Modals of necessity

MODALS OF NECESSITY
1

K (C implies x)

Modals of NECESSITY
(i) Strong necessity
MUST
NEED
K (C implies x)

(ii) Weak necessity /

SHOULD
OUGHT
K (COND (C implies x))

Modals of necessity

Modals of necessity

It can be simultaneously true that...

You ought to rent a car.
You dont have to rent a car.

+ quasi-modals (e.g. Coates)

WEAK
necessity

Vs.
You must not rent a car.
You dont have to rent a car.

= a contradiction

STRONG
necessity

HAVE GOT TO
HAVE TO

BUT: they are not modal verbs; they encode

modality but do not belong to the class of modal Vs,
i.e. they do not have the morpho-syntactic properties
of modal Vs

Modals of necessity
6

Deontic MUST

MUST = strong necessity

A. Deontic MUST , i.e. deontic necessity

K= social

laws
C = deontic source/ person in position of authority
x = event/state of affairs

(1)You must leave immediately or Ill kill you!

(2) Anything can happen. You must go to Jerusalem.

K (C implies x)

Deontic MUST
7

Necessity relative to rules & regulations /obligation

There is a cline from strong to weak obligation
(i)

Strong obligation ( I order you to)

(ii) Warning
(iii) Recommendation, advice
(iv) a mere hedge

BUT: they all convey the meaning: IT IS NECESSARY

./K (C implies x)

Deontic MUST
8

(3) You must play this ten times over the teacher would say.
= essentially performative, I order you to .
< the speaker as a source of obligation
(4) Ive warned Jo that she must walk warily when the ladys
around. [ a warning rather than a command]
(5) You must come over one of these days [ the participants
in the dialogue are equals]//Very well, sad Little
Chandler, the next time you come we must have an
evening together. Thats agreed now, isnt it?

Deontic MUST

Deontic MUST

10

(6) If you commit murder you must be punished. [ the

speaker only states a law; = a non-subjective use]
(7) Clay pots must have some protection from severe
weather [non-subjective]
(8) I must say/admit/ask/confess [ a hedge]
I must confess I dont particularly like Dragnea.
I must tell you that your fly is open.

I must say /admit/be honest/ask

you/reiterate/confess/concede/mention
You must remember/admit/realize/understand

used in a rather weaker sense (P. 73)

Deontic MUST and theta-roles

Deontic MUST and Negation

11

12

deontic MUST does not assign theta-roles to the

subject it can occur with an expletive subject:

(9) by constitution there must be proven beyond a

shadow of reasonable doubt that the person in
question did this.
(10) There must be much closer unity within the West
before there can be effective negotiation with the
East.

+ NEG: necessity not to act

Subjective modality: I order (you) not to (internal
negation)
Objective modality: It is necessary that (you) not
(internal negation)

Deontic MUST + NEGATION: INTERNAL

NEGATION
=
MUST [NEG

Deontic MUST and Negation

Deontic MUST and Negation

13

14

(11) You mustnt see that guy anymore or Ill kill you. (strong,
subjective)
= I order you not to..../ It is necessary that you dont ....
(12) You mustnt put words into my mouth, Mr Williams.
(strong, subjective)

deontic mustnt is used to express a necessary-not

meaning in spite of the fact that syntactically it is the
modal which is negated.

= It is necessary that you dont....

(13) The present paper must not be printed. (strong, but nonsubjective)
= It is necessary that the present paper is not ....

Deontic MUST and Negation

Deontic MUST and Negation

15

BUT
Deontic MUST can be negated (external negation) in verbal
crossing outs:
(14) A. He must leave immediately.
B. Oh, no, he mustnt.
Also:
(15) You mustnt mind so much. Even the most famous
writers started like this.

16

In order to negate deontic necessity:

NEED/HAVE TO/HAVE GOT TO
(16) I neednt go now. = it is NOT necessary that (external
negation)
(17) You neednt answer that question. = it is NOT necessary
that you answer that question
(18) You dont have to answer this question. = it is NOT
necessary that...

Need vs. Must

Deontic MUST and past time reference

17

18

MUST (+past) can be used when RT=past in (free) indirect

speech

NEED vs. MUST

MUST always takes scope over negation;
necessity is not negated ; NEED is within the scope
of negation; necessity is negated

(19) He decided that Kay must be kept in the dark.

(20) She made up her mind that she must leave immediately.
(21) For a while it was Teresa they must cope with.
(22) They told me I must leave immediately.
in Direct Speech: had to
(23) I had to leave immediately.
(24) We had to move from the shadows into the sun. (CT ToM)

(25)

Deontic MUST and perfective aspect

Deontic MUST and perfective aspect

19

20

a.If you want to study linguistics you must first have

graduated in a foreign language.
b.Students must have taken calculus by the start of
their senior year.

deontic must can take a perfect complement; when it

does, it scopes over the perfect
MOD > PERF [deontic]

Deontic MUST vs. have to

Deontic MUST and perfective aspect

21

22

i.e. the external perfect reading does not arise in the

structures in which deontic must co-occurs with have-en
deontic must: anchored into ST but its semantics forces a
future-shifting perspective

Has deontic must always behaved like that?

(26)
a. Great leaders must have lived among their own people.
(habitual)
b. Applicants must have filled in the application form
before the interview.

Deontic MUST and perfective aspect

Deontic MUST and the progressive

23

24

(27) But it would have secured me nothing, as there

would have been no funds for my maintenance at the
University ... , and my career at Oxford must have
been unfortunate (Anthony Trollope, An
Autobiography, 1883, ch.I (in D. 1992)

(28)
a. You must be singing when my mother arrives.
b. By 4.00 the students must be finishing up the exam.
c. I must be going.
d. The police must be constantly watching for danger.
e. Conscientious parents must be constantly planning
for the future.

Deontic must can take a progressive complement

Summing up
25

Deontic MUST (deontic necessity)

A cline from weak to strong necessity (subjective vs.

objective)
(ii) Discourse-oriented modality
no theta-role to the DP in subject position
expletive subjects
no genuine past tense
(iii) can take a perfective complement = future oriented
(iv) can take a progressive complement
(v) negation does not scope over the modal

Deontic MUST and HAVE TO

(i)

Deontic MUST vs. have to

27

HAVE TO : objective obligation (it is never subjective)

external authority/from no particular source
the speaker is neutral
vs.
MUST : speakers authority (strong necessity)

26

Deontic MUST vs have to

28

HAVE TO:
can be habitual in meaning
(30) a. I have to go there every Sunday.
b. ?? I must go there every Sunday.

(29) Well, Kathy, what you have to realize is that

Tommy doesnt see you like that.

Deontic MUST vs have to

Deontic MUST vs have to

29

30

Had to: both in reported and in direct speech

(31) I had to write an essay for the final exam.

(32) The tutor told us we had to write an essay.

HAVE TO : used in those situations where MUST lacks the

necessary verb forms:
(33)
a. Im having to read this very carefully.
b.Ive had to give up the idea.
c.I told him Id have to give up the idea.
d. We may have to change our plans.
e.Its a pity to have to give up the idea.
f. No one likes having to pay taxes.
g.Youd have to do it if he insisted.
h.Youd have had to do it if he had insisted.

Task

Task

31

32

I must tell you that your slip is showing.

We must make an early start tomorrow.
c. You must read this book if you get a chance. Its great!
d. You must tell us the truth! the policeman shouted.
e. I must study for the exam.
f. With Mary and our guide constantly telling me that I
must not attempt to speak to him, that I must not cry
out again, I followed them towards the hill. (CT-ToM)
a.

a.

b.

b.

You must answer all the questions.

You have to answer all the questions.

c.

I have to read this book for the exam.

d. I must read this book and I will.

Task
33

Epistemic MUST
If we miss the bus, we shall have to walk.
b. .*we must walk.
a.

a.
b.

I have to get up at 7.00 every day.

?? I must get up at 7.00 every day.

34

K= laws of human reason

C = evidence
x = proposition
K (C implies x)

Modals of necessity

Epistemic MUST

35

36

B. Epistemic MUST , i.e. epistemic necessity

(1) It seemed astonishing to me that I carried a
burden that no one could instantly see, that I must
have looked ordinary to everybody I saw who did
not know me. (CT ToM)
(2) It must have hurt her even to walk.
(3) There must be forty restaurants in the area, Im
not kidding.

= the speakers confidence in the truth of what he/she

is saying, based on a logical process of deduction
from facts known to him/her,
i.e. necessity relative to laws of reason
(4) My forehead is hot. I must have a temperature.
= Im sure that
(5) There must be a lot more to it than that.

Epistemic MUST
37

(6) If it is a bird it must have wings.

= in the light of what is known, it is necessarily the
case that(objective)
(7) You must have left it on the bus.
= I confidently infer that(subjective)

Epistemic MUST
38

(8) They must be brothers.

(9) They must be fighting.
(10) They must have missed the bus.

states/ activities in the future:

(11) The expedition is bound to take place.

cline in the case of epistemic MUST as well, from

subjective to objective necessity.

Epistemic MUST and non-assertive contexts

39

(12)
You must be Johns brother.
? Must she be Johns sister?
?? She mustnt be Johns sister.
She cannot be Johns sister.

Epistemic MUST and non-assertive contexts

40

(13)
a. John must be crazy to behave like that.
b. ??? John mustnt/must not be crazy to behave like
that.
c. John cant be crazy to behave like that.
d.You must be Johns brother.
e. ?? She mustnt be Johns sister.
f. She cannot be Johns sister.

Epistemic MUST and non-assertive contexts

Epistemic MUST and non-assertive contexts

41

42

CAN, which in its positive/assertive form is never

epistemic, supplies the missing negative for epistemic

MUST. MUST NOT is used mainly for non-epistemic
meaning.

BUT:
(14)
a. He mustnt have known.
is the negative equivalent of
b. He must have known. (Huddleston 1969)
Quirk et al. (1972): accept the use of epistemic must not
(rarely), but not the contracted form
But: mustnt = in questions:
(15) Mustnt there be another reason for his behaviour?

Epistemic MUST and non-assertive contexts

Epistemic MUST and non-assertive contexts

43

44

(16) If its brown bread, it must be good for you, and if its
white, it mustnt. (BBC4, nutritionist speaking)
Lakoff, R. (1972): Most speakers cannot say John

mustnt be here for epistemic negation, but they may

say must not. For some speakers, in fact, must not
may contract to mustnt in its epistemic sense.

(17) I couldnt understand what these people were doing,

playing badminton and golf. They mustnt be really sick at
all, to do that. (Sylvia Plath, The Bell Jar)

Epistemic MUST and non-assertive contexts

Epistemic MUST and non-assertive contexts

45

46

Explicit denial

Implicit denial

Tottie (1985): Epistemic MUST NOT is indeed an

almost exclusively American phenomenon. [] It
seems reasonable to regard present-day BrE and AmE
as having different systems of negative epistemic
modality.

BrE:
(20)
A: John must be ill.
B. Oh, no, he cant/couldnt be
ill.
AmE = BrE (with higher
likelihood for couldnt)

BrE:
(18) John cant be very happy
these days. His wife just left
him.
AmE:
(19) John cant/ must not
be very happy these days. His
wife just left him.

Epistemic MUST and [+perfect] complement

Epistemic MUST and [+ progressive]

complement

47

48

(21) He must have been sick yesterday.

= it is necessary (necessarily the case) at the present
moment that he was sick yesterday
= MUST anchored into ST
= MUST [PERF
= have-en does not affect the modal but its complement
Vs. deontic must
(22) You must have finished everything by the time they
get back.

(23)
a. At first he had thought he must be dreaming.
b. I know you must be thinking very much of your
father at this moment, he said.
c. I don't blame you for what you must be thinking.
d. You must be joking, a Russian friend said when I
asked if he would watch the May Day parade on
television.

Epistemic MUST + non-thematic subject

49

(24)
a. There must be inevitable mistakes made in any such
journalism ...

Epistemic MUST vs. have to

50

b. If you cannot relax there must be a reason.

c. There must be hundreds of people living in that
building.

MUST vs. HAVE TO

MUST vs. HAVE TO

51

52

+future
Epistemic have to : rare

(25) It had to be the same boulder that he and Betty

had sat down on so often.

Epistemic MUST is preferred with present time

reference
For future RT: bound to/have(got)to
(26) They are bound to leave tomorrow.
Theyve got to do something tomorrow.

MUST vs HAVE TO
53

Bound to: more certain

(27) Johns bound to be in his office. (no conclusion)

(28) John must be in his office.

MUST vs. HAVE GOT TO

54

Bound to can be modified by ALMOST

(29) What is almost bound to happen is that

(30) *What almost must happen

HAVE GOT TO

HAVE GOT TO

55

56

Both deontic and epistemic necessity

(33) Youve got to be joking! [AE]

Epistemic: rare in BE/common in AE

[-objective] (vs. HAVE TO : objective)

vs.
(34) You must be joking! [BE]

(31) Youve got to do it now. = deontic

(32) Shes got to be crazy! = epistemic

HAVE GOT TO
57

No non-finite forms

= it is necessarily the case that

HAVE GOT TO
58

Epistemic HAVE TO & HAVE GOT TO (logical

assumption):
= stronger than epistemic MUST

*will have got to

*to have got to
*having got to

(35) Someone must be telling lies. (=mere suspicion)

(36) Someone has (got) to be telling lies (= more like
an accusation)

HAVE GOT TO

HAVE GOT TO

59

60

Predicates about future time (vs. MUST)

Never performative : it is essential that

(37) The only thing youve got to remember

(38) Youve got to bear in mind that

+ past : in Reported Speech

: no implication of actuality
(40) She told us we had got to find a way out.
(41) Wed got to make a special trip to X. anyway, so
(it was necessary but no implication that the event
took place) (Palmer 1979)

Never habitual

(39) * Ive got to do it every day.

(42) I havent got to read so many books. = it is not

necessary that (external negation)

10

HAVE GOT TO
61

Dynamic MUST
More subjective than HAVE TO (the speaker is

involved)
Less formal than HAVE TO

62

Dynamic MUST

Dynamic MUST

63

64

(25)
Eds a guy who must always be poking his nose into
other peoples business.
He's a man who must have money.
You must go poking your nose into everything!
You just must go around asking these indiscreet
questions!
the necessity arises from some internal need

(26) Now that she has lost her job she must live
extremely frugally. (CGEL)
= circumstantial necessity/ not a matter of obligation
imposed by a deontic source but simply force of
circumstance. ( less likely than have to or need!)
I must accept your resignation.
= the circumstances force me to ...
circumstantial necessity (neutral dynamic)

Dynamic MUST
65

NEED
(27) Apart from the radio there are none of the modern
aids to navigation on board so the skipper and his
mate must needs be master of their craft.
Dynamic MUST: rare

66

K (C implies x)

(28) I have to sneeze.

11

NEED
67

Modal NEED
68

Lexical Need vs. modal NEED

Need you go poking your nose into everything?

I need to get a hair-cut.

He needs to rest.
He needed to rest.
Do you need to read it?
I may need to stay a couple of nights at Minna before I
can find transport for the last 60 miles or so.
lexical NEED
favours a dynamic interpretation

Im very grateful to you. You neednt be. Im glad to

do it.
= it isnt necessary for you to be grateful

Need + passive complement

69

In that case, no record need be kept.

Only those reports on which it is intended to rely at

trial need be disclosed.

Getting married is a complicated matter. It neednt be!

= it isnt necessarily the case that it is awfully
complicated

Need + perfective have

70

He neednt have told her.

a. it was not necessary for him to tell her (but he did)
PERF [NEED root
b. it isnt necessarily the case that he told her.
NEED epistemic [PERF

In practice no deduction need be made from the

value of the claim on account of.

Also:
To qualify in this last category a dependant need not
have been related to the deceased, and thus a
mistress would be included.

NEED + perfective have

NEED and Negation

71

72

You neednt have read all these books.

vs.
You didnt need to read all these books.

John neednt go. = it isnt necessary for..

John mustnt go. =it is necessary for J. not to
It neednt be true = it isnt necessarily the case that
Unicorns neednt exist.
= epistemic; not [ necessary

NEG [Mod (root/epistemic)

12

Need and Negation

Need as a NPI

73

74

Palmer: the meaning form correspondence Not-

necessary: neednt only for deontic modality

Coates (1983): neednt is attested with an epistemic
reading and external negation interpretation
Cormack and Smith (2002): allow an external
negation reading with epistemic need
Butler (2003): negation scoping over epistemic
necessity is accepted by a small percentage of
speakers

Need is a clear Negative Polarity Item (NPI) and

may thus not appear in non-negative sentences vs.
must = API
*He need do that.
He neednt do that.

NPI = lexical items

which can appear only in
non-assertive contexts

Need as a NPI

Need and Negation

75

76

vs lexical need = polarity neutral

He doesnt need to do that.
He needs to do that.

BUT: the amount of negative uses of lexical need has

significantly dropped
This difference could be [...] an indicative of an
increased preference of need to for positive polarity,
thus paving the way for a division of labour, with
need to for positive polarity, and need for negative
polarity.

Need and Negation

Need and Negation

77

78

Middle English (1150-1500)

lexical need is older than modal need

Has it always been like that?

lexical need was polarity neutral < a lexical verb meaning

compel
need + bare infinitive < came to replace the modal and

earlier preterite present thurfen, which disappeared from the

language;
in Middle English thurfen was exclusively a NPI the
negative polarity of need + bare inf = calqued this property
from thurfen

13

Need and Negation

Need and Negation

79

Early Modern English (1500 1710)

1500-1570: need and need to in negative contexts: equal

frequency
1640-1710: need and need to are both strongly negatively

80

Modern English (1710-1920)

through the late Modern period: the preferred choice for
negative polarity is need
need is a strong NPI but rare positive polarity uses are
still attested :

polar
What a pretty fellow he is when hes asleep! said Berry,
stopping to look at Paul in bed, one night when she took up
Mrs Wickhams supper. Ah! sighed Mrs Wickham. He need
be. (Dickens Dombey and Son 1848)

Need and Negation

NEED and Negation

81

throughout its history: need has been a NPI < thurfen

need to: it has oscillated between neutrality and

negative polarity and it may now aim for positive

polarity

82

Need I say more? = is it necessary for me to? +

often the implication surely it isnt necessary.

Need we read this for the exam?
Do we have to read this for the exam?
Need the quarrel with Cuba ever have happened? =

is x inevitable?

Need: mainly in non-assertive contexts

Need and Negation

Volunteers need have no experience, just lots of

energy and bundles of ideas.

SHOULD & OUGHT

84

We aim to reduce maximum class sizes so that no

registration class in the country need have more

than 30 pupils.
Lisa's tone was somewhat sharper than it need
have been.
I dont think I need read Subsection 2.
They left home 30 minutes before they need have
done.

K (COND (C implies x)

14

Should & Ought

SHOULD & OUGHT

= (weaker) necessity
= medium strength modality

=often synonymous

(1) a.You ought to do the dishes but you dont

have to.
b.*You have to/must do the dishes but you
dont have to.

a. I guess I ought to know more about those things.

(2)
I dont know, I keep thinking theres a lot of
things I should know about.
b. He ought to come tomorrow, shouldnt he?
c. I ought to have married; yes, I should have
married long ago.

OUGHT

OUGHT

= a tentative/weak counterpart of MUST

87

(3) You ought to do as you are told. =

(4) That ought to be John. =

Deontic OUGHT
(5) You ought to do the dishes.
= among the favoured worlds, all the very good ones are those
where you do the dishes
(6) If you want to get to London by noon, then you ought to
go by train.
= picks out the best means without excluding the possibility
of others (vs. must: picks out one single candidate)
ought to p = among the favoured worlds, p-worlds are
better than non-p-worlds

Deontic OUGHT
= advice rather than command
= lack of full confidence in the fulfillment of the
situation described by the verb (L.)
= subjective
= cannot be used in issuing indirect directives
vs. should:
(7) The right-hand column should be left blank.

15

Deontic OUGHT
= normally future time oriented
= non-factive
= I advise // I recommend
= it would be a good idea if
By using ought , the speaker exposes what he sees
as the present undesirable state of affairs. [] By
recommending action, the speaker draws attention
to the present state of affairs. (JC 1983)

Deontic OUGHT + passive

(8) Many people might think that a person who causes
death whilst using an unlawfully held firearm or
explosives ought to be convicted of murder because
there is, generally speaking, no excuse for using such
dangerous equipment.
(9) I think you ought to be examined by a doctor, Maria.
(10) Your school jumper ought to be cleaned.

Deontic OUGHT + progressive

(11) You really ought to be buying something a bit more

modern (= you are not)
(12) With these concepts in mind, Professor James'
WHO group came to the view that we ought to be
concentrating on the positive aspects of the benefits of
fruit and vegetables.
(13) Right, fine well maybe you ought to be announcing
where you live.

Deontic OUGHT + Negation

= normally: internal negation

BUT: with medium strength modality there tends to

be no pragmatic difference between internal and
external negation.
See also should + negation

Deontic OUGHT + Perfective aspect

(14) He ought not to have died, and if I had gone with
my mother to the doctor and done my part as a son, I
feel as if he need not have died.
(15) And we ought to have done so much this year and
we havent done it
PERF [OUGHT
= external perfect
= counterfactual

Deontic OUGHT vs. MUST

(16)
a. You oughtnt to pick your nose in public. (= formal
& polite)
b. You mustn t
(17)
a. You oughtnt to stay up late
b. You mustnt stay up late when

16

Deontic OUGHT vs. MUST

(18) You must have cleaned the room by 10.00 a.m.
(19) You must have left by the time we arrive.

Epistemic OUGHT
Tentative assumption
Doubt
The speakers assessment of probability based on a process

of logical inference

vs.

Non-factive

(20) ??You ought to have left by the time we arrive.

(21) The job here ought to be finished in a matter of days.

=probably
= I assume that
(22) English is a very teachy subject. I agree it ought to be
good. (it is reasonable to assume that)

ought + have en does not allow a future-shifted

perfect interpretation

Epistemic OUGHT + Negation

(23) You oughtnt to have any difficulty in getting the
tickets.
= you can t have any , i.e. a weakened, tentative
counterpart of cannot
BUT: Cormack and Smith (2002)
(24) There oughtnt to be a problem finding the way.

Epistemic OUGHT + perfective aspect

(25) Surely it ought to have been obvious to Tony that
nobody was going to help him.
(26) The fair ought to have started by now. Lets go and see.

the epistemic reading is hardly possible with past

time situations. (Huddleston 2002:186).

ought [not

Epistemic OUGHT + perfective aspect

Epistemic OUGHT
102

[...] like Epistemic SHOULD, Epistemic OUGHT is

sometimes used contra-factively. If the main
predication refers to past time (expressed by
means of the HAVE + -EN construction), then the
implication is that the recommended action did not
take place.
BUT ought and should: very few cases where the
meaning is purely epistemic
< primacy of deontic ought/should

(27) a. Hes back at work now: he must be better.

*should/ought to
= causes from consequences
vs.
b. Hes better now. He must be able to return to
work.// should/ought to
= inferring consequences from causes
< deontic value: characteristically future -oriented

17

OUGHT vs SHOULD
< Virtually identical in meaning (Coates 1983)
(28) I dont think you ought to. I have a sort of feeling
you shouldnt ask.
BUT:
ought = moral/social obligation on the subject to bring
about the state of affairs described by the predicate (NT
1997)

ought vs. should

SHOULD: individual orientation

OUGHT : group orientation/ to emphasize a common
opinion
In AE: ought associated with cases where some type of
general agreement is salient// should : no such general
agreement is implied

ought vs. should

ought vs. should

(29)(Mother to daughter) : You shouldnt go away without

telling us, Marilyn.

OUGHT: smoothing over differences/general

association with agreement on the part of the listener
(rarely followed by NEG):

(30) She should learn to appreciate the thought behind

the gift.
The speaker is expressing his/her opinion in a direct
fashion; no attempt is made to claim that there is
general agreement with this statement
(disagreement/criticism)

ought vs. should

(32)
A: Sometimes I think Paula should see more of you.
(+initial suggestion, her own idea)
B: A little while ago you said Paula ought to see
more of you. (= to emphasize that, in theory, B
agrees with )

(31)
A: I wont tell anyone but the Dean, of course.
B: And Mrs Reynolds.
A: Yes, I think she ought to know.

Task
You've got a bloody calculator, Phoebe would yell, she

ought to be teaching you to think.

I think we ought to have a calendar.
Things that a child ought to like.
There ought to be some news, but were you allowed to put

ordinary news in love letters?

I say ought to have known because in questions of

OUGHT: moral/social obligation (agreement)

negligence we now apply the objective standard of what the

reasonable man would have done.

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SHOULD

SHOULD
109

Deontic SHOULD
(1) The applicant should be results oriented and have a
proven track record of effective management of human
and financial resources.
(2) You should be careful not to upset her.
(3) You should see Pride & Prejudice.
(4) State and private pensions should encourage workers
to postpone retirement.

DEONTIC SHOULD
EPISTEMIC SHOULD
Subjunctive auxiliary
1st pers. variant for conditional WOULD

Deontic SHOULD + passive

(5)Young dogs will readily recognize their toys but they
should be trained not to become over-possessive
towards them.
(6)This chapter, therefore, mainly concentrates upon
the theory of what should be done as opposed to
what is done.

The speaker SUGGESTS action (vs. MUST: the

speaker demands action)

Deontic SHOULD + Negation

A. Modal > NEG

i.e. It is advisable that not... (C. & S.2002, I. & Z.)

(7) Alfred shouldnt eat nuts.
It is advisable for Alfred not to eat nuts
= should [not

Deontic SHOULD + Negation

B. NEG > Modal // Modal > NEG

i.e. It is not advisable that / It is advisable that

not.. (Coates 1983)
Most examples of Root SHOULD + negation can be
equally well paraphrased it is not advisable... or it is
advisable ... not.... In other words, unlike most of the
other modals, it is immaterial whether the modal
predication or the main predication is seen as being
negated: semantically it makes no difference.

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Deontic SHOULD + Negation

(8) Shouldnt you be at school?
= is it not the case that you should be at school?

Deontic SHOULD + Progressive

(11) You should be doing your homework instead of

watching television.

(9) Shouldnt we tell them wed be late?

(10) A: You should eat more vegetables.
B: No, I shouldnt.
= no, it is not the case that...

(12) It was he who should be lying there and not

Eileen.

In echoic questions/tags/ etc.: NEG > Modal

Deontic SHOULD + Perfective

(13) Dont you sometimes think, I said to Ruth, you
should have looked into it more?
(14) I knew how it worried you, she said. I should
have told you. I should have said how it was the
same for me too, just the way you described it.
Counterfactual

Epistemic SHOULD
(16) The trip should take about 3 days.
(17) Have sent off my diary you should get it soon.
=less confident assumption
= I think it is probable that
< assessment of probability on the basis of facts the
speaker knows
subjectivity + logical assumption
Time reference of the complement: mainly future

Deontic SHOULD vs MUST

(15) You must have left by the time we arrive.
??You should have left by the time we arrive.

should + have en

= counterfactual
= does not allow a future-shifted perfect interpretation

Epistemic SHOULD
(18) They should accept my manuscript.
(i) = purely deontic
It would be wrong for them not to...
(ii) = epistemic
I am fairly confident that...
BUT: (ii) also implies this is the right thing for them to
do...
(19) They should reject my manuscript.
= the epistemic reading: very unlikely

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Epistemic SHOULD + Negation

Epistemic SHOULD + Perfective ?

should have en = mainly counterfactual
the epistemic reading is hardly possible with past
time situations. (Huddleston 2002:186).

(20) Bob shouldnt be late.

It is predictable that Bob will not be late
= epistemic should [ not
i.e. epistemic necessity takes scope over Neg

BUT:
(21) The night should have turned more wet since I
came in, for he had a large hat on.

SHOULD

OUGHT vs SHOULD

SHOULD as a subjunctive auxiliary

= BE , formal style
(22)
It is necessary that we should have the bill.
It was inevitable that he should join the club.
We decided that the whole thing should be abandoned.
It is essential that he should be told.
Its surprising that he should have been so late.
We invited her husband too, lest he should feel left out.

(23) They ordered that he should be sentenced to jail.

*that he ought to be sentenced to jail.

Task: deontic/epistemic/subjunctive auxiliary/1st person

would

SHOULD
SHOULD as the 1st person variant of hypothetical
/conditional WOULD
(but I should less common than I would)

That doesn't mean to say they shouldn't achieve inside the

(24) It is possible that I should have met him through

Robert if I had not been introduced to him by Sidney.
= I didnt meet him through Robert

home too, but it does mean that they should have the chance of
doing both if they want it, and I think perhaps most do.
We invited her husband too, lest he should feel left out.
I should ask him about it if I were you.
They left at 5.00; they should have arrived by now.
There should have been a second woman here to receive her
honorary degree, Aung San Suu Kyi, founder of the Burmese
democracy movement.
You can go round noon, said Granpa. e should have sobered
up by then.

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