Leroueil, S. & Vaughan, P. R. (1950).GCotechnique 40, No.

3,467X+8

The general and congruent effects of structure

natural soils and weak rocks
S. LEROUEIL*

in

and P. R. VAUGHAN7

The engineering properties of naturally occurring

sedimentary
and residual deposits which are
usually treated in geotechnical engineering as
soils are reviewed, and it is shown that usually
they have characteristics due to bonded structure
which are similar to those of porous weak rock.
While this structure can arise from many causes,
its effects follow a simple general pattern that
involves stiff behaviour followed by yield. This
yield can be described in a similar way to that
occurring due to overconsolidation, although it is a
separate phenomenon. The effects of structure are
as important in determining engineering behaviour
as are the effects of initial porosity and stresshistory, which are the basic concepts of soil mechanics. As it can be described in a general way, it is
concluded that structure and its effects should be
treated as a further basic concept of equal importance.
KEYWORDS: compressibility; constitutive relatious;
fabric/structure of soils; historical review; shear strength.

Larticle passe en revue les propr%tb des d&&s

Gdimentaires et r&duels naturels qui sont normalement trait& comme des sols en g&technique
et demontre que g&ralement
ils po&dent des
caract&ristiques dues d la structure Ii&e qui
ressemblent zi celles du rocher tendre poreux. Bien
que cette structure puisse provenir de beaucoup de
facteurs, ses effets suivent un tours g&&al trb
simple comprenant un comportement raide suivi
par 16coulement. Cet &oulement peut Ctre compare d celui rbultant de la surconsolidation, bien
quil repr&sente un phbnomhe different. Dans la
dbtermination du comportement dans la construction les effets de la structure ont une importance
igale P celle des effets de la porositC initiale et de
lhistorique des contraintes, qui repr6sentent les
conceptions classiques de la m6canique des soIs.
On tire la conclusion que la structure et 92s effets
devraient &tre trait& comme uoe autre conception
de base dimportance bgale, puisquil est possible
de les d&crire dune fagon gbnerale.

arise from many causes, such as solution and

deposition
of silica at particle contacts in sands
(Mitchell & Solymar, 1984), from cold welding at
interparticle
contacts under high pressure, from
the deposition
of carbonates,
hydroxides
and
matter
from
solution,
from
reorganic
crystallization
of minerals during weathering, and
from the modification of the adsorbed water layer
and interparticle attractive forces in clayey soils.
Studies of these effects in soil mechanics have
typically involved
treating
the materials
concerned as special cases, to reflect their variable
and complex origins. However, studies of the
properties of such materials in the Authors own
laboratories
and other studies reported in the literature show that, while their origins may be
complex, the effects themselves may be described
in a simple and general way. The Authors seek to
show that this can be done, that such characteristics are common in natural geological materials,
and that they have a strong influence on engineering behaviour. They also seek to demonstrate
Discussion
on this Paper closes 4 January
1991; for
that the description
of these effects should be
further details, see p. ii.
included
among the general concepts
of soil
* Lava1 University, Quebec.
mechanics, along with initial void ratio and stresst Imperial College, London.
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461
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INTRODUCTION
The application
of engineering
science to the
study of soils and rocks requires conceptual and
mathematical
models which describe the true
nature of these materials. The classical models of
soil mechanics
involve the concepts
of initial
porosity and its subsequent modification by stress
history (Vaughan, 1985; Vaughan, Maccarini 8~
Mokhtar, 1988). The strength and stiffness which
come from the cementation
or bonding together
of particles are only considered
to be a general
characteristic
in rock mechanics, although it is
now recognized
that many of the naturally
occurring materials treated in engineering as soils
have components
of strength and stiffness which
cannot be accounted for by porosity and stresshistory alone.
These have been recognized in soft clays, stiff
clays, in granular soils and in residual soils, as
well as in weak and weathered rocks. They can

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468

LEROUEIL

AND VAUGHAN

other effects may operate, such as thixotropy

associated
with rearrangement
of particles and
the water-cation
system (Mitchell,
1976), and
cementation
due to the deposition of carbonates,
iron and aluminium oxides, organic matter and
so on, at particle contacts. The preconsolidation
pressure then increases to point P on Fig. l(a)
and (b). The increase from B to P is due to structure.
Increases of preconsolidation
pressure greater
than might be expected from the volume change
due
to secondary
compression
have
been
EXAMPLES
OF YIELDING
IN STRUCTURED
observed
in the laboratory
by Leonards
&
SOILS AND WEAK ROCKS
Ramiah (1959), Leonards
& Altschaelfl (1964),
and Leroueil (1977). It has been shown that
soft clays
The normal consolidation
of clays is usually
marine soils can become cemented by carbonates
considered to be as shown on Fig. 1. As the stress
(Kelly, Nacci, Wang & Demars, 1974), and the
increases
during
deposition
the void
ratio
strength of soft clay is often improved by treatdecreases
following
a compression
curve CL--CL. ment with cementing agents such as lime, cement
After deposition
the vertical effective stress may
and gypsum (Mitchell,
1981; Holm, Trank &
Ekstrom,
1983; Locat & B&rub&, 1987). Mesri
be u,,, and the void ratio e, . Secondary compression follows and, if effective stress remains con(1975) and Tavenas & Leroueil (1990) concluded
stant, the void ratio decreases
to e,. This
that most natural soft clays are structured.
decrease in void ratio can be considered to give
In practice, it is difficult to separate the effect of
an apparent
increase in preconsolidation
stress
structure from the effect of secondary compression. However, evidence of structure is provided
from gvl to qn, and an increase in undrained
strength from C, to C,, (Fig. l(b)). However,
by the comparison
of oedometer tests on natural
history, and that they should be considered
of
comparable importance.
Currently, there is no agreed terminology
by
which these effects may be described. To avoid
the inference that they must have any particular
origin, soils which show them will be described as
structured, and soils from which they have been
removed by strain or remoulding,
or in which
they have never existed, will be described respectively as destructured or non-structured.

04

Fig. 1. Normal consolidation of clay soil; the effects of secondary compression nod structure oo void ratio, undrained strength and yield

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EFFECB

OF STRUCTURE

IN NATURAL

SOILS AND WEAK ROCKS

469

obtained from natural clays are centred more or

less about the stress line for K, normal consolidation, due to their anisotropic
structure. The
yield surfaces for samples anisotropically
consolidated from a slurry in the laboratory
also show
this (Ladd & Varallay, 1965; Parry & Nadarajah,
1973; Hight, Gens & Jardine, 1985). Anisotropy
developed in soft clays during initial deposition is
retained when they become structured.
Numerous
experimental
studies have shown
that yield in soft clay is easily defined, even in
isotropic compression
(Mitchell, 1970; Sangrey,
1972; Crooks
& Graham,
1976; Tavenas
&
1977;
Larsson,
Leroueil,
1981;
Magnan,
Shahanguian
8~ Josseaume,
1982; Graham,

and re-sedimented
clays, as shown on Fig. 2. The
curves for the natural soil have higher void ratios
than is possible for the soil from which structure
has been removed (e.g. Casagrande,
1932; Rutledge, 1947; Quigley & Thompson,
1965; Mesri,
Rokhsar & Bohor, 1975; Locat & Lefebvre, 1987;
Lapierre, 1987).
Secondary compression
produces not only an
increase in preconsolidation
pressure but also a
homologous
increase of the entire limit state or
yield curve, as shown as curves Y, and Yc on Fig.
l(c) (Burland, 1971; Tavenas & Leroueil, 1977).
Structure also produces an increase in the entire
curve, although possibly not in a homologous
manner. As shown in Fig. 3, the yield curves

10'

102

103

a;: kPa
(b)

Fig. 2. Ooedimeosiooal compressioo curves for intact samples of soft clay and for samples sedimented in tbe
laboratory: (a) Mexico City clay (from Mesri et al. 1975); (b) Tbe Grande Baleine clay (from Locat & Lefebvre,
1982)
0.6

t-

O-6

Destruchmd

5
0.4

0,

0.2

0.4

I
O-6

JAI
- 'o-6

10

O-6

0 .6

(0; + o;)/zob
Fig. 3. Yield carves for intact and destructured soft clays after Taveoas & Leroaeil,
1985): (a) Saiot-Alban (Lerooeil ef al. 1979); (b) Cubzoc-les-Posts (Monao et al.
1982); (c) Atcbafalaya (Park, 1983); (d) Bjickebol (Brouswau, 1983)

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470

LEROUEIL

AND

VAUGHAN

Noonan & Lew, 1983b; Moulin, 1988; Tavenas

& Leroueil, 1985). Evidence of yielding of soft
clays under
embankments
is also plentiful
(Pelletier,
Olsen
& Rixner,
1979; Kabbaj,
Tavenas & Leroueil, 1988).

pressure and yield stress are often difficult to

observe
clearly in these dense soils, but an
increase in strength and yield stress due to structure beyond that due to overconsolidation
is
often apparent
(Banks, Strohm, De Angulo &
Lutton, 1975).
Ohtsuki, Nishi, Okamoto
& Tanaka (1981)
present data for a weak volcanic mudstone from
Japan which show the influence of structure
clearly, as it has a high void ratio of 1.40 associated with a high apparent preconsolidation
pressure of 5 MPa. Drained and undrained triaxial
compression tests show well-defined yielding (Fig.
4(a) and 4(b)), as do isotropic compression
tests
(Fig. 4(d)). The yield curve (Fig. 4(c)) is similar in

Stifoverconsolidated clays, clay-shales and weak

mudstones
During
their
geological
history,
overconsolidated
clays, clay-shales
and weak mudstones have been loaded and unloaded, and have
a relatively
high density in relation
to their
current effective stress. A yield stress has been
induced by overconsolidation.
Preconsolidation

yyz#q=&
0

4
P.

10

12

Ea: %

(b)

6)

A Yield in CIU tests

0 Yield

I CID tests

eld in isotropic
edometric

compression

preconsolidation

/
/

\
\

(0;

pressure_

+ o,)/Z:

MPa

((4
Fig. 4. Failure and yield of a porous silty madstone, after Ohtsuki
et al. (1981): (a) draiaed aad (b) undrained failure; (c) and (d)
yield

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EFFECTS OF STRUCTURE IN NATURAL SOILS AND WEAK ROCKS

471

Seed (1979) reported similar results for dynamic

shear strength. Mitchell & Solymar (1984) reported an increase of penetration
resistance with time
in freshly deposited soil, and in soils densified by
vibro-compaction,
dynamic compaction
or blasting. They reviewed other evidence for growth of
structure and suggested that a major factor was
the dissolution
and reprecipitation
of silica to
provide cementation
at particle contacts.
The
steep angles at which excavated slopes in natural
sands will stand (Sitar, 1983) indicate that cementation is not exceptional.
Saxena & Lastrico (1978) and Clough, Sitar,
Bachus & ShaIIi Rad (1981) present test results
for naturally and artificially cemented sand. Data
from Clough et al. (1981) is shown in Fig. 5.
Cementation
increases
peak strength,
initial
stiffness and brittleness. Cementation
also gives
some tensile strength. Frydman (1981) observed
similar behaviour in calcareous sand from Israel.

shape to those obtained from soft clays (Fig. 3).

The high void ratio of this mudstone indicates
that it has become structured
early in its geological history while stresses were low and water
content high. The shape of the yield curve of this
strongly
structured
material
still reflects the
anisotropy to be expected of a freshly sedimented
clay. The evidence for structure in the London
Clay is discussed later.

Sands
The formation
of sand deposits
is often
complex. However, evidence of structure has been
observed in both the laboratory and the field. Lee
(1977) describes the bonded structure developed
in sand samples subject to high pressure. Anderson 8c Stokoe (1978) found that dynamic shear
modulus of an air-dried silt increased with time.

103 kN/m

Uncemented

lr+a!
2

: kN/m
f

(b)

Fig. 5. Behaviour of cemented and uocemeoted sand, after Clougk et al.

(1981): (a) comparison of strffsstrain response of cemented and uncemented
sands; (b) peak strength values for artificially cemented sand and uncemented
sand at relative density = 74%

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LEROUEIL

AND VAUGHAN

oc: MPa

(a, + aj) /2. MPa

(a)

(b)

Fig. 6. Yielding of a toIT,after Pellegriw (1970): (a) isotropic compression tests; (b) yield carve

Weak rock
The effects of structure increase with lithification and are most apparent when void ratio is
high. The behaviour of a silty mudstone of high
void ratio has already been described (Fig. 4). The
yielding of a volcanic tuff under isotropic loading
and in shear in the laboratory is shown in Fig. 6
(Pellegrino, 1970). Studies of weak rock showing
similar effects are presented by Meigh & Early
(1957), and Addis & Jones (1989) for chalk, Pellegrino (1970) and Elliot & Brown (1985) for calcareous
Sekiguchi,
Nishida,
rocks,
and
Matsumoto
& Uesawa (1985) for diatomaceous
Yamanouchi,
Mochinaga,
Gotoh
&
earth.
Murata (1977) describe the behaviour of Shirasu
material, which consists of glass fractions welded
by thermal effects. It shows the same characteristics as cemented sand, with stiffness, brittleness
and tensile strength increasing with the cohesion
intercept.
When disturbed
or weathered
this
material behaves as a cohesionless sand.
The subsidence of the Ekofisk oil field in the
North Sea at a rate of about 400 mm/year from
1979 to 1985 provides striking evidence of yielding in chalk (Wiborg & Jewhurst,
1986; Potts,
Jones & Berget, 1988; Jones, Leddra & Potts,
1989). Another example of yielding of chalk in the
field is illustrated on Fig. 7, which shows the vertical strain beneath the centre of a silo as it is
loaded, plotted against increase in vertical pressure at ground level (Burland, 1989; Burland &
Bayliss, 1989). A very sharp yield is seen.

11

minerals and the precipitation

of mineral salts
create inter-particle
bonding and structure. Yield
of this structure is observed in oedometer
tests
(Vargas,
1953) and the yield stress is often
referred to as a quasi preconsolidation
pressure.
This structure also gives a cohesion intercept c to
the strength
envelope
even when the soil is
porous and contracts
during shear. Thus this
component
of strength must be due to structure
rather than density (Vaughan, 1985). Yielding of
residual soils in the laboratory
is illustrated in
Fig. 8(a) from isotropic tests on weathered volcanic rock from the Canary
Islands (Uriel &
Serrano, 1973), and in Fig. 8(b) from oedometer
tests on volcanic residual soil from Java (Wesley,
1974). Stiff behaviour followed by yield is shown
in each case. The shape of these curves is essentially similar to those of Figs 2 and 6, although
the stress levels are very different. Fig. 2(b) and
Fig. 8(b) both show that the void ratios for the
soil with structure are greater than can be susApplied vertcal

pressure:

kPa

Residual soil
Residual
soils are the product
of in situ
weathering, which generally decreases density and
I
I
I
1
0.16
increases porosity. Stress history has little influence on their properties. However, both the crysFig. 7. Stress, strain and yield in chalk below a silo, after
Burland et al. (19W)
tallization associated with the formation of new
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EFFECTS OF STRUCTURE

IN NATURAL

SOILS AND WEAK ROCKS

473

Verbcal stress: kg/cm

Isotropic stress: kalcm

(4
Fig. g. Yielding of residual soils in tbe laboratory: (a) isotropic compression on weathered volcanic rock, after Uriel &
Serrano (1973); (b) ocdometer tests on undisturbed and remoulded samples of residual soil from Java, after Wesley
(1974)

tained by the same soil from which structure has

been removed by remoulding.
Figure 9 shows the yield of the residual soil
from gneiss in the foundation of Guri dam, Venezuela (Prusza, De Fries & Schmitt, 1983). The
behaviour is very similar to that shown by the
chalk of Fig. 7. The yield curves obtained in the
laboratory from various laboratory tests on three
residual soils are shown on Fig. 10. The shape of
these curves is different from those for soft clays
shown on Fig. 3. They are centred on the horizontal axis, suggesting
that the structure
and
fabric of these residual soils is isotropic.

bond strength and density on yield. A mixture of

quartz sand and a sand made from kaolin fired at
1100C was mixed with a small quantity of kaolin
slurry. This material was then air-dried, when the
clay slurry receded into the interstices of the sand.
The dried material was fired, and the kaolin
slurry formed a bond between the sand particles.
The bond strength was varied according to the
firing temperature
and time, and the density was
increased by vibration or reduced by including
wax sand in the mixture, which vaporized
on
firing.
Figure 11 shows results from two series of tests
on the same mixture fired in the same way but
with different initial void ratios. The yield curves
Artijicial bonded soil
are shown on Fig. 11(a). Typical changes in void
Maccarini
(1987) used an artificial
weakly
ratio with increasing stress are shown on Fig.
bonded material to study separately the effects of
11(b), for two tests performed at constant stress
ratio. Yielding is much more clearly defined when
the void ratio is large. This is similar to the
Height of fill placed: m
behaviour observed in soft clay and residual soil,
described previously (Fig. 2 and Fig. 8(b)). The
structured
soil yields at a stress and void ratio
which is impossible for the same soil when it has
been destructured.
The shape of the yield curves
and the magnitudes of the yield stresses are very
different, which reflects the different void ratios,
although the bond strengths of the two soils are
similar (Vaughan, 1988).
Figure 12 shows the results of isotropically
consolidated
drained triaxial tests on the same
artificial soil at a void ratio of 0.7 (Vaughan,
1988). At a low consolidation
stress the soil shows
a peak strength followed by strain softening, as in
Fig. 9. Yielding of residual soil in the field: tbe
a dense
non-cohesive
soil.
However,
the
weathered goeiss foundation of Guri dam, after Prmza
maximum rate of dilation does not occur at peak,
et al. (19%3)
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LEROUEIL

474

AND VAUGHAN

200

400

600

800
1000
(CT',
+ ~'$2: kPa

1200

1400

1600

1600

(a)
150

&
g

loo-

/
---*-_

N
3

0
~'5

50.
\
\
I

I
OO

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

(o',+ 2 o'Ji2: kPa

(b)

2
CFi
D
I
s

W'----------__,
l

.\
\

200

\
\
\

200

400

600

600

1000

1200

I
1400

(a', + 2 0,)/2: kPa

(c)

Fig. 10. Yield curves observed in residual soils: (a) volcaaic agglomerate, after Uriel &
Serrate (1973); (b) residual soil from gaeiss, after Saadroai (1981); (c) residual soil
from basalt, after Maccarini (1987)

as it would for such a soil, but at significantly

Further examples of congruent behaviour in
larger strains.
This indicates
that the peak
structured natural materials
The examples presented
so far indicate that
strength is controlled
by structure rather than
structure,
arising from different
causes, gives
density. At higher consolidation
stresses yield
similar behaviour
in many different materials.
which
is only
occurs
well before
failure,
approached
after large strains accompanied
by
This can be described simply using the concept of
yielding, developed to describe the effect of oversignificant contraction.
La Rochelle & Lefebvre
consolidation
in soft clays. Further examples will
(1971) and Tavenas & Leroueil (1977) observed
very
similar
behaviour
in soft,
structured
now be given to demonstrate
this.
Figure 13 shows sets of results for isotropically
Champlain Sea clays.
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EFFECTS OF STRUCTURE

IN NATURAL

(0;

+ oj)/Z:

SOILS AND WEAK ROCKS

475

kPa

(a)
Artificial
soil
57%
quartz sand
30%
sand
from
kaolin
fired at 1100C
13%
kaolin
slurry
for
bonding.
fired
at 500C
for 5 h

0.5

200

400
(~1

+ 2 0,)/3:

600

600

kPa

(b)

Fig. 11. Yield observed in artificially bonded soil at two void ratios, after Maccarini (1987)

m
%

consolidated
drained triaxial tests on two structured materials.
Tests 1 are at low confining
stress. Peak strength is due to structure, yield is
abrupt and coincides with shear failure and the
formation
of shear surfaces. The materials are
very brittle. They dilate quite strongly, but only
after peak strength has been passed. At larger
strains the materials tend towards critical state
with shear at constant volume. Tests 3, at high
confining pressures,
show stiff behaviour
until
yield is reached. This occurs well short of ultimate
shear failure. This is not reached at the strains
available in the apparatus, but peak and ultimate
shear strength should coincide and approximate
to critical state. In tests 2 yield occurs as peak
strength is reached, and behaviour is intermediate
between tests 1 and tests 3. The two materials on
which the tests were performed are Saint-Vallier
soft clay and oolitic limestone. It is noteworthy
that such similar behaviour is exhibited by two
materials in which the structural strength and the
yield stress differ by some 300 times.

600

N
7 400

6
. . 900
00

6
Axial

10
strain:

12
%

14

Fig. 12. Drained triaxial compression tests OIIartffkially

bonded soil; material as Fig. 11, e = o=I, after Maccarini
(1987)
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16

18

20

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80
$
I

60

.T 40
I
g

-16

16

20

-2

8
12
16
20
Axial strain E,: %

24

28

2
Axial strain E,: %
CC)

(4

Fig. 13. Drained triaxial tests w two isotropieally consolidated structured materials:
(b) stressdrain curves for !kint VaUier clay, after Lefebvre
(1970); (c) stress&rain curves for a soft, high porosity, oolitic limestone (from Elliott
(a) schematic stress p&s;
& Brown, 1985)

observed in other soft clays (Tavenas & Leroueil,

Structured materials loaded in one-dimensional
1990), in residual soil (Sandroni
& Maccarini,
(K,) compression
show a particular
shape of
1981; Maccarini,
1987; Vaughan,
1988) and in
stress path when these are measured. The results
loess (Kane, 1973; Bradford & Norton, 1983), and
from such tests on four different materials are
it is general in structured materials.
shown on Fig. 14. Within their yield curves all the
materials show stiff behaviour, with stress paths
consistent
with elastic materials
having
low
values of Poissons ratio. Typically, they reach the
YIELD IN STRUCTURED
MATERIALS
yield curves close to the failure envelope. Yield
Yield is demonstrated
by a discontinuity
in
then occurs, compressibility
increases markedly,
stress-strain
behaviour
under monotonic
stress
and, as the structure is destroyed, the stress path
changes. Yield of structure is demonstrated
by an
migrates towards that for the destructured
soil,
irreversible post-yield change in the stiffness and
with K ,, x 1 - sin q+. There may be a small
strength of the material. Yield stress is strain-rate
reduction in shear stress immediately post yield.
dependent,
and yield stress increases with strain
The four materials which show these similar
rate. This has been observed in structured
soft
patterns
of behaviour
are soft clay, artificially
clays (Lo & Morin,
1972; Sangrey,
1972;
bonded soil, marl and chalk, with vertical yield
Tavenas, Leroueil, La Rochelle & Roy, 1978;
stresses of 75, 170, 1250 and 40000 kPa. Again
Graham,
Crooks
& Bell, 1983a; Leroueil,
the behaviour is congruent although the materials
Kabbaj, Tavenas & Bouchard,
1985a) and in
are very different. Similar behaviour
has been
weak rocks (Adachi & Takase, 1981).
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EFFECTS OF STRUCTURE

IN NATURAL

50;woo

0
lo', + ~'#2: kPa

20

477

SOILS AND WEAK ROCKS

1500
1000
500
(CT',
+ ~'$2: kPa

a, = 1.97

lb)

f$$q

300
(0; + 0;)/2: kPa

50
75
25
(0; + 0';)/2:MPa

400
0

lifi?EB
l!#iEEH
e, = 0.69

eo = 1.04

ae
.;
*

10

15

100

;ie
'5
*

10

15

(e)

(d)

Fig. 14. Ow dimeasiooal &, compression tests on four different structored

materials: (b) selrPitive Canadian clay (Lefebvre & Pbilibott, 1979); (c) unweathered
Keeper Marl (Cbaadler, 1967); (d) artificially bonded soil (Maccarini, 1987);
(e) chalk (Addis, 1987)

diagenetic bonds (Bjerrum, 1967). This may be

Typical yield curves due to structure are illusreleased on yield. It can also cause yield in swelltrated in Fig. 15. They are more or less centred
ing, when the in situ stresses are reduced.
on the K, stress line in clays which have an
The nature of yield when it occurs on different
anisotropic
structure due to consolidation.
They
parts of the yield curve is now considered. This
may be centred on the isotropic stress line in soft
might be done by examining the yield curve and
rocks and residual soils which are isotropic.
the plastic potential concurrently, but for the purThe structure of an in situ material will be
poses of this Paper it is convenient
to identify
associated with in situ stresses. If these stresses
three parts of the yield curve where yield occurs
are changed strain energy may be locked in by
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478

LEROUEIL

AND VAUGHAN

A
A
N
.z
I,
5

(4

Fig. 15. Yield curves for structured soils showing (a) anisotropy in clays and (b) isotropy in some
soft rocks and residual soils

in different ways, as shown on Fig. 16. These are

described as compression yield, when yield occurs
away from the peak shear strength envelope due
to increasing average and/or shear stress; shearing yield, where yield occurs just before shear
failure; and swelling yield, in which yield occurs
away from the failure envelope in swelling owing
to the inability of the structure to retain stored
strain energy. Yield may occur in tension rather
than swelling, as discussed subsequently.
Yield in both compression
and swelling will
involve progressively changing stresses such that,
even if yield does not occur at the same stress
level throughout
the soil, yield throughout
the
soil is likely to occur as the stresses change
further. In shearing yield discontinuities
are likely
to develop as yield starts. The strength on these
discontinuities
will drop, and the remainder of the
soil may not yield.

Fig. 16. Different types of yielding

Yield in compression
The removal of structure from soft clays in the
laboratory
by consolidating
specimens
beyond
their yield stress has been reported by Leroueil et
al. (1979) and Tavenas & Leroueil (1985). The
effect of removing structure
was examined
by
unloading the test specimens after consolidation
and testing them in undrained triaxial compression. The behaviour observed was then compared
with results obtained from the intact structured
soil tested after consolidation
to stresses less than
yield. Typical results are shown on Fig. 17. The
three different soils show similar effects. The destructured clay is less stiff and reaches a smaller
peak strength at a larger failure strain. The failure
envelopes
for the destructured
clays are thus
lower than those for the structured clays (Fig. 3).
Anisotropic
consolidation
tests (not presented
here) on the destructured
clays showed that yield
due to overconsolidation
is not as well defined
and pre-yield stiffness is less than for the structured clay.
Samples taken from below embankments
on
soft clays which have consolidated
beyon, yield
show the characteristics
of destructured
soil
(Fauveau-Brucy,
1977).
Weak mudrocks can be destructured
by compression (Banks et al., 1975). Fig. 18 shows the
result of a high pressure
oedometer
test on
Culebra shale from Panama.
This material is
dense, and in its structured state it is very stiff.
After loading to a stress beyond yield, with the
consequent
destruction
of structural
bonds and
release of strain energy, the sample swells to a
higher void ratio than it had initially. Similar destructuring
may be expected due to drying or
partial drying of this type of material.

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EFFECTS OF STRUCTURE IN NATURAL SOILS AND WEAK ROCKS

479

Backebol

(Brousseou,1983)
0'

2.5

50

2.5

50

Fig. 17. Stress-strain relationships from undrnioed triaxinl

destructured natural clays, after Tavenas & Leroueil(1985)

2.5

tests

on intact

and

0.42

102

103

104

105

0;: kPa

Fig. 18. The loss of structure by compression in an oedometer teat on Colebra shale,
after Baoks et al. (1975)

shearing
accompanying
deep
compaction.
Yield in shear
Mitchell & Solymar (1984) discuss cases where
It is self-evident that yield in shear will cause
densification
of sands and silts by vibro-comloss of structure. However, it can be relatively difpaction, dynamic compaction
and blasting have
ficult to quantify this effect because of the formaresulted in a loss of penetration
resistance which
tion of shear discontinuities,
with orientation
of
could not be explained by excess pore pressures.
particles in more plastic clays and mudrocks.
Sampling by driven or jacked tubes may cause
Excavation
and placing of structured
soils as
yield in both compression
and shear. During
fill involves intense local shearing and results in
sampling the soil is subject to a compressionan almost complete removal of structure analoextension-compression
cycle of loading (Baligh,
gous to remoulding.
There is an inevitable
1985; Baligh, Azxouz & Chin, 1987). If the strains
reduction in drained shear strength and, as a conare sufficient to bring the soil to yield then at
sequence, provided
pore pressures
are similar,
least partial destructuring
results (Tavenas &
embankments
may require flatter slopes than cutLeroueil,
1990). Baligh (1985) shows that this
tings in the same material.
effect should increase as the ratio of tube thickCemented sands readily lose their bonds and
ness to diameter increases. This has been demonbecome cohesionless
(Yamanouchi
et al., 1977).
strated experimentally
in soft clays (La Rochelle
Loss of structure in sands may result from the
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LEROUEIL

480

AND VAUGHAN

Yield in swelling
Swelling from in situ effective stresses in soils
containing expansive clay minerals may be sullicient to cause yield of a bonded structure. This
effect is shown for the heavily overconsolidated
London
Clay on Fig. 20(a). Hand-cut
block
samples
were obtained
from depth, and the
average in situ effective stress of approximately
700 kPa (100 lb/in*) was retained in the samples
by capillarity. When allowed to swell isotropically
in the laboratory
(&Cl
on Fig. 20(a)) yield
occurred at Y at an effective stress of 275 kPa (40
lb/in*)--about
40% of the average in situ effective
stress. Yield resulted in release of strain energy
and subsequent expansion, and caused a marked
change in undrained shear behaviour, as shown
on Fig. 20(b). The strength of the structured clay
is much greater than the strength of the same clay
destructured
by remoulding
at the same void
ratio (Bishop, Webb & Lewin, 1965).
Calabresi
& Scarpelli (1985) compared
the

& Lefebvre, 1971; Raymond, Townsend & Lojkacek, 1971). Typical effects are illustrated on Fig.
19, where results of tests on tube samples of different diameters and on hand-cut block samples
are compared.
The effects are as previously
described. There is a decrease in stiffness and
strength (Fig. 19(a)), the yield stress (apparent
preconsolidation
pressure) in the oedometer
test
is smaller and less well defined (Fig. 19(b)), and
the yield curve is modified (Fig. 19(c)).
Similar effects have been observed in both soft
and stiff clays (Rutledge, 1947; Ward, Samuels &
Butler, 1959; Iwasaki et al., 1977). The use of
hand-cut block samples, or of very large diameter
samplers (La Rochelle et al., 1981; Lacasse, Berre
& Lefebvre, 1985) is generally necessary if the
effects of structure are to be preserved during
sampling. It is well known that tube samplers are
of little use for sampling residual soils for laboratory testing. The same problem is commonly
observed in structured granular soils.

lg m;: kPa
102

103

Block

Axial strainPi: %
(a)
(b)

l 200 mm

60

N
5
b

1
5

Lavalsampler

60

40

20

20

40

60

100

60

120

140

160

160

(a', + a$)/2: kPa

(c)

Fig. 19. The effects of shear from sampling disturbance on strength, on the abruptness of yield sod on yield stress: (a)
undrained triaxiirl tests (from Lefebvre, 1970); (b) oedometer tests (from Holtz et al., 1986); (c) limit state (after La
Rocbelle et ul., 1981)

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EFFECTS

OF STRUCTURE

IN NATURAL

481

SOILS AND WEAK ROCKS

(a)

Vertical

loo(0;

+ 0;)

Consolidated

drained

Consolidated

undrained

200

150
l/2

samples
A

250

300

: psi

(b)

Fig. 20. Tbe loss of structure by swelling ia consolidated undrained triaxial tests on
London Clay, after Bishop ef ul. (1%5): (a) change in water content against isotropic
consolidation stress; (b) strength envelope

failure envelopes from two sets of consolidatedundrained shear tests on overconsolidated

Todi
clay (Fig. 21). The first set was performed conventionally. The samples of the second set were
allowed to swell to zero effective stress, with
about 12% expansion, before being reconsolidated. The strength envelope is significantly reduced
by swelling, with a loss of structure comparable

to that of the London Clay of Fig. 20 described

above. Graham and Au (1985) observed a similar
behaviour in the Winnipeg clay allowed to swell
in the triaxial apparatus
to major and minor
principal effective stresses of 4 and 2 kPa.
If a soil yields in swelling while still under compressive stress, then its yield curve is closed as
indicated by curves Y* of Fig. 15. If the structure

0.6

(u,

+ oj)/2

Pk

Fig. 21. Tbe loss of strocture due to swelling in consolidated undrained compression
tests on Todi clay, after Calabresi & Scarpelli (1985)

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482

LEROUEIL

AND VAUGHAN

is strong enough to resist the internal swelling

pressure,
the yield curve is closed by tensile
failure, as shown by curves Y, on Fig. 15.
Swelling and expansion
are likely to occur
when a sample of partly saturated soil or of a
saturated soil with coarse pores is removed from
the ground. The average in situ effective stress
cannot then be sustained by the development
of
negative pore pressure in the sample. Expansion
and some loss of structure is then quite likely,
unless the initial structure is strong in relation to
the swelling pressure, and strains are small. Sandroni (1985) considers
that loss of structure
is
likely in residual soils, particularly
when these
contain
mica. The magnitude
of the stress
reduction on sampling will control the extent to
which structure may be lost.

PRE-YIELD
MATERIALS

BEHAVIOUR

IN STRUCTURED

Yield of structure as described so far is a significant discontinuity

in stress-strain
behaviour,
which is usually relatively abrupt and easily identified (Vaughan,
1988). Behaviour
before this
primary yield is stiff, but not necessarily elastic.
While there may be a zone of elastic behaviour
(Elliot & Brown, 1985), some structure may be
lost owing to stress changes within the primary
yield curve. Vaughan et al. (1988) suggest that an
initial yield occurs at stresses less than primary
yield.
Caution is required in laboratory
testing, as
structure
may be destroyed
and yield stress
reduced while a sample is following a stress path
within the primary
yield curve (Bressani
&
Vaughan, 1989). These authors show that cycles
of isotropic
stress are particularly
likely to
damage
structure,
even when stresses remain
within the primary yield curve.
Volumetric

POST-YIELD
MATERIALS

BEHAVIOUR

IN STRUCTURED

Structure
is not removed
immediately
by
primary yield. This requires substantial post-yield
strain. Thus yield of structured soils is best considered as a progressive process. In this respect it
may be different
from yield due to overconsolidation.
It might be more logical to consider yield of structure as a function of strain or
strain energy. However, accurate measurements
of strain are difftcult, and, for convenience, yield
will be described here only in stress space.
When a structured soil is subject to sufficient
strain it becomes destructured.
A similar effect is
achieved by remoulding. The effect of structure is
best identified by comparing the properties of the
structured
soil with those measured or inferred
for the same soil in the destructured
state. This
will be discussed in more detail subsequently.
The progressive
loss of structure
with postyield strain is further illustrated for artificial soil
on Fig. 22. This shows the loss of tensile strength,
measured by performing
Brazilian tests on triaxial specimens after they had been loaded to a
particular
strain, as a function
of volumetric
strain. A volumetric
strain of about
5% is
required
to remove
the structure
from this
material.
Complete removal of structure does not necessarily imply coincidence
of the void rat&stress
curves from tests on structured and destructured
samples such as those shown in Figs 2 and 11.
Further strain may well be required to establish
similar fabric and particle packing.

YIELD AND POST-YIELD BEHAVIOUR

RELATED TO VOID RATIO
The relationship
between yield and void ratio
in structured materials has been illustrated in Fig.
strain

Fig. 22. Less of structure and tensile strength with post-peak strain in triexial tests on
artificially hooded soil, after Maccarini (1987)

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EFFECTS

OF STRUCTURE

IN NATURAL

11, and the need to demonstrate

the effects of
structure by comparison
with the behaviour
of
the destructured
material has been shown on Figs
2, 3, 8, 11 and 17. The abruptness
of yield
increases with the void ratio at which it occurs,
and with increase in the bond strength and yield
stress. Both effects need to be referenced to the
loosest possible void rat&stress
line for the destructured
material.
This relationship
is illustrated schematically
on Fig. 23. The structured
material can exist at void ratios greater than are
possible
for the destructured
material
at the
same stress. It is thus convenient
to define two
void ratio-stress
spaces (Fig. 23), the space
bounded by the line that defines the loosest possible packing for the destructured
soil, and the
space outside this line in which the soil can only
exist due to structure. The extent to which the
soil is structured
can then be defined by the
extent to which it can exist in this structure permitted space.
Vaughan et al. (1988) suggest that, in residual
soils where void ratio can vary widely independently of soil type, it is useful to subdivide the
space which is possible for the destructured
soil
into dilatant and contractive zones according to
the critical state line. They suggest that simple
conclusions may be drawn from a diagram such
as Fig. 23, as follows.

SOILS AND WEAK ROCKS

483

which will depend on the void ratio and on

the difference in void ratio between point Y
and the curve limiting the structure permitted
state.
(d) Soils in the structure
permitted
state with
high degrees of saturation
will show severe
loss of undrained
strength and sensitivity if
sheared undrained.

The comparison
of the void ratios of structured
and destructured
material in the manner shown
on Fig. 23 is thus fundamental,
and should allow
the ready identification
of the potentially hazardous situation
where a structured
soil exists
outside the permitted state for the destructured
soil, or may move there under engineering
loading. Yield then may be followed by contraction and large strains.
Some care must be taken in defining stressvoid ratio curves for destructured
clays, as these
may not have the same particle arrangement
or
pore fluid chemistry as the natural material. The
influence of pore fluid chemistry in normal consolidation is illustrated in Fig. 2(b).
Other
approaches
to indexing
structured
materials
are possible.
Liquidity
index,
or
variants of it, may be used in saturated
clays,
together with the undrained shear strength or the
vertical effective stress of the remoulded
resedimented
clay, to dehne a reference state in
(4 Large plastic strains are unlikely while a
terms of so-called destructured
properties,
with
structured
soil exists in the space permitted
which those of the undisturbed clay may be comfor the same soil in the destructured
state,
pared (Houston
& Mitchell,
1969; Wroth &
independent
of the structural strength.
Wood, 1978; Leroueil, Tavenas
& Le Bihan,
04 Only structure will allow the soil to exist in
1983; Nagaraj
& Srinivasa
Murthy,
1986).
structure permitted space. It will remain stiff
Vaughan et al. (1988) suggest using void ratios
until yield (point Y of Fig. 23), the position of
rather than water contents in residual soils, which
yield depending
on the strength of the soil
are often partly saturated, and referencing density
structure.
of the in situ soil in relation to a modified liquid
(4 Large compressive strains will develop when
limit done on the whole grading and the density
yield occurs
in structure-permitted
space,
achieved by standard dynamic compaction.
Possession of bonded structure involves problems with the definition of the compression
index
sm
C, . Fig. 23 shows that the index determined from
Compression
of destructured
soil
from loosest possible state
the post-yield
behaviour
of the structured
soil
.z
9
(the value required for settlement prediction) will
structure
be different from that determined from the compression line for the normally-consolidated
destructured soil. To avoid confusion here the latter
bonded materlal
will be referred to as CE*, and C, will be used for
the post-yield
compression
of the structured
material.
Leroueil et al. (1983) showed that C, for structured soft clays correlates with initial void ratio
structural
states
and the sensitivity of the clay, as shown on Fig.
24(a), rather than with plasticity in the convenb
0; orp
tional manner. The sensitivity reflects the difference between the structured
and destructured
Fig. 23. The comparison of structured and destructured
states as shown on Fig. 23, and the significance of
compression in the oedometer teat
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LEROUEIL

484

0
2
E
g
j,
:
h
g
0

AND VAUGHAN

minology to describe the effects of both seems

likely to lead to unnecessary
confusion,
Two
examples of this will suffice. The alternative definitions of the compression
index C, have already
been discussed.
Preconsolidation
pressure
is
defined as the actual maximum effective stress to
which a soil has been subjected, yet it is often
used for the stress at which yield is observed in
tests and in prototype
behaviour, even when a
soil is normally-consolidated.
A new framework
needs to be developed which resolves these and
similar difficulties.

3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0

Initial

void

ratio

e,

(b)

Fig. 24. Relationships between compression index C, and

ioitial void ratio: (a) for structured soft clays nod (b) for
residual soils

the initial void ratio may be seen from this figure.

It should be noted that, while C, correlates in this
way, C,* correlates with the plasticity of the destructured soil. Similar results are obtained from
residual soils, as shown on Fig. 24(b). The behaviour of typical examples of the two types of soil is
shown on Fig. 2 and 8(b). Again different types of
structured soil show similar behaviour.

OTHER CAUSES OF LOSS OF STRUCTURE

Various geological processes may cause loss of
structure, either by inducing yield or by removing
bonding
agents.
Mechanical
and
chemical
weathering affect soils and weak rocks. Chemical
weathering may destroy structure by leaching of
cementing agents and the release of strain energy
and so on, and it may increase structure when
cementing agents are precipitated.
Often it is not
easy to separate the effects of secondary swelling
and swelling due to weathering.
Chandler
and
Apted (1988) tested samples of London clay taken
at similar depths but with different degrees of
weathering.
They found a decrease in shearing
resistance
of the intact clay with weathering,
equivalent to a decrease in the cohesion intercept
c, from 28 kPa to 18 kPa. A similar result was
obtained for Keuper Marl by Chandler (1969).
When weathering causes destructuring
it causes
a loss of stiffness. Chandler (1972) found that
strain at failure in triaxial tests on Lias clay
increased with weathering. Bjerrum (1967) reported observations
of convergence
in a tunnel
through Bearpaw clay-shale. This increased from
25 to 75mm in the unweathered
shale to 280530mm in the fully weathered material.
Expansion and contraction
of a structured soil
may lead to yield and loss of structure. This is
likely in soils subject to seasonal water content
changes, particularly where swelling minerals are
present. Similar effects also occur when expansion
is due to freezing. Graham & Au (1985) observed
the characteristics
of a destructured
material in a
clay which had been subjected previously to freezing in-situ.

DESCRIPTION OF YIELD
The preceding
discussion
shows
that the
concept of yielding developed
to describe the
RECOVERY OF STRUCTURE WITH TIME
effects of stress history
in sedimentary
clays
When structure is destroyed
by loading and
(Roscoe, Schofield & Wroth, 1958; Schofield &
strain, it may be recovered, to some extent, with
Wroth, 1968) is equally applicable to the effects of
time. For instance, when the soft Saint-Alban clay
structure. The shape of the yield curve due to
was destructured
by compression
in the laborstructure
is similar
to that
due to overatory, maintained
at constant stress, then tested
consolidation.
However,
the effects of stress
again, structure equivalent
to that observed in
history and of structure may develop together
samples of intact clay was observed when stress
and may be linked, and the use of the same terDelivered by ICEVirtualLibrary.com to:

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EFFECTS

OF STRUCTURE

IN NATURAL

was maintained for only 72 days (Leroueil, 1978).

Samples of clay taken from the foundations
of
embankments
where strains were large enough to
cause destructuring
have been tested 4, 10, 18
and 150 years after embankment
construction.
They have shown recovery of some structure with
time (Galves, 1984). Ladd (1985) has stated that
Boston blue clay can double its preconsolidation
pressure in two years without a significant change
in water content.
Morretto
(1948) observed
increases in undrained shear strength with time at
near constant
water content.
The strength
of
remoulded
Detroit clay increased by two times,
and the strength of clay from Quebec increased
by four and a half times.
Mitchell and Solymar (1984) report recovery of
the structure of sand after this had been removed
by deep compaction.
Daramola (1980) reported a
significant increase in the strength and stiffness of
sand consolidated
isotropically
in the laboratory
for up to three months. Thus it seems that some
recovery
of structure
can be quite
rapid.
However, as indicated by Casagrande (1932), it is
unlikely that structure created by nature on the
geological time-scale will be fully restored within
the time-scales of laboratory
testing or of engineering works.

SOILS AND WEAK ROCKS

485

of the yield stress and the shape of the yield curve

due to structure reflect density as well as bond
strength. The shape of the yield curve in a structured clay or mud-rock also reflects the anisotropy induced during initial sedimentation.
The effects of structure
are recognized
and
understood most readily through a comparison of
the stress-void
ratio states which are possible for
the structured soil with those that are possible for
the destructured
soil. The structured soil can exist
in states
which
are not possible
for the
destructured
soil. Post-yield behaviour involves a
gradual loss of structure with further strain. The
abruptness
of yield, the shape of the yield curve
and the post-yield stiffness depend on the void
ratio of the soil and the extent to which its yield
point lies outside
the possible
state for the
destructured soil.
At normal engineering rates of loading, structure is destroyed irreversibly by post-yield strain,
but it may be recovered with further time, at least
to some extent.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Authors
gratefully acknowledge
helpful
discussions with various colleagues, in particular
Professors P. La Rochelle and F. Tavenas of Universitt Laval, M. Jamiolkowski
of Politechnico di
Turino, J. B. Burland of Imperial College, and A.
Gens, of Universitat Polit&cnica de Catalunya.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Structure is common in a wide range of the
naturally
occurring
materials
which are considered as soils in geotechnical engineering-soft
and stiff clays, granular soils and residual soils. Its
REFERENCES
effects increase with lithification, and are similar
Adachi, T. &. Takase, A. (1981). Prediction of long term
to those observed in weak rocks.
strength of soft sedimentary rock. Proc. 1st Int.
The behaviour of these materials in the laborSymp. Weak Rock, Tokyo 1,99-104.
atory and in the field cannot be understood
Addis, M. A. & Jones, M. E. (1990). Mechanical behavunless the effects of structure
are taken into
iour and strain-rate dependence of high porosity
account, and structure is as important
as initial
chalk. Chalk (Proc. Int. Chalk Symposium, Brighton).
pp. 11 l-l 16, London : Thomas Telford.
void ratio and stress history in determining
this
Addis, M. A. (1987). Mechanisms of sediment compaction
behaviour. The consequences
of structure should
responsible for soil subsidence. PhD thesis, University
be included in the basic teaching of soil mechaof London.
nics.
Anderson,
D. G. & Stokoe. K. H. (1978). Shear
Although structure may arise from many differmod&,
a time dependent
soil property.
In
ent causes, its effect on behaviour is similar. It
Dynamic geotechnical-testing, Am. Sot. Testing &
increases strength and enlarges the stress domain
Materials, special tech. publication 654,669O.
in which the soil shows stiff behaviour, separately
Baligh, M. M. (1985). Strain path method. J. Geotech.
from and in addition to similar effects arising
Engng Div., Am. Sot. Cio. Engrs 111, GT9, 11081136.
from stress history. It may be described within a
Baligh, M. M., Azzouz, A. S. & Chin, C..T. (1987). Discommon framework, largely independently
of the
turbances due to ideal tube sampling. J. Geotech.
origins of the structure. Thus a soil with a particEngng Div., Am. Sot. Ciu. Engrs 113, 739-757.
ular type of structure need not be treated as a
Banks, D. C., Strohm, W. E., De Angulo, M. & Lutton,
special case. The concept of yielding developed to
R. J. (1975). Study of clay-shale slopes along the
describe the effects of stress history in sedimenPanama Canal. Report No. 3, Engineering analyses
tary clays is equally applicable to the effects of
of slides and strength properties of clay shales along
to avoid
confusion,
a
structure.
However,
the Gaillard Cut. Technical report S-7&9. US Army
separate framework and terminology are required
Engineers Waterways
Experiment station, Vicksburg, Miss.
to describe the effects of structure. The magnitude
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486

LEROUEIL

AND VAUGHAN

Bishop, A. W., Webb, D. L. & Lewin, P. I. (1965).

Undisturbed
samples
of London
clay from the
Ashford
Common
shaft; strength-effective
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