J. of Thermal Science Voh2, No.

Journal of Thermal Science

Science Press 1993

Liquid Jet Impingement

without Boiling t

H e a t T r a n s f e r w i t h or

C.F. Ma

D.H. Lei

Y.P. Gan

Y.C. Tian

Department of Thermal Science and Engineering, Beijing Polytechnic University, Beijing 100022, China

T. Gomi
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sophia University, Tokyo 102, Japan
The p u r p o s e of tlfis p a p e r is to sununaa'ize the impox taalt s t u d i e s m t h e

an'ca
of m a p i n g e m e n t h e a t t r a n s f e r w i t h
or w i t h o u t p h a s e c h a n g e , w i t h e m p h a s i s o n t h e r e s e a r c h c o n d u c t e d at Beijing P o l y t e c l m i c U*fiversity m a i n l y
w i t h circular j e t s . H e a t traalsfer cahna'acteristics of single p h a s e j e t s ~a'e d i s c u s s e d in detail. C o n u n e n t is presented
on boiling h e a t t r a n s f e r of i m p i n g i n g j e t s for s t e a d y nard t r a n s i e n t s t a t e s . Some special c . o l i n g coifflgurations of
t w o - p h a s e j e t s a r e also i n t r o d u c e d .

Keywords: impingement heat transfer, single phase, phase change, steady state, transient state.
INTRODUCTION
As an effective means of providing high heat/mass
transfer rates, impinging jets have been used widely
in industrial cooling or heating processes. It has long
been a subject of great importance both t,o engim.us
of thermal equipment and to heat transfi.'r scientists.
In most cases air is employed a.s the working medium.
The applications of gas jets include temperature control of gas turbine blades, tempering of glass, drying of textiles, veneer, paper and some other materials, annealing of metal and plastic sheets [1] and, more
recently, cooling of electronic equipment [2]. Considerable effort has been devoted to the study of gas
jet impingement and much research o~t this topic has
been published. Comprehensive surveys haw: been
presented by Martin [LJ], Downs and J a l n e s [4] aml
Hrycak[4A].
Recently, incre;Lsed attention ha.s been directed to
the study of liquid jet impingeme.ut, as the heat transfer coefficient can be increased several orders of magnitude in comparison with that of gas jets. Apparently, this heat transfe.r technique is a pronfising candidate for cooling components with very high power
densities encountered in technical process. With liqReceived A u g u s t , 1992.
t I n v i t e d lecttwe p r e s e n t e d by Prof, C.F. M a at the lOth
N a t i o n a l Heat l"h'ansfer Conference of Italy. Gcnova,
J u n e 25-27, 1992

uid as the working fluid two modes of operation are

possible: submerged jets and machine free-surface
jets. In the former case, a liquid jet is issued into
a liquid. In the latter, a liquid jet is exposed to a
gaseous environment,. Impinging jets can also be classifted by their shapes. Both circular and planar liquid
jets have attracted considerable attention in research
and engineering. Research of liquid jet impingement
heat transfer has been stimulated by its applications
to cooling systems of oil-cooled internal combustion
engines [5] or liquid-cooled electronic devices [6] and to
heat treatment of metals [v]. Depending on the temperature difference between the target wall temperature
T,,, and the saturation temperature of the jet liquid
71,, impingement heat transfer may have two patterns:
single phase h,rced convection and forced convective
boiling. Although single-phase jets have been most
extensively employed in industry, boiling jets are also
important in some applications [7,s]. In steel rolling,
the workpiece temperature ranges from room tempera;ure to its recrystallization temperature (about
10(}0C). Various regimes of boiling phenomenon, ineluding nucleate, transition and fihn boiling may be
observed ['1]. Jet impingement boiling may occur not
only at steady state [s] but also take place as a transient process [7] resulting in great complexity of the
phenontenon. Besides impingement boiling of liquid
jets, two-ph;~se heat transfer of jet impingement was
also proposed and tested in other configurations,

C.F. Ma et al.

Liquid Jet Impingement Heat Transfer with or Without Boiling

Greek Symbols

Nomenclature
specific heat at constant pressure

6y

vapor fihn tlfickness

heater d i a m e t e r

o"

d
h

jet diameter
heat trmlsfer coefl~.cient q / ( T w - T )
heat of vaporization
thermal conductivity
heater length, potential core length
jet number
Nusselt number ( d h / k )
Prandtl munber (p,Cp/k)
heat flux

p
#
"7

S t e f a n B a n t z m a n constant,
surface tension
density
dynanfic viscosity
kinematic viscosity

0
ew

jet angle
wall emissivity

c
d
i

critical
based on diameter a
iuitial boiling

liquid

lnax
o
r
s
t
IJ

nlaxinlunl
s t a g q l a t i o n p o i n t , n o t enhaa~ced
based on radial distm~ce r
sat~u'~tlon
t r a a l s l t i o n to t u r b u l e n t flow
vapol

w.,dl

wp

wd, h i n p~t, enti',xl c o l e a v e l u g e

(7l,

h I~

k
L
n
Nu(Nud)

Pr
q
r

radial distance

r 7.

radius where the thenxtal botmdmT

layer reaches the free liquid surface
Reynolds nmnber
temperature
wall superheat ( Tw - Ts )
liquid subcooling (T, - TI)
specific volume change
during vaporization
nozzle-to-plate spacing

Re(Red)

T
AT,

ATsub
rio

including gas jets impinging on a heater submerged

in liquid pool [ n ' n l and impinging jets of mixtures of
gas and liquid [1a'14]. These two jet techniques outperformed traditional forced convection methods [11- fd].
As reported by the keynote lectures presented by Faggiani and Grassi [15] and Kataoka [lsl, the recent studies
have contributed greatly both to applied and to fundamental investigations of liquid jet impingelnent heat
transfer. However, there are still many basic problcn~s
that remain unsolved and many potential applications
being explored. Consequently this field certainly represents one of the most important, challenging and
growing areas of heat transfer. The purpose of this
paper is to summarize some of the i m p o r t a n t results
of the research efforts in the area of liquid jet impingement with or without boiling. A general overview of
this subject is presented with special attention to the
fundamental research conducted at Beijing Polytechnic University. The present paper is mainly focused
on circular liquid jets.

SINGLE
MENT

PHASE

LIQUID

33

JET

IMPINGE-

1. A n a l y t i c a l R e s e a r c h
Recently, research effort in this area was mainly expended in the study of free-surface jets. Watson [lv]
studied the fluid mechanics of an impinging radial liquid jet by means of b o u n d a r y - l a y e r theory, both for

Subscripts

laminar and turbulent flows. However, solutions for

the stagnation zone were not provided in his report.
Based on the research of Watson, Chaudhry[ ls] analyzed tile hea~ transfer process in the same problem,
but he also restricted it to the wall jet zone. Yonehara
and Ito [19] reported their solutions of stream and heat
transfer in stagnation and wall jet zones for laminar
flow by an approxinlate method of integration. Their
analytical work dealt with a horizontal plate with uniform wall t e m p e r a t u r e intpinged by a single circular
liquid jet. But they did not provide the details of
their analysis. The present authors and his colleagues
reported the preliminary results of their approximate
solutions by integral techniques for impingement heat
transfer with single axisymmetric liquid jet on a horizontal plate under a r b i t r a r y - h e a t - flux conditions [2].
Wang et al i)rcscnted detailed theoretical solutions
for the heat transfer both in the stagnation and wall
jet zones [21-23]. But :Ls ('ommcnted by Liu et al [241,
"they did not consider the downstream similarity region, where the sm'fa(:c w:locity (leclincs with radius:
at common Reynolds numbers the stagnation zone and
boundary layer region are confined to radii of 3 to 7
dianteters fi'om the point of impact. When a jet is
used to cool large areas, the sinfilarity region and turbulent transition must also be accounted for". Using integral tcclmiqucs Liu and Lienhard [24] obtained
heat transfer solutions for laminar and turbulent flows
over uniformly heated surfaces. A set of formulae was
presented to predict local heat transfer in very wide

34

JournM of Thermal Science, Vol. 2, No.l, 1993

ranges of variables. A prediction for turbulent transition was also included in the analysis. The success
of this analytical work was excellently verified by the
good agreement between the analytical prediction and
the numerical and experimental results reported by
the authors themselves and other investigations [21'22].
Based on Ref.[20] the present authors presented analytical results for local laminar heat transfer with
a circular impinging jet on a horizontal surface at
arbitrary-heat-flux condition (Fig.l). The local Nusself number can be expressed as follows.

IV. Region IV (r > rr)

In this region.both the viscous and thermal boundary layers have reached the liquid-free-surface.
Nu = {[4c/(PrRe)](r/d) 2
+ ( 272 / 525 )( R / d) } - ~

(w)

R = 5.147r2/(dRe) + O.17132(d2/r)

(8)

wtler.e

It is noted that if P r > 9.7144, rt will be negative

according to Eq.(5) at constant heat flux (e = 1).
This indicates that the thermal boundary layer can
not reach the liquid free-surface.
Using Eqs.(1-8), we can predict local heat transfer
on horizontal surface impinged by a single free-surface
jet with a r b i t r a r y - h e a t - f l u x conditions.

f.z f
7" v

2. E x p e r i m e n t a l R e s e a r c h
Experimental studies have been extensively performed of single-phase liquid jet impingement. Research on circular free-surface and submerged liquid
jets is briefly summarized in Tables 1 and 2 respectively.

"l"T

Ylg.1 D e v e l o p m e n t of t h e b m n l d a r y layer w i t h
i m p i n g i n g liquid circular jet

I. Region I--Stagnation Zone (r<d)

0.7212e - *Pr o 4Rel/2
Nit = { 0.7212~ -3~Pr37ReL/2
0.8597~-X13prllaReX/2

0.7 < Pr < 3

3 < Pr < 10
Pr > 10

(1)

where
E--

2 fo qo(~)~d~

(2)

qo(r)r ~-

for the mfiform heat flux condition, E = 1.

Nuo = cPr"'Re"

II. Region II, (d < r < rv)

In this region, the thickness of thermal boundary
layer and the thickness of the viscous boundary layer
are both less than the liquid film thickness.
r~ = 0.17728dRe 1/a

(3)

N u = 0 . 6 6 8 E - ~ / a p r l / a R e ~ / 2 ( r / d ) -~/~"

(4)

III. Region III (rv < r < Rr)

In this region, the viscous boundary layer has
reached the free-surface of the liquid fihn, but the
thickness of thermal boundary layer is still smaller
than that of the liquid film.
0.1713

rt

\1/3

= (5Or-- - - -5 . 1 4 7 P r )

1"3

/~e /

(5)

N u = 1.5874-113prl/3Rel/3
x(

25.735r 3
~
+ 0.8566) -2j3

2.1 Heat transfer at stagnation point

For stagnation point heat transfer, the general form
of the equation for local Nusselt number has been well
established both for free-surface jets and submerged
jets
(9)

Using the experimental apparatus with nozzles and

test sections of thc same design and size, a great
amount of data for stagnation point heat transfer has
been collected and correlated by Ma et al with submerged jets of seven working fluids including R113 [[37],
Kerosene [36], ethylene glycol, transformer oil [~} and
water [39] along with air and nitrogen gas [3s]. More
resently, the experiments were extended to the range
of Prandtl nmnber up to 351 [4]. Similar experiments
were also performed with free-surface circular jets of
Rl13, kerosene and transformer oil. It was experimentally determined that n = 1/2, and m = 1/3 for
P r > 3 or 0.4 for P r < 3 and c = 1.29 both for
submerged and free-surface jets. The dependence of
stagnation-point Nusselt number on Reynolds number
and Prandtl number is illustrated in Figs.2 and 3 for
submerged and free-surface circular jets respectively.
From Eq.(9) a new dimensionless group, Froessling
number, can be defined as in [ls]

(6)
Fso = N u o / R e l / 2 p r 1/3

(i0)

C . F . M a et al.

Liquid Jet Impingement

H e a t T r a n s f e r w i t h or W i t h o u t

Tabl~e 1 Experimental

Authors

Fluid

S t u d i e s of F r e e - s u r f a c e

Jet

Boiling

35

Circular Liquid Jets

Heat/Mass

Transfer

Heat/Mass

Transfer Result

Surface
[Sarsanti, F a g g i a n :

Water

Single, Vertical,

Unifoorm Heat

Local Heat Transfer

a n d G r a s s i fz61

Pr = 3.26-6.04

0 = 90

Flux

N u = O.0136Pr'a:ReSs7

Pipe Type Nozzle

L/d : 5.0-10.6

N u = O.O136Pr '42 Re sat

(1988)

(Lid)o.lo3

d = 10-20 m m ,

z / d = 2.5-10
Re=5.3x
Faggi~ni and
G r a s s i 12~1

Water
Pr=3.8

(199o)

104-2.1

x l0 s

Single,Vertical,

Uniform Heat

Local Heat Transfor

8 ---- 90

Flux

Nuo = CPrOtRe"

Pipe Type Nozzle

L = 100 m m

n = 0 . 4 1 7 - 0 . 4 8 3 L o w e r Re

- 8.8!

0 . 6 0 6 - 0 . 9 9 8 H i g h e r Re

d = 17mm

z / d = 0 . 4 7 - 5.0
Re= 2 x 104Grassi and

Water

1.5 x 10 ~

Single,Vertical,

Ui~if,~rm t l e a t

M a g r i n i [271

0 = 90

Flux

(1991)

Pipe Type Nozzle,

L / d = 5.9, 10

Local tteat Transfer

Nu,l

/ ( F r ) P r 4Re

(z/~)-o

,,~

d = 10.17 m m

fFr presented

z / d = 10, 14, 70

as g r a p h i c

Re= 1 x 103-2.5

x 105

functions

F r = 2 - 160

Stevens a n d

Water

Single, Vertical,

Uniform Heat

Webbi2Sl

0 = 90

Flux

(t990)

Pipe Type Nozzle

15 m m x

Nu. = 2.67Pr ~Re

80 m m

d = 2.2 - 8.8 m m ,

Stevens and

Water

103-5

(z/d)

.....

3aO(uld)-O ~3~

Nu,, = 1 . 5 t R e " ' 4 " P r ' i ( z / d ) - " '

x 104

Single,Vertical,

Uniform Heat

Local Heat Transfer

Webbl2l

0 = 40 - 90

Flux

N a = A R e a e p*'~*h

(1991)

Pipe Type Nozzle

15 m i n x 8 0

mm

d = 4.6, 9.3 m m ,

Re = 6 . 6
Liu,Lienhard

Water

'4

or

z l d = 0.56 - 18.5
Re=4x

Local Heat Transfor

It/d[ _< 3
0 in r a d i a n ;

x 10 a - 5.2 x 104

A, a, p, m , n - c o n s t a n t s

Single,Vertical,

Uniform Heat

Local Heat Transfer

and L o m b e r a [241

0 = 90

Flux

Correlations presented

(1991)

Orifize Type
d = 3 . 1 8 , 6.35, 9.5 m m

Re = 3.06 x 104 - 8.55 x 104

152 m m

x177 mm

for l a m i n a r t u r b u l e n t
a n d t r a n s i t i o n a l flow

36

J o u r n a l of T h e r m a l Science, Vol. 2, N o . l , 1993

T a b l e 1 E x p e r i m e n t i a l S t u d i e s of F r e e - s u r f a c e C i r c u l a r Liquid J e t s ( C o n t i n u e d )
Authors

H e a t / M a s s Transfer H e a t / M a s s T r a n s f e r
Result
S urfac e
Average Heat Transfer
U n i f o r m Wall
N u = 2.65Pr'24Re '4v
Temperature
( D / d )-'es
D / d = 1.7 -- 25.1
for oil

Jet

Fluid

Metzger, Cummings
Water
and R u b y [al
P r = 3.0-4.2
1974
Lubricating
oil
P r = 85-151

Single, Vertical, 0 = 90
P i p e T y p e Nozzle
d = 3.84, 8.18 m m , z / d = 3-24
R e = 2 . 2 x 10 a - l . 2 x 104 for oil
~.4 x 1 0 3 - 1.4 10 s
['or w a t e r

Jiji and
D a g a n [al]
(1986)

FC-77
Water

Y o n e h a r a and
[to [*oI
1983)

Water

Womac. Aharoni
R a m a d h y a n i and
I n c r o p e r a [3~]
(1990)
Ma Zhao, Sun a n d
Gomi I'sl
I1992)

Water
FC~77

H o r i z o n t a l Single J e t and
2 x 2.3 x 3 A r r a y s for p e r h e a t e r
Orifize T y p e Nozzle, d -- 0.51, 1 m m
Re = 2.8 x 103 - 1.2 x 104 for F C - 7 7
1 x 1 0 4 - 2 x 104 for w a t e r
Vertical, Single and 3 x 3
Arrays 8 = 90
Pipe T y p e Nozzle
= 1,4,6,8 mm, z/d = 5
Re = 7.14 103 - 4.81 x 104
Single, Vertical, 0 = 90
P i p e T y p e Nozzle
= 0.457-6.55 m m , z / d = 1 - 10

(#o/#.,,,,)-o.s,

N u = 2.74Pr'4SV Re's4s
( D / d)-'v"(l~o l l~,w ) 's"
for oil a n d w a t e r

Horizontal, Single J e t
Pipe T y p e Nozzle
i = 1 m m , z / d = 2-20
Kerosene
P r -- 20-21, Re -- 50-23000
Transformoil
P r = 260
~ingle J e t , Vertical, 0 = 90
Nakoryakov, P o k u s a ev. and Troyan laal
Pipe T y p e Nozzle
1978)
Rll3

P r = 7-8

U n i f o r m Wall
Temperature
L = 12.7 .mm
Single and
2 x 2.3 x 3 Arrays
U n i f o r m Wall
Temperature
L -- 330 m m

U n i f o r m Wall
Temperature
L = 12.7 m m

N u = 3 . 8 4 P r l / a R e 112
[O.O08(L/d)N + 1]

Average Heat Transfer

N u = 2 . 3 8 P r l / S R e 2 / Z ( d / p ) 4/~
for single j e t or j e t arrays

Average Heat Transfer

Without Correlation

Uniform H e a t F l u x Local H e a t T r a n s f e r
N u = 1 . 2 9 P r l / a R e */z
L=5mm
for z / d < P o t e n t i c a l Core

Local M a s s T r a n s f o r

T a b l e 2 E x p e r i m e n t M S t u d i e d of S u b m e r g e d Circular Liquid J e t s
Authors
Rao and Trass la41
(1964)

Yamamoto, Udagawa
and Suzuki [el

Fluid
Water

Water

(1990)
Smirnov,Verevochkin
and Brdlick [as]

Water

(1961)
Wamac, A h a r o n i ,
Ramadhyani and
Incropera

See Table 1

Ma,Tian,Sun,Lei
and Bergles la6]

Kerosene
P r = 20
Air, N2 Gas
P r -- 0.7

Jet
Single, Vertical, 8 = 90
d = 3.96 m m
z / d -- 0.2-20
Re = 2 . 5 x 1 0 4 - 1.25 l0 s
P i p e T y p e Nozzle
Single, Vertical,0 = 90
d=3mm
z / d in P o t e n t i a l Core
Re = 1 x l0 s - 8 x
l0 s
Single,Horizontal,8 = 90
d = 2.5 - 36.6 m m
z / d = 0.5 - 10
Re = 1.6 1 0 4 - 5
104
P i p e T y p e Nozzle

Heat/Mass Transfer
L = 241 m m

Single,horizontal,8 = 90
d=lmm
z/d-- 1-20 mm

Uniform Heat Flux

H e a t / M a s s Transfer Result
Local M a s s T r a n s f e r

Sho = O.046Re*'G(z/d)-'
for z / d < 6.5

Sho = O.107Rel'S(z/d)-'s4
Uniform Heat Flux

for z / d > 6.5

Local and A v e r a g e
Heat Transfer
N u o = (0.6 - 0 . 8 ) P r 4 R e 's

N u = 0.39Pr'4Re 's
U n i f o r m H e a t Flux

Average Heat Transfer

N u = 0.55Re'SPr T M
N u = O.034d'Re'S4Pr '33
exp(-0.037z/d)
for 8 = 90

(1990)

(1988)

Re = 6 x 1 0 2 - 6 x

103

for gas
Re = 1.1 10 z - 1.5 x 104
for ferosene
P i p e T y p e Nozzle

L=5mm

Local Heat Transfer

N u , = 1.29Re'SlZprO'S
for K e r o s e n e z / d < 5
N u o = 1 . 2 9 P r ' 4 R e '~

[4.5/Cz/4]s
for gas z / d > 5

C.F. M a e t

el.

37

L i q u i d J e t I m p i n g e m e n t H e a t T r a n s f e r w i t h or W i t h o u t Boiling
Table

Authors

2 E x p e r i m e n t a l Studies of S u b m e r g e d C i r c u l a r L i q u i d J e t s ( c o n t i n u e d )

Fluid

Jet

H e a t / M a s s T r a n s f e r iH e a t / M a s s T r a n s f e r R e s u l t
Surface

M a a n d Bergles Ils~l

Rl13

(1988)

Single, H o r i z o n t a l ,

Uniform Heat Flux

Local Heat Transfer

8 = 90

L=5mm

Nuo = 1.29Pr'4ReS
for z l d < 4.5

d=lmm

Nuo = 1.29Pr'4Re 5

zig= 1.5-21
Re=2.5 x 103-2.9X

[ 4 . 5 / ( z / d ) ] o.o

10 4

for z / d > 4.5

P i p e T y p e Nozzle
Ma,Sun,Auracher

T r a n s f o r m e r Oil S i n g l e , H o r i z o n t a l ,

a n d G o m i [sal

Pr=202-210

(199o)

8 = 90

Uniform Heat Flux

Local Heat Transfor

L=Smm

Nuo = 1.29PrllaRe 's

for z / d < 8

E t h y l e n e Glycol d = l m m
P r = 80 - 127

Nuo = 1.29PrllaReO'S

z / d = 1 - 20
Re:

1.3 x 1 0 2 - 2 . 1

103
for z l d > 8

P i p e T y p e Nozzle
Single,Horizontal,

Water

Sun,Me and
N a k a y a m a Isal

90

Uniform Heat Flux

Local H e a t T r a n s f o r

L=Smm

Nuo = 1.02Pr'36SRe 's

for z / d < 5

d=lmm

(1992)

z/d = 1

Nuo = 1.02Pr'aSSRe s

20

Re =5.1 1 0 3 - 2 . 1

[5/(z/d)]

104

for z l d > 5

P i p e T y p e Nozzle

Average Heat Transfer

D = 100 m m

Single,Vertical,

Water

Sitharamayya

N u = Pri/aCd/D)2 [32.49Re 's23

d - 1.74 - 12.65 m m

a n d R a j u [a^l
(1969)

z/,i

1.o

Re:2

+0.268( D / d

7.1

o.~

x 10 3 - 4

8 ) R e o's2s]

10 i

P i p e T y p e Nozzle

10 a ,

A trinsformer oil (Pr = 260)

llerctene (Pr = 2 0 - 21}

10 ~

Q R-11s (Pr

7 - a)

102
1o,
!

~
10

10

'"

,../~'~
"

.......

10s

........

air

0.4

nitrogen g ~
water

04

R-113

0.33

kerosene

ethylene

transformer

103
Re

Nu = 1.29Pri/~Re 1/2

10

0 33
0 33

glycol

. . . . . . . .

0 33

oi)

0.33

.....

10'

Fig.2 Stagnation point heat transfer with impinging

circular submerged jets of various fluidsliOt

L,

LOs

i a Ilml[

10~

aleJf[

J l

10~

J JJZJ|

104
Re
Fig.3 Stagnation point beat transfer with impinging
circular free jets of various Ziquids

38

Journal of Thermal Science, Vol. 2, No.I, 1993

The actual Froessling number is not a constant,

but a function of the 'turbulence intensity which is.
affected by nozzle shape and size and nozzle-to-plate
spacing[ 15'2s]. It is emphasized by Kataoka116] that
the effect of large scale eddies impinging on heat transfer surfaces is dominant in the mechanism for enhancement of stagnation point heat transfer. Experimental
research by Stevens and Webb [2s] and Vader e" al ~41]
indicates that the free-stream velocity gradient exerts
a significant influence on local heat transfer. This is
also justified by the analytical solution for rotationally symmetric, laminar stagnation flow from an infinite jet [42]. The dependence of stagnation point heat
transfer on the velocity gradient was determined experimentally by Stevens and Webb 12s]. They found
that the local Nusselt number at stagnation point is
proportional to the velocity gradient raised to the
power of -0.237. The disadvantage of their work is
that the velocity gradient is a dimensional quantity
of unit s in the correlation. More recently, Grassi and
Magrini 127] studied free-surface water jets, both in the
fluid dynamics and in the heat transfer aspects. It was
found that the jet shape depends in a complicated way
on the fluid motion, and the local dimensionless diameter can be considered as a function of the Froude
number rather than the Reynolds number. It was also
determined that the Froessling number can be related
to the Froude number. The dependence of the Nusselt
number on the Froessling number w,~ given graphically. It can be used to examine the effect of nozzle
size.
The above discussion is mainly related to the
data with the targets held within the potential core.
For submerged circular jets, the variation of the
s t a g n a t i o n - p o i n t heat transfer rates with the nozzleto-plate spacing beyond the potential core can be expressed by

Nuo/Nuo,.,,, = [c/(z/d)] ~/~

(11)

where c = L / d is the nondimensional potential core

length. The inverse dependence of stagnation-point
heat transfer rates on the nozzle-to-plate spacing has
also been reported by Rao and Trass [34]. Using a
mass transfer technique, they experimentally determined that the exponent is 0.54 which is very close to
the value of 0.5 in E q . ( l l ) . It has been experimentally
determined that C increases with decreasing Reynolds
number. As roported by Ma et al, C = 4.5 for Rl13
with R e = 1.08 x 102 - 1.11 105 [37], C -- 5.0 for
Kerosene with R e = 4.30 103 - 1.37 4 I36] and
for water with R e
5.1 103
2.1 104 139], and
C -- 8.0 for transformer oil and ethylene glycol with
R e = 2.78 102 - 7.06 x 102 [38]. Apparently, the
=

- -

mixing of the jet liquid with the surrounding fluid

is intensified by increasing the Reynolds n u m b e r resulting in the shortening of potential core. As shown
in Fig.4, the d a t a for transformer oil and ethylene
glycol are in agreement with the curve predicted by
E q . ( l l ) . Within the potential core the Nusselt number at the stagnation point is essentially independent
of the nozzle-to-plate spacing only at low Reynolds
number. With increasing Reynolds number, a nonmonotonic variation may be observed. This trend is
illustrated in Fig.5 for submerged water jets 13s] and
can be attributed to enhancement of heat transfer by
the increase of turbulence intensity generated by the
jet itself. Similar results were reported by Gardon and
Cobonpue [421 for circular air jets.

1.0
x

o.s I

~o~

0
~,
0

~04

3.03
3 77
S.lS
7 06

4,4

6 6
7,8
9.8

10 2

lO ~
102
10 ~
3 4 9 x 102

5.1

--

i, 1801{.id)o5]

v,~.,~o . . . .

{Fr,, Jet)

0.2

[3

~F

5.2
I

3 41 x 102
4 17 102

....

Ethylene

I
8

z/d

flycol

t
12

L
16

I
20

Fig.4 Vanatlon of local heat transfer c o e W i c ~ e n t at

stagnatlon point wlth nozzle-to-plate spacing
for s u b m e r g e d clrcular jets of transformer oil
and ethylene glycol[ 3s}

Re,/

300
o

--A--

6 0 x I0~

--C]---~--

8.1 x I0~
1,0 x 104

-"~--

1.2 x

10 4

l.S 104
2.0 x I0"
P00

~50

I00

50

. . . .

. . . .

1o

. . . .

z/d

,s

. . . .

,
20

. . . .

2s

Fig.5 Effect of nozzle-to-plate spacing on stagnation

point heat transfer with clrcular s u b m e r g e d
jets of water {39]

For free-sm'face jets, a much weaker dependence

of heat transfer on n o z z l e - t o - p l a t e spacing was observed. It was reported by Stevens and Webb [28] for

C.F. Ma et al.

Liquid Jet Impingement Heat Transfer with or Without Boiling

water jets t h a t the Nusselt number at stagnation point

is proportional to (z/d) -'336. Ma et al determined
the dependence experimentally with circular jets of
kerosene and transformer oil. Some typical results are
presented in Fig.6. As shown in the figure, in the
range of z/d < 6 the Nusselt number is proportional
to (z/d) -'32 for the two liquids. The exponent is
almost identical with the value reported by Stevens
and Webb {2s] for water jets. It is seen from Fig.6 that
beyond z/d = 6 the Nusselt number is proportional
to (zld) -O'is. The slope change can be attributed
to the influence of gravity which makes the liquid jets
incline downwards resulting in the displacement of the
real impingemvnt stagnation point from geometric intersection point of the jet axis and the heated surface.
Apparently, this phenomenon can be observed only for
t h e horizontal jets impinging onto vertical targets.

39

1.0

tan h 5(o.38 r/d)

(r/d)

SOD
7.49

~,

e, x
P02 \

~F
E]

~.

,~'

0.8

5-30

Free jet(

3.57X

10.13

I~ I

~ 0.6
;~
~
~ 0.4

9.92
12.51

333XlO

5.03 x 102
6 . 4 0 x 102
8 . 4 4 x 102
10'

6.67 x I0 ~

(Trelnsformer oil)
0

~t

4.54
.4.65

O~0

O
0

8.70
9.68
14.67

&

3.47 X 10 ~"
3.61 x 102
6.87 x 102

8.69 X 10 ~"
1.39 X 103

19,40 1.77 x 103

(Ethylene Glycol )

0.2

1.49(rl d)- l..5

6-~>-~:':~.~y.

300
KeroemJe Re

200

4130

10

12

14

r/d

O - - - - - I - - -1~----4~-----.Q__ - ~ ' - B - @-@~4D

@. . . .

Trlioiforlll~el 011 Re ffi 349

.......
100

Fig.6

-4k
I

zld

..,&

A .& i i ~

I t I

l0

Variation of stagnation point heat transfer

with nozzle--to-plate spacing with free-surface
circular jets

2.2 Radial distribution of local heat transfer coefficient

Radial distributions of local heat transfer rates have
been meaSured by Ma et al for submerged circular
jets of Rl13 [[sT], kerosene [36], water [39], transformer
oil and ethylene glycol [3s]. Typical results of ethylene
glycol and transformer oil are presented in Fig.7. As
shown in the figure all the distribution curves are of
bell shape. The local heat transfer rates diminish remarkably from the stagnation point along the radial
direction. All the d a t a presented in Fig.7 may be correlated by the following equations for the stagnation
zone (rid < 2.5) and the wall zone (rid > 2.5):

hlho = ( , l a ) -

(0.SS /a)

tan h
for

hlho

Fig.7 Radial distribution of local heat transfer

with submerged circular jet of large Prantl
number liquids[38]

r/d

< 2.5

(12)

1.49(r/d) -L25
for

r/d

> 2.5

(13)

The two correlations were obtained based on a simplified analysis and can predict the local heat transfer
behaviour quite well for submerged jets with Prandtl
number ranging from 5 to 260 [3s'39].
For free-surface liquid jets Stevens and Webb 12s]
studied the local Nusselt number characteristics systematically with water as working fluid. It was found
that the local heat transfer profiles exhibit a region of
constant Nu in the radial direction with r/d =0-0.75.
It was also noted that the normalized heat transfer distribution Nu/Nuo is nearly independent of Reynolds
number before transition to turbulent flow. It can be
expressed by an empirical equation,

Nu/Nuo =

{1 + [a

e~>("/d)]-9} -1/9

(14)

Stevens and Webb reported in Ref.[28] t h a t a sharp

knee appeared in the local heat transfer profiles approximately at r/d --0.9-5.0. Depending on the nozzle size, Nu/Nuo decreased rapidly before the knee,
and then decreased more slowly or rose again to a
secondary peak. They attributed this phenomenon to
transition from laminar to turbulent flow. This transition was also studied by Liu et al [2al. They presented
the following correlation for transition radius

(rt/d)Re 0"422 =

1.2 x 103

(15)

40

Journal of Thermal Science, Vol. 2, No.l, 1993

Equation (15) very well correlated the data reported

by Liu et all 241, but considerably overestimated the
d a t a of Ref.[28]. This can be explained by the fact
that Stevens and Webb [2s] used long pipe-type nozzle,
rather than an orifice-type nozzle as employed by Liu
et al [~4] in their experiments, which certainly caused
a very strong initial turbulence intensity.
Transition from laminar to turbulent flow was also
observed for submerged water jets by Sun et al [391.
As shown in Fig.8, a secondary peak appears in the
profile for R e = 2.06 x 104 at about r i d = 1.9, and
for low Reynolds number, abrupt changes in the slope
of curves may be observed at the same location. It is
interesting to note that Gardon and Akfirat observed
similar peaks in local heat transfer profiles at exactly
the same radial position of r i d = 1.9 for circular air
jets with R e > 2.5 x 103 .
More recently, systematic experimental research
was conducted with impinging free-surface water jets
at Brigham Young University to characterize the
mean aaad fluctuating velocities using laser-Doppler
Velocimetry and the local heat transfer using infrared

59
300

~-

9,9
16x

--0--

10 z
lO ~

2 ] lO '~

o.

200

tO 3
x

24x

z/d

I0 ~

= 4

100[
0

"-

-2

,I

10

12

14

16

18

r/d

Fig.8 Radial profiles of local heat transfer with

submerged circular water jets [3]
techniques, both for the stagnation zone [2s^j. It was
determined that the differences in Nusselt number for
different nozzle configurations were as high as 50%.
The dependence of heat transfer on nozzle configurations was found to be the result of hydrodynamic conditions, i.e., velocity gradient and turbulence level An
empirical correlation of the heat transfer data suggests
that the stagnation Nusselt number depends equally
and independently on jet Reynolds number and mean
radial velocity gradient. This result testified the importance of the stagnation point velocity gradient in
determining the impingement ~e'~t transfer, that has

been presented by previous analyticM invest.gations

by Sibulkin[2SD].
2.3 Impingement heat transfer with oblique liquid
jets
Pioneering work on this topic was reported by McMurray et al [43}. Local heat transfer was measured
and correlated with inclined free-surface slot jets of
water. Recently, an experimental study of impingement heat transfer with axisymmetric free-surface
oblique jets of water was reported by Stevens and
Webb f29f. It was found that the point of maximum heat transfer rate shifted upstream (with respect
to the inclined jet flow}, but the magnitude of the
shift was significantly less than that of submerged air
jets144,4sl. Also differing from the submerged air jets,
a slight increase of the peak heat transfer was measured with increasing jet inclination. With increasing
inclination, the local heat transfer profiles exhibited
increasing asymmetry. An empirical correlation was
presented.
At Beijing Polytechnic University, experimental research is under way both on submerged and unsubmerged circular jets with transformer oil as the working fluid. Local heat transfer profiles were obtained.
Some typical results are presented in Figs.9 and 10.
As shown in Figs.9(a) and 10(a), the local heat transfer rates dropped off much more rapidly in the upstream side than in the downstream side. After being
normalized by the maximum heat transfer rates, the
data plotted in Figs.9(a) and 10(a) are represented in
Figs.9(b) and 10(b), respectively. It is noted that all
the curves of submerged and unsubmerged jets merged
respectively to a single curve. The profiles of submerged jets are similar to those of free-surface jets.
The effect of inclination is also examined both with
submerged and unsubmerged jets. As shown in Fig.ll,
a slight decrease of the peak heat transfer is observed
with increasing inclination for both configurations.
2.4 Heat transfer with liquid jet arrays
When impinging jets are used in practice, not only
high heat transfer rate but also its uniform distribution and low power requirement are desirable. For this
reason, multiple jets have attracted much attention.
Based on the analysis of a single jet and experiments
using multiple jets of water, Yonehara and Ito [19] suggested that the mean heat transfer rate for multiple
jets can be assumed equal to that of single jets. Jet
impingement data were collected by Jiji and Dagan[ 31l
for 1,4, and 9 jets per heat source, with FC-77 and
water as working fluids. All the data can be well correlated by .the equation
g u = 3 . 8 4 R e l / 2 p r l / 3 [ O . O O S L / d ) n + 1]

(16)

C.F. Ma et al.

Liquid Jet Impingement Heat Transfer with or Without Boiling

41

It is interesting to note t h a t the same optimal configuration for cooling electronic components was recommended in the two investigations: each chip is cooled
by 16 circular jets with diameter smaller than 0.5 mm.

Using a modified form of Martins correlation, Maddox and Bar-Cohen [46] studied the parametric sensitivities and design considerations in submerged liquid
jet impingement and defined configurations that are
best suited to the cooling of electronic components.

140

12

o~O

120

~
A

60
60=

4o j
i
20

-16

0~3

200 47

L~ 0 61

366 08

17 84

0.8

o
c~

0.4

Ca)

,/d(=)

717

184 42
2604?

961

36608

17.64

6~4 oe

~1~ o

%
20 ~

P~%,,,

$ 30

~.~ 0

-6

(~

614 06

,~:0
o~O~

-I0

717"

~(.~

0,8

0
.

O:

1.0

0% o r ~ ?

~o~

194 42

o~%

is 20

U(,n/,) Re

A'~

[1
0

100

U(m#)

10

0.0'
-15

20

16

~
-10

t
-6

Cb)

10

t~IL7
15

20

,'/aC=)

F i g . 9 Local heat transfer profiles of s u b m e r g e d o b h q u e jets of t r a n s f o r m e r od (0 = 60 )

180

1.2

140
120

8.29*

284 34

X
0

T 41
'10.24

SSS.O0
408.68

,,.

..s,

I00
=s

ao

~2

o ~o

tO.~J7 ~JOaS.O|

0 0

oOO OO

~ 0

is 2O

/~Cd
234 94

08

\
0

F 41
10 24

333 O0
438 68

12,28
,O 37

e28 38
1033 08

O.S

C0 0x XOO

880 o

o,

t3~O
02

20
0
-25

c)

0 'a'0 x , ~ X ~ ( O
O.'~A 0 x ~ u ~ ~1~
0 x O
0,~0

eo
40

10
oLeO

-20

-15

-10

-6

(-)

,-/,~(=)

10

O0 [
-25

15

J
-20

A
-15

i
-10

I
-5

(b)

rld(x )

F i g . l O Local heat transfer profiles of free-surface obhque jets of t r a n s f o r m e r oil (0 = 60 )

401

40,

t~g
$

~lD

t5:3e

,~0
10--

102

t'
o "

0o
"

A
t
O

90

80
70
60
50
40

103

,--

i:

1'0 2

(a) Submerged jets

Fig. l l Effect of jet inclinat]on on peak heat transfer

1
R.e

90
75
60
45

_L.JALI
10 3

(b) Free-surface jets

10

15

42

Journal of Thermal Science, Vol. 2, No.l, 1993

Uo = 2.04n~ - I
AT0,6 = 12.5'C
Test lection No.14

~J

Incre~ingpower

104 Single p h u o

od

convection

10

~2

~4

16
'

P~rt

al boiling

18
'

20
'

~-u~()'
--~-bodmg
22
'

24
'

Tw - T,(C)
Fig.12 Variation of heat transfer coefficient in
the process of Impingement boiling[G]

JET
WITH

IMPINGEMENT
PHASE

HEAT

TRANSFER

CHANGE

1. C r i t i c a l H e a t F l u x w i t h J e t I m p i n g e m e n t
Critical heat flux (CHF) was a main concern of the
early work in the area of jet impingement boiling. Research on this topic is still very active internationally. Since the first paper published in 1974 [471, Profs.
Monde, Katto and their colleagues have performed
very extensive experiments with single and nmltiple
jets resulting in a systematic data base of CHF with jet
impingement [4s]. Based on the hydrodynamic model
for the CHF mechanism proposed by Haramura and
Katto [49], Monde [5] developed an analytical equation
for CHF without any empirical constants:

q~/p,,Hlqu

0.220(pL/p,,)o ~,~3

[2a/p~ u2(D - d)(1 + D/d)] '/3

(17)

Taking the dimensionless groups in Eq.{17} into account, Monde [sl'~2I analyzed the existing data and
gave a set of equations to predict CHF in vaxious
regimes. More recently, Monde and Inoue [531 extended
the correlations for single jets to the case of multiple jets, and found that CHF data for multiple jets
can be correlated with an accuracy of 20% by the
correlations. Besides the contributions by Monde and
Katto et al, this subject has attracted considerable attention internationally. Based on the mechanical energy stability criterion [54], Lienhard[ 54-5G] presented
a continuous correlation in conjunction with the data
reported by Monde and Katto [4s]. Mudawar and
Wadsworth [57] reported extensive experimental data
for CHF from a simulated chip to a confined rectangular impinging jet of FC-72.
2 Jet Impingement Nucleate Boiling
Ruch and Holman [5s] experimentally studied boiling heat transfer to a Rl13 circular jet impinging

upwards onto a heated surface. Experimental measurements of the wall temperature were obtained in
nucleate and" film boiling regimes. T h e y concluded
that nucleate boiling was independent of the jet velocity (1.23-6.87 m/s), nozzle diameter (0.21-0.43 ram),
and heater orientation (0-45 degrees). A generalized
correlation of nucleate boiling was presented. Experiments on impingement boiling were performed at I o w a
State University in the early 1980's [s9'6]. Measurements of heat flux were made with single submerged
Rl13 jets (1 mm diameter) impinging onto a vertical
heater (5 x 5 ram) in saturated and subcooled conditions. Characteristics of boiling heat transfer, including incipient, partial and fully developed nucleate
boiling~ were examined in detail. Variation of the h e a t
transfer coefficient in the boiling process is illustrated
in Fig.12. Boiling hysteresis can be clearly observed.
An incipient boiling point is recorded at a superheat
of about 20C for increasing power. When the heat
flux is decreased, boiling persis,,ts until a superheat of
about 17C is reached. For purpose of characterizing
the surface, the latter "incipient boiling point" is of
interest since it represents stable and established boiling behavior. Several tests were run with the nozzle
displaced so that the measuring station was located
in the wall jet region (parallel flow) rather than a t
the stagnation point (normal flow). The ~xperimentally determined incipient boiling points for both the
normal and parallel flows are plotted in Fig.13. The
theoretical basis for the inception of nucleate boiling
was presented by Bergles and Rohsenow [611 and Davis
and Anderson I6'l. Kim [G3I showed that the following relationships are accurate for Rl13 at atmospheric
pressure.
For the case where active nucleation sites of all sizes
are present:
q" ~ --

h/tic,

8T~wVlgG

(T~

T,) 2

(18)

For the case where active nucleation sites of equivalent radii less than r are present:

q", = ~CA(T,,, - T,)

re

TJ"JVI'qZa/~t
hlgr2c

(19)

where

~.,., =
The

experimentally

(T~

- T,.)I2

determined

incipient boiling

points are compared with Eqs.(18) and (19) in Fig.12.

The data clearly suggest that there is a maximum active cavity size that lies within the range r = 0.4-0.6
micrometer. In order to corroborate these data, and
thereby the theory, the surface was examined with a
scanning electron microscope. It was observed that

C.F. Ma et al.

Liquid Jet Impingement Heat Transfer with or Without Boiling

43

0:,

the pits and depressions on the surface were in the

rang of 0.2 to 1.2 micrometer, the characteristic dimension being the d i a m e t e r at the surface of a circular
pit or the w i d t h of a scratch. These observations are
consistent with the m e a s u r e m e n t s of incipient boiling.

i!

/'i'71.
10e
9

~"

..

./,'/

R5

/i7,7

&--.

,
E

l0 s ~ /
101

"

#
I
I

,'
I
!

I
I
I
l

I; o !

0
---

Normal flow
Paxallel flow
Equation{18)
Equation{19)

0.6~
rc= i
i0 x

Fig,IS

11"

~'~/ ~
2

o^

6 / 8 / 8 3 R2

1.08

A^
Av

6/s/ss Rs Los 20.s O^

A
V

I
,
3
4
Tw - To(C)

Increasing power
Decreasing power

~
5

l l i f
6 7 8 9 10-~

I
I

IP.I

~"

6/s/ssRx

Fig.14 Boihng curves for pool and jet impingement

boihng at various subcoohngsD]

l,. , ot

Io

///

//;/:7

T u t u c t , o n No. 12

I/

I
I
2
3
T~ - T,{"C)

I
4

different parallel velocities merge into a c o m m o n , fully

developed boiling a s y m p t o t e t h a t matches the extrapolated pool boiling curve of the same test surface.
However, at high velocities (> 5 m / s ) the n o r m a l low
curves are displaced to the right of the parallel flow
curve. But at low velocities the boiling curves of parallel and n o r m a l flows merge into the same a s y m p t o t e .
It is also noted t h a t no t e m p e r a t u r e overshoot is observed at high jet velocities.

Comparison of incipient bmling data

w i t h t h e o r e t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s [61
10 6

The effect of subcooling is depicted in Fig. 14. There

is a p r o n o u n c e d t e m p e r a t u r e overshoot for the satu r a t e d case, but the overshoot is much less for the
subcooled case. T h e high heat flux portions of the
curves shift slightly to the left with increasing subcooling, in accordance with the results reported by
Del Valle M. and Kenning [64] for channel flow of water. The pool boiling curves also shift with subcooling,
and the trend agrees with that r e p o r t e d by Duke and
Schrock [6s]. The pool boiling shift seems to coincide
with the shift in the a s y m p t o t e s of the jet impingement boiling curves. In this case the e x t r a p o l a t e d pool
boiling d a t a coincide a p p r o x i m a t e l y with the fully developed jet boiling d a t a . As shown in the figure the
partial boiling d a t a are in good agreement with the
predicted curves (solid curves) by the correlation presented by Bergles and R o h s e n o w D q . It is interesting
to examine the effect of jet velocity at normal and
parallel flow. As shown in Fig.15, boiling curves for

u-- 10 05m/s

I
5 83m/s

Order
Flow Date Number of U~ AT.~,
D:rection (1083) Operation (m/s) "C
P

Oct 0

R5

10.05 12 5

Oct 9

R6

10 05 12 5

R9

Oct g

R7

5.8

Oct 9
Oct. 0

R8
R9

10 5

10

Increasing

Decreumg

power
power

4i

I~.5

5 83 12 S

VT

o o 1~o O l
N Normal flow
P Paralletflow

910 ~

T,, - T,(K)

Fig.15 Boiling curves for pool boiling and jet impingement

boiling at normal and parallel flow conditions

44

Journal of Thermal Science, Vol. 2, No.I, 1993

More recently, Struble and Witte 166] developed a

technique for measurement of temperature and heat
flux of power transistors in pool and jet impingement
boiling. Subcooled boiling curves are obtained with
submerged Rl13 jets of velocities up to 4.16 m/s.
They found that the boiling curves approached pool
boiling curve at high heat flux, which was typical of
the data reported in Refs.[59,60].

Nu~,v = hr/kv

3. J e t I m p i n g e m e n t Film Boiling
Film boiling with Rl13 jets has been studied experimentally for steady/ssl and transient [67'6s] states. It
was demonstrated in both investigations that the heat
transfer with jet impingement film boiling is proportional to the square root of jet velocity. This result is
consistent with the analytical research conducted at
Beijing Polytechnic University [69].
Using similarity and quasi-similarity methods and
integral techniques, Ma and Zhao and their colleagues
presented simplified.physical models to predict film
boiling heat transfer both in the stagnation zone and
the wall jet zone. The following equations were obtained for steady film boiling with circular jets impinging on horizontal heated surfaces:
In the stagnation zone,

C,,,AT. (Nu,t.,,)4
hf.qp,~ \ ~ 1
[htSrsu b - e a(t~, - Tta)JRe~(,y ( Nun.,, ] a
p,,uhy: 1
\ Rot., , }

Rer,v = ur/~l

h, = (3/Ir)'5(kt/r)Prl/2Re~(t 2
In the case of high subcooling, the two equations
can be simplified with reasonable accuracy:

Nun,,, = ( 2 / r ) ' 5 ( k , / k , , ) ( A T s u b / A T o ) P r ,

\~--ff~6~.51

1/6(pt/pv} =

where

Nua,.=

hd/k,,,

Rea,~ = ud/.~,,

h, = ( 2 / r ' S ) ( R t / d ) P r l / : R e ~ J 2
In the wall jet zone

Cp,,,AT,
hf,gpr, v

( Nua.,'~ 4
p-'-fi':b-T.5]
\ Re,.,',,
4

1/2

[htATsu b - ~,,,a(T,~ - T, }]Re,,.,

p~,uh.r o
Nud,.)
R,o2

--3/64r/(r) = 0
where

3/4(N~.,,/R~.5) 2
(21)

1/2

Reu, ,

for stagnation zone

N u n = (3/r) '5(k,/k,, ) ( A T s u b / A T , ) ( d / r ) P r l / 2 R e l ! ,
for wall jet zone

(22)

2
(23)

For saturated boiling, the following equation can be

obtained for the stagnation zone:

Nud,v = [ 1 / 6 ( h y g / C p v A T s )

(pt/p,,)Pr~]

1 / 4 n 1/2

(24)

l~ed, v

Using a correction factor of 2.3 to take account of

the wave motion of the liquid-vapor interface and the
overheat of the liquid boundary layer, good agreement
can be provided by the above equations with the experimental data reported by Ma et al [691 and Ruch
and Holman[ ss} .

4. T r a n s i e n t J e t I m p i n g e m e n t

(20)

1/2

Boiling

In hot rolling steel works, the cooling process is

often related to transient jet impingement boiling.
An experimental apparatus was developed at Beijing
Polytechnic University for studying the characteristics of transient jet impingement boiling on hot surfaces with initial temperatures up to about 900 C.
Complete boiling curves were obtained. Three boiling
curves are presented in Fig.16. It is noted that the
film and transition boiling as well as the minimum
and maximum heat flux increase with increasing jet
velocity (compare Fig.16(a) and (b)) and subcooling
(compare Fig.I6(b) and (c)). As shown in the figure,
with increasing subcooling the maximum and minimum heat fluxes increased. Comparison of transient
jet b~iling with steady jet boiling and transient and
steady pool boiling was made in Ref.[69]. In comparison with pool boiling curves, a large distortion in
the shape of the jet boiling curves and a significant
displacement of theft" locations were observed in the
quenching process 16s'69]. Film boiling was remarkably
enhanced and destablized at higher wall superheat due
to the liquid jet penetration resulting from increase

C.F. Ma et al. Liquid Jet Impingement Heat Transfer with or Without Boiling

45

and early appearance of the minimum heat flux. Maximum heat flux was also much increased in comparison
with pool boiling, but lower than that for steady impinging jets [67]. Consequently, the transition boiling
portion of the boiling curves was also increased and
shifted to the right. Meanwhile, a right shift of the
nucleate boiling portion was observed, probably resulting also from the vapor residue on the surface in
the rapid cool-down process.

lO s

v. = 2.68m/J

AT.~b = I.$K

10

I le~l

tO

, III

100

(&)

I000

Tw- T,(K)

rI* "'-.o..

~'.--.~.~

106
A

V, = 3 . 4 Z m / s

10

,,I

AT.t,6 = 1.0K

f ! Zll~

I !

Itl

lO00

I00

(b)

T,. - To(K)

5. G a s - L i q u i d J e t a n d G a s J e t in L i q u i d P o o l
Cooling of hot surfaces by impinging atomized liquid is an effective technique widely used in a variety
of industrial processes. A comprehensive review has
been made by Bolle and Moureaul7]. Yao et allZll
reported their research on impacting spray boiling of
FC-72. They found that spray heat transfer appeared
to be m,Lch more effective than pool boiling: the peak
heat flux was 2 or 3 times higher than that with pool
boiling, and the temperature overshoot with boiling
incipience seemed to be entirely eliminated. A modified spray cooling technique has been developed at
Beijing Polytechnic University since 1987. It is characterized by high velocity of impacting gas with water droplets and small nozzle-to-plate spacing [12'71].
Heat flux as high as 4 106 w / m 2 has been recorded at
a moderate wall temperature of 64 C with simulated
micro-chips (5 x 5 mm). In comparison with jet impingement cooling this technique call provide a more
uniform heat transfer performance to avoid significant
variation in the surface temperature. Fig.17 shows
horizontal distributions of local heat transfer coefficients with two different nozzle-to-plate spacings at
constant heat flux, gas velocity and liquid flow rate.
The superior performance of heat transfer resulted
6 ~

q = 5.67 x 105(W/m 2)
i

t~

zf o 1.5 (ram)
k A 5.0 ( r a m )

5 , ~

a..~|~

GH, O = 29.5 (ml/min)

_ Ey = 6 8 . 9 ( m / s )

~E

I0 a
~

~.-~

~'-""" h -'-'-.. ~,....... _

----~._ ~ .

~ . : 3.02m/s

A T . ~ = 26.8K

I
I

105

10

! t Illl

!
100

(c)

I |il

lO(m

T,(K)

Fig.16 Boiling curves of impingement water jets at transient

state[ sol

-0.5

I1

r (ran,)

Fig.17 Heat transfer distribution of water-nitrogen gas

jets[12]

46

Journal of Thermal Science, Vol. 2, No.l, 1993

from strong evaporation with forced convection at

high velocity. However, further research is needed to
provide more information concerning the heat transfer
mechanism. Heat transfer from a vertical heater submerged in liquid pool can be considerably enhanced
by foreign gas jet impingement [z3'14'7~'73].
R113,
ethanol, water, kerosene and transformer oil have been
tested as the working fluids in which the vertical
heated surfaces were submerged. Air or nitrogen gas
was impinged at high velocity on the heat transfer
surfaces (5 5 mm) through a nozzle of 1 m m diameter placed very close to the surfaces. Fig.18 presents
the results of heat transfer from simulated microchips
submerged in R l 1 3 with air jet impingement. It was
found that heat flux from the heater to the coolant as
high as 3.3104 w / m 2 was recorded while the wall
t e m p e r a t u r e was lower than the coolant t e m p e r a t u r e
measured inside the nozzle and the bath. In order to
disclose the enhancement mechanism, a photographic
study was carried out with a high speed camera to investigate the gas bubble behaviour in water or transformer oil. It was found that for high volatility liquids
the evaporative cooling of the liquid film makes an important contribution to the heat transfer process. A
physical model of simultaneous heat and mass transfer
was presented. Based on the model, a semiempirecal
method was developed, with which all non-boiling

d a t a were well correlated, as shown in Fig.19. Solid

curves persene the predictions that are in good agreement with the experimental data. This enhancement
technique is also effective for liquids of low volatility.
As shown in Fig.19 an augmentation of 200-1000 percent can be obtained with kerosene 173]. It should be
noted the technique is effective when boiling is not
fully established.

Kerosene

qH= 8.17 x

10

- - NI
104Wlm 2

/
/ , ,

,,

,:y'_"
_.

1o

1.s

10

20

80

40

50

60

2.0
I

70

80

U(ml,)
Fig.19 Heat transfer with nitrogen gas jet impingement in
kerosene pool [73]

SUMMARY

10 5

'.
,,or/,,/,.

~;

f/.

' d /

10 4

".
"
7,(oc)
280
28.0
28.0
28.0
27.6
27.6
27.3

u0 (m/,]
A 0.76
V
1.43
C] 2.37

I
f
G

3.31

<1 6.10
~> 6.89

8.96

11.76
13.37
14.43
16.48

z / d = 1.0
2
- 21

",
-10

L"
0

10

20

T,~

....

26,6

25.0
24.0
23.2
21.6
23.0

9.33

30

40

T~('C)

Fig.18 Heat transfer with air jet impingement in Rl13

poolD3]

50

From the foregoing discussions, it is evident that

significant progress has been made in the area of single
and two-phase jet impingement heat transfer. Considerable effort has been devoted to the s t u d y of single liquid jets without phase change. Research is still
needed to better understand related t h e r m a l phenomena and to clarify the effects of turbulence and geometries of nozzle and heaters. Cooling uniformity on
large surfaces can be achieved by the use of jet arrays.
Improved understanding of multiple jets is needed for
m a n y possible geometries in order to indentify optimal
design and operating conditions. Research of interaction of adjacent liquid jets is particularly necessary.
Extrapolation is desirable of widely available air-jet
results to the cases of submerged liquid jets. More
studies are needed to provide a solid foundation.
Boiling jets offer excellent opportunities for achieving very high heat flux. Although they have been employed in a varity of industrial processes, the knowledge base is still inadequate. Experimental d a t a are
quite scarce both in steady and transient states, particularly at high wall t e m p e r a t u r e {about 1000C).
There is clearly a need for extensive investigations to
clarify the heat transfer characteristics of film, transition and nucleate boiling. Besides boiling jets, some

C . F . M a et al.

Liquid J e t I m p i n g e m e n t H e a t Transfer w i t h or W i t h o u t Boiling

configulations of two-phase jets can also provide excellent performance of heat dissipation at high power
densities. As viable candidates, they should attract
attention from more researchers.

[14]

47

Ma, C F , Gall, Y.P., Tang, F J. and Bergles, A.E., "A New

Method of Heat Transfer Auganentation, By Means of, Foreign Gas Jet Impingement in Liquid Bath," in "Heat Transfer
Science and Technology," Edited by B.X. Wang, Hemisphere
Publistfing Cor., pp.789-797, (1987).
[15] Faggiaal, S. and Grassi, W., "hnpingmg Liquid Jets on
Heated Surfaces Ploceedings of tile Ninth hlternational Heat
Tralx~fer Conference." 1, pp.275 285, (1990).
Acknowledgement
[161 Kataoka, K , "hnpingment Heat Trmlsfer Augmentation Due
This work was partly supported by the National
to Large Scale Eddies." Pro,:eedings of the Ninth International Heat Transfer Colzferen,-e, I, pp.255-273. (1990).
Natural Science Foundation of China. Support from
Profs. G. Guglielmini and S. Faggiani and the. Orga- [17] E J Watson, "The R a d i ~ Spread of A Liquid Jet Over a
Horizontal Plate," J. Fluid Mech., 20, Part 3, pp 481-499,
nizing Committee of the Tenth National Heat Transfer
(1964).
Conference of Italy is also gratefully acknowledged.
[i8] Chaudhury, Z.H., "Heat Traalsfer in a Radial Liquid Jet," J.
.Fluid Mech., 20, Part 3, pp.501-511, (1964).
[19] N. Yonehaa-a and I. Ire, "Coohng Charieteristics of Impinging
Multiple Water Jets on a Horizontal Plate," Technol, Report,
Kansai University, No 24, Mar (1983).
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49

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