Polymers

Polymers

A large molecule consisting of repeating smaller structural units (called monmrt units)

Polymerization

The sequence of repetitive reactions between a monomer unit and the growing
macromolecule or polymer chain

ie.

CH2=CH2

[-CH2-CH2-]n

a monomer unit

polymerization

polymer

Categories of polymers, by Structural Linking of Monomer Units

Homopolymer

Only one type of monomer molecule is used to make a polymer, with repeating units of
this one monomer

Copolymer Polymer formed by the combination of 2 or more different monomer molecules; The
sequence arrangement of these units can vary in four different ways.
1)

Random copolymer random sequence of different monomer units (A and B)

-A-A-B-B-B-A-B-B-

2)

Alternating copolymer alternating sequence of monomer units

-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-

3)

Block copolymer a sequence where there are repeating blocks of identical monomer units.
-A-A-A-A-B-B-B-B-A-A-A-A-B-B-B-B-

4)
Graft copolymer a chain which have side-chains from which to create extensions to
another polymer chain.
CH2 CH

CH2 CH CH2 CH

CH2 CH

side-chain extension
reaction
n
polystyrene chain

OCH3 O

OCH3
n

The ester could further be functionalized

by nucleophilic additon to the carbonyl
and expulsionof -OCH3 groups
-perhaps by a polyamide chain

Polymers are commonly named according to the chemical structure of the

monomer unit, and then the prefix poly is added.
Monomer

Polymer

Commercial Use

ethylene
CH2=CH2

-[-CH2CH2-]npolyethylene

plastic bags, film

nearly everything

vinyl chloride
CH2=CH-Cl
tetrafluoroethylene
CF2=CF2
ethylene glycol
HO-CH2CH2-OH

Cl
CH2 CH

poly(vinyl chloride)
(PVC)
-[-CF2CF2-]npoly(tetrafluoroethylene)
(Teflon)
poly(ethyleneglycol)
(PEG)
(-CH2CH2-O)-

acrylonitrile
CH2=CH-CN

terephthalic acid
O
HO C

O
C OH

plastic fittings and valves

tubing

CN
CH2 CH

inert, non-stickcaoting
used in carpets to make
them stain resistant
emulsifying and thickening
agent
(non edible) in shampoos,
lubricant oils, antifreeze
used to make a co-polymer
with PMMA
(polymethylmethacrylate) in
acrylic fibres for clothing

poly(acrylonitrile)
Orlon, Acrilan
O
C

O
C O CH2 CH2 O

poly(ethylene terephthalate)
(PET

plastic pop bottles

clothing
fibres

Physical properties
The structure of the monomer will confer unique structural and physical characteristics
in the polymer at different temperatures.
Some polymer chains can pack or arrange/order themselves in a highly organized
manner, resulting in highly crystalline material. For example linear polyethylene
Some polymer chains have branching on the chain and cannot order themselves in a
crystalline lattice and often said to be amorphous solids. For example rubber
(polyisoprene)
Most polymers are semi-crystalline, where some regions are highly ordered and
crystalline, while other regions are not and have amorphous properties.
Intermolecular forces that increase the melting point of a polymer are:
a) structural regularity in polymer chain
b) bond rigidity
c) close-packing ability
d) strong inter-chain attractive forces (eg. H-bonding)

Examples

Polymer
O
C

O
C O R O

R-Goup
n

CH2 CH2

Physical Poperty
solid
Melting point 265C

a terephthalate-based
poyester
CH2 CH
CH3
CH2 CH CH2
CH3
CH3
CH2 C CH2
CH3
H3C
O
C

O
C O R O

CH3
O
C

O
C O R O

not crystalline
not crystalline
solid
Melting point 140C
solid
Melting point 170C

CH2 CH2

CH2 CH2

solid
Melting point 70C

CH3
CH 2 CH

soft and rubbery

n
C O
O
CH 3

poly(methacrylate)
CH3
CH2 C

n
C O
O
CH3

hard plastic
Melting point 200C

poly(methyl
methacrylate)
CH2 CH

n
C O
OH

solid
absorbs water
used in diapers

poly(acrylic acid)
CH2 CH

n
C O
NH2

polyacrylamide

soft plastic
used in making
soft contact lenses

Polymers
Free radical Polymerization
Initiation -usually by homolysis of an initiator molecule for example benzoyl peroxide.
Benzoyl peroxide
O
Ph

O
O

heat
Ph

homolysis

O
2

Ph

-bond
cleavage

Ph

+ CO2

Radical chain
polymerization
initiating
species

phenyl -- Ph

Radical Polymerization of vinyl Monomers:

CH

H2C

For example styrene.

Styrene

Propagation steps:

Ph
In

H2C

In

Ph
styrene

benzylic radical

Where "In" is formed

by homolysis of a suitable
initiator molecule
e.g. "In" = Ph from decomposition
of benozyl peroxide
Ph
In

Ph

Ph
H2C

In
Ph

H2C

etc.

Note: the polymer is not homogeneous

with respect to molecular weight.
i.e. a mixture of polymers
with different number of units
in each chain is formed

Ph
n
polystyrene

Ph

Chain termination:
Radical combination:

In

Ph

Ph

Ph

Ph

Ph

Ph

Ph

H-atom transfer

Ph

Ph
Ph

In

Ph

In

H
n

Ph
In

In

In

Ph

Ph
H
n H

Ph
H

Ph

In

In
n

Chain transfer to polymer

R
R

In

H H

R
In

H
n

+
n

new radical site along a poly mer molecule

chain

terminated poly mer chain

m

Branched chain
poly mer f ormation

n
R
m
R

Intramolecular H-Atom Transfer

new site f or poly mer
chain extension
H
CH 2

CH 2

H2 C

growing chain of poly ethy lene

CH 2

CH 2

CH 3

H2 C

C
H2

CH 2
C
H2

CH2=CH2

CH 2

CH

CH 2

CH 2
n

H2 C
4-carbon
branch

CH 2
H2 C
CH 3

This process occurs frequently during free radical polymerization of polyethylene

Branching prevents close-packing of the polymer chains and lowers the density of
the polymer (called low-density polyethylene)
High density poly ethylene, formed by other methods, has little branching and has
substantial regions of crystallinity resulting from close-packing of the polymer chains

High Density Polyethylene

Low Density P
What effect does branching have on the physical properties of a polymer (packing, density and melting point)
Branching causes a decrease in melting point, decreases density and makes the material more amorphous.
Branching causes a decrease in the intermolecular forces between the molecules. For example vegetable oils
are unsaturated and contain cis double bonds. The double bonds do not allow the molecules to pack well
together and thus the intermolecular forces between the molecules are weak. To make margarine vegetable
oil is hydrogenated (hydrogen is added to the double bonds) to make saturated fatty acids. Since the
molecules pack better together the oil becomes a solid. The oil is only partially hydrogenated because if the
oil becomes completely saturated it becomes hard and brittle. One problem with partial hydrogenation, is that
the catalyst isomerizes some of the unreacted cis double bonds to the unnatural trans arrangement, and there
is accumulating evidence that trans fats are associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
Frequent chain terminations by this mechanism decrease the average molecular weight of the polymer
obtained in this way
For some monomers (e.g. propylene) this process occurs so frequently that polymers of useful chain length
cannot be made by free radical polymerization

Some vinyl polymers

H2C

H2C CHCl

CF2

vinylidine fluoride

used in piezoelectric material

audio speakers and microphones

used in plastics, stryofoam

and isolation
styrene

vinyl chloride monomer

ion exchange resins

Cl

plastics, plexiglas

CH2 CH

4-vinylpyridine

O
methyl methacrylate

PVC polymer
photoresists for
microelectronics

thickeners adhesives
sporting goods

HO
acrylic acid

O
t-BOC styrene

O
O

O
O

(CH2)6 O

CN

CH2

soft contact
lenses

CH2
OH

cyano-biphenyl mesogenic monomer

side chain liquid crystal polymer

hydroxy ethyl methacrylate

(HEMA)

Interpenetrating polymer
There are many compounds that have been developed containing more than
one polymerizable vinyl group. As you can expect with two reactive sites on one
monomer at some point crosslinking will occur. Interpenetrating polymer
networks or IPNs are combinations of two or more polymers in network form. At
least one of the polymers is synthesized and/or crosslinked in the presence of
another. As such, IPNs share some of the advantages of both polymer blends
and network polymers. One of the earliest commercial IPNs used in the
automotive industry consists of polypropylene and ethylene-propylene-diene
terpolymer (EPDM). Potential applications include toughened plastics, ionexchange resins, pressure sensitive adhesives, soft contact lenses, preparation
of novel membrane systems and sound- and vibration-damping material.
Given below is an example of the formation of an IPN. First formed is the
crosslinked poly(ethyl acrylate) (PEA) network by free radical polymerization.
Then the monomers styrene and divinylbenzene are added (this is called
swollen, i.e. the polymer is swollen with the monmers) and then polymerized to
form a crosslinked interpenetrating polystyrene (PS) network.

CH
C

CH2
O

O(CH2CH2OCH2CH2O CH
C

OCH2CH3
ethyl acrylate

CH2 )2
O

OCH2CH3
tetraethylene glycol dimethacrylate

CH
+

CH2

CH

styrene

PEA network

CH2
AIBN
heat

+
CH

PEA network

AIBN
heat

CH2

divinylbenzene

PEA-PS IPN

HC

CH2 In HC CH2 In
HC CH2 CH CH2CH CH2
Ph
Ph
Ph

Cross linking:

CH

CH2

CH CH2

CH2 CH2 C CH2 CH CH2CH CH2

Ph
Ph
Ph

CH CH2

CH CH2CH CH2 CH CH2 C CH2 CH CH2CH CH2

Ph
Ph
Ph
Ph
Ph

CH CH2CH CH2 CH CH2 HC CH2 CH CH2CH CH2

n
Ph
Ph
Ph
Ph
Ph

Catalysts for Cationic Polymerization

e.g. boron trifluoride
F
F

F
Lewis acid
(electron deficient)

H
O
H

this complex can now act as

a protic acid
(i.e. proton donor)

Lewis base
(electron rich)

Initiation
F
F

H
B

H2 C
H

CH 3
F
CH 3

B
F

CH 3

H
O

H3 C
CH 3

CH 3

Propagation
CH 3

H3 C

CH 3

H3 C

H2 C
CH 3

H3 C
CH 3

H2 C

CH 3

CH 3

CH2

etc.
CH 3

H3 C

Chain Termination

Protontransfertocatalyst
CH 3
CH2

CH 3
CH2

CH 3

CH 3

CH 3

H
O

F
F

CH2

CH 2
CH2
CH 3

CH 3

terminatedchain
+
F

H
O
H

F
F

Chain transfer to monomer

CH 3
CH2

CH 3

CH2
CH 3

CH 3

CH 3

CH 3
H2 C

CH2

CH 2
CH2

CH 3

CH 3

CH 3

terminated chain
+
CH 3
H3 C
CH 3

Chain transfer to monomer results in short polymer chains (approx. molecular weight = 2,000 -3000) when the
polymerization is carried out at room temperature
Such polymers find some use as additives to lubricating oils but are not useful as plastics or rubber
Much longer chain polymers can be produced by using low temperature (-90o C).
-the activation energy for chain transfer to monomer reactions is higher than that for chain propagation;
therefore, lowering the temperature slows down the chain terminating step more so than the propagation step
These longer chain polymers are still too soft and pliable for use as rubber because the polymer chains move
fairly easily relative to one another
The polymers can be made tougher and more rigid by decreasing the ability of polymer chains to move
relative to one another by forming covalent bond between polymer chains
The polymer chain crosslinking of rubber is called vulcanization. In order to create polymer crosslinks,
potentially reactive sites for covalent bond formation have to be introduced along the polymer chain. This is
done by adding a small amount (approx. 1- 5%) of a second monomer (often isoprene) when polymerization
is carried out. The resultant co-polymer has vinyl (alkene) groups at some positions along the polymer chains

In older vulcanization processes, the co-polymer was simply heated

with elemental sulfur to form sulfide or poly sulfide crosslinks,
however this reaction is usually very slow.
Current vulcanization processes use so-called vulcanization
accelerators
N

SH

mercaptobenzothiazole
(MBT)

The mechanism of the acceleration process is not well understood

A reasonable speculation is that the accelerator may react with elemental
sulfur faster than does the copolymer to form a reactive sulfur containing
species which is soluble in the polymer and which then carries out the
crosslinking
Free radical addition of sulfur radicals the vinyl side chains of the copolymer is probably involved.

Vulcanization
CH 3
CH 3
C H2

CH 3

CH 3

CH 3

C H2

C H2

C H2
CH 3

CH 3

H2 C

C H2

CH 3

H2 C

CH 3

H2 C

CH 3
C H2

CH 3

CH 3

CH 3

CH 2
C H2

C H2
CH 3

CH 3

CH 3

x = 1 (sulfide or thioether crosslink)

CH 3

CH 3

C H2

C H2
CH 3

CH 3

Sx

heat
CH 3

C H2
CH 2

n
S

CH 3

CH 3

CH 3

C H2
CH 3

CH 3

H2 C

CH 3

m
x > 1 (polysulfide crosslink)

N
SH

mercaptobenzothiazole
(MBT)

S
S

Sx

a hypothetical intermediate
acelerated vulcanization

CH 3

Condensation Polymerization
Involves the condensation of two different bifunctional monomers, resulting in the
elimination of a small stable molecule (H2O, HCl, ROH). It essentially involves a
nucleophilic acyl substitution by one nucleophilic monomer on the electrophilic monomer.
Examples:
1)

Poly(amide) Synthesis, e.g. Nylon 6,6

O
O
n HO C (CH2)4 C OH + nH2N (CH2)6 NH2
hexanedioic acid
(adipic acid)

1,6-hexanediamine

O
O
HN (CH2)6 NH C (CH2)4 C

+ 2n H2O
n

Nylon 6,6
6 carbons in diamine
6 carbons in the acid

vaporized
which drives
the reaction

Mechanism
O
HO

O
(CH2)4

OH

H2N

(CH2)6

NH2

HO

O
(CH2)4

C
H2N
+

OH
(CH2)6 NH2

amide linkage
O
HO

O
(CH2)4

HN

HO

(CH2)6 NH2

O
(CH2)6

NH2

HO

O
(CH2)4

O
HN

(CH2)6

NH

(CH2)4

C
HN

+ H2O

H2N

O
(CH2)4

C
n

OH

+ H
O H
(CH2)6 NH2

2)

Polyester Synthesis e.g. PEN polyethylene Naphthalate

O
C
n

HO

OH

+ n HO CH 2 CH 2 OH

acid buffer pH 4-5

C
O

ethylene glycol

Naphthalene dicarboxylate

O
C
O

Mechanism:

HO

High temp and pressure

R1 C

C
O

O CH 2 CH 2

+ 2n H2O
n

poly(ethylenenaphthalate)

O
OH

HO

R2 OH

HO

O
R1

OH

HO R2 OH
+

ether linkage
H2O + HO

R1 C

R2 OH

HO

R1 C
HO

O
HO

R2 OH

HO

O
O

R2 O

O
R1

O
R1

OH

+ H
O H
R2

OH

3)

Polycarbonate, or specifically polycarbonate of bisphenol A, is a clear plastic used to make

shatterproof windows and lightweight eyeglass lenses. General Electric sells it as Lexan.
CH3
C
CH3

n HO

O
O C O

OH + n

NaOH

diphenyl carbonate

Bisphenol A
CH3
C
CH3

O
O C

+ 2n HO
n

or

CH3
C
CH3

n HO

OH + n

Cl

O
C

NaOH

CH3
C
CH3

Cl

O
O C

+ 2n HCl
n

phosgene

Bisphenol A

O
HO

OH
R
O

H
HO R O C
+

Cl

-HCl

HO R O C O R OH
Cl

Cl
O

HO R O C

Cl

O H

Cl

HO R OH

Cl

O
-HCl

O
HO R O C O R OH

Cl

C
etc

Cl

Glyptal polyester which can be used as

plasticizers create a network polymer, forming a
cross-linked polyester.
O
C
O
n

O
C O

O
n

OH
+ n HO

OH

heat

O
O
O

O
C O

O
O
n

Addition reactions
1)

Poly(urethane) Synthesis

Polyurethanes are the most well known polymers used to make foams like foam cushions. Polyurethanes can also
be used as in paints, synthetic fibers, and they can also be used as adhesives.
Notice that in the mechanism not only monomers react, but also dimers, trimers, and so on. This makes it a step
growth polymerization. Also, because no small molecule by-products are produced, it is called an addition
polymerization
n O C N

CH2

N C O + n HO CH2 CH2 OH
ethylene glycol

a di-isocyanate

O
C N
H

CH2

H 3O +
catlyst
In this reaction there
is not a loss of a small
molecule

O
N C O CH2 CH2 O
H
urethane
linkage

Mechanism
O C N

CH2

OH

N C O + HO

R2
R
R

+
N

O
C

catalyst

H
O

O H + HO
+

O
R2

N
H

C
+

R2

H
O

R2

-H+

R2

O
R

H
O R
+
H
etc

H
urethane linkage

Sometimes, instead of using a small diol like ethylene glycol, a polyglycol, one with a molecular weight of
about 2000 can be used. This produces a polymer within a polymer and polyurethane that looks something like
this:

Spandex

O
C N
H

CH2

hard rigid block

O
N C O CH2 CH2 O
x
H
soft rubbery block

Polyurea
If a diamine is used instead of a diol in this reaction a polyurea is made

n O C N

CH2

N C O + n H2N CH2 CH2 NH2

a di-isocyanate

ethylene diamine
O
C N
H

O
N C N CH2 CH2 O
H
H

CH2

urea
linkage

O C N

CH2

N C O + H2N

R2

R
R

O
N
H

H+

O
R

catalyst

H
N
H

NH2

O H + H2N
+

O
R2

N
H

C
+

R2

H
N

R2

-H+

C N R
+
H H

R2

O
R

H
urea linkage

etc

3)

Urea-Formaldehyde (a polyurea plastic)

n H2N

O
C

O
C

+ n

NH 2

pH 4-7
N
H

H
H
formaldehyde

urea

O
N
H

N
H

Mechanism

H
+
O

C
H

O
H2N

+
H

NH2

H2N
n
Melamine - Formaldehyde resins

O+

N
N

NH2

-H2O
NH2

H2N

N
NH2

melamine

O
C

H
H
formaldehyde

N
H

+ n

NH2

CH2

C + C
NH2
N
H
H
H H

C
H2N

H
C

H
O

N
H

pH 4-7

etc
NH2

H
N

n
N
H

N
N

H
N

H
N

N
N

N H
N
H

n
cross-linked polyurea

Phenol-Formaldehyde Resins Bakelite used for heat and electrical

coatings
OH
OH
+ n

O
C

OH

pH 4-7
OH

H
H
formaldehyde

a crossed polyol

HO
HO

phenol

HO

Mechanism
OH

O
H

+ H
O

H+
H

OH

O
+

OH

+
H O
H

HO

H
H

HO

OH
H

OH
HO

H
H

HO

H + H

H+

OH
HO

-H+

-H2O

OH

HO

OH
etc

HO

OH

H
H

Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions forming polyethers

5) Epoxy Resins Highly cross-linked polyethers made from epoxide
monomers
O

CH 3

Cl

HO

OH
CH 3

epichlorohydrin

bisphenol-A
NaOH
50 - 100

Cl

CH 3
O

O
CH 3

Cl

O
Cl

H2C

HC

CH3
H2C

CH2 CH

CH2 Cl

CH3

O
H2C HC

CH3
H2 C

O
O

CH2 CH

CH2

CH 3

R
CH3
O

O
H2C HC

CH2 O

CH3

CH3
O

O
O

CH3

etc

CH2 CH

CH2 O

Epoxy glues often consist of two components which the user mixes just
before the desired "gluing " process. One component is the polymer shown
above. The other component is often ethylene diamine. Ethylene diamine
reacts with the epoxide "end" groups of the epoxy resin shown above to
effect ring opening to form amino alcohols. Each amino group can react with
two epoxide groups so that the resultant system is a network of cross-linked
polymers which have very strong adhesion properties. The process of
forming this network of cross-links is called "curing ".

OH

CH3
O

CH3
O

O
CH3

CH3
n

NH2
H2N

OH

OH

CH3
O

OH

CH3
O

O
CH3

CH3

N
N

HO

OH

O
O

H3C
H3C

CH3

OH
HO

H3C
H3C

CH3

O
O
HO
OH

CH3

CH3

Conducting Polymers
From the web site: Plastic polymers:
http://www.rsc.org/lap/educatio/eic/2003/higgins_may03.htm
Prior to the 1970s all synthetic polymers were insulated
Conjugated polyacetylene was one of the first conducting polymers
But hard to work with insoluble unstable, sensitive to oxygen.
Polythiophene and polyohenylevinylene less sensitive to oxygen
-- more stable long chain backbones could be attached to the polymers
to make them more soluble in non-polar solvents.
Why are they conducting? Large number of delocalized bonding
electrons allows movement along skeletal structure.

Conducting polymers (ICPs) have attracted much attention because of their potential applications in
organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs), printed circuits, chemical sensors, electronic switches,
rechargeable batteries, electrolytic capacitors, smart windows, EMI shielding and electrostatic charge
dissipation (ESD) coatings. In spite of the thousands of papers published and patents filed in this field,
the number of commercial applications of ICPs is still small. Poor long term stability and lack of
reasonable processing methods have been the major showstoppers to the commercialization of ICPs.
TDA's research on ICPs has focussed on improving the solvent processability of conducting polymers
with proven stability, including poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) and polypyrrole.

Organic-Processable PEDOT:
Materials that combine electronic
conductivity with optical clarity are
sought for the fabrication of flat panel
displays and other electronic devices.
PEDOT has excellent transparency in the
visible region, good electrical
conductivity, and environmental
stability. Unfortunately PEDOT, like most
conducting polymers, is infusible and
insoluble and therefore difficult to
process in a thin-film form or in other
shapes. Lack of processability has been
a major impediment to the commercial
acceptance of this polymer. A water dispersion of PEDOT doped with
poly(styrenesulfonate) (PSS) is available from H.C. Starck under the trade name of
Baytron

Potential use in medicine, computing and telecommunication

molecular switches
http://quark.physics.uwo.ca/~smittler/Silvia%20Mittler%20Surface%20Fu
nctionalisation.htm

Langmuir Trough
Amphiphilic Molecules (Soap)
connection between hydrophilic and
hydrophobic liquids

Compression organizes monolayer

Monolayer can be transferred onto a solid

support

hydrophilic
hydrophobic
hydrophilic

bilayers can also be made

Molecular Switch
One of the focuses of our research is the development of novel molecular
electronic devices. That is, devices made from a hybridization of conventional
semiconductor fabrication methods and self-assembling synthetic molecules
which have unique and useful electronic characteristics. We presently utilize a
break junction method for making two terminal electrical contact to single
molecule. We also have a method for making electrical contact to both sides of a
molecular SAM (self-Assembled Monolayer): the nanopore. Using these
measurement tools we have identified molecules which work well as insulators,
conductors, diodes, two-terminal switches and random access memory cells.

http://www.eng.yale.edu/reedlab/research/device/mol_devices.html#overview

Molecular Switch
The conduction path in a
conventional microelectronics
transistor
is turned on using an applied
voltage at the gate electrode.
Similarly, the conduction path
through a molecular switch is
turned on by an applied voltage.
The applied voltage is believed to
cause a conformational shift
which, in concert with the
charging of the molecule, opens
the conduction pathway.
NH2
O
S

CH3

O2N

http://www.eng.yale.edu/reedlab/research/device/mol_devices.html#overview

Electroactive Polymers as Artificial Muscles - A Primer (J. Y. Cohen)

http://www.polysep.ucla.edu/Research%20Advances/EAP/electroactive_polymers_a
Electroactive polymers (EAPs) are touted as the basis for future artificial muscles. EAPs can be
deformed repetitively by applying external voltage across the EAP, and they can quickly recover their
original configuration upon reversing the polarity of the applied voltage. To explore the potential use
of EAPs as artificial muscles, a brief evaluation is presented of an ionic-based EAP composite as a
candidate artificial muscle material. The electromechanical properties of the EAP under dry and moist
conditions are presented along with the EAPs performance under load conditions. AS shown through
a series of simple tests, the EAP has a high load bearing capacity to mass ratio, short response time,
and nearly linear deformation response with respect to applied voltage

Illustration of an EAP-powered forceps. (a) forceps open; (b) forceps closes upon polarity reversal;
(c) and (d) lift action.

Upon the application of an electrical field across a moist EAP, which is held between metal electrodes
attached across a partial section of an EAP strip, bending of the EAP is induced. Positive counter
ions move towards the negative electrode (cathode), while negative ions that are fixed (or immobile)
to the polymer (e.g. SO3) experience an attractive force from the positive electrode (anode). At the
same time, water molecules in the EAP matrix diffuse towards the region of high positive ion
concentration (near the negative electrode) to equalize the charge distribution. As a result, the region
near the anode swells and the region near the cathode de-swells, leading to stresses which cause the
EAP strip to bend towards the positive anode.