Pompeii and Herculaneum

(Colonia Veneria Cornelia Pompeianorum)

1. Geographical Context
Physical Environment
Coastal
200km southwest of Rome
located on the Bay of Naples part of the Campania region (Capri)
River Sarnus flows through the region
People would want to live there because:
- temperate climate
- very fertile (produces very fresh fruit and veg)
- economically prosperous (vines, fish)
- slower pace of life than Rome
- trade links by land and sea
- business centre (fishing, agriculture)
Strabo (Geography) says every where on Vesuvius had dwellings on it save for the summit. The summit
was flat unfruitful; ash coloured and blackened by fire. Also says that the ash from the fire at the summit
was carried onto the surrounding slopes making it suitable for vine growing.
Florus (Epitome) says it was a very beautiful area, much quieter than Rome, very fertile and there
was trade by sea and land and there was a temperate climate.
P located 9km south of Vesuvius on a low hill. It relied on trade and it was a commercial town.
Population not certain but somewhere between 6400 and 30 000 and it had socio-economic diversity
(i.e. both rich and poor)
H located 7km southwest of Vesuvius. Population estimated to be around 5000 (very small) and it was a
holiday resort for the rich and famous and so it was less commercial with less poor people.
Resources of the area included:
- Olive oil (a substantial industry to P) climate suitable for olive growing
- Perfume (Campanian region famous for perfume) abundance of flowers grown in the area
- Wine (Vesuvius viewed as one large vineyard) climate was suitable and produce was exported
- Fishing (P famous for garum)
- Wool and Textiles (many fullonicae where washing and dying of wool took place found)
- Fruit and veg (important part of local economy) fertile volcanic soil suited to growing veg
Plans and Streetscapes
Both P and H were relatively small and compact villages
Pompeii:
- The larger of the two cities
- Surrounded by a 3.2 km wall (which at the time of eruption was no longer needed as a defensive
wall and so people were building their houses on it)
- Accessed by 8 gates, five of which focused on roads to other towns in the region
- Streets laid out in a grid system (a main road crossed by minor roads creating blocks)
- Main street = Via dellAbbondanza
- Public buildings associated with administration/religion/commerce were in the forum
- Layout very similar to Rome
- A jumble of shops of different professions with no attempt at commercial segregation
- Not extensively urban had open and cultivated areas and polyculture was common
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Streets had stepping stones to step over sewage, had 2 story houses, sidewalks, white rocks in
the road for light and straight long streets.
- Had an amphitheatre, theatre, baths, palaestra, gladiator barracks, forum, temples, basilica
Herculaneum:
- Much smaller is size than P but not all of H has been uncovered therefore could be bigger (more
difficult to excavate due to it being buried under volcanic ash/mud which is much more difficult to
dig through, also, the modern town of Resina-Ercolano sits on top.)
- Surrounded by a modest wall
- Streets laid out in a grid system (a main road crossed by minor roads creating blocks)
- Main street = Decumanus Maximus
- Public buildings associated with administration/religion/commerce were in the forum
- Layout very similar to Rome
- Streets had 2 storey houses, stepping stones to get over sewage ditch and long, straight roads.
- So far it is known that H had forum, palaestra, baths, theatre (buried), basilica (buried), alters,
shops, tabernaes, bakeries, an ancient beach front.

2. The Nature of Sources and Evidence

Range of Available sources
Pompeii
Private houses
Household shrines
Public buildings (palaestra, baths, amphitheatre)
Graffiti
Inscriptions on buildings and monuments
Tools and work equipments
Weights and measures
Household equipment
Tombs
Jewellery
Pottery
Mosaics and frescoes
Aqueducts, pipes, fountains, drains, water supply
Cooking equipment
Streetscapes
Human remains and animal remains (plaster casts)
Weapons and armour
Millstones, ovens, hot food bars and taverns
Statues and decorations
Wine and oil jars, presses
Pollen and plaster casts of roots
Forum
Temples
Brothels

Herculaneum
Private houses
Household shrines
Public buildings (baths, theatre, basilica, Scrolls of
Papyri)
Graffiti
Inscriptions on building and monuments
Tools and work equipment
Weights and measures
Household equipment
Shops and workshops
Jewellery
Pottery
Mosaics and frescoes
Aqueducts, pipes, fountains, drains, water supply,
sanitation
Cooking equipment
Streetscapes
Skeletal remains of humans and animals
Wooden furniture and building timbers
Fishing nets
Organic material including food
Wax tablets
Glass wear

P was covered with hot ash and pumice stone which ignited many fires burning everything leaving
no organic matter and crushing buildings.
H was covered with a pyroclastic surge and a flow of hot molten rock which covered the city
organic material and upper stories of houses were preserved.
Buildings are records of political, commercial and religious practises and leisure activities as well as
materials, technology and construction techniques used.
They show the architectural influences of Egypt and Greece
There are ancient writers like Pliny the younger and elder, Strabo, Florus

Limitations, reliability and evaluation of sources

Early excavations disturbed and destroyed areas things taken and misplaced limits knowledge.
Significant lack of written sources from the people about their everyday life, their thoughts and
outlook on life. No personal letters, poem, stories, shopping lists
Interpretations of written sources are also only hypothesises
All of H has not been recovered and the main public/political area has not been recovered.
Sites also tend to reveal more about the wealthy and literate than the poor, particularly women.
Viewing evidence through modern, western eyes i.e. each room has one purpose didnt in Rome.
Concerns in relation to the possible bias in sources
Evidence for the Eruption
The eruption has both written and archaeological sources:
- Pliny the younger
- Dio Cassius, Statius, Martial, Suetonius
- Deposits from the eruption
- Buildings, structures, artefacts
- Human remains

By the 1st C AD, most locals thought Vesuvius was not a threat as it had not erupted within living
memory and there were no historical records of prior eruptions

Evidence of seismic activity prior to the eruption:

Aqueducts
The water had stopped flowing because of seismic
activity and people were repairing the aqueducts right
before the eruption
Temples
The major earthquake in 62 destroyed a lot of
buildings and temples were being rebuilt
Bakeries
Using the tops of grinders to mix up the mortar to
fix the bakery which had been damaged in 62

However the entire towns are made up of eruption material i.e. the roads are made of basalt
Pliny the younger observes that for several days before the eruption there had been earth tremors
but this was not alarming as they were common
There were some other precursors but none that were conclusive an earthquake in 62AD and a
series of smaller earthquakes in the month leading up to the eruption.
Locals may have assumed the first stages of the eruption were part of another earthquake and so were
taken by surprise when the volcano suddenly erupted.
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The eruption was recorded by 17 year old Pliny the Younger from Misenum (across the bay) and
documents his uncles rescue mission to Stabiae and desire to study the eruption.
No lava at the eruption
Comparison with Mt. St. Helens and scientific analysis reveal Pliny gave a very accurate account.
P buried under 4m of volcanic ash and H under 13m of boiling mud.
This scientific analysis, combined with historians (studying written evidence) and archaeologists
(studying physical remains) we have a good understanding of the stages of the eruption.
The eruption lasted 19 hours
Pliny describes a giant cloud in the shape of a pine tree propelled into the sky. Day turned to night
for the inhabitants as ash overwhelmed P.
Inhabitants of P only now begin to evacuate but inhabitants of H are mostly evacuated by this time
The sea is boiled and the amount of ash produced pushes the beach front out a further half a km.
10 billion tonnes of material erupted from Vesuvius.
Titus (emperor at the time) attempted to restore the region, deter looting and savage valuables from
P however they became too risky and were abandoned.
Winter rains hardened the ash and pumice covering P and the site disappeared totally
Plinys letters to Tacitus were written many years after the event, the letters recount the death of
his uncle and the eruption.
Pliny was the nephew/adopted son of Pliny the Elder, then commander of the Roman Fleet.
Problems = they were written 25 years later (affect by memory?), he was an orator and so could lie
convincingly, wasnt actually in P or H at the time of eruption, producing family propaganda to
talk about his uncle, self propaganda, didnt witness what happened to his uncle and is only one
perspective.
Despite all this, scientific analysis has shown him to be very reliable.
Until the 1980s, not systematic examination of the stratigraphy had been made. Archaeology
focused on removing the ash layer to ground level in order to uncover houses etc. they did not dig below
floor levels.
Examination of stratigraphy is essential if we are to understand the volcanic processes that
destroyed the two cities.
World renowned volcanologist Prof. Haraldur Sigurdsson and his colleagues conducted the first
systematic examination of the Vesuvius deposits in the 1980s.
They show that the eruption affected the settlements in various ways.
What happened at Stabiae and Oplontis were vastly different from P and H.
Compared the written account of Pliny to their findings to establish a time sequence and also
studied modern eruptions i.e. Mt. St. Helens.
Introduced the three phase eruption theory
Phase one the Plinian phase; phase two the Nuee Ardent; phase three -
P bodies covered by a deep layer of fine ash.
At H, very few skeletons were found in early excavations but in the 1980s more than 150 skeletons
were found near the ancient shore line.
From her study of the skeletal remains, Estelle Lazer suggest the three main causes of death were:
Asphyxiation
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Thermal shock which is evident in the posture of many of the plaster casts with their clenched fists and
extended spines
Concussion from projectiles or falling masonry or timbers, evident in breaks and fractures in the bones
of a number of victims.
H beach skeletons have carbonised bones their brains exploded as their flesh vaporised
Other H bodies were twisted and agonised. The flesh was still attached so these people must have
slowly, agonisingly been baked to death in the boatshed.
P plaster casts show very hot, acidic, glass-like ash asphyxiated many.

Source
Cassius Dio

Martial
Statius
Suetonius

What is said
A great fired flared up from Vesuvius; the mountain now resembles an amphitheatre
due to the hollowing out of the middle; giants appeared on the mountain and
wandered the hill side; there was a drought and earthquakes; ash was blown out of
the mountain and it buried two towns (H and P); people began to flee; so much ash
came out that it reached Africa, Syria and Egypt and in Rome.
Vesuvius was once covered in grape vines and Bacchus loved the mountain and
now its buried by flames and ash. The gods regret their powers extended to this.
Vesuvius imitated Etna; men wont believe that two towns lie beneath the wasteland
and that the land used to lie closer to the sea
Pliny the elder died in the disaster he was overcome by the force of dust and
ashes (may have been killed by his slave who he asked to hasten his death)

Evidence for the Social Structure

Bodies as evidence at P early excavators were not interested in skeletons as much as artefacts.
Disarticulated skeletons of more than 300 victims were put in an ancient bath house not systematic
storage of bones.
No skeletons at H until 1980 when excavations of the drainage system unearthed dozens of skeletons.
Skeletal remains from Rome are rare because they cremated their dead so skeletons from P and H
are extremely valuable.
Bones can give evidence on gender, age, height, race, how many children a mother had had,
whether they had certain diseases or not, whether they were starved or sick, etc.
Sarah Bisel (idiot head)
Only studied 36 complete skeletons
Men 169cm
Women 155cm
Good healthy lives
4/36 had arthritis
Surgical equipment found at H and P shows that
medical knowledge and practise was quite
sophisticated
Teeth were in excellent condition and so they must not
have eaten much sugar in their diet

Estelle Lazer (good)

Challenged the conventional interpretation (that the
people left behind were young, old, sick and female)
Men 167cm
Women 154cm
People lived into their 50s and 60s
10% had arthritis
No dental interference found (i.e. fillings,
extractions)
Considerable wearing on teeth (probably from
traces of grit and stone in the bread which came
from the millstones used to grind the wheat)

She constructed imaginary lives of the ancient

Herculanians and gave the skeletons names and
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identities, occupations and lifestyles for them.

Population of P estimated between 10 000 20 000 in which 40% were slaves

Population of H was about 5000
Social structure of the two towns reflected the norms of Roman society.
Basic unit of society was the household, family and slaves, headed by the paterfamilias

Many wealthy Romans also holidayed in the region (Cicero, the Emperor Augustus)

Evidence for social structure includes human remains, graffiti, art, statues, frescoes, public
buildings, inscriptions, private houses and epitaphs from graves
Social status depended on legal status as defined by Roman law.
The main legal distinction was between those who were free and those who were slaves.
The free were then either citizens or not (citizens were free males who had the right to vote locally
and in the tribal elections. Not all citizens were eligible to stand for election to political office.)

Roman society was extremely class conscious and based on a strict hierarchy (see above)
Division between groups could be due to citizenship status, place of birth, level of wealth, location
(i.e. country or city), free or slave and gender.
Divisions were furthered by legal and political privileges, power, influence, criminal punishments,
marriage partners, dress, seating in public events, food eaten/served.
The emperor held all the power.
Senators served the emperor in offices and the position was hereditary. They wore a toga with a
broad purple stripe. You were born into this power and were the top of the regions social structure.
Evidence for the senatorial class:
- Seating arrangements in theatre (privileged citizens in the front, slaves at the very back)
- Inscriptions and statues show that the emperor and his family were revered as part of the official
imperial cult.
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Established land owning families were the core of the privileged section of society, together with
families whose wealth came from trade and commerce.
- Inscriptions and electoral graffiti reveal the long term prominence of certain families in local
affairs as well as the emergence of new families.
- The wealth and client base required for participation in the local politics carried honour, prestige
and privilege.
Equestrians served the emperor in posts such as commanders of the fire service, grain supply and
military officers. Pliny the Elder was an Equite. Their position was not hereditary and they wore a
toga with a thin purple stripe and a gold finger ring.
The local elite were wealthy land owners and traders. Members of this class sought to imitate the
lifestyles of the Roman elite. It was their wealth rather than aristocratic birth that gave them their
exalted position.
The populus (citizen body) were deemed to be of Roman background and citizens of P or H. they
were business men, traders, farmers and shopkeepers who could vote in tribe meetings.
Freedmen were slaves who had been given their freedom through various means. Wealth could be
gained from trade, baking, land ownership and manufacturing. They were excluded from entering the
senatorial order but some were able to become Equites. You could save up and buy your freedom.
A freedmans origin was never forgotten.
There was great diversity among the lower strata. They were generally despised and their lives were
hard they suffered squalid living and working conditions and inferior food and clothing.
One of the ways that people could improve their social status was through membership of the trade
or religion guilds (controlled by the state in which members paid their dues and were given meals
and a decent burial). It was possible for members of the lower strata to hold office and titles within
these guilds (collegia) yet in the wider society they could not hold such authority.
Slaves performed most of the work in agricultural and manufacturing and upper class Romans
drew most of their wealth from exploiting slave labour. Romans saw the ownership of slaves has a
valid expression of power. Slavery was considered a state of living death. Slaves were prisoners of
war or free citizens who sold themselves to pay their debts. The state purchased and used slaves.

Despite these strict classes, it must be noted there was social mobility.
In P, the earthquake of 62 allowed for new opportunities for marginalised classes. (Loss of life and
property = room for others to monopolise.)

Men:
- Extremely patriarchal society.
- Considered the political leaders of the city and the heads of their households (paterfamilias)
- All political positions were reserved for men of aristocratic background
- Being paterfamilias gave the man ultimate and unchallenged control over the family
- Men were encouraged to be in the army
- Free men took jobs such as labouring and manufacturing
- In Roman society wealthy people sponsored other people to do what they wanted i.e. giving a
painter money to go paint. The more clients you had and the more people that came and said good
morning to you, the more prestige you had.
Women:
- Expected to marry and become subservient to their husbands
- Held no political rights and could not participate in elections and government

Held considerable autonomy within their households, being responsible for the delegation of
tasks to servants and managing their husbands accounting and finances.
Places frequented by women

The Forum
Theatres
Tombs
Fullonicae (fulleries cloth washed and dyed)

Households
Food and drink outlets
Bath houses
Streets
Brothels (lupanaria)

Evidence of the presence of women

Building of Eumachia; women aiding their husbands
selling produce (written evidence)
General decree by Augustus that women are to sit in a
separate seating area
Mamia, a priestess, has a funerary chamber in the
Street of Tombs
Inscriptions; painting of M. Verculius Verundus shop
shows his wife sitting at the counter; Eumachias
statue inscription states she is the patron for the
fulleries.
House of Julia Felix (could own and rent out property)
Writing/inscription on the side of building IX.xi (a
tavern) mentions women (i.e. taking part in
influencing voting and politics)
Decree that civil action was taken to ban lupae
(prostitutes) from the bat houses because they were
making a nuisance of themselves.
Graffiti written by women shows their point of view
Brothels remain in P; Caligula taxed prostitution
because it got so bad; erotic paintings on walls;
inscriptions and graffiti (i.e. I sexed a beautiful girl)

Sources on women rely heavily on interpretation and vary rarely does an artefact or body
undoubtedly belong to a woman. Leads to interpretation, speculation and theory.
Not a lot of written sources on or by women.
Roman women had a lot more freedom than Greek women who werent allowed out of the house.
Although they were not allowed to vote it is evident they still took interest in the elections.
Girls from privileged backgrounds were taught to read and write either at school or by slave
tutors. They could be taught to read/write Latin and Greek, sing and pay the lyre.
Women could run husbands shops, operate bars and taverns but no political roles.
26 brothels have been found in P but 0 so far in H - P was a trading town and so many more people
were coming through the town plus not all of H has been uncovered.
Julia Felixs house and the advertisement for renting it out show that she was of patrician status due to
the size and quality of the house. However, Julia mentions her father in the advertisement
suggesting that she still required the mention of a paterfamilias to have social standing.
This shows that not only could women own houses but could earn more income by renting it out.
Eumachia is another example of a high class women she was a priestess and had a statue in the
collegium. The statue shows Eumachia wearing a stola (lupae not allowed to wear only for married
Roman women), a tunic and a palla (to show her role as a priestess.) Very covered up. The fullery was
paid for by Eumachia, resulting in the statue, and this shows that she was a benefactor for the
people of P and not just interested in her own wellbeing.
Slaves played a significant role in Roman society. They belonged solely to their master.
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Within the slave population there was an obvious social hierarchy i.e. great difference between a
slave who controlled his masters funds and one who controlled the food supply
A female slave was not allowed to marry and any offspring also belonged to her master.
Female slaves duties depended on the needs of their owners but they cooked, cleaned, acted as
nannies and wet nurses, managed businesses, worked as labourers for houses or ship construction,
worked as personal assistants for upper class women, or as prostitutes.
Could be granted their freedom by their masters or could save up money to buy their freedom.
The bulk of freedmen and women are associated with crafts, trade and commerce.
Wealthy freedmens lifestyles rivalled those of the Pompeian elite and often imitated the cultural
language to establish their membership in society.
A freedman was free in all ways but tended to stay linked with their former master in a
relationship of gratitude and loyalty.
Freed women were the freest socially and psychologically over all and some were extremely rich.

Source
Epitaph from a freedmans grave
Skeleton of a woman with a gold bracelet of a snake
with the inscription from the master to his slave girl
Human remains
Andrew Wallace-Hadrill (wealthy freedmen imitated
the lifestyle of wealthy Romans)
Graffiti

What we can learn about freedmen and slaves

They were often left in charge of a great amount of
money; a slave that never did anything against the will
of his patron was often freed
Slaves were rewarded and some were well treated;
some masters had relationships with their slaves
Sarah Bisel the grooves on the teeth indicated
malnutrition and the scars on the bones indicated hard
work
Slaves could be freed and these freedmen could
become quite wealthy
Contradictory some showing the detestation some
had for beggars and others show rich people giving
beggars money and food. Different attitudes to slaves.

Evidence for Local Political Life

Holding political office was vitally important to Roman men
A man was judged by the political heights reached.
Young men were expected to have spent at least ten years in a military post (Rome built by its army
therefore an understanding of the military was vital)
Men then made their way up the Cursus Honorum a strict order of offices and magistracies that men
were expected to undertake which was fixed by law in 180BC
The Cursus Honorum = quaestor, aedile (not obligatory), praetor, consul, censor (pinnacle).
Potestas = power held by magistrates.
Highest order magistrates had imperium (supreme power) which gave them authority over law,
military, policy making, life and death.
After their term as consuls men were called proconsuls and were sent to govern provinces.

P and H were self governing on local matters but subject to imperial decree from Rome
The emperor rarely interfered except where the empires security or local power was threatened i.e.
after the amphitheatre riot with the Nucerians in AD59 Nero dismissed the two chief magistrates,
had two more elected and appointed a law giving prefect to supervise them
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Most of what historians know comes from P and it is assumed H was much the same
P became Roman colony in 80BC and a Roman constitution laid down the political structure
P was self administering municipality and its form of local government followed standard rules laid
down in the law of Julius Caesar (the Lex Iulia Municipalis 45BC)
It set out how local magistrates, the principle town officials, would be elected
Local inhabitants not excluded from voting or standing for office (only male citizens could vote)
H was governed in much the same manner

The Ordo Decurionum (town council):

- A council of about 100 mainly ex magistrate a few non magistrates of exceptional wealth or
talent were admitted
- The council was only open to those of free birth, good character and reputable profession (not
actors, gladiators, executioners)
- Controlled civic finances and public religion
- Supervised the construction of public buildings
- Oversaw the use of standard weights and measures
- Granted prominent citizens honorific statues in public areas and tombs
- Elected magistrates administered the city assisted by the Ordo Decurionum

The Cursus Honorum for P and H:

- Began his career as aedile
The junior magistracy, responsible for the physical upkeep of the city and
maintenance of public buildings
Responsible for the day to day administration of the town
Supervised markets and granted permit to stall holders
Took care of streets and temples
Provided people with public games and paid much of the cost themselves
Wore a toga bordered with purple and special places were assigned to them in theatres
- The next office was the duumvir
The senior magistracy/ chief magistrates
Administered local finance
Small town equivalent of consuls but had no military powers and were solely
concerned with their local governments
Elections were held in march and pairs of elected magistrates took office in July and
served for one year
Presided over courts and legal cases
Presided over and carried out the decrees of the decurion council
Gave their name to their year of office and public works they supervised
Expected to provide spectacles and partly at their own expense
Possible to hold office more than once (may indicate that there were only a few men
with the enormous wealth required to fulfil the peoples expectations)
Every five years the duumviri were designated quinquennial duumviri with powers to
conduct a municipal census, reviewing the Ordo Decurionum naming new members
to replace those who had died or been expelled
Example: duumvir A. Clodius Flaccus organised the festival of Apollo with a procession,
bull fights, gladiators, pantomimes and boxers.
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A Comitium was an assembly of citizens for the purpose of voting for the duumviri and aediles.
In an emergency situation a Prefect for the Administration of Justice (praefectus iure dicundo) would
be appointed as a short term measure. I.e. AD62 Cuspius Pansa the Elder was appointed Praefectus
A wealthy and influential person was nominated by the decurion council as a patron of the colony
(patrousi coloniae) to represent Pompeiis interests at Rome. An inscription identifies Marcus
Epidius Sabinus as patrouis.
Roman politicians usually held priesthoods in the state and imperial cult as part of their pat of offices.
Politics and religion were intertwined i.e. the Augustales were priests involved in emperor worship
Even the wealthiest women could not hold political office
They could lead prominent public lives as priestesses i.e. Mamia and Eumachia who were
priestesses of the Cult of Venus (each woman erected and dedicated a building in the forum)

Buildings:
- Curia: city council met in the curia chamber
- Comitium: a roofless building where town meetings were held. The evidence for heavy gates
suggests some meetings may have been quite boisterous
- Tabularium: on the side of the Curia. All government business was recorded and filed (tax
records)
- Basilica: seats of the judiciary and law courts as well as the centre for business activities

In P more than 2000 electoral notices indicate a healthy public interest in the political process
Some written by professional sign painters (i.e. Infantio) in either red or black paint on white plaster
i.e. walls of houses and shop fronts
Individuals and groups (i.e. friends, neighbours, clients, religious/trade/occupation associations)
involved themselves with electoral matters i.e. the worshippers of Isis ask you to elect Gnaeus Helvius
Sabinus as aedile
Women also wrote political slogans i.e. Statia and Petronia ask you to vote for Marcus Casellius and
Lucius Alfucius for aediles. May our colony always have such citizens!
Some are written tongue in cheek or by the opposition i.e. Marcus Cerrinius Vatia was supported by
sneak thieves, the whole company of late drinkers and everyone who is fast asleep
Other official notices were displayed i.e. lost property, slave auctions and civic regulations.
It is not known for certain how and where the voting process took place. There is no firm evidence
that P or H were arranged in a similar manner to Rome.
Historian James Franklin has determined that some families enjoyed political prominence for
generations i.e. the Holconii and the Lucretti

H not much evidence about the political system

Inscriptions suggest that several families were prominent most notable Proconsul Marcus Nonius
Balbus. It appears he may have donated the baths to the town, restored the basilica, funded the
youth games and erected a statue of the Emperor Vespasian.
A statue of Balbus and a memorial alter were erected in the baths precinct and several others have
been recovered in H as well as ones of his mother, wife and two daughters.

Evidence for the Economy

All evidence points to P as a bustling commercial centre where making a profit and accumulating
wealth was regarded as being favoured by the gods.
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Evidence includes:
- A high number of privately owned shops, workshops, bars and inns (about 600)
- The city controlled markets around the forum
- Epigraphic (inscriptions) evidence of the number of guilds of tradesmen and retailers
- Approx 20 maritime warehouses containing objects characteristic of a port area
- Buildings lined with wine jars
- Paintings of cargo boats on the Sarno and porters carrying objects to be loaded onto the vessels
- Trade signs depicting various manufacturing processes
- Inscriptions on walls and floors of houses and workshops paying tribute to the pursuit of profit
- Images of Mercury, the god of commerce, displayed everywhere to gain blessing
- Market gardens in houses
- Numerous medium-sized farmsteads and villa rusticae (country estates) on the Sarno plane

The economies of Vesuvian towns were largely based on agricultural production and fishing
Raw materials were sufficiently provided by the market gardens and farms for the other work forces
Many nets, hooks and fishing gear have been found along the coastline of the bay of Naples

Being a coastal town and regional capital, Pompeii possessed a number of different industries with
agriculture being the main industry. For example:
- Olive Oil Villa of Pisanella kept storage jars for 5910L of oil; Pliny documents the skill
required to produce oil; Cato records that P presses were built from lava stone which was the
best; wine shops and olive presses found
- Garum P renowned for its garum (fish sauce) and there were various flavours; Pliny the
Younger no other liquid except unguents has come to be more highly valued; Marcus
Umbricius Scaurus was a prominent garum manufacturer; Seneca hated the foul smell and
documents its production
- Textiles wool was one of the most important industries in P (i.e. washing and dying in
Fullonicae); 18 Fullonicae found in P; Rooms in private houses have been identified as
Fullonicae; clothes presses have been discovered in the House of the Wooden Partition;
Painted sign over M. Vecilius Verecundus workshop showed the various processes involved in
cloth manufacture; Guild of the Fullers HQ located in the Eumachia building (forum)
- Bakeries having bakeries saved households from doing it all themselves and food was a basic
foodstuff; 30 or so bakeries have been identified in Pompeii i.e. bakery of N Popidius Priscus
in which 81 loaves of bread were recovered still in the oven; Sextus Patulcus Felix appears to
have specialised in cakes as 25 different sized baking pans have been found; grain mills and
ovens have also been found (a fixed conical block, a masonry base and a hollow cylinder)
- Wine - the principle source of income for the Vesuvian area after Oil.
- Epigraphy and paintings show that in P there were carpenters, plumbers, wheelwrights,
tanners, tinkers, iron mongers, goldsmiths, silversmiths, marble workers, stone masons, gem
cutters and glass makers.

The Macellum, on the north eastern side of the forum, was a busy market specialising in the sale of
live fish, garum, molluscs, crustaceans, lamb, beef, veal, pork, poultry and possibly fruit and veg
It has been verified this was a market by a coin found in the time of Nero depicting the market
Large quantities of fish bones and scales have been found so fish mongers probably cleaned, filleted
and sold their catch all in the same place.
The Macellum also featured beautiful panelled painting in the fourth style, a small raised temple,
statues of an emperor and notable P dignitaries, a section for sacrificial banquets, auction room and
a money changers booth.

12

On the other side of the forum there was a market where dried cereals and pulses were sold
There was a weighing table (a marble slab with 9 circular cavities of different capacities) for
inspecting and measuring foodstuffs
Documentary evidence (Indices Nundinarii) indicates that Saturday was market day in P
Shoes were sold and farmers or owners of market gardens set up stalls to sell surplus produce
A public latrine (foricae) was provided in the area
Tabernae (shops) can be recognised by the wide opening onto the streets and the long groove in a
stone threshold where a wooden shutter closed the area up at night.
Many had a back room which were living quarters for shop owners
Shops and workshops were all jumbled together with no commercial segregation (i.e. a gem cutter
next to a green grocer)
There a painted signs or paintings on the outside of walls advertising what was sold
About 200 public eating and drinking places have been identified in P
Some were simply fast food snack bars recognised by the marble covered counter in which large
dolia holding hot food and dishes were encased (a large one of these has been found in H)
Wine bars and taverns were scattered throughout both towns but P they were more densely
clustered around entertainment areas (theatre)
Most people drank diluted wine mixed with various things (milk, honey, sea water) to enhance flavour
A woman named Asellina employed foreign waitresses (Smyrna, Maria and Aegle) and ran a well
known establishment. Sums showing customers debts are scrawled on the inside of walls and
political slogans are written on the outside walls
Trade definitely took place between other cities within Campania and Italian peninsular
P imported other varieties of oil and wine from Spain, Sicily and Crete as well as pottery from
Spain and Gaul, lamps from Alexandria
It is not known how extensive exports to other parts of the empire were
The occasional Pompeian amphora, tile or fish container has turned up beyond Italy
The remains of 20 warehouses containing weights for anchoring boats and fishing gear, amphorae
and a statue of Neptune have been found.
There was a wide range of industries in P and H
Being vacation areas the provision of services was high priority (many hotels, inns, restaurants
and services i.e. prostitution)
State employed artisans, architects and workers on its public buildings and rebuilding after 62AD
Entertainment was a big industry where gladiators and sportsmen were highly valued
There was high demand for marble workers, woodworkers, furniture makers for both public and
private decorations and furnishings
Fulleries employed many people including children
Gardening was a big business demand for horticulturalists
Demand for accountants and bookkeepers accounting tables found in the House of Jucundus

Evidence for Everyday Life

Festivals and community celebrations were times for social cohesion and expressions of social unity
It affirmed the social identity
13

Social rank in theatre/arena seating

Leisure activities were for free citizens only
Participation was decided according to class (i.e. different baths for different people)
159 public holidays where work was suspended (no weekends though)
It was politically useful to share peoples enthusiasm for entertainment as politicians bore most of the
costs and provision of gladiatorial contests and athletic displays were part of the patronage

Wealthy
Clients visited their wealthy patrons houses at dawn
(salutatio) which was a visible means of displaying
wealth
The elite man would then proceed to the forum or
other public buildings (accompanied by his clients)
for political meetings, court cases, other public
business
Business transactions took place midday and the
afternoon was for siestas and resting or going to the
baths
Ate at home or at a dinner party
Leisure activities included:
Feature
Evidence
Location and
- Amphitheatre seated around
space of the
15000 20 000 people and
games
located in the Palaestra

Working Class
Workshops and shops opened early and remain open
till dusk. Inns opened mid morning and continued late
into the night
Many lived and worked in the same house therefore
were not particularly mobile during the day
Wouldve gone to the market (if didnt have slaves) to
buy materials and may have had to visit their patrons
early in the morning for salutation
May have visited the baths

Barracks

Gladiator barracks adjacent to

the amphitheatre in P
Weapons, amour and equipment
found (breastplate at P and
helmet at H)
Training ground found

Fighting

Fresco illustrating gladiator

combat found in P

Spectators

Painting of amphitheatre riot

in 59AD in the House of Actius
Anicetus

Huge square area, called

Palaestra, to the southwest of

Location of
exercise arena

Analysis
Large spaces were required and used
Highly popular pastime if such a large arena
was used
Different seating for different classes/genders
social status
Architecture of the time
Shows gladiators were present in P
Shows type of armour, weapons and
equipment used at H and P
Shows fighting was violent and needed amour
Size of the armour = size of the gladiator
Shows gladiators were trained
Shows housing and living conditions
Large size of barracks indicates the large
population of gladiators at P
Shows types of fighting undertaken
Gladiators were present
Shows weapons, armour, clothing etc used
One figure is bleeding shows the violent
nature of the games
Amphitheatre closed because of the riot between
P and Nucerians (rivalry between towns)
Shows the amphitheatre had awnings for shade
and stalls for food/drink
Large space = exercise was popular and
important
14

Design and
Layout

the amphitheatre in P
Palaestra in H occupies a
whole block of land

Patronage and
Organisation

Architectural
features

Location and
space of Plays

Examples of
plays
Seating
Decoration

Location and
space of
drinking and
gambling
Gambling
games

Preparation of
food

Graffiti from the Palaestra in

P indicates it was home of the
local Augustan Youth
movement
Cassius Dio states that the
collegia juvenum were clubs that
were aid for by the state to instil
military discipline and loyalty
in the youth to the emperor
Reconstruction of the
Palaestra in H (secondary
sources good to use)
Two Odeon theatres found in
P

Mosaic of tragedy masks

Mosaic of comic play
Plan of the theatre in H drawn
(2500 3000 people) still
buried - tunnels used
Statue of emperor Claudius
found at the entrance in H
Statue of Lucius Mammias
Maximus at the entrance in H
Remains of taverns same
style patchwork marble pieces
with vats for storing food
Both P and H
Fresco in tavern in P shows
gambling
Mosaic in house of Labyrinth
shows cock fighting in P
Layout of the House of the
Vetti for P the smaller rooms
were for storing food and wine

Dining area

House of the Tragic Poet

A number of paintings show

What was needed for exercise

Included an open air space and a gallery for
spectators to watch
There was a large swimming pool
Decoration and money was invested on
exercise therefore was important
Different uses for the area
Was a place for young people (especially the
Augustan Youths)
Paid for by the state therefore endorsed by the
state to honour the imperial family
(propaganda)
Military discipline valued in youth

Show its was attractive and beautiful

Architecture (columns) show Greek influence
Made of marble that was painted bright colours
Two theatres - drama was part of society
Quite large (larger theatre sat around 5000
people) therefore drama was popular
Shows what was needed for ancient drama
Seating arrangement and architecture
Drew heavily on Greek culture (comedy and
tragedy) and adopted many Greek plays
Mimes and pantomimes popular at this time
Semi circular seating plan designed so the light
and acoustics were at their best
Drama was performed and part of society
Patrons of the theatre
Imperial family was honoured
Theatres were decorated well i.e. money was
spent on them shows importance of them
Amount of space taken up by taverns
Layout of taverns
How drink and food was stored
Gambling did take place
Only men in artworks but known women did too
Bet on cock fighting
Gambling took place in taverns
Can see food preparation areas
Roman houses had multifunction rooms i.e.
cooking done in a number of rooms or outside
Food was generally prepared on small portable
tripods cooked over charcoal
Triclinium 3 couches were set up and reclined
on when eating this was for wealthy persons
15

Food service

Banquet
behaviour

Range of food

Menu/meal

Location and
space of baths

Features

Activities

banquet scenes
House of the Vetti mosaic of
a boy kitchen slave
Etiquette inscription on the
walls of the House of the
Moralist (do not make eyes at
another mans wife)
Carbonised food found dates,
grapes, prunes, pomegranates,
bread, lettuce, figs in H (OM)
Roman writer Juvenal refers
to a typical menu (Gustatio
asparagus and eggs, Mensae
Primae chicken and goat,
Mensae Secundus fruit)
Layout of P baths

Layout of baths

A strigil found

Indication of where dining took place

Food preparation was done by slaves if you
could afford it otherwise women served
Slaves had specific roles i.e. serving food
Men and women could dine together
Rude/vulgar behaviour was not tolerated

Ate similar foods to us

What foods they ate

Insight into regular meals they ate

What foods
Three course meals

Size and amount of baths = popularity

4 public baths in P (the Stabian, the Forum, the
Central and the Amphitheatre baths)
2 public baths at H (Forum and Suburban baths)
Different rooms for men and women
Included hot and cold baths, a palaestra, a
latrine, steam rooms and change rooms
Had a ledge in the bath for seating
A strigil (small metal ports attached to a string
for scraping dirt and sweat from the body)
Hygiene was important
Groomed at the baths
After baths people could have a massage
Baths were very social and people met to talk,
gamble, exercise etc together
Furness shows how they heated rooms/baths
Shows money and effort put into baths and
their importance to the towns
Balbus paid for the construction of the baths?
Made of marble with wooden shutters and glass
window panes

Design
Decoration

Location / layout of baths at H

Mens warm room at H has a
large mosaic on the floor
showing marine animals
Frescoes on walls
Statue (now lost) of Proconsul
Marcus Nonius Balbus

People of P and H adopted their dress and fashion from Rome

Males wore a tunic (the most basic form of clothing) and a toga for more elaborate occasions
Ones status was indicated by colours and stripes on ones toga
A wall paintings in P togas worn by official magistrates
Women wore a stola with a longer tunic

P and H had trained doctors (Greek slaves) and Pliny, Seneca and Martial inform us that they
were regarded as impostors
16

Paterfamilias was personally responsible for the health and medical welfare of the family
The House of the Surgeon indicates that P had access to the latest medical technology
The public baths = citizens wanted cleanliness

Fresh water supplied to P and H via aqueducts and continuously into homes with lead piping
The concept of fresh water was introduced by the Greeks
Water was used for public baths, private homes and town fountains
Bath water was often not filtered and posed a potential health hazard
By the 1stC AD Rome had improved sanitation standards immensely however it was still inadequate
as the connection between disease and sanitation had not been acknowledged
Toilets were small holes in the floor and everyone cleaned with the same sponge

Evidence for Public Buildings

In P buildings date back to the 6th C BC
Provide insight into cultural influences, wealth, morals and idealism of Romans
All public buildings were constructed from limestone, tufa (volcanic rock), brick and wood
Building
Amphitheatre (P)

Theatres (P)

Temple of Apollo
(P)

Forum (P)

Notes
Earliest known amphitheatre in the ancient Roman world
Construction started in 70s BC
Largest building in P
Could seat up to 20000 (larger than necessary so neighbouring towns probably
also used it Nucerians in 59AD)
Two main entrances (N and S)
Awnings provided shade for the people and they were sprinkled with scented
water to keep cool
Gladiatorial combat, boxing, wild beast shows
Reliefs, mosaics, inscriptions and paintings show different types of fighting
Athletic displays also put on
Two in P one open air, one covered shows importance of theatre
Smaller could seat 1200 and the larger could seat 5000
Shape of the theatre shows Greek influence
Seats of magistrates and civic leaders at the front
Stage at front and backstage for actors at back
Awnings gave shade to audience
For putting plays, mimes, clowns, juggling and athletic exhibitions
Had statues (Apollo, Diana, Aphrodite and Venus), alters, columns, friezes,
metopes, herms of Mercury and Maia
Damaged in 62AD and renovations took place
For religious worship and their was a courtyard for worshippers
Evidence of Greek influence i.e. god Apollo is Greek
Rectangular open space
Commercial, religious, economic, social and political centre
Served as a market place (on Saturday)
Paintings in the house of Julia Felix show the forum
Located near the Marina gate
Two forums in P
Included temples of Apollo, Jupiter, Isis, Fortuna Augusta, Lares, Venus and
17

Temple of Isis (P)

Basilica (P)

Palaestra (H)

Basilica (H)

Theatre (H)

Vespasian
Small but ornate with all decorations and furnishings preserved
Mixture of Greek, Roman and Greek influences
Many statues of Isis and water from the Nile was kept in the vicinity
Surrounded by a very high wall with a single entrance
Rebuilt in 62AD
Held 12 daily services
Isis viewed as goddess who healed the sick so priests were associated with
medicine
Example of the permeation of other cultures
Shows Romans were accepting of other religions
Functioned as a place where the magistrates conducted everyday business
supported by archaeological evidence
Roof collapsed in 62AD so became an open air market
Served as a court of law, an exchange, a meeting place for merchants, place
for archives
Graffiti found shows political messages
Oldest known basilica in the Roman world and the best surviving example of
pre Roman architecture
Only part has been excavated (limitations)
Contains a swimming pool
Occupies an entire block of land
Open air surrounded by three sides of pillars
Included a statue of Hercules (town hero)
Temples to Hermes (swiftness) and Hygeia (health) included
Meeting rooms and private boudoirs included
Served as a gym and a meeting place (Augustan Youth)
Indicates the importance of health and exercise
Large rectangular hall
Alternatively may be a shrine to the imperial cult (function under conjecture)
Had a statue to the Emperor Vespasian and many other bronze statues of
emperors, a series of full length paintings of the Balbus family, frescoes and
mosaics of mythological characters
Paintings depicting scenes of Hercules
Rebuilding at the expense of Proconsul Marcus Nonius Balbus after 62AD
(inscription says so)
Centre of the towns administration, town hall and location of law courts
Not yet been excavated (accessed through a section of old tunnels)
Could hold about 2500 (more than adequate for population of H)
Was of standard layout but one of the towns most impressive buildings
Awnings were provided for shade
Can see class division in seating

Evidence for Private Buildings

Large body of evidence for housing in P and H however limitations of architectural sources i.e. it is
difficult to know the use of particular houses or to know how many families occupied them
Size of the house does not necessarily indicate the status of the owner
No multi-storey apartment blocks like in Rome but some two storey houses
18

Most houses were on irregular sites with no roof terraces

Blank wall to street for privacy and security i.e. no exterior windows and unimpressive front door
Many houses had shops on the streets
Some houses divided or occupied by various families
Some of the more elegant houses had gardens, water features and private baths
Many houses in H orientated for a sea view
Rooms were multifunctional therefore cannot apply specific names to rooms
Rooms for keeping records, dining, sleeping, entertaining, cooking, sometimes a garden or shop
The main building materials used were limestone, lava stones, rubble, brick whatever was available
No typical P or H house many different types due to:
- Topography limited space
- Fashion adoption of Greek and Egyptian influences stayed from simplistic Roman styles
- Natural disaster common earthquakes i.e. 62 meant restoration and rebuilding was needed
- Economic changes shops and workshops with residences, large houses divided up for many
poor families to inhabit all together
- Population growth limited space, second storeys added, illusion of space added by decoration
By the time of eruption, most houses were believed to have been supplied with water from springs of
Acquaro 26kms away
Wealthier families designed their houses so they caught the breeze in summer to try and reduced
some of the stifling heat
The strong cold winds and rains of winter mean that windows were filled with glass, curtains and
nets were used as well as wooden partitions
Lighting was inadequate in every house rich or poor. Natural light entered through windows and a
variety of artificial light sources were used i.e. lamps, lanterns, fires and candles.
Mains doors had locks for security and some an iron grating fixed across windows to prevent thieves.
Religion was also observed and practised at home shrines to household gods can be found and
rites of passage (marriage, birth and death) took place at home
The home was a centre for family life, personal religion, business and political dealings
Roman familia = legal and social unit of wife, children (married or unmarried), slaves and freedmen
Patria potestas = power of paterfamilias
Morning salutatio at houses (tool of social and political power)

Urban houses
Looked inwards, opening directly onto the street,
some spatial limitations
Small medium sized taberna houses had an average
size of 8 13 rooms
Variations in houses reflect topography, lack of
space, economic factors, fashion and natural
disasters
Architectural spaces and features included gardens,
areas for slaves, latrines, atriums, mosaic floors,
wall paintings, decorative pieces, minimal furniture,
water supply, lighting, heating and security

Villas
Designed to be at one with the landscape, make the
most of the view and combine luxury and rusticity
Best example of a villa is Villa of Papyri in H and the
Villa of Mysteries in P
Villa Rusticae (a working estate combined with
elegant living areas) examples = Villa of Pisanella
Over 100 have been excavated
Architectural spaces and features included Villa of
otium (leisure and relaxation) were often built on
different levels with terraces, porticoes, belvederes,
fountains, gardens, swimming pools, baths, wall
painting, bronze and marble statues.
Architectural spaces and features of Villa Rusticae
19

included luxurious residence for owner, stables,

storage areas, slave areas
Evidence for Religion
Everyday in each home families prayed and worshiped household gods headed by the paterfamilias
The household shrine was called the lararium - could be a miniature temple or a simple wall opening
Several personalities could be prayed to i.e.:
- The lares protectors of the house shown as dancing young men who held drinking horns and
plates. Many took statues with them when they escaped the eruption 9 statues were found
near the dead in the streets of P
- The penates protectors of the food supply shown similar to lares
- The genius guaranteed many children to the family and shown as a priest with a covered head
holding a drinking horn
- Vesta, the goddess of the fire place, was present in the flame of the fire in the house and she gave
warmth and light to the family and so she was worshiped in the home
- Other favourite gods were included in the worship i.e. Mercury, Minerva
- Improper worship caused disasters like infertility and house destroying earthquakes
The most popular Italian god was Priapus, god of fertility who was shown naked with a huge phallus
Offerings of wreaths and food were given and occasionally animals i.e. lambs on special occasions
(births, deaths, marriages)
Special objects were used i.e. pouring bowls and oil lamps
Models and drawings of phalluss were everywhere as symbols of luck
Favourite gods and goddess became part of decorations in paintings etc on walls

Major gods were housed in temples in the forum Jupiter (king of the gods), Juno (his wife) and
Minerva (their daughter, goddess of crafts); Venus (goddess of love); Apollo (lord of civilisation);
Ceres (goddess of fertility).
The emperor was also honoured i.e. Fortuna Augustus goddess who protected Augustus and to
the emperor Vespasian.
Shrine to Augustus found in H
Foreign religions promised what Roman religions did not a close relationship with the god and a
happy afterlife for the good
Women found them especially attractive and liberating
The most popular foreign cult was that of Egyptian goddess Isis powerful goddess of magic she
promised an afterlife for believers. Her temple contained water from the Nile.
A wall painting shows two daily ceremonies taking place outside her temple
Worship of Bacchus (wine and drama) was extremely popular among P women although banned in
Rome due to the excessive drunken wildness
Believers danced themselves into a drunken frenzy in order to unite with the god
Statue of Indian fertility goddess Lakshmi, statuettes of Middle Eastern fertility god Sabazius and
wall inscriptions mentioning the biblical towns of Sodom and Gomorrah found.
Christianity may have been practised (called a degenerate sort of cult by Pliny the younger)
P buried their dead outside the city gates i.e. only the living could dwell inside the town therefore
a Street of Tombs appears at Roman gates
20

Always reminded themselves about death in a P house there is a mosaic of a full length skeleton
holding a wine cup
Villa La Pisanella silver cup decorated with skeletons inscribed enjoy life while you have it for
tomorrow is uncertain, you may die
The dead were not forgotten graffiti found throughout P address the dead i.e. from citizen Pyrrhus
to his dead friend Chius I am sorry to hear that you are dead and so farewell
Death was seen regularly in the amphitheatre watching gladiators
As P grew richer, so did the size of the tombs.
The dead were cremated and later, a stone slab (stelae) was inscribed with the deceaseds name
was added, and later faces were sculpted along with special words
Gradually whole families were buried together and alters were set up, animals sacrificed, meals
shared and libations poured
Coins were placed near the vase (with the ashes in it) to pay the fee to the ferryman (Charon) of the
afterlife who crossed the River Styx

Evidence of Greek and Egyptian Influence

According to legend Hercules (the Roman version of Heracles) founded P as he passed through
and H may be named after him (statues of Hercules are found quite a lot in H)
Evidence of worship of Greek gods found in P and H include Demeter, Apollo and Dionysus
Greek influence evident in architectural features i.e. the theatre and the palaestra
Reflected in many statues that were direct copies of Greek originals
Greek language still continued to be spoken and some inscriptions/graffiti were written in Greek quotations from Greek literature found (i.e. homer) among graffiti
Greek literature, drama and philosophy influenced the Roman world (a Roman was regarded as being
educated if he read and spoke Greek) - discovery of the papyrus scrolls (1800 scrolls)
Would have been normal for a wealthy Romans house to be full of Greek works as well as Latin works
An Alexander mosaic from the House of the Faun shows a battle between Alexander the Great and
Darius the style of the painting suggest it is a copy of a Hellenistic painting.
Also in the House of the Faun is a mosaic of a Nile scene containing crocodiles, hippos and ducks
Temple of Isis was a busy temple popularity of foreign religions
Wallace-Hadrill suggests Rome recent conquest of Egypt may have spawned the influx of
Egyptian crafts and styles i.e. the use of sphinxes, Isis symbols, scenes from the Nile
3. Investigating, Reconstructing and Preserving the Past
Changing Methods and Contributions of 19th and 20th C archaeologists
No established methods of excavation when P and H were first discovered no rules to follow, little
concern for context of artefacts and no precedent for record keeping
The earliest excavations were mining operations due to the 18th C motive of treasure hunting
This haphazard approach by early excavators damaged and discarded many pieces
Karl Weber is responsible for introducing a systematic approach resulting in greater conservation
and preservation

19th Century Archaeologists:

- Giuseppe Fiorelli Site director of P in 1863
21

Methods and approach to excavation considered revolutionary

Adopted a more systematic approach and divided the site into 9 regions
Each region contained 22 insulae (blocks)
First archaeologist to excavate houses from the top rather than the sides and each house
was excavated room by room to reduce potential damage
First to pour plaster into organic cavities and chip away surround ash producing
shapes of bodies, animals, furniture, food and other organic matter
First to keep detailed records and catalogues of his find
More meticulous classification of each artefact was undertaken according to region,
insulae and house location

August Mau Site director in 1882

Adopted a scientific approach in his classification and analysis of wall paintings
Used chronological typology (process of classifying items according to common
characteristics and traits) in attempting to approximate the date of each painting
First style of painting (175BC 80BC) stonework style comprising of divided walls
Second style of painting (80BC 10BC) architectural style using the illusions of space
and depth. Scenes were mystical and naturalistic with colourful decoration
Third style of painting (10BC 50AD) two dimensional style involving dividing the
wall into separate zones
Fourth style of painting (50AD 79AD) the intricate style involving the use of
architectural frames and airy, mythological subject matter scenes

20th Century Archaeologists:

- Vittorio Spinazzola Site director from 1911 1924
Majority of excavations centred around Via dellAbbondanza
Continued systematic approach of excavating from west to east of the city
Concerned with reconstructing facades and streetscapes
Focused on upper storeys of houses - meticulously reconstructed parts of upper storeys
that had been crushed or destroyed in 79AD
Contributed to further knowledge about the design and function of Roman housing
Proved that the majority of houses were double storey, not just single
-

Amedeo Maiuri Site director of both P and H from 1924 1961

Grand vision was to reconstruct the entire site to its original appearance
Centred on the concept of in situ left utensils and artefacts in their original positions
Focused on areas surrounding the Via dellAbbondanza including the Amphitheatre,
the Palaestra, the House of the Menander and the House of the Surgeon
Excavations went below the 79 destruction layer and revealed the city pre Roman and
Samnite time
Revealed major aspects about the life of the city during imperial times
Despite his innovative methods and vision Maiuris restoration work has been
criticised for its haste in combination with increasing tourism causing a number of his
discoveries to decay
22

Recent excavations involve thorough documentation and scholarly interpretation of the remains
including minute analysis of the layers
Biological material and ceramics are considered essential objects to study nothing is overlooked
The P Forum Project shows how already uncovered areas are being minutely examined by a team of
interdisciplinary professionals (i.e. architects, archaeologists, artists, computer technicians)
Pains are taken to avoid invasive and destructive excavation and where digging is necessary it is
conducted as a precise surgical intervention
Todays processes are slow and painstaking so that the towns are gradually revealed

Changing Interpretations Impact of New Research and Technologies

Not static sites which have revealed everything yet
P and H are constantly being re-examined by historians/archaeologists with new technologies and
fresh perspectives- archival matter is re-examined and sites are re-excavated, new questions are
asked and evidence is used to form new interpretations. Previous research is challenged.
For example
- Villa of the Papyri (H) In the 18th Century, 1800 papyrus scrolls in a Greek library in a villa were discovered.
Scrolls in fragile condition had been carbonised and crushed by heat and projectiles
Previously, a machine was used to open the scrolls but not without extensive damage
In recent years, the Philodemus Project sought to decipher the scrolls
Computers were used to enhance the legibility of the scrolls
Photographs were taken and the images were enhanced to allow for reading
Non destructive techniques need to be used to extract information whilst preserving the
fragile scrolls
Further damage may be done to the scrolls that remain in situ via ground water and
seismic activity
-

X-ray analysis of the cast of the lady of Oplontis In Sydney on October 31st 1994, the first X-ray analysis of a victim was performed
Found at Oplontis, a cast was made of the body
Estelle Lazer and a multidisciplinary teach (radiologists, dentists, radiographers)
examined the body
The body was of a mature female in the early years of the fourth decade, there were no
signs of dental or other medical intervention and all the teeth had eruption and roots were
complete. A healed fracture was observed on the left radius and the bone had healed with
some irregularity
Distinct value in using X-ray procedures to examine the casts

Luigi Capasso did a very detailed study of 162 skeletons at H (the most comprehensive study of
the remains) along with two physical anthropologists Pier Paolo Petrone and Luciano Fattore
Estelle Lazer, an archaeologist who focuses on skeletal remains, conducted extensive studies on the
remains to establish research on sex, age, height, disease and population
Traditionally it has been asserted that the sample of victims were skewed towards the very old, infirm,
women and young.
23

Lazer challenged this previous assumption and produced results that showed there was no bias
among sex, age (juveniles underrepresented as bones do not last), healthy or sick people.
Many people in P died from exposure to extreme heats (250 degrees) resulting in the pugilistic or
boxers pose where the limbs are flexed and the spine is extended
Dale Dominey-Howes notes that bodies found at the beach at H were instantly vaporised and those
in the boat house at H were slowly baked to death

Issues of Conservation and Reconstruction

P and H are now considered world heritage sites because they provide a complete and vivid picture of
society and daily life at a specific moment in the past without parallel anywhere in the world
Also among the worlds most endangered sites
Two centuries of excavations, exposure to the elements and poor site management has contributed
to decay

Poor restoration work much of the restoration work has not been done by professionals and
incorrect construction methods have been used
A new timber roof erected on the House of Meleager in P collapsed
Without adequate roofing features i.e. frescoes are exposed to weather and sunlight and drainage
becomes a problem as water pools on the floors
Inappropriate materials can also cause further damage i.e. steel and concrete - the steel rusts and the
concrete flakes away. Poor quality mortar allows water, vegetation and fungi to penetrate
Modern concrete contains more salt and causes damage
Weeds invade and ruin sites and hasten decay when they take root in cracks and force cracks to
become bigger. Algae and fungi also become present in damp, poorly drained areas.
Environmental factors i.e. the frequent earth tremors common in the region contribute to decay when
it shakes the foundations of sites. The 70 eruptions of Vesuvius since 79 have caused further damage.
Pigeons nesting, pecking at beams and windows and leavings droppings (which contain a high level
of acid) all damage houses. Three falcons have been employed to scare away the pigeons.
Poor site protection against looting has meant many frescoes, artefacts and paintings have been stolen
and damaged in the process
It is estimated that between 1975 and 2000, more than 600 items have been stolen
Fires are also started in houses i.e. House of Iphigenia, ruining the area
Poor site management has meant that visitors to the site can cause a lot of damage no requirement
for visitors to check in any large bags which provide ideal conditions for theft
There arent enough guides to stop people stepping over closed off areas or visitors climbing onto
ruins to get better photographs. Tourists also vandalise areas.
Theres a lack of educational signs as proper signs/explanations would encourage respect and interest
Tourism is one of the largest industries and help to keep the sites funded
However the amount of traffic is more than can be accommodated and there are no pathways or
bridges for tourists to walk on along the Via dellAbbondanza the footpath has been worn down to the
same level as the road - ancient lead water pipes have become exposed
The need to provide tourist amenities i.e. bathrooms, catering and garbage facilities encroach on the
site both physically as well as aesthetically
Mosaic tiles and plaster, fragments of pottery etc are picked up by tourists
Unintentional damage is also caused like erosion of footpaths or accidental knocking of walls etc
Litter left by tourists attracts rodents and this encourages burrowing, nesting and climbing on ruins
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Sites can be left and exposed to natural decay, can be reburied for protection, reconstructed to its state
at the time of excavation, conserved, restored to its original state and protected
Reconstructions and restorations rely on interpretation and new materials must be distinguishable from
original ones to avoid falsifying historical evidence
There has been a push for conservation as opposed to restoration recently for both P and H
Conservation involves the process of documentation, analysis, cleaning and stabilisation of an
object or site to prevent further deterioration to preserve it in its existing state
Wallace-Hadrill pushes the line that there should be no further excavation unless you can conserve
what is already found

Ethical Issues Study and Display of Human Remains

Original excavations show little regard or respect for human remains
Skeletons were damaged or removed and taken for souvenirs
Skeletons were deliberately rearranged to create scenes to impress tourists
A large number of bones were carelessly stored in bath houses causing disarticulation
Ethics and archaeology collide as there are groups for whom it is taboo to disturb the dead
Changing values of generations calls for re-evaluation of treatment of bodies
Human skeletons are indispensable for research into diets, disease, genetics etc
Archaeologists must pay due regard to sacred, spiritual and metaphysical beliefs of the cultures
Should bones be seen are solely artefacts? Who has custodianship/ownership of bones? What is the
most appropriate way to store and display human remains?
The unique type of preservation at P has made victims far more accessible to visitors forms of
skeletons and bodies, rather than actual remains, are displayed
The casts at P reveal more about the full horror of AD79 and help the general public
They do not offend and provide a fascinating display however coming face to face with twisted,
agonised skeletons at H can create a great response from the viewer.
Now - research is considered far more appropriate than using bones to illustrate the gruesome
manner in which they were killed
Why would dead bodies from a modern catastrophe (i.e. Mt. St. Helens) be treated any different to
ancient bodies? We would not expect to see photographs of the dead bodies or have them on display elapsed time the important factor for our attitude to dead bodies? I.e. ancient ok yesterday bad.

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