Experimental and Numerical Study of Micropiles

to Reinforce High Railway Embankments

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Morteza Esmaeili1; Morteza Gharouni Nik2; and Farid Khayyer3

Abstract: The construction of railway embankments on loose beds using reinforcing elements results in a modication of the embankments
slope, which signicantly reduces the amount of earthworks. In addition, reinforcement of both bed and embankment is essential to increase the
load-bearing capacity and control the settlements. A solution for high railway-embankment stabilization and enhancing the operational axle
load is the use of micropiles in the embankment toe to transmit the applied loads to the rm underlying layers and avoid the deep sliding of
loose subgrade. This paper presents three experimental models of embankments of 10 m in height on a scale of 1=20 to set up a number of
loading tests: one based on a non-reinforced embankment and two others based on reinforced embankments that are stabilized with two
different arrangements of micropiles. During laboratory tests, the data, including the load-bearing capacity of embankments, displacements of
embankment crest and bed surface, and axial strain of micropiles were measured using the instrumentation tools. In the next step, three numerical
models were developed by using the PLAXIS-3D code based on the FEM. Then, a comparison was made between the experimental and numerical
data to verify the outputs of the numerical analyses. In the procedure of numerical analyses, elastoplastic behaviors of embankment material and bed
were dened based on the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, and micropiles were considered as linear elastic elements. Finally, after accomplishing
a series of sensitivity analyses on the geometric parameters of micropiles, their efciency factor was classied in the process of arrangement
optimization. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)GM.1943-5622.0000280. 2013 American Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: Railroad tracks; Embankments; Soil stabilization; Micro piles; Load tests; Finite element method;
Experimentation.
Author keywords: High railway embankments; Loose beds; Soil stabilization; Micropiles; Laboratory loading test; Finite-element modeling.

Introduction
One of the major concerns in the repair and maintenance of rail
lines is strengthening the infrastructures. For this purpose, researchers
have always strived to provide new methods for the reinforcement of
railway embankments as the most widely used structures in rail line
infrastructures. This paper presents the use of nonreticulated micropiles in group form as a suitable method for the reinforcement against
deep sliding of high railway embankments that rest on loose beds.
The following reasoning indicates the importance of this research:
1. Railway embankments higher than 5 m are susceptible to creep,
because of the considerable self-weight and, in some cases,
inappropriate materials used in the body of the embankments;
2. High embankments are susceptible to earthquake-induced
slides because of their high inertia;

1
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Railway Engineering, Iran Univ. of Science and Technology, 16846 Narmak, Tehran, Iran. E-mail: M_Esmaeili@
iust.ac.ir
2
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Railway Engineering, Iran Univ. of Science and Technology, 16846 Narmak, Tehran, Iran. E-mail: Gharouni@
doctor.com
3
Researcher, Dept. of Railway Engineering, Iran Univ. of Science
and Technology, 16846 Narmak, Tehran, Iran (corresponding author).
E-mail: F_K@engineer.com
Note. This manuscript was submitted on March 23, 2012; approved on
December 14, 2012; published online on December 17, 2012. Discussion
period open until May 1, 2014; separate discussions must be submitted
for individual papers. This paper is part of the International Journal of
Geomechanics, Vol. 13, No. 6, December 1, 2013. ASCE, ISSN 15323641/2013/6-729744/$25.00.

3. There is a possibility of embankment slip caused by the

increase of the axle load of the railway;
4. The settlement of high embankments on loose beds can
usually lead to embankment failure or geometrical change
of rail lines; and
5. As there are limitations in trafc blocking, a special type of
soil improvement technique should be used in the case of
underutilized railway lines. In this regard, the micropiles in
group form can be used as a suitable method to stabilize
railway embankments on loose subgrades (Khayyer 2010).
According to the previous studies on the use of micropiles to
stabilize soft soils, three categories of research, including numerical
laboratory and eld tests, can be diagnosed.
The following studies can serve as examples of numerical research in this area. The work of Cantoni et al. (1989) dealt with
developing a design methodology for reticulated micropile structures in sliding slopes. The design method proposed gives a simple
criterion for setting out the spacing and number of rows of micropiles, as well as the total number required. The method is depicted
through application to a slope of sandy silt and gravel over bedrock
near Florence, Italy. Four reticulated micropile structures were installed to a depth of 5 m in the bedrock. The choice of stabilizing
method, design method, and evaluation of landslide thrust, soil
structure interaction, and stability of the reticulated structure, assumed to be a monolithic block, were all discussed.
Richards and Rothbauer (2004) investigated the lateral load
performance and design of pin piles. The intent is to demonstrate
that micropiles and micropile groups can be designed to support
lateral loads and provide options and considerations for lateral load
design.

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Int. J. Geomech., 2013, 13(6): 729-744

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Jenck et al. (2009) studied settlement and the arching effect

in piled embankments using the three-dimensional (3D) nitedifference model by FLAC 3D code. It is remarkable that the soft
soil behavior of the subgrade was simulated by the modied Cam
Clay model, and the embankment material behavior was successively simulated by an elastic perfectly plastic model with a MohrCoulomb failure criterion and then by an isotropic hardening
elastoplastic model to approach the real system behavior.
Wang et al. (2009) also studied the effect of micropiles on soil
reinforcement under static and dynamic loadings. Embankment on
untreated soil and treated soil by micropiles were modeled using
PLAXIS-3D code. The displacement caused by embankment static
loading and acceleration of the embankment caused by seismic
loading were calculated and compared. It was found that micropiletreated soil can greatly reduce the settlement of the embankment and
mitigate the seismic response of the embankment.
An investigation, which presents a so-called multiphase model
for soft grounds improved by rigid vertical piles, aimed at capturing
the global constitutive behavior of the reinforced ground was done
by Hassen et al. (2009).
In addition, the use of micropiles for slope stabilization was examined by Howe (2010). The main purpose of this study is to determine fundamental design guidance for using micropiles for the
in-situ stabilization of slope failures by performing a slope stability
analysis on case studies using limit equilibrium software and niteelement software.
Moreover, a number of laboratory projects have been performed
that evaluate the behavior of micropiles. The effect of micropiles on
seismic shear strain was examined by McManus et al. (2004). Misra
and Chen (2007) examined the relationships of load displacement
for micropiles. Also, Wolosick (2009) studied the ultimate micropile
bond stresses, which were observed during load testing in clays and
sands.
Furthermore, many practical experiences can be pointed out regarding to the performance of micropiles. The use of micropiles to
strengthen the east bay of the Rock Run Dam project, which is located in Pennsylvania, was accomplished by Haider et al. (2004). In
that project, the support system was designed to limit differential
movement relative to the existing structure. A micropile system was
selected and was designed to have minimal impact on the existing
structure. The piling system included both vertical and battered piles
to accommodate variable hydrostatic loading.
In another case study, Bruce et al. (2004) proposed a nonreticulated micropile array for stabilization of the south side of the
Grimsby railway embankment in Ontario, Canada. Furthermore,
a detailed FLAC analysis was completed, using multiple iterations
to eventually arrive at the optimum micropile depth and spacing.
The analysis predicted an 18% increase in safety and short-term
inclinometer monitoring, and performance evaluations in the
months following the construction so far corroborate the prediction.
The applications of micropiles and permanent anchors to reinforce loose earth in three different projects were reported by
Schwarz et al. (2004). The rst example shows the production of
micropiles and permanent anchors in a tidal zone and the improvement of the load transfer zone to guarantee the load-bearing
capacity through a jetting foot. In the second example, the protection
of permanent anchors against lime-attacking carbon dioxide in
the groundwater in rock is discussed. The last example explains the
concept for the postfoundation under organic soil conditions of the
Berlin State Library Unter den Linden.
Additionally, the main highway embankment in Mendocino,
California, the Missouri road embankment, and the embankment of
State Road No. 4023 located in Pennsylvania, were all were stabilized
by micropiles either individually or in group form (Bruce 2008).

One of the most important issues in the railway geotechnic is

stabilizing the high railway embankment that is resting on loose beds
against self-weight and operational trafc loads. In such embankments, the failure usually appears in the form of deep sliding, which
crosses the embankment and its underlying layers. In this regard,
using micropiles in group form at the embankment toe has been
recommended by many relevant standards and guidelines. For instance, some minor recommendations can be observed in Federal
Highway Administration (FHWA 2000) guidelines for the use of
micropiles in stabilizing the embankment located on loose beds;
moreover, reinforcing the railway embankment by micropiles has
been also recommended by UIC722 and UIC719 codes (International
Union of Railways 1994) with an emphasis on geotechnical issues.
Reviewing the technical literature shows that there are no comprehensive studies on the behavior of nonreticulated (individual)
micropiles for the stabilization of high railway embankments on
loose beds. This research is dedicated to investigating the behavior
of the railway embankments resting on sandy beds using two numerical and experimental approaches.
First, an initial numerical study was conducted to determine the
best location of micropiles in the embankment slope to reinforce the
embankments with heights between 5 and 12 m. In this stage, using
the micropiles at embankment toe was conrmed, which is in accordance with the UIC719-R code recommendation.
In the next step, laboratory models of the bed and embankment
were constructed in the loading chamber of the School of Railway
Engineering (SRE), Narmak, Tehran in the scale of 1=20 and were
loaded statically.
It should be mentioned that the experiments were done on one
non-reinforced embankment and two embankments that were reinforced with micropiles. It should be considered that in this study, the
applied load was the combination of weight and operational load,
which was statically applied by a loading jack with a load capacity of
300 kN. It is worth mentioning that the UIC719-R code (International Union of Railways 1994) recommends different allowable
safety factors of slope stability under various loading conditions,
which are on the order of 1.5, 1.3, and 1.1 for applications of dead
(self-weight), operational, and earthquake loads, respectively.
The use of instrumentation tools on the embankment surface and
the reinforcing bar of micropiles made it possible to measure the
failure load of embankment, displacements of the bed and embankment, and axial strains of micropiles. Subsequently, the failure
mechanism of the embankments could be investigated and the exact
sliding surface during the loading tests perceived.
Furthermore, three numerical models of non-reinforced and
reinforced embankments were established using the PLAXIS-3D
code. Additionally, we checked the generated outputs by experimental data and veried the accuracy of the numerical models.
Finally, a series of sensitivity analyses were performed on the
geometric parameters of micropiles including diameter, length,
number, and spacing. Hereby, it was possible to determine the efciency factor of each parameter and present the optimum arrangement of micropiles.

Scaling Laws
In this project the material behavior is nonlinear and the geotechnical
structure to be studied contains several materials that interact with
each other. This issue leads to greater difculty in investigating the
behavior of the components in the underlying theoretical model.
One of the methods for studying load-deformation behavior of
geotechnical structures is a manufacture of a laboratory model,
which should represent the behavior of the prototype. In this regard,

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Int. J. Geomech., 2013, 13(6): 729-744

adopting a suitable scale and satisfying the scaling laws is essential

for describing the relationship between the model and the prototype.
Many researchers in the eld of geotechnical modeling have proposed various scaling laws (e.g., Harris and Sabris 1999; Krawinkler
1979; Iai 1989; Schoeld and Steedman 1988). Wood (2004) gathered
the previously mentioned works and presented them in an integrated
format. Table 1 shows the relevance of this work to the current

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Table 1. Scaling Factors

Description

General

Scale
Parameter factor

Material
nr
density
Length
nL
Stiffness
nG
Displacement
nr nG n2L
Micropile
nE nI 5 nG n4L

Scale
Scale
factor Y=X factor X=Y

L
G
D

1=N
20.00
0.05
1=N a
4.47
0.22
1=N 22a
89.44 1:1 3 1022
1=N 41a 715,541.75 1:40 3 1026

1.00

Table 2. Geometry of Prototype Embankment

Parameter (m)

Value

Embankment length
Embankment height
Slope length
Embankment crest
Bed depth
Depth of the modied part of the bed
Width of the bed sides

50
10
18
6
16
2
7

study. According to Wood (2004), the factor of a, which shows

the relationship of stiffness and effective stress level (G } sa ) in soil
materials, is approximately adopted equal to 0.5 for sandy soil.
As mentioned earlier, the main purpose of this paper is the investigation of the efciency of micropiles to reinforce the high
railway embankment and determine the optimum arrangement of
these reinforcing elements. In this regard, at rst, a full-scale model
of railway embankment with geometrical and mechanical properties, as given in Tables 2 and 3, was simulated in PLAXIS-3D code to
study the failure mechanism. Therefore, a suitable arrangement of
micropiles that were needed to reinforce the embankment was found.
It is worth mentioning that all of the parameters in the previous
tables were selected in accordance with embankments, which have
been used in the rail lines of Iran since 1970 (Shahroudi and Zakeri
2006). Moreover, the exact values of the mechanical properties of
materials were obtained using standard laboratory tests that will be
discussed in the Construction of Bed and Embankment section.
The numerical analysis procedure on the full-scale embankment
concluded that there is a safety factor of 2.35 under the embankment
self-weight, which is greater than the minimum recommendation
1.5 [UIC719 Code (International Union of Railways 1994)]. However, a displacement of 45 cm led the embankment to collapse. In
this condition, using the micropiles in a group form with arrangements presented in Table 4 could increase the safety factor to 1.3
as minimum recommended safety factor under operational load
[UIC719 Code (International Union of Railways 1994)]. Youngs
modulus of micropiles materials in the full-scale model are selected
as ES 5 210,000 MPa, EG 5 31,000 MPa, and EGS 5 200 MPa.

Scaling the Bed and Embankment

Table 3. Material Properties of Bed and Embankment Classication
Classication (USCS)
ASTM
standard

Parameters

SP (material
of bed)

SC (material of
embankment)

0.85
0.06
D422
D10 (mm)
D422
D30 (mm)
1.66
0.35
3.51
1.26
D422
D60 (mm)
4.13
21

CU
0.92
1.62

CC
D854
GS
2.6
2.69
D3080
w (degree)
30
32
1
25
D3080
c kN=m2
17.01
49.891
D1194
ESoil (MPa)
D698
wopt (percentage)
14
11
15
17.5
D2049
g dmax kN=m2
15.6
18.1
D1556
g kN=m2
Note: c 5 soil cohesion; CC 5 curvature coefcient; CU 5 uniformity
coefcient; GS 5 specic gravity of soil; wopt 5 optimum moisture content
of soil; g 5 soil unit weight; g dmax 5 maximum dry soil unit weight;
w 5 angle of internal friction.

According to scale factors, as given in Table 1, the geometry of the

laboratory model of the embankment are presented in Table 5;
moreover, the mechanical properties of materials have the same
values as those of full scale. It should be mentioned that the following parameters between a prototype and model were compared to
prove the accuracy of the scaling methodology:
1. The settlement of the non-reinforced embankment crest at the
moment of failure is equal to 5.3 mm, as given in Table 13,
which is about 1=90 of the settlement applied on the embankment crest of prototype (Table 1); and
2. The safety factor of the embankments reinforced with the
proposed arrangements of micropiles is on the order of 1.25, as
given in Table 15, which is almost identical to the actual one.

Scaling the Micropiles

According to Wood (2004), the scaling method of micropile properties consists of the following steps:
1. Scaling down the micropiles length: as shown in Table 1, to
determine the length of micropiles in a laboratory model, the

Table 4. Specications of Micropiles Arrangement in Prototype

Arrangement
number

Micropile parameters
Location

DMP (cm)

ODC (cm)

IDC (cm)

RGP (cm)

NS

AS cm2

LMP (m)

BL (m)

u (degree)

SMP (m)

1
Embankment toe
30
28
26.8
10
2
16.1
18
4
24
45
4
2
Embankment toe
30
28
26.8
10
4
16.1
16, 18
4
32
0, 45
6.7
Note: AS 5 bar and pile casing steel area; BL 5 bond length of micropiles; DMP 5 diameter of micropile (diameter of drilled hole); IDC 5 inner diameter of
casing; LMP 5 micropile length; N 5 number of micropiles; NS 5 number of micropiles in embankment section; ODC 5 outer diameter of casing; RGP 5 radius
of grout penetration zone; SMP 5 micropile spacing.
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Int. J. Geomech., 2013, 13(6): 729-744

only requirement is to multiply the actual length by a scaling

factor of 1=20.
2. Scaling down the properties of micropiles section: consider
the micropile of equivalent diameter of a grouted section,
dp 5 31:28 cm, which is calculated based on the equivalent
area method. Take into account the scaling of soil stiffness

during the selection of the micropile dimensions in the laboratory model. With a 5 0:5, one can achieve nE .nI 5 1=N 9=2
with a length scale nL 5 1=N 5 1=20 as the equivalent diameter of the grouted section of dm in the laboratory micropile
model given by the following equation:
p d4 E 1 p d4 E
m
p
64 m
N 9=2 16 p

(1)

Table 5. Geometry of Model Embankment

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Parameter (m)

By substituting the full-scale micropile properties in the previous

equation, the diameter of the equivalent grout section is calculated as
2.4 cm. Consequently, geometrical and mechanical parameters of
micropiles in the laboratory model are, respectively, selected based
on the values presented in Tables 6 and 7. It should be noted that
these selected specications exactly satisfy Eq. (1).
It is worth mentioning that all of the values presented in Table 7
were obtained using standard laboratory tests, which will be
explained in the Micropiles Installation section.

Value

Embankment length
Embankment height
Slope length
Embankment crest
Bed depth
Depth of the modied part of the bed
Width of the bed sides

50
10
18
6
16
2
7

Table 6. Geometric Parameters of Micropiles Arrangement in Laboratory Model

Arrangement
number

Micropile parameters
Location

DMP (cm)

ODC (cm)

RGP (cm)

NS

Db (cm)

LMP (cm)

BL (cm)

u (degree)

SMP (cm)

1
Embankment toe
1.5
1.4
0.5
2
0.37
90
20
24
45
20
2
Embankment toe
1.5
1.4
0.5
4
0.37
80, 90
20
32
0, 45
33.33
Note: BL 5 bond length of micropiles; Db 5 diameter of steel bar; DMP 5 diameter of micropile (diameter of drilled hole); LMP 5 micropile length; N 5 number
of micropiles; NS 5 number of micropiles in embankment section; ODC 5 outer diameter of casing; RGP 5 radius of grout penetration zone; SMP 5 micropile
spacing; u 5 angle of micropiles to vertical axis.

Table 7. Material Properties of Model Micropiles

Micropile parameters (standard of ASTM)
Arrangement number

Materials of casing

EG (MPa)

EGS (MPa) (D2166)

fc9 (MPa) (C109)

PG (bar)

W=C

ES (MPa) (A400)

Micropile arrangement
Soft and transparent
31,000
200
34.5
1.52
0.5
150, 250
numbers 1 and 2
rubber
Note: EG 5 Youngs modulus of grout; EGS 5 Youngs modulus of grouted sand; PG 5 grouting pressure; W=C 5 water-to-cement ratio.

Fig. 1. Cross section of model micropile

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Experimental Setup

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Construction of Bed and Embankment

An initial numerical analysis using the PLAXIS-3D code was conducted to nd the suitable dimension of the loading chamber. It is
worth mentioning that the main criterion for selecting chamber
dimensions was minimal interference between the sliding surface
of the slope of the model embankment and the side walls of the
chamber. Through this manner, the dimensions of the loading
chamber of SRE were selected as 2:5 3 2:5 m2 with a height
of 2 m.
As mentioned earlier, poorly graded sand with gravel (SP) and
clayey sand (SC) were, respectively selected to model the bed and

embankment for numerical and experimental analyses. Furthermore, mechanical properties of the materials, as given in Table 3,
were determined on the basis of ASTM standards including mechanical analysis of soils [ASTM D422 (ASTM 2007a)], specic
gravity of soils [ASTM D854 (ASTM 2010b)], shear stress parameters of soils using direct shear test [ASTM D3080 (ASTM
2006)], maximum dry density of sand [ASTM D2049 (ASTM
1983)], maximum dry density and optimum moisture content using
standard Proctor compaction test [ASTM D698 (ASTM 2011b)], in
place soil density using sand cone method [ASTM D1556 (ASTM
2007b)], and elastic modulus of soils using plate loading test [ASTM
D1194 (ASTM 2003)].
To implement the model embankment in the best possible
compaction, it was constructed in 10-cm layers with optimum
moisture contents, which are equal to 14 and 11% for soil materials
of bed and embankment, respectively. The condensing process was
achieved by passing a 50 kg roller over it until it reached maximum
possible compaction. In this way, 91 and 93% of Proctor standard
compaction, respectively, resulted in the construction process of
both the bed and embankment.

Micropiles Installation

Fig. 2. Micropile arrangements: (a) arrangement of micropiles in

loading test No. 2; (b) arrangement of micropiles in loading test No. 3

As mentioned previously, the geometrical properties of model micropiles were determined according to the scaling laws discussed in
the previous section, and as provided in Table 6. Moreover, the
mechanical properties, which are required for experimental and numerical modeling, including the water-to-cement ratio of grout, the
injection pressure required for grouting and the elastic Youngs
modulus of reinforcing bar, hardened cement grout and grouted sand
(Table 7), were obtained based on experimental tests. They included
performing tensile tests on reinforcing steel bar [ASTM A400
(ASTM 2011a)], a compressive test on 50-mm cube specimens of
hardened cement grout [ASTM C109 (ASTM 2009)], and an unconned compressive strength on grouted sand [ASTM D2166
(ASTM 2010a)].
Fig. 1 shows the cross section of the model micropile. Furthermore, Figs. 2(a and b) illustrate the micropile arrangement Nos. 1
and 2, respectively.To install each micropile, its location was rst
determined, and then a perforated rubber casing was rammed and
placed into the bed soil. Then, the injection operation was made and
the reinforcing bar was readily placed inside the micropile. Fig. 3
shows that the veins of grout properly strengthened the surrounding
soil of micropiles.
After installing all of the micropiles, two cap beams on either side
of the embankment toe, with sectional dimensions of 7 3 10 cm2 ,
were constructed parallel to the embankment to integrate the micropiles (FHWA 2000).

Fig. 3. Veins of grout that strengthened surrounding soil of micropiles

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Int. J. Geomech., 2013, 13(6): 729-744

Precision Tools

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Different types of instrumental tools were used to monitor the following items: the loading process, the deformation of the bed, and
the embankment and axial strains of the micropiles. These measurement results were used in the following sections to validate the
numerical analysis.
Accordingly, two displacement transducers of CDP50 and
CDP100 (made by Tokyo Sokki Kenkyujo 2011) were used
to determine the displacements of the sides of the bed and the

embankment crest, respectively. Also, considering that strain gauges

were installed on the reinforcing bar of the micropile, a special
type of strain gauge, FLA-611, was chosen with dimensions of
6 3 2:2 mm2 , which is compatible to that of a steel bar. It should be
noted that the model of the data logger and its driver software were
TMR-211 and TMR-7200, respectively (Tokyo Sokki Kenkyujo
2011).
The manner of monitoring and the exact location of precision
tools during each test are presented in Fig 4 and Table 8.
As mentioned previously, a 300-kN loading jack was used to
statically apply a load on the experimental model. Accordingly, the
load-bearing capacity of the embankment was measured by an analog
gauge, which was installed on the hydraulic pump of the loading jack.

Experimental Results
When the construction of the instrumented model was done, the
loading process was started by the use of the hydraulic jack with a
2.5-kN loading step and was continued as long as a sudden drop was
observed in the analog loading gauge, which indicated embankment
failure. Furthermore, during this time the embankment deformation
and axial strain of the micropiles were precisely monitored.
Failure Mechanism of the Embankment
Figs. 5 and 6 show the failure mechanism of the model embankment
during laboratory loading test Nos. 13.
A deep sliding surface crossing through loose subgrade layers
caused the failure of the embankment slope, which is marked in

Fig. 4. Position of instrumented points

Table 8. Location of Instrumentation Tools during Loading Tests
Laboratory
test number

Number of micropile rows on

each side of the embankment

Gauged micropile
in each row

MP1245 , MP6245 , MP12245

MP120 , MP520 , MP820
MP1245 , MP5245 , MP8245
Note: M 5 distance of strain gauge from head of the pile; MP 5 micropile.

1
2
3

1
2

M (cm)

1 (30), 2 (50), 3 (80)

1 (30), 2 (50), 3 (80)
1 (20), 2 (45), 3 (70)

Fig. 5. Progressive sliding surface of embankment

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Int. J. Geomech., 2013, 13(6): 729-744

Positions of displacement
transducers
P1 2P6 and PMS
P1 2P6 and PMS
P1 2P6 and PMS

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Furthermore, a sample of the outputs of the CDP [made by

Tokyo Sokki Kenkyujo (2011) with the maximum measurement of
50200 mm was used in a form of 250 and 100 mm for the
LVDT (linear variable differential transformer) reference data, which
was collected through a data logger] displacement transducers,
which were recorded by TMR-7200 software during loading test
No. 2, is shown in Fig. 8. Perusing the gradient of displacement-time
diagrams in Fig. 8, the general behavior of the embankment to the
moment of failure can be investigated. According to a trend of
the diagrams at points 2 and 5, settlement of the embankment crest
escalated gradually; however, in the last minute, owing to embankment failure, the diagram suddenly climbed to a high rise of settlement. Moreover, the uplift movements of bed sides, points 1, 3, 4, and
6, ascended slowly to minute 11 of loading, and after this moment,
owing to embankment failure and interruption of load transfer through
the soil layers, it remained stable. Generally, it should be noted that the
deformation of the bed sides were negligible because of the micropiles
resistance against the sliding of the underlying layers.
Axial Strains of Micropiles
The axial strains of the micropiles, which were measured by FLA-611
strain gauges, are given in Table 11. Moreover, as a sample, Fig. 9
shows the strain of MP8245 on the right side of the embankment, which
was recorded by TMR-7200 software during loading test No. 3. It
should be mentioned that the points 13 are located in the head, middle,
and end of the MP8245 , respectively. As it can be seen in this gure, the
axial strain of the micropile increases dramatically, but in the last
minute of loading, owing to embankment failure and a reduction of the
load pressure applied on the micropile, it remained nearly unchanged.
Considering the noticeable strains generated in micropiles, it is
clear that these reinforcing elements prevented sliding of the underlying layers and caused a prominent increase in the load-bearing
capacity of the embankment.
Fig. 6. (a) Settlement of the embankment crest and middle layers of
subgrade in loading test No. 2; (b) swelling and cracking of embankment
slope in loading test No. 3

Fig 5. It is worth mentioning that considerable settlement and uplift

movement of the underlying layers, which are illustrated in the
gure, imply that the main reason of non-reinforced embankment
failure is in the sliding of bed layers.
Using micropiles as reinforcing elements in the substrate prevented the sliding of bed layers and changed the failure mechanism
of the embankment. In these conditions, only the settlement of the
middle layers of subgrade and embankment and swelling of the embankment slope can be seen; this is illustrated in Figs. 6(a and b).
The measured data during the experimental tests, including
failure loads, displacements of the bed, and embankment and axial
strains of micropiles, are summarized in the following sections.
Load-Bearing Capacity of the Embankment
During the loading tests, displacements of the embankment crest for
each 10-kN increase in load were recorded and illustrated in Fig. 7 as
a load-deformation diagram. Furthermore, the load-bearing capacity
of the embankment for each test is given in Table 9.
Displacements of Bed and Embankment
The uplift movements of the bed sides and settlements of the embankment crest are given for each of the loading tests in Table 10.

Numerical Modeling
In this section, considering the values of failure loads, displacements, and axial strains achieved during the loading tests, three
numerical models were developed by FEM and then veried on the
basis of the experimental measured data.
The main objective of this modeling is to conduct a series of
sensitivity analyses on the geometric parameters of micropiles to
determine their actual efciency.
PLAXIS-3D code was adopted for the numerical analyses; also,
during the analyses, the behavior of the embankment materials
and bed were considered to be elastoplastic on the basis of the
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, and the micropile was supposed to
be a linear elastic element.
Geometry Model, Mesh Generation, and
Boundary Conditions
The geometry of the embankment and bed were discretized using
quadratic 15-node wedge elements for the evaluation of the deformations and stresses.
Using the PLAXIS-3D code, the inputs of soil layers, micropiles,
stages of construction, loads, and boundary conditions were dened
using convenient CAD drawing procedures, which allowed for
a detailed and accurate modeling of main geometry cross section,
from which a 3D nite-element mesh was generated (Brinkgreve
et al. 2002). The standard xities option was used to dene the
boundary conditions. In addition, the number of elements, nodes,
and stress points were 2,425, 7,424, and 14,550, respectively.

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Fig. 7. Load displacement of embankment crest

Table 9. Load-Bearing Capacity of Model Embankments
Load-bearing capacity (kN=m2 )

Test number
1
2
3

254.16
402.78
401.39

Table 10. Displacements of Bed and Embankment at Moment of Failure

Displacement 1a
D5
(mm)

D6
(mm)

DMS
(mm)

1
21
5.5
21:5
21:5
5.2
2
20:6
5.7
20:5
20:5
5.7
3
20:4
5.6
20:45 20:45 5.55
Note: See Fig. 4 for location of instrumented points.
a
Downward displacement is positive.

20:85
20:54
20:47

3.81
2.9
2.75

Laboratory
test number

D1
(mm)

D2
(mm)

D3
(mm)

D4
(mm)

The geometrical model, mesh generation, and boundary conditions are illustrated in Fig. 10.

Accordingly, the method of incremental loading was dened

by the PLAXIS-3D code in a way that it increased until it reached
the embankment failure threshold and then remained constant.
As a result, the numerical failure loads are calculated as 258.3,
404.17, and 404:17 kN=m2 for model Nos. 1, 2, and 3, respectively.

Validation of Numerical Models

In this section, the outputs of the numerical analysis were veried by
comparing them with the laboratory data. To this end, the loadbearing capacity of the embankments, displacements of different
points of bed and embankment, and axial strains of the micropiles
were evaluated as follows.
Load-Bearing Capacity of the Embankments
The load-bearing capacities of the embankments that resulted from
the experimental and numerical studies are given in Table 12.
Considering the excellent agreement of the load-bearing capacity
results in Table 12 with a percentage difference of 0.89%, the reliability of the numerical modeling can be proved.

Material Properties
To simulate the numerical models using PLAXIS-3D code, the soil
material model was assumed to be elastic-plastic Mohr-Coulomb
involving ve parameters: E and n 5 soil elasticity; w and c 5 soil
plasticity, and c 5 an angle of dilatancy. All input parameters were
dened according to Tables 1 and 2.

Displacements of Bed and Embankment

The displacements resulted from the experimental and numerical
analyses were compared in Table 13. As it can be seen, the existing
percentage difference of 16% between the experimental and numerical deformation shows a fairly good correlation and consequently proves the accuracy of the numerical models.

Loading Method and Analysis

The load-bearing capacity of embankments obtained from the laboratory tests made it possible to predict the approximate value of
the embankment failure load for numerical modeling.

Axial Strains of the Micropiles

The positions of the strain gauges installed on each micropile were
determined in accordance with Fig. 4 and Table 8.

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Fig. 8. Displacement time of points 16 [output of TMR-7200 software (Tokyo Sokki Kenkyujo 2011) in loading test No. 2]

Table 11. Axial Strain of Micropiles at the Moment of Failure

Test 2

Test 3

Strain of micropiles
Strain of micropiles
in right side of the
in left side of the
embankment section (ms) embankment section (ms)

Number of
strain gauge 1245

6245

12245

1245

Strain of micropiles in right side of

the embankment section (ms)
520

8245

820

Strain of micropiles in left side of

the embankment section (ms)

6245

12245

1245 1210 5245

1245

120

5245

520

8245

820

M 51
1,120 1,327 1,405 1,168 1,411
M 52
1,327 1,692 1,780 1,425 1,781
M 53
811 1,021
978
862 1,033
Note: See Fig. 4 for location of instrumented points.

1,401
1,732
942

1,440
842 1,850
940 1,300
810 1,350 1,311 1,870 1,658 1,101 1,279
1,600 2279 2,000 2150 1,440 2275 1,960 2809 2,540 2729 1,693 2642
900 2280 1,200 2256 815 2284 1,180 2460 1,320 2489 895 2419

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Fig. 9. Strain time of points 13 on MP8245 located in right side of embankment [output of TMR-7200 software (Tokyo Sokki Kenkyujo 2011)
in loading test No. 3]

Fig. 10. Geometry model, mesh generation, and boundary conditions

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Int. J. Geomech., 2013, 13(6): 729-744

obtain an appropriate criterion for starting the procedure of sensitivity

analysis on the geometric parameters of the micropiles. Moreover,
by controlling the outputs of the safety analysis with an allowable
safety factor of 1.3 [which is recommended by UIC719-R code
(International Union of Railways 1994)], the effect of each geometric parameter of micropile on the safety factor can be evaluated to
achieve the optimum arrangement of these reinforcing elements
during the procedure of sensitivity analysis.
To this end, rst the method of the PLAXIS-3D code for the safety
analysis should be described. For the analysis of slope stability in an
embankment, a more appropriate denition of the safety factor
corresponds to Eq. (2)

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It should be considered that the axial strains of the six micropiles in loading test No. 2 and 12 micropiles in loading test No. 3
were gauged at three points. The measured outputs are tabulated
in Table 14.
The acceptable conformity of the strains numerical and experimental values that were determined with a percentage difference of
4.11% can adequately prove the accuracy of developed numerical
models. Furthermore, the strains of the micropiles on the left- and
right-hand sides of the embankment are almost identical. Their
magnitudes are expected, considering the model scale and imposed
load.

Safety Analysis
Safety factor

In this section, it is necessary to determine safety factor of the slope

stability for the proposed arrangements, Nos. 1 and 2, in order to

Numerical load-bearing
capacity (kN=m2 )

Experimental load-bearing
capacity (kN=m2 )

258.3
404.17
404.17

254.16
402.78
401.39

1
2
3

c tan w P M
sf
cr tan wr

Table 13. Displacements of Bed and Embankment at the Moment Failure

is Numerically and Experimentally Determined

D1
D2
(mm) (mm)

D3
(mm)

D4
(mm)

D5
(mm)

D6
(mm)

DMS
(mm)

The incremental multiplier, Msf , controlled the reduction of the

strength parameters during the analysis procedure. This parameter
is increased in a step-by-step procedure until failure occurs.
P
Then, the safety factor is dened as the value of Msf at the
moment of failure, providing at the time that a more or less constant
value is obtained for a number of consecutive load steps (Brinkgreve
et al. 2002).
Based on the methodology described previously, diagrams of
the safety factor of slope stability in an embankment failure threshold
for the three models are shown in Fig. 11. According to this gure, it
can be stated that both arrangements led to a safety factor that is less
than the recommended value of 1.3, which is approximately on the
order of 1.25.
In addition, the results of the numerical analyses in model Nos. 2
and 3, as given in Table 15, were compared in order to diagnose the

1
Numerical
20:7
Experimental 21

5.28
5.5

21
21:5

21
21:5

5.28
5.2

21
20:85

3.6
3.81

Numerical
20:4
Experimental 20:6

5.5
5.7

20:4
20:5

20:4
20:5

5.5
5.7

20:4
20:54

2.5
2.9

3
Numerical
20:4 5.4
20:4
20:4
5.4
20:4
Experimental 20:4 5.6
20:45 20:45 5.55 20:47
Note: See Fig. 4 for the location of the instrumented points.
a
Downward displacement is positive.

(3)

Displacement 1a
Test number

(2)

where S 5 shear strength of the soil.

The ratio between the available strength and the computed
minimum strength, which is needed for equilibrium, is the safety
factor that is conventionally used in soil mechanics. This principle is
the basis of the method of phi-c reduction that can be used in the
PLAXIS-3D code to calculate a safety factor.
In this regard, the cohesion and the tangent of the angle of friction
are reduced in the same proportion as follows:

Table 12. Load-Bearing Capacity of Model Embankments Numerically

and Experimentally Determined
Test
number

Savailable
Sneeded for equilibirium

2.5
2.75

Table 14. Axial Strain of Micropiles at the Moment Failure is Numerically and Experimentally Determined
Test 2

Number of
strain gauge
M 51
Numerical
Experimental
M 52
Numerical
Experimental
M 53
Numerical
Experimental
Note: See Fig. 4

Strain of micropiles
in right side of the
embankment section
(ms)

Test 3

Strain of micropiles
in left side of the
embankment section
(ms)

Strain of micropiles in right side

of the embankment section (ms)

Strain of micropiles in left side

of the embankment section (ms)

1245

6245

12245

1245

6245

12245

1245 120 5245 520 8245 820 1245 120 5245 520 8245 820

1,150
1,120

1,420
1,327

1,420
1,405

1,100
1,168

1,350
1,411

1,400
1,401

1,399
1,440

1,420
1,327

1,780
1,692

1,720
1,780

1,400
1,425

1,770
1,781

1,800
1,732

1,609 2280 1,916 2160 1,416 2280 1,905 2690 2,702 2700 1,720 2650
1,600 2279 2,000 2150 1,440 2275 1,960 2809 2,540 2729 1,693 2642

850 1,050
950
850 1,040
811 1,021
978
862 1,033
for location of instrumented points.

1,000
962

710 1,821
842 1,850

980 1,408
940 1,300

917 2300 1,138 2240

900 2280 1,200 2256

710 1,378 1,280 1,901 1,650 1,180 1,270

810 1,350 1,311 1,870 1,658 1,101 1,279

851 2280 1,191 2460 1,206 2480

815 2284 1,180 2460 1,320 2489

980 2410
895 2419

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Fig. 11. Diagram of safety factor displacement (output of PLAXIS-3D code)

Table 15. Comparison of Numerical Models 2 and 3 Reinforced with Arrangement Numbers 1 and 2
Micropile parameters
Arrangement
number

Reduction of displacements (mm)

N

LMP (cm)

DD2:5

DDMS

DD1,3,4,6

Increase of load-bearing
capacity

1
24
90
1.6
1.08
0.7
145.87
2
32
80, 90
1.63
1.1
0.7
145.87
Note: FS 5 safety factor; LMP 5 micropile length; N 5 number of micropiles; V 5 volume of grout consumption.

suitable arrangement for the rst step of the sensitivity analysis. It is

understood that although both arrangements are equal in safety
factor and reduction of displacements, lesser amounts of grout had
been consumed in arrangement No. 1 (Model 2). Therefore, this
arrangement was chosen as a base to conduct a series of sensitivity
analyses to achieve the optimum arrangement of micropiles.

Sensitivity Analysis on the Geometric Parameters

of Micropiles
In the case of embankment stabilization, the most important geometric parameters of micropiles can be summarized as follows:
1. The micropiles location in the embankment slope;
2. The micropile angle;
3. The number of micropiles in the embankment section;
4. Micropile spacing (longitudinal distances between micropiles);
5. Micropile diameter; and
6. Micropile length.
According to the initial modeling using the PLAXIS-3D code
(Khayyer 2010) and recommendations of UIC719-R code (International Union of Railways 1994), the most appropriate values of
the geometric parameters of points 1 and 2 during the sensitivity
analysis can be determined as follows:
1. Slip of the bed layers is the main reason for failure of the
embankments resting on loose subgrades. As a result, the most

V cm3

FS

4,942.08
6,589.44

1.249
1.254

appropriate location for a group of micropiles is the embankment toe (for embankments that are 512 m high); and
2. Because of practical limitations, it is recommended that the
angle between the micropile and the vertical axis not exceed
45 (because of the difculty in micropile installation); consequently, this angle is selected to be between 0 and 45. It
should be noted that resistance against sliding of underlying
layers improves with the increase of the micropiles angle to
the vertical axis. This is because of an increase in the horizontal
component of the micropiles axial load.
Therefore, the sensitivity analysis was performed on the basis of
parameters 36. To determine the efciency of these parameters,
three or four sensible values were considered for each and the
diagrams of the safety factor versus grout consumption were drawn.
According to the trend lines gradient in these diagrams, it was
possible to dene an efciency factor for each parameter. This means
that a larger gradient equates with a more efcient parameter in
raising the safety factor.
Finally, considering the lowest grout consumption, an optimal
arrangement of micropiles in which the embankment safety factor
equals 1.3 could be chosen.
It should be noted that the primary reason for choosing the grout
consumption as an operative parameter is that this parameter is the
only one that can show the relationships between all of the geometric
parameters of micropiles, i.e., number, spacing, diameter, and length
with the embankment safety factor.

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Effect of Number of Micropiles in Embankment

Section
In the rst step of the sensitivity analysis, the number of micropiles
in the embankment section was examined. For this parameter, three
different values were considered and the safety factors and the
amounts of grout consumption for each arrangement were calculated
as given in Table 16. As mentioned earlier, this process began with
arrangement No. 1. Moreover, to investigate the effect of this parameter on the process of arrangement optimization, Graph (1) in
Fig. 12 compares the safety factor to grout consumption.
According to the values of safety factors presented in Table 16, it
can be seen that they are all less than the recommended value of 1.3,
henceforth indicating that none of the proposed arrangements can
suitably reinforce the embankment. Thus, the analysis was continued by decreasing the micropile spacing to achieve the recommended safety factor in the following section. Considering the
magnitude of the safety factor and the amounts of grout consumption, arrangement No. 3 was selected to carry out the analysis
procedure. It should be taken into consideration that the efciency

factor of the parameter of the micropiles number in the embankment

section is equal to 0.8, as given in Table 20. This means that this
parameter has the least impact on the arrangement optimization
process in comparison with the other geometric parameters.

Effect of Micropiles Spacing

In the second step of the sensitivity analysis procedure, the geometric parameter of micropile spacing was assumed to be a variable,
therefore four different values were considered for this parameter.
Furthermore, considering the results obtained from the previous
section, the procedure for the analysis in this part began with arrangement No. 3, where an increase in the values of the safety factor
was a result of the reduction of micropile spacing as calculated in
Table 17. Subsequently, the effect of this parameter in the form of
safety factor versus grout consumption is shown in Graph (2) of
Fig. 12.
As it can be seen from Table 17, the level of the safety factor
increases considerably by decreasing micropiles spacing; on the

Table 16. Results of Sensitivity Analysis on Number of Micropiles in Embankment Section

Arrangement
number

Micropile parameters
u (degree)

NS SMP (cm) DMP (cm) ODC (cm) RGP (cm) AS (cm2 )

LMP (cm)

BL (cm) BC (kN=m2 )

V (cm3 )

FS

1
45
24 2
20
1.5
1.4
0.5
0.107 90
20
404.17
4,942.08 1.249
3
0, 45
48 4
20
1.5
1.4
0.5
0.107 80, 90
20
410.68
9,884.16 1.262
4
0, 22.5, 45
72 6
20
1.5
1.4
0.5
0.107 80, 90, 90
20
413.22
14,826.24 1.268
5
0, 15, 30, 45 96 8
20
1.5
1.4
0.5
0.107 80, 90, 90, 90
20
414.77
19,768.32 1.27
Note: AS 5 bar and pile casing steel area; BC 5 embankment load-bearing capacity; BL 5 bond length of micropiles; DMP 5 diameter of micropile (diameter of
drilled hole); FS 5 safety factor; LMP 5 micropile length; N 5 number of micropiles; NS 5 number of micropiles in embankment section; ODC 5 outer diameter
of casing; RGP 5 radius of grout penetration zone; SMP 5 micropile spacing; V 5 volume of grout consumption; u 5 angle of micropiles to vertical axis.

Fig. 12. Diagram of safety factor grout consumption

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Table 17. Results of Sensitivity Analysis on Micropiles Spacing

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Arrangement
number

Micropile parameters
u (degree)

NS

SMP (cm)

DMP (cm)

ODC (cm)

RGP (cm)

AS (cm2 )

LMP (cm)

BL (cm)

BC (kN=m2 )

V (cm3 )

FS

3
0, 45
48 4
20
1.5
1.4
0.5
0.107
80, 90
20
410.68
9,884.16 1.262
6
0, 45
52 4
19
1.5
1.4
0.5
0.107
80, 90
20
414.17
10,707.84 1.269
7
0, 45
56 4
18
1.5
1.4
0.5
0.107
80, 90
20
420.1
11,531.52 1.28
8
0, 45
64 4
15
1.5
1.4
0.5
0.107
80, 90
20
429.72
13,178.88 1.3
9
0, 45
96 4
10
1.5
1.4
0.5
0.107
80, 90
20
440.3
19,768.32 1.32
Note: AS 5 bar and pile casing steel area; BC 5 embankment load-bearing capacity; BL 5 bond length of micropiles; DMP 5 diameter of micropile (diameter of
drilled hole); FS 5 safety factor; LMP 5 micropile length; N 5 number of micropiles; NS 5 number of micropiles in embankment section; ODC 5 outer diameter
of casing; RGP 5 radius of grout penetration zone; SMP 5 micropile spacing; V 5 volume of grout consumption; u 5 angle of micropiles to vertical axis.

Table 18. Results of Sensitivity Analysis on Micropiles Length

Arrangement
number

Micropile parameters
u (degree)

NS

SMP (cm)

DMP (cm)

ODC (cm)

RGP (cm)

AS (cm2 )

LMP (cm)

BL (cm)

BC (kN=m2 )

V (cm3 )

FS

9
0, 45
96 4
10
1.5
1.4
0.5
0.107
80, 90
20
440.3
19,768.32 1.32
10
0, 45
96 4
10
1.5
1.4
0.5
0.107
80
20
436.72
17,571.84 1.312
11
0, 45
96 4
10
1.5
1.4
0.5
0.107
70
20
432.56
15,375.36 1.304
12
0, 45
96 4
10
1.5
1.4
0.5
0.107
60
20
426.83
13,178.88 1.293
Note: AS 5 bar and pile casing steel area; BC 5 embankment load-bearing capacity; BL 5 bond length of micropiles; DMP 5 diameter of micropile (diameter of
drilled hole); FS 5 safety factor; LMP 5 micropile length; N 5 number of micropiles; NS 5 number of micropiles in embankment section; ODC 5 outer diameter
of casing; RGP 5 radius of grout penetration zone; SMP 5 micropile spacing; V 5 volume of grout consumption; u 5 angle of micropiles to vertical axis.

Table 19. Results of Sensitivity Analysis on Micropiles Diameter

Arrangement
number

Micropile parameters
u (degree)

NS

SMP (cm)

DMP (cm)

ODC (cm)

RGP (cm)

AS (cm2 )

LMP (cm)

BL (cm)

BC (kN=m2 )

V (cm3 )

FS

12
0, 45
96 4
10
1.5
1.4
0.5
0.107
80
20
434.72
17,571.84 1.312
13
0, 45
96 4
10
1
0.9
0.5
0.107
80
20
432.22
8,823.71 1.303
14
0, 45
96 4
10
0.75
0.65
0.5
0.107
80
30
425.66
5,588.73 1.294
15
0, 45
96 4
10
0.5
0.4
0.5
0.107
80
35
418.39
3,096.26 1.28
Note: AS 5 bar and pile casing steel area; BC 5 embankment load-bearing capacity; BL 5 bond length of micropiles; DMP 5 diameter of micropile (diameter of
drilled hole); FS 5 safety factor; LMP 5 micropile length; N 5 number of micropiles; NS 5 number of micropiles in embankment section; ODC 5 outer diameter
of casing; RGP 5 radius of grout penetration zone; SMP 5 micropile spacing; V 5 volume of grout consumption; u 5 angle of micropiles to vertical axis.

Table 20. Efciency Factors of Geometric Parameters of Micropiles

Gradient =
gradient

Efciency
factor

Graph
number

Geometric parameter
of micropiles

Gradient of
trend line

No. in embankment
section
Spacing
Length
Diameter

1 3 1026

0.08

0.8

6 3 1026
4 3 1026
2 3 1026

0.46
0.31
0.15

4.6
3.1
1.5

2
3
4

other hand, there are no signicant changes in the volume of grout

consumption. Henceforth, according to Table 20 and Fig. 12, the
efciency factor of this parameter is on the order of 4.6, which means
that this parameter has the greatest impact in comparison with the
others.
Effect of Micropile Length
According to the previously investigated arrangements and existing
limitations on the loading chamber dimensions, the length of the

micropile had a maximum possible value of 90 cm. Hence, an arrangement should be used that provides a safety factor of slope
stability greater than 1.3 as a basis to carry out the sensitivity analysis on this parameter. For this reason arrangement No. 9, which has
a safety factor of 1.32, was selected.
During the sensitivity analysis procedure, the magnitude of the
micropile length was reduced (Table 18) to achieve an optimum
arrangement. Furthermore, the effect of this parameter was investigated in the form of a safety factor versus grout consumption
diagram, as shown in Fig. 12, Graph (3). According to Table 20, the
efciency factor of the micropile length is 3.1.
Effect of Micropile Diameter
The last parameter studied was a micropile diameter that had a maximum value of 30 cm based on FHWA (2000) recommendations.
Therefore, arrangement No. 12 with a safety factor of 1.312 was
chosen as a basis to continue the analysis on this parameter.
As can be seen in Table 19, the safety factor and the volume of
grout consumption decreased because of a reduction in the diameter

742 / INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEOMECHANICS ASCE / NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2013

Int. J. Geomech., 2013, 13(6): 729-744

Table 21. Conditions of Model Embankment Reinforced with Optimum Arrangement No. 13
Parameters
Type of the model
embankments

Load-bearing
capacity (kN=m2 )

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Non-reinforced
258.3
Reinforced
432.22
Difference
173.92
Percentage difference
67.3%
a
Downward displacement is positive.

Displacements 1a (mm)
Safety factor

D1

D2

D3

D4

D5

D6

1
1.303
0.303
30.3%

20:7
20:3
0.4
57.1%

5.28
3.32
21:96
37.1%

21
20:3
0.7
70%

21
20:3
0.7
70%

5.28
3.32
21:96
37.1%

21
20:3
0.7
70%

of the micropiles. Moreover, the effect of this parameter is depicted

in Fig. 12, Graph (4).
According to Table 20 and Fig. 12, the efciency factor of the
geometric parameter of the micropile length is on the order of 1.5.
Finally, considering the volume of grout consumption, arrangement No. 13 was the resultant optimum arrangement of micropiles.
Table 21 shows how the optimum arrangement of micropiles
can reinforce the model embankment. In this regard, the following
results were obtained:
1. The safety factor of slope stability increases by more than 30%;
2. The load-bearing capacity of the embankment ascends by
more than 65%;
3. The settlement of the embankment crest decreases by about
35%;
4. The settlement of middle layers of the bed decreases by about
40%; and
5. The uplift movements of the bed sides decrease by more than
65%.

Summary and Conclusion

This paper presents the results of experimental and numerical programs that were conducted to study the performance of railway
embankments reinforced with micropiles. First, three experimental
models of embankment were constructed on the scale of 1=20 to
perform a number of laboratory loading tests: one based on a nonreinforced embankment and the others based on the embankments
reinforced with two different arrangements of micropiles.
Subsequently, the data, which include the load-bearing capacity
of the embankments, displacements of the embankment crest and
bed sides, and the axial strains of the micropiles, were measured
using precision tools during the laboratory tests.
In the next step, the models were simulated and analyzed with
PLAXIS-3D code and the outputs were controlled by the experimental data to validate the numerical results.
Finally, a series of sensitivity analyses was accomplished on the
geometric parameters of micropiles to classify their efciency factor
in the process of arrangement optimization.
The main ndings of the research are summarized as follows:
1. The experimental and numerical results have an excellent
agreement with percentage differences of 0.89, 16, and 4.11%
in load-bearing capacity, embankment deformation, and axial
strains of micropiles, respectively. This proves the accuracy of
the numerical modeling.
2. According to the results of the numerical analysis, the optimum arrangement of micropiles for embankment stabilization
occurs in the case of installing two vertical and two 45 micropiles at the embankment toe. In this condition, the micropiles diameter, length, and spacing are limited to 10 mm,

DMS
3.6
2.09
21:51
42%

80 cm, and 10 cm, respectively, and the grout penetration

radius is 5 mm.
3. Considering the results of sensitivity analysis, it can be stated
that the efciency factors of the geometric parameters of
the micropiles are on the order of 4.6, 3.5, 1.5, and 0.8 for
spacing, length, diameter, and number in embankment section, respectively.
4. If the optimum arrangement of the micropile is used to reinforce the embankments, the safety factor of the slope stability and static load-bearing capacity of the embankments will
increase by more than 30 and 65%, respectively; and also the
settlement of the embankment crest will decrease by approximately 35%.

Notation
The following symbols are used in this paper:
AS 5 bar and pile casing steel area (cm2 );
BC 5 embankment load-bearing capacity (kN=m2 );
BL 5 bond length of micropiles (m);
CC 5 curvature coefcient;
CU 5 uniformity coefcient;
c 5 soil cohesion (kN=m2 );
Db 5 diameter of steel bar (cm);
DK 5 displacement measured by transducer
number K (mm);
DMP 5 diameter of micropile (diameter of drilled
hole) (cm);
D10 5 soil particle diameter at which 10% of the
mass of a soil sample is ner;
D30 5 soil particle diameter at which 30% of the
mass of a soil sample is ner;
D60 5 soil particle diameter at which 60% of the
mass of a soil sample is ner;
dm 5 diameter of an equivalent grout section of
model micropile (cm);
dp 5 diameter of an equivalent grout section of
prototype micropile (cm);
EG 5 Youngs modulus of grout (MPa);
EGS 5 Youngs modulus of grouted sand (MPa);
Em 5 Youngs modulus of equivalent grout section
of model micropile (MPa);
Ep 5 Youngs modulus of equivalent grout section
of prototype micropile (MPa);
ES 5 Youngs modulus of steel;
FS 5 safety factor;
f c9 5 compression strength of cement grout (MPa);
G 5 material stiffness;
GS 5 specic gravity of soil;

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF GEOMECHANICS ASCE / NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2013 / 743

Int. J. Geomech., 2013, 13(6): 729-744

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IDC
K
L
LMP
M
MP
MPN -u
N
NS
ODC
PG
PK
RGP
S
SMP
V
W=C
wopt
a

5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5

g
gdmax

M
N -u
u
n
r
s
w
c

5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5

inner diameter of casing (cm);

displacement transducer number;
length (m);
micropile length (m);
number of strain gauge;
micropile;
micropile number N with degree of u;
number of micropiles;
number of micropiles in embankment section;
outer diameter of casing (cm);
grouting pressure (bar);
position of displacement transducer No. K;
radius of grout penetration zone (cm);
shear strength of the soil (kN=m2 );
micropile spacing (cm);
volume of grout consumption (cm3 );
water-to-cement ratio;
optimum moisture content of soil;
an exponent of effective stress in stiffness
relation;
soil unit weight (kN=m3 );
maximum dry soil unit weight (kN=m3 );
strain of micropiles (mstrain );
strain of MPN -u measured by strain gauge M;
angle of micropiles to vertical axis (degree);
Poissons ratio;
material density (kg=m3 );
stress (kN=m2 );
angle of internal friction (degree); and
angle of dilatancy (degree).

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