the unity of experience through the three states. The body, the senses, the mind, the
presentation continuum, the consciousness - are all mere instruments and objects of the Self. Though the Self is
the ground for the waking, dream and deep sleep states, it transcends them all. The Self is immortal, self-

luminous and self-proved. It is the ultimate subject, which can never become an object and is necessarily
presupposed by all knowledge. It is satchitAnanda (sat - existence, chit - knowledge, Ananda - bliss).
But if we are in truth the eternal Atman, why do we not know it?
The Upanishads say that it is due to our ignorance (avidya) that we're not aware of the true nature of ourselves.
When ignorance is removed with right knowledge, the Self shines forth in its true nature. In fact, acquisition of
spiritual knowledge is the supreme purpose of human existence. Human beings are superior to other forms of life
only because they can sufficiently discriminate between the real and the unreal, between the ephemeral and the
eternal, between darkness and light. A man who does not strive to make good of this opportunity and remains lost
in materialism has, as if, committed suicide. The 3rd verse of Ishavasya Upanishad therefore declares:
"The immutable soul is the real nature of man, and not his mortal frame.
Because the soul endures from one life to the next,
whereas the body changes every moment and perishes with death.
But the materialistic people, enveloped with ignorance, vanity or pride,
deny the very existence of the soul.
They say- 'Only that exists which can be perceived with the senses.
There is nothing beyond, there is no yonder world after death.
Verily, man is but an agglomeration of the elements,
born of the lust of his parents.
We are born with our physical birth, and cease to exist after our death.
Indeed, there is no connection between actions and their fruits.
There no vice or virtue. So eat, drink and be merry.'
Denying their own true essence,
these deluded men have killed their own souls in this very life."
Right knowledge is not mere bookish knowledge. In fact the Upanishads equate even the sacred Veda with lower
knowledge, while knowledge of the Self (Atmajnaanam) is the highest knowledge. This knowledge sought is more
intuitive than intellectual. It is the knowledge of the subject, which can never be known like an object. Right
knowledge is obtained with the practice of faith, purity, introversion and meditation. Two ways of meditation are
suggested - meditation on the mystic syllable "OM" and meditation on the heart center.
Recourse to Spirituality does not mean that one can forget his worldly duties. The Upanishads stress again and
again that 'faith without works is dead." As an example, quote the 2nd verse of the Ishavasya Upanishad:
"Seek not the Truth by abandoning this world
Or by renouncing all your bounden duties.
This is indeed not the path of salvation.
Rather, desire ye to live a full life of a hundred years,
Actively engaged in the selfless perfromance
of your duties and enjoined actions at all times.
Verily, this is the only way enjoined for man's salvation,
And not the opposite.
All actions bear fruit- good or bad.
And these fruits taint his soul, causing him to be reborn!
But the fruits of actions- good or otherwise, don't taint that wise man,
who performs his duties selflessly, as an offering to God,
Just as a lotus leaf is not tainted by water, even though touching it.
But he, who through ignorance, shirks away from his duties,
Merely deludes himself by thinking- 'I am performing any action!'
Aye! no man can desist from action for even a single moment."
BRAHMAN
If the true Self of man is the Atman or reality, what about matter and the psychological mechanism?
The Upanishads are very clear that Brahman is the origin and the end of the world. It is the material cause of the
world and the world is a manifestation of Brahman. Brahman made the world out of itself. The Brahmasukta of
Atharveda (Paippalada Shakha) states
"(It is) The Supreme Being (Who) first spread out the mighty powers collected in Him
(It is) The Supreme Being (Who) first spread out the heavenly lights everywhere
Verily, The Supreme Being was born as first Lord of all that exists
Who, then is fit to be this Supreme Being's rival" VIII.9.1
"These Heaven and Earth are Supreme Being,

The seven currents are The Supreme Being

All the Adityas are Supreme Being
(Verily) All the divine beings contemplate upon the Supreme Being." VIII.9.2
In the Chaandogya Upanishad it is said :
In the beginning the world was just Being, one only, without a second.
Then it thought to itself : "Would that I were many. Let me procreate myself".
Again :
All this is verily Brahman. Brahman is that from which everything proceeds, that in which everything breathes and
that in which everything is finally dissolved.
A theory of evolution is presented in the doctrine of the pancha kosha or the five sheaths in the Taiitriya
Upanishad. The lowest level is the annamaya kosha or the plane of matter. Matter is jada or devoid of
consciousness and must evolve to life. So the second stage is praanamaya kosha or the plane of life. Vegetables
are an example of this kosha. From life evolves perceptual consciousness and thus we have the manomaya kosha
or the mental plane. But this is still instinctive consciousness and can be related to that of animals. From
instinctive consciousness evolves consciousness, which is self conscious or rational. This is vijnaanamaya koshas
or the plane of self-conscious reason. This is the base for moral life and that, which distinguishes man from
animal. This is also the plane where the empirical trinity of knower, known and knowledge exist. When the trinity
of the knower, known and knowledge become fused in a transcendental unity we have the highest state of
evolution - the Anandamaya kosha or non-dual bliss.
So does this evolution mean that the original Brahman is lost?
No. The Upanishads are firm that all such evolution is only in the level of name and form and the original nature of
reality is never lost. Analogies equating Brahman to clay in a clay pot or gold in an ornament are used to bring
home the point. Though name and form might vary, the essence remains the same. All the stages of evolution are
but manifestations of Brahman, which is the soul of all matter and life (sarvabhutaantaraatmaa). It pervades all
phenomena and is the inner controller (antaryaamin) of all. "For fear of him fire burns, for fear of him the sun
shines and for fear of him the winds, the clouds and death perform their office".
In its very opening verse, the Ishavasya Upanishad reminds us that Brahman is the essence of existence:
"All sentinent and insentinent objects in this ever changing Universe are ephermal and pass away with
time.
But the Lord Who is immanent in everything, and controls it in multifarious ways, is Eternal and
Imperishable.
Seek to realize this Eternal Truth and do not get entangled in this world.
Enjoy the bounties of Nature, but with a sense of reunuciation.
Do not hanker too much after riches and do not get obsessed with them.
To whom does all this belong? Certainly not to any man,
for we do not bring anything with us, nor do we take anything along.
But He, the Underlying Reality, owns all this, and we are mere guardians of His Divine riches."
ATMAN AND BRAHMAN
When the whole world is the manifestation of Brahman, even the Atman must be Brahman too. The Mahaavaakyas
or the great statements of the Upanishads proclaim : "Tat tvam asi - you are that" and "Aham Brahmaasmi - I'm
Brahman". Both identify Brahman to one's own self (Atman). But what's the exact nature of their relationship?
(This is the focal point of difference between the various schools of Vedaanta).
Are they one and the same? The Advaita school of Vedaanta takes this stand and gives forth a full fledged nondualistic Absolutism. But if the Atman is eternal and unchanging, what about the changes experienced in the
world? According to Advaita Vedaanta, the changes in the world are unreal (mithya) and an illusion (maaya).
Is Brahman and Atman related in the way of part to whole or quality to object? This is the theory of the
VisishtAdvaita school of Vedaanta which teaches qualified non-dualism ie the world and the Selves are qualities of
Brahman.
Are Brahman and Atman totally different? This cannot be, for it is explicitly taught in the Upanishads that Brahman
is the material cause of the world and the world is the manifestation of Brahman. But still the Dvaita school of
Vedaanta argues from this angle and presents a scheme where God, Selves and matter are totally distinct and
independent realities.

Actually the dualistic interpretation of the Upanishads as presented by the Dvaita school of Vedaanta is not a new
phenomenon. The other five Braahmanical schools - Saamkhya, Yoga, Nyaaya, Vaishesika and Purva Mimaamsaa all claiming to be the correct interpreters of the Upanishads too propound a dualistic view of the universe.
Excerpts from two remarkable passages from the Upanishads are presented below - one from the Brhadaaranyaka
Upanishad and the other from the Chaandogya Upanishad. The first is the famous dialogue between the greatest
of Indian sages, Yaagnavalkya and his wife Maitreyi regarding the nature of the Atman. The second is the equally
famous dialogue between the sage Uddhaalaka Aruni and his son Shvetaketu, where the relationship between
Brahman and Atman is taught. The translation is free and not exact.
Brhadaaranyaka Upanishad
Yaagnavalkya had two wives - Maitreyi and Katyaayani. While Maitreyi was a discourser of Brahma Vidhya,
Katyaayani possesed only such knowledge as women have. When Yaagnavalkya wished to move on to the forest
dweller (vaanaprastha) stage,
"Maitreyi", said Yaagnavalkya, "I'm getting away from this state of householder. So let me make a settlement for
you and that Kaatyaayani".
"My Lord", said Maitreyi, "even if the riches of the world were mine, would it make me immortal?
"No", said Yaagnavalkya, "your life will only be like the life of people with plenty of wealth. But there's no hope of
immortality through wealth".
Then Maitreyi said, "What shall I do with that by which I do not become immortal? Please, venerable sir, explain to
me whatever you know of immortality".
Then Yaagnavalkya said, "You were always dear to me Maitreyi, but now you've become dearer. So as you wish I
shall explain it to you. But as I expound, seek to meditate on it".
Then he said, "Verily, not for the sake of the husband is the husband dear, but for the sake of the self is the
husband dear. Verily not for the sake of the wife is the wife dear, but for the sake of the self is the wife dear. Verily
not for the sake of the sons wealth cattle braahmana kshatriya worlds Gods Veda beings
all is each dear, but for the sake of the self is each dear. Verily Maitreyi, the self is to be seen, to be heard, to be
reflected on, to be meditated upon; when verily the self is seen, heard, reflected on and known, then all else is
known".
"Braahmanahood deserts him who knows Braahmanahood in anything else than the self. Kshatriyahood deserts
him who knows Kshatriyahood in anything else than the self. The worlds desert him the Gods desert him the
Vedas desert him the beings desert him all deserts him who knows all in anything else than the self. This
Braahmanahood, this Kshatriyahood, these worlds, these Gods, these Vedas, all these beings, this all are the
Self".
"As from a fire kindled with damp fuel different kinds of smoke issues forth, so verily from this great being has
been breathed forth the Rg Veda, the Yajur Veda, the Sama Veda, the hymns of the Atharvan and Angirasas,
legend, ancient lore, sciences, sacred teachings, verses, aphorisms, explanations, commentaries, sacrifices,
oblation, food, drink, this world and the other and all beings".
"As a mass of salt is altogether a mass of taste, without inside or outside, so is the self altogether a mass of
intelligence, without inside or outside. Having arisen out of these elements, it vanishes again in them. When it has
departed there's no more separate or particular consciousness".
Then Maitreyi said, "Here indeed, venerable sir, you've caused me to reach utter bewilderment. I do not at all
understand this Self".
Yaagnavalkya replied, "I do not say anything bewildering. The Self verily is imperishable and of indestructible
nature".
"For where there's duality, there one sees another, one smells another, one tastes another, one speaks to another,
one hears another, one thinks of another, one touches and knows another. But when everything has become one's
own Self, by what and whom should one see, by what and whom should one smell, taste, speak, hear, think, touch
and know? By what should we know him by whom all this is known? Indeed by what would one know the knower?
The Self is to be described as not this, not this (neti, neti). He is incomprehensible, indestructible, unattached,

unfettered. He does not suffer. Thus you have the instruction expounded to you, O Maitreyi. Such verily is life
eternal".
Having said this Yaagnavalkya went away into the forest.
Chaandogya Upanishad
"As when the bees collect honey from different trees, mix them up and reduce them to a unity and the essences
are not able to discriminate that, "I'm the essence of this tree", "I'm the essence of that tree", even so all
creatures though they reach Being in deep sleep, they do not know it".
"That which is the finest essence - that this whole world has as its Self. That is Atman. That is Reality. That art
thou (tat tvam asi), Shvetaketu".
"As the various rives which flow into the ocean and become the ocean itself, losing their individuality they know
not that, "I'm this river", "I'm that river". Likewise though all creatures here in this world have come forth from
Being they do not know that they have come forth from Being".
"That which is the finest essence - that this whole world has as its Self. That is Atman. That is Reality. That art
thou (tat tvam asi), Shvetaketu".
"Bring a fruit from that nyagrodha tree there, Shvetaketu".
"Here it is, sir".
"Break it open".
"It is open, sir".
"What do you see there?".
"These fine seeds, sir".
"Break open a seed".
"It is open, sir".
"What do you see now?".
"Nothing, sir".
Then Uddhaalaka said to him, "Verily my dear son, that subtle essence which you do not perceive, verily my dear,
from that the great nyagrodha tree exists. Believe me, dear".
"That which is the finest essence - that this whole world has as its Self. That is Atman. That is Reality. That art
thou (tat tvam asi), Shvetaketu".
We conclude with a beautiful litany from the Brahmasukta of Atharvaveda (Paippalada Shakha)
"The Supreme Being are the fishermen,
The Suprme Being are the servants,
The Supreme Being indeed are these gamblers.
Man as well as woman originate from the Supreme Being
Women are God and so are men." VIII.9.10
"The Supreme Being is in the highlands, the Supreme Being is in the lowlands, (indeed)
the Supreme Being envelops from all directions.
Trees, mountains and in shrubs or creepers,
(Verily) The Supreme Being abides in these all.
The Earth and the Heavens
The Supreme Being abides in both" VIII.8.11
"These Heaven and Earth are Supreme Being,
The seven currents are The Supreme Being
All the Adityas are Supreme Being
(Verily) All the divine beings contemplate upon the Supreme Being." VIII.9.3
"The Brahamanas speak of (the glories of) the Supreme Being (during the day)
(But) The Supreme Being verily is present (also) in the night.
From The Supreme Being is born the {light} (of the Sun that brightens the day),
By the Supreme Being does fire shine with great splendour (at night). VIII.9.4
"The Supreme Being abides in food producing plants
And it is He who causes the rains (which give life to these plants) to descend.
(Indeed) The Supreme Being is inner animating Soul of all this
As long as the sun shines bright." VIII.9.5

"The Supreme Being is the priest who recites the chants during the ritual,
The Supreme Being is (also) the ritual
As well as the chants being recited with great precision.
From the Supreme Being arises the priest who pours the oblation into the fire
{Within} the Supreme Being {is present} the oblation." VIII.9.6
"The Supreme Being is the fire altar, brimming with clarified butter,
The Supreme Being are the bulls possessing the beneficient seed,
The Supreme Being are the cows, that yield the oblation going into the ritual fire,
The Supreme Being is he who, seated in the divine chariot, attains the well performed magnificent ritual."
VIII.9.7
"By the (will of the) Supreme Being the inert (thing) moves (and thus becomes dynamic)
By the (will of the) Supreme Being does the body unite (with life).
By the (will of) Supreme Being does the outward breath return to the man with great trembling." VIII.9.8
Appendix 1
Ancient Upanishads of the Veda
I. Shakala Charana of Rigveda
1. Aitreya Upanishad (2nd Aranyaka of the Aitreya Aranyaka).
2. Asyavaamiya Sukta (Rigveda 1,164,1-64)
3. Purusha Sukta (Rigveda X, 90)
4. Nasadiya Sukta (Rigveda X, 129)
5. Hiranyagarbha Sukta (Rigveda X,121,1-10)
6. Vac Sukta (Rigveda)
7. Mudgala Upanishad of Mudgala Shakha
8. Galava Upanishad of Galava Shakha
II. Bashkala Charana of Rigveda
1. Bashkalamantra Upanishad
III. Mandukeya Charana of Rigveda
1. Bavrucha Upanishad
IV. Shankhayana Charana and Kaushitaki Charana of Rigveda
1. Kaushitaki Brahamana Upanishad in the Shankhayana Aranyaka
2. Samhita Upanishad in the Shankhayana Aranyaka
V. Taittiriya Charana of Krishna Yajurveda
1. Taittiriya Upanishad (Taittiriya Aranyaka prapathaka VII-IX)
2. Yajniki or Mahanarayana Upanishad (Taittiriya Aranyaka prapathaka X)
VI. Kathaka Charana of Krishna Yajurveda
1. Kathakamantra or Kathaka or Katha Upanishad

2. Kathashruti Upanishad
3. Kanthashruti Upanishad
4. Shivasamkalpa Brahamana
5. Katha Shiksha Upanishad
VI. Maitrayaniya Charana of Krishna Yajurveda
1. Maitrayaniya Upanishad or Maitrayainiya Aranyaka or Brihadaranyaka of Maitrayaniya Shakha (the Charaka
Aranyaka manuscript is almost identical to this text)
2. Chhagaleya Upanishad of the Chhagaleya Shakha
3. Shvetashvatara Upanishad of the Shvetashvatara Shakha
VII. Vajasneya Shakhas or Shukla Yajurveda Shakhas
1. Vajasneyi Samhita Upanishad or Isha or Ishavasya Upanishad (Madhyandina and Kanva recensions).
2. Brihadarnyaka Upanishad (Madhyandina and Kanva recensions).
3. Agnirahasya section in book X of Shatapath Brahman
4. Jabala Upanishad of Jabala Shakha
5. Subala Upanishad
6. Mandala Brahamana Upanishad
7. Tadeva Upanishad (in Yajurveda Samhita)
8. Rudrasukta (In Yajurveda Samhita)
VIII. Jaiminiya or Talavakara Shakha of Samaveda
1. Jaiminiya Braahmana Upanishad or Talavakara Aranyaka
2. Kena Upanishad in the Talavakara Aranyaka
3. Shatyayana Gayatri Upanishad in the Talavakara Aranyaka
4. Pranagnihotra in the initial sections of the Jaiminiya Brahman
IX. Kauthuma and Ranayaniya Shakhas of Samaveda
1. Chhandogya Upanishad or Tandya Rahasya Upanishad
X. Shaunaka Shakha of Atharvaveda
1. Atharvana Upanishad or Mantra Upanishad of Atharvaveda or Mundaka Upanishad
2. Pranava Upanishad ( in Gopatha Braahmana)
3. Skambha Sukta
4. Ucchishta Sukta
5. Prana Sukta
6. Gayatri Upanishad (Gopatha Brahamana I, 32-33)

7. Brahma Sukta
XII. Paippalada Shakha of Atharvaveda
1. Prashna Upanishad
2. Brahma Upanishad
3. Garbha Upanishad
4. Samhita Upanishad or Brahma Sukta (Paippalada Atharvaveda VIII, 9, 1-12)
XIII. Atharva Veda Upanishads of Unknown Shakhas or not belonging to any Shakha
1. Chulika Upanishad
2. Mandukya Upanishad
3. Brahmabindu Upanishad
4. Nadabindu Upanishad
5. Dhyanabindu Upanishad
6. Amritabindu Upanishad
7. Tejobindu Upanishad
8. Atharvashiras Upanishad
9. Atharvashikha Upanishad
10. Kaivalya Upanishad
XIV. Upanishads whose Vedic Shakha is not known or which do not belong to any Shakha
1. Shaunaka Upanishad
2. Arsheya Upanishad

THE MORAL AND ETHICAL VALUES IN THE RAMAYANA

The scriptural literature of the Hindus are broadly divided into two categoriesthe Shrutis
and the Smritis. The former stands for the Vedas that are regarded as God-revealed. The
latter are Man-realized and according to some scholars they consist of Dharmashastras,
Itihasas or epics, Puranas, agamas and darshanas.
The Ramayana is one of the great Indian epics. It is very popular among the Hindus as the
repository of great ethical and moral values. The word Ramayana is a combination of Ram
and Ayan which means the travels of Rama. This epic consists in twenty four thousand verses
in seven cantos divided into five hundred songs. The seven cantos are Balakandam,
Ayodhyakandam, Aranyakandam, Kishkindhakandam, Sundarakandam, Yudhakandam and
Uttarakandam.
The Ramayana represents the spirit of righteousness and the performance of ones duty.
According to it, dharma is the soul of life. Through the characters it depicts, we find that social
life and spiritual life are wonderfully harmonized in it. Rama is the embodiment of all virtues,
particularly the virtue of truthfulness. It is for the sake of truth that he loses his kingdom. When

he was ready for coronation as the king of Ayodhya, misfortune strikes. Owing to the evil plan
of his step-mother Kaikeyi who dictated King Dasaratha to send Rama to exile and make
Bharata the king, Rama had to follow the instructions of his father and leave the kingdom. We
find that Rama adhered to the promise that he made to his father and did not deviate from it.
He shunned all the material comforts and luxuries of the palace and went to live in the forest
unhesitatingly. Even when Bharata requested him to return to his kingdom, he did not comply
with it. The reason was that being truthful to ones words, in spite of all difficulties, was a
significant aspect of his character. To forsake truth for any reason whatsoever is regarded as
sin. In Indian tradition, truth is God; one who adheres to the path of truth can attain God.
Mahatma Gandhi too emphasized it.
Sri Ramas government was a specimen of ideal administration. It was in fact, an earthly
representation of the divine governance of the universe under the supreme sovereign, the
Almighty. Dharma, artha, kama and moksha are the four Purusharthas or the moral ideals in the
Hindu tradition. Artha and kama are essential for human life but they are subservient to dharma
and moksha. Moksha or liberation is the highest ideal of life because a liberated soul discards
its bondage with the body and merges with the Paramatman or the Brahman.
To pay due attention to dharma ,artha, kama and moksha, and the individual, society, nation
and their relationship with the universe as a whole is the duty of an ideal monarch. Sri Rama,
the hero of the Ramayana, is such a ruler. In fact, the vision of an ideal state presented in the
Ramayana has been an important aspect of Indian political thinking from ancient times till
today, so much so that Mahatma Gandhi, a contemporary political leader,used the term Ram
Rajya to express his conception of the ideal state. The ideal organization of the Ram Rajyahas
been providing constant inspiration to Indian political thought from the period of the Ramayana
till today. Indian political thought has consistently supported the state, but the ideals of the king
stated in the Ramayana are humanist ideals, which is made clear by the fact that Rama even
banished his wife, Sita on the basis of the allegations made by some of his subjects. The state is
a means to ensure public welfare and it is the duty of the ruler to pay attention to public
opinion and grievances. Hence, Sita was compelled to appear for the test of fire (agnipariksha)
to prove her chastity. The welfare of the subjects was regarded as the dharma of a king and he
did not deviate from it. Dharma and satya go hand in hand, complementing one another. Rama
and Sita together, known as satyadharmaparayanah.
The character of Sita exemplifies the virtue of love, sacrifice and devotion. Leaving behind the
pomp and luxury that is natural for a queen, she followed her husband towards the forest. She
suffered mental anguish in captivity in Lanka. She was rescued from the clutches of Ravana and
united with Rama. Unfortunately, some of the subjects of Ayodhya grew suspicious of her
chastity and she had to appear before the test of fire.
Lakshmana also showed unflinching faith and devotion towards his elder brother and
accompanied him in adverse situations.
The character of Hanuman exemplifies the qualities of purity, strength and fearlessness. He
was brave and steadfast in his work. He was devoted to Lord Rama and sacrificed himself
towards liberating Sita from Lanka. The lesson that we derive from this unique character is,
courage and self-sacrificing spirit are necessary to achieve our ideals. Our task in life must be
done boldly. Divinity and purity are our birthrights. We must have faith in ourselves and we
must be bold enough to face everything in order to serve the Ideal. He was sincerely devoted to
Sri Rama and stood firm on purity and faith. Throughout his life, he served Rama faithfully with
unselfishness. Purity is real strength and it helped him to gain victory against the demon king
Ravana. In this context, we can mention an important teaching of the Indian tradition that a
pure soul must be lower than a blade of grass, have endurance like a tree, seek no honour for
himself but give honour to all.
Desirous of leaping across the hundred yojanas of ocean infested by aquatic creatures to reach
Lanka, Hanuman, the son of Wind-god, meditated in mind on Rama. He was absolutely
confident that Ramas signet ring with his name engraved that he was carrying, would help him
to overcome all difficulties.
The salvation of the bird named Jatayu too deserves mention. This bird chased Ravana when he
was carrying Sita to Lanka and was severely wounded. When Rama met the bird and heard the
story of Sitas abduction, he was grief-stricken. The bird informed Rama that Ravana went
towards southern direction. Being bruised and wounded, it was nearly dead but even at the

time of death it expressed its gratitude to Rama. It felt himself fortunate that it could die seeing
Rama, the incarnation of Mahavishnu.
In this context, we must note that this epic has magnificently portrayed the non-human
characters. These characters exemplify the virtues of sacrifice, purity and devotion. The human
and the non-human world are delicately interwined in this drama and it showed that a relation
of symbiosis existed between man and the animal world.
This is, in brief, a discussion of the moral and ethical values that are ingrained in the immortal
tale of Ramayana.

Value based life

In present scenario, the need of consciousness towards the values of family and social
life.
The present society is scientifically and technologically advanced. There has been immense
development in political, social and economic conditions of people. Unfortunately, there has
been sharp deterioration of values in our society. In this consumerist age, the ultimate purpose
of life is aggrandizement of wealth by any means. Men have become self-centered, selfish and
hanker for power. These attitudes have affected natural human relationships. There are many
instances of separation and divorce, cases where children are showing disrespect to their
parents, the old couples are compelled to stay in old age homes because their children are
reluctant to take their responsibility.
Mistrust, falsehood, cruelty and violence among people are increasing day by day. These are
the outcome of unbridled materialist greed and absence of moral values in individual lives. A
society can develop and prosper if the lives of individual members are based on a firm moral
and ethical base. Particularly, the children must be taught the moral values as well as their
significance in life. If we glance across our ancient scriptures which are the repertoires of
morality, we find glaring examples----------reading the Ramayana, we come to know how Rama
went to forest in order to keep his fathers promise, from the Mahabharata, we come to know
how king Yudhishtira adhered to truthfulness in the face of various kinds of obstacles, the story
of Nachiketa in the Katha Upanisads, the story of Satyakama and Jabala in the Chandogya
Upanisads etc. The ethical history and tradition in India are rich embodiments of values that
instruct us how to live honestly and peacefully. We, as members of society, should take the
initiative to spread the messages of our ancient texts to develop ethical consciousness among
people. It is an absolute need at present otherwise the society will crumble down. We should
keep in mind that ancient Indian moral and ethical systems, contained in our texts and
scriptures, are the goldmines that help us to develop individual and social consciousness in
practical life.
The ideas and concepts contained in the Vedas and the Upanishads teach us to inculcate
qualities of truth, purity, austerity and renunciation. The Vedas are regarded as treatises on
different rituals that are directed towards various gods. In this respect, the concept of definite
moral code or Rita deserves mention. It is maintained that it is our individual duty to maintain
the eternal moral order in the universe and God Varuna punishes the transgressor of this order.
Since Varuna is most prominently associated with Truth, it is regarded as an important content
of the Rta as well as the primary virtue of life. On the other hand, lying is regarded as sin or
vice. Besides truth, the virues of tapas (penance), sraddha (respect), friendship, non-cheating,
non-violence etc. are emphasized.
The following sloka of the Mundaka Upanisads may be considered: Satyameva jayate nanrtam
Satyena pantha vitato devayanah;
Yenakramantyrsayo hyaptakama
Yatra tatsatyasya paramam nidhanam.
The message contained in these lines is that a spiritual person will sacrifice everything for truth
but not truth for anything. Truth is both the means and the end of spiritual path. In spite of
enduring sufferings and hardship, a spiritual aspirant never deviates from the path of truth.
Indian moral system contains within it both individual and social ethics. The Indian moral
system rests on the assumption that as a human being each person has to discharge two types
of moral obligations----------one related to his own self and the other concerned with the other

members of the society. Under the former comes the qualities of indriya-nigraha(control of the
senses), aparigraha(non-attachment to worldly objects), study of the scriptures,
sauca(cleanliness), asana, pranayama and other techniques of physical and mental exercises.
Liberality and compassion are important virtues related to the latter. The basic idea is that man
must realize his human characteristics and control his crude animal instincts. The lower
inclinations should be regulated by the higher or the spiritual elements of man.
Since the age of the Vedas, the Indian society is divided into four classes, with specific duties
assigned to each class. This is known as the asrama dharma. In the Smrtis, we obtain
description of individual duties, according to his varna and asrama. The common duties allotted
to each person, irrespective of his varna and asrama, are called the sadharana dharmas. These
duties aim at individual purity as well as social morality. We can mention some of the significant
dharmas,
written
by
Manu,
for
instance,
satya(truthfulness),
dhriti(patience),
ksama(forgiveness), dama(self-control),asteya(non-stealing),akrodha(absence of anger) etc.
Svadharma and niskama karma are the essential teachings of the Bhagavadgita. The valuable
advice of Lord Krishna to Arjuna in the battlefield of Kurukhetra is to do ones work
dispassionately without the motive to enjoy the fruit of his action. It also contains the beautiful
concept of stithaprajya, i.e. a person who can maintain the equanimity and tranquility of mind
both in happy and unhappy situations.
Indian philosophy is based on a spiritualistic metaphysics. In this respect, the Advaita Vedanta
philosophy of Shankaracharya deserves special mention. It asserts that the Brahman or the
Pure Self is Existence, Consciousness and Bliss. This absolute consciousness is present in each
and every individual soul and hence, the individual self and the absolute Self are one and the
same. Unfortunately, due to avidya or maya, the individual self fails to realize this identity.
When knowledge dawns in his mind, he comes to know that pain and suffering are the outcome
of maya or illusion that pervades the entire world. Therefore, the Vedanta teaches us to realize
the ultimate teaching of the Vedanta, namely. Tat Tvam Asi (That Thou Art). The first sloka of
the Isa Upanishads reminds us that everything in this universe is enveloped by the Absolute
and pure Consciousness, the Brahman. It reminds us not to accumulate the wealth of other
people. Each person should enjoy within limits and distribute the excess amount among the
people in need. Mahatma Gandhi formulated his concept of trusteeship on the basis of this
verse where he insisted the wealthy sections of people in the society to enjoy through
renunciation. In the Katha Upanisads, it is maintained that good conduct is a necessary
condition for realizing the unity between the self and the Brahman. The virtues required are
calmness and serenity of mind. In the Taittiriya Upanisads, it is said that when the student
departs from the teacher after receiving education, the teacher reminds him to speak the truth
and practice virtue.
In this regard, we can consider the essential teachings of Swami Vivekananda who asserted
that each man is potentially divine. Education is the manifestation of perfection that is
inherent in man. We must shake off all weakness and cowardice. His clarion call to all
Individuals, irrespective of their caste, sex, economic conditions, was to build strong
character and work tirelessly to achieve the goal by any means. By developing both
physical and spiritual power, man can realize his essential identity with the Supreme Soul.
Since the ultimate Consciousness inheres in each and every individual mind, we can
reach God and attain liberation by worshipping individuals themselves. It is called
Sivajnane jiva seva. By developing such attitude, we can reconstruct our society on love
and friendship and respect.
I like to conclude that the individual and the social life must be based on consciousness of
moral values that are ingrained in our revered scriptures. Such knowledge will benefit the
individual to maintain a healthy family life and build up a society based on love,
cooperation and brotherhood

THE MORAL AND ETHICAL VALUES IN THE RAMAYANA

The scriptural literature of the Hindus are broadly divided into two categoriesthe Shrutis
and the Smritis. The former stands for the Vedas that are regarded as God-revealed. The
latter are Man-realized and according to some scholars they consist of Dharmashastras,
Itihasas or epics, Puranas, agamas and darshanas.
The Ramayana is one of the great Indian epics. It is very popular among the Hindus as the
repository of great ethical and moral values. The word Ramayana is a combination of Ram
and Ayan which means the travels of Rama. This epic consists in twenty four thousand verses
in seven cantos divided into five hundred songs. The seven cantos are Balakandam,
Ayodhyakandam, Aranyakandam, Kishkindhakandam, Sundarakandam, Yudhakandam and
Uttarakandam.
The Ramayana represents the spirit of righteousness and the performance of ones duty.
According to it, dharma is the soul of life. Through the characters it depicts, we find that social
life and spiritual life are wonderfully harmonized in it. Rama is the embodiment of all virtues,
particularly the virtue of truthfulness. It is for the sake of truth that he loses his kingdom. When
he was ready for coronation as the king of Ayodhya, misfortune strikes. Owing to the evil plan
of his step-mother Kaikeyi who dictated King Dasaratha to send Rama to exile and make
Bharata the king, Rama had to follow the instructions of his father and leave the kingdom. We
find that Rama adhered to the promise that he made to his father and did not deviate from it.
He shunned all the material comforts and luxuries of the palace and went to live in the forest
unhesitatingly. Even when Bharata requested him to return to his kingdom, he did not comply
with it. The reason was that being truthful to ones words, in spite of all difficulties, was a
significant aspect of his character. To forsake truth for any reason whatsoever is regarded as
sin. In Indian tradition, truth is God; one who adheres to the path of truth can attain God.
Mahatma Gandhi too emphasized it.
Sri Ramas government was a specimen of ideal administration. It was in fact, an earthly
representation of the divine governance of the universe under the supreme sovereign, the
Almighty. Dharma, artha, kama and moksha are the four Purusharthas or the moral ideals in the
Hindu tradition. Artha and kama are essential for human life but they are subservient to dharma
and moksha. Moksha or liberation is the highest ideal of life because a liberated soul discards
its bondage with the body and merges with the Paramatman or the Brahman.
To pay due attention to dharma ,artha, kama and moksha, and the individual, society, nation
and their relationship with the universe as a whole is the duty of an ideal monarch. Sri Rama,
the hero of the Ramayana, is such a ruler. In fact, the vision of an ideal state presented in the
Ramayana has been an important aspect of Indian political thinking from ancient times till
today, so much so that Mahatma Gandhi, a contemporary political leader,used the term Ram
Rajya to express his conception of the ideal state. The ideal organization of the Ram Rajyahas
been providing constant inspiration to Indian political thought from the period of the Ramayana
till today. Indian political thought has consistently supported the state, but the ideals of the king
stated in the Ramayana are humanist ideals, which is made clear by the fact that Rama even
banished his wife, Sita on the basis of the allegations made by some of his subjects. The state is
a means to ensure public welfare and it is the duty of the ruler to pay attention to public
opinion and grievances. Hence, Sita was compelled to appear for the test of fire (agnipariksha)
to prove her chastity. The welfare of the subjects was regarded as the dharma of a king and he
did not deviate from it. Dharma and satya go hand in hand, complementing one another. Rama
and Sita together, known as satyadharmaparayanah.
The character of Sita exemplifies the virtue of love, sacrifice and devotion. Leaving behind the
pomp and luxury that is natural for a queen, she followed her husband towards the forest. She
suffered mental anguish in captivity in Lanka. She was rescued from the clutches of Ravana and
united with Rama. Unfortunately, some of the subjects of Ayodhya grew suspicious of her
chastity and she had to appear before the test of fire.
Lakshmana also showed unflinching faith and devotion towards his elder brother and
accompanied him in adverse situations.
The character of Hanuman exemplifies the qualities of purity, strength and fearlessness. He
was brave and steadfast in his work. He was devoted to Lord Rama and sacrificed himself
towards liberating Sita from Lanka. The lesson that we derive from this unique character is,
courage and self-sacrificing spirit are necessary to achieve our ideals. Our task in life must be
done boldly. Divinity and purity are our birthrights. We must have faith in ourselves and we
must be bold enough to face everything in order to serve the Ideal. He was sincerely devoted to

Sri Rama and stood firm on purity and faith. Throughout his life, he served Rama faithfully with
unselfishness. Purity is real strength and it helped him to gain victory against the demon king
Ravana. In this context, we can mention an important teaching of the Indian tradition that a
pure soul must be lower than a blade of grass, have endurance like a tree, seek no honour for
himself but give honour to all.
Desirous of leaping across the hundred yojanas of ocean infested by aquatic creatures to reach
Lanka, Hanuman, the son of Wind-god, meditated in mind on Rama. He was absolutely
confident that Ramas signet ring with his name engraved that he was carrying, would help him
to overcome all difficulties.
The salvation of the bird named Jatayu too deserves mention. This bird chased Ravana when he
was carrying Sita to Lanka and was severely wounded. When Rama met the bird and heard the
story of Sitas abduction, he was grief-stricken. The bird informed Rama that Ravana went
towards southern direction. Being bruised and wounded, it was nearly dead but even at the
time of death it expressed its gratitude to Rama. It felt himself fortunate that it could die seeing
Rama, the incarnation of Mahavishnu.
In this context, we must note that this epic has magnificently portrayed the non-human
characters. These characters exemplify the virtues of sacrifice, purity and devotion. The human
and the non-human world are delicately interwined in this drama and it showed that a relation
of symbiosis existed between man and the animal world.
This is, in brief, a discussion of the moral and ethical values that are ingrained in the immortal
tale of Ramayana.