Mod 1.5 Radiation Detection

Radiation Protection Distance Learning Project
Module 1.5 Methods of Radiation Detection
INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY

AUSTRALIAN NUCLEAR SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY ORGANISATION
DISTANCE LEARNING MATERIALS

RADIATION PROTECTION
Module 1.5
Prepared by Safety and Radiation Science

Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation
With the assistance of consultants in Australia and the United
Kingdom, and IAEA experts from Korea, Mongolia, New Zealand,
the Philippines and Thailand
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Use of this material, acknowledging the IAEA and ANSTO as the source, is
permitted for non-profit training
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Acknowledgements
This material has been prepared by an extensive team of international

experts from the fields of radiation protection, medicine and education. It is
not possible to mention by name all those who have had an input to; the
initial planning; writing modules and workbooks; preparing and marking final
assignments; proof-reading and editing; using the material and providing
valuable feedback; organizing and hosting review meetings; and general
administrative support.
The support of ANSTO management in providing the resource and

encouragement is gratefully acknowledged.
The enthusiastic support of IAEA Technical Officers has been vital to the
success of this project
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Page 1
PART 1
BASIC KNOWLEDGE
MODULE 1.5
METHODS OF RADIATION DETECTION
CONTENTS
OVERVIEW.......................................................................................................4
TIME ALLOCATION..........................................................................................4
MATERIALS......................................................................................................5
LEARNING OBJECTIVES................................................................................5
1.
MECHANISMS USED FOR DETECTING RADIATION..........................6

1.1 Ionization...............................................................................................6
1.2 Scintillation............................................................................................6
1.3 Thermoluminescence............................................................................7
1.4 Chemical Mechanisms..........................................................................7
1.5 Heating..................................................................................................7
1.6 Biological Mechanisms..........................................................................8
1.7 Summary of Detection Mechanisms.....................................................8
SELF-CHECK 1................................................................................................9
2.
DETECTORS BASED ON IONIZATION..................................................9

2.1 Gas-Filled Detectors..............................................................................9
2.1.1 How they work..............................................................................10
Production
2.1.1.1
The recombination region.....................................................11
2.1.1.2
Ion chamber region..............................................................12
2.1.1.3
Proportional region...............................................................12
2.1.1.4
Geiger-Mller region.............................................................13
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2.1.1.5
Page 2
Continuous discharge region...............................................13
SELF-CHECK 2..............................................................................................13
2.1.2 Resolving time, dead time and recovery time..............................15
2.1.3 Types of gas-filled detectors........................................................16
2.1.3.1
Ionization chambers.............................................................16
2.1.3.2
Proportional Counters..........................................................18
2.1.3.3
Geiger-Mller (G-M) counters..............................................19
2.1.4 Summary of gas-filled detectors..................................................21

PRACTICAL ACTIVITY..................................................................................22
SELF-CHECK 3..............................................................................................23
2.2 Solid State Conductivity Detectors......................................................24
2.2.1 How they work..............................................................................24
2.2.2 Types of detectors........................................................................26
2.2.2.1
Diffused junction diodes.......................................................27
2.2.2.2
Surface barrier detectors......................................................28
2.2.2.3
Ion implantation detectors....................................................29
2.2.2.4
Lithium drifted detectors.......................................................29
2.2.2.5
High Purity Germanium Detectors.......................................31
2.2.3 Summary of solid state conductivity detectors............................31

2.3 Solid State Detectors Versus Gas-filled Detectors..............................32
SELF-CHECK 4..............................................................................................33
3.
DETECTORS BASED ON SCINTILLATION.........................................34

3.1 How they work.....................................................................................34
3.2 Types of Scintillation Detector.............................................................34
3.2.1 Zinc sulphide detectors................................................................35
3.2.2 Sodium iodide detectors..............................................................36
3.2.3 Plastic organic scintillators...........................................................37
3.2.4 Liquid organic scintillators............................................................37
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3.3 Summary of Scintillation Detectors.....................................................38

3.4 Photomultiplier Tubes..........................................................................38
3.4.1 How they work..............................................................................38
SELF-CHECK 5..............................................................................................39
4.
NEUTRON DETECTORS......................................................................40
4.1 How they work.....................................................................................40
4.2 Types of Neutron Detectors.................................................................41
4.2.1 Boron trifluoride proportional counters........................................41
4.2.2 Helium proportional counters.......................................................42
4.2.3 Gas recoil proportional counter....................................................43
4.2.4 Bubble detectors..........................................................................43
4.3 Summary of Neutron Detectors...........................................................44
SELF-CHECK 6..............................................................................................45
5.
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS.............................................................45
5.1 Voltage Supply.....................................................................................46
5.2 Direct Current Amplifier.......................................................................46
5.3 Pre-amplifier........................................................................................47
5.4 Pulse Amplifier....................................................................................47
5.5 Discriminator........................................................................................47
5.6 Counting Devices................................................................................48
SELF-CHECK 7..............................................................................................48
KEY POINTS..................................................................................................49
FINAL ASSIGNMENT....................................................................................52
GLOSSARY OF TERMS................................................................................53
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OVERVIEW
To control radiological hazards in the workplace and in the general
environment, it is necessary to be able to detect and measure the amount of
ionizing radiation present. As we cannot detect ionizing radiation with any of
our body senses, we must use the ability of this radiation to interact with
various materials as a way of detecting and measuring it.
This module
discusses these various interactions and introduces the main physical

principles used to detect ionizing radiation. It also discusses some of the
detection systems commonly used in the workplace.
Before studying this module, it is important that you have read and
understood the information in the previous four modules. In particular, you
will need to have a good understanding of the information in Module 1.4
Interaction of Radiation with Matter.
An understanding of how the different types of detectors work will also assist
you in your choice of detector and its method of use. Hence, this module
provides the background information necessary to understand the later
module, Module 2.4 Use of Radiation Monitoring Instrumentation.
It is
therefore important that you understand the information in this module before
continuing with the course.
There is one practical activity associated with this module. You will find the
relevant information in your workbook. Remember that this practical activity
must be completed before you can gain full credit for this course. You should
therefore make sure that you arrange a suitable time with your supervisor for
doing this practical work.
TIME ALLOCATION
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It is estimated that you will need to spend eight to ten hours to complete this
module before commencing the assignment.
guidance only.
This time estimate is for
Do not worry if you need more time to understand the
module.
MATERIALS
You will need to have writing materials to take notes and answer questions
and assignments in the module.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
When you have completed this module you will be able to do the following:
1) Describe the six basic methods of radiation detection.
2) State the basic operating principle of gas-filled detectors.
3) List the three main types of gas-filled detectors and describe their
operation.
4) Explain the terms resolving time, response time and dead time in relation
to gas-filled detectors.
5) Set
up
Geiger-Mller
detector
and
measure
its
operational
characteristics.
6) State the basic operating principle of solid state conductivity detectors.
7) State the basic operating principle of scintillation detectors.
8) Describe the function of a photomultiplier tube.
9) State the basic operating principles of neutron detectors.
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10) State the advantages and disadvantages of each type of radiation

detector.
11) Select the types of detectors most suitable for the detection of the
different types of radiation.
12) Match the components of a typical counting system with their functions.
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NOW YOU ARE READY TO START WORK
1.
1.
MECHANISMS USED FOR DETECTING RADIATION
Since ionizing radiation cannot be detected by our bodies senses we rely on

the detection of changes produced by the radiation when it interacts with
materials.
Radiation detectors operate by detecting a change in the
absorbing medium that is caused by the transfer of energy from the ionizing
radiation to this medium.
There are several effects caused by ionizing
radiation which allow us to detect and measure the radiation and these are
as follows:
Ionization;
Scintillation;
Thermoluminescence;
Chemical mechanisms;
Heating; and
Biological mechanisms.
1.1
Ionization
Ionization is caused directly by alpha and beta radiation and indirectly by

x-rays, gamma and neutron radiation. The ion pairs which are produced can
be collected, and the number of ion pairs collected can be related to the
amount of radiation causing the ionization.
Many radiation monitoring
instruments use ionization as the detection mechanism.
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1.2
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Scintillation
Scintillation is the production of light following the movement of electrons

from high energy levels orbits to lower energy levels within an absorbing
material. The electrons have moved into higher energy orbits by the process
of excitation.
(Remember from module 1.4 Interaction of Radiation with
Matter that excitation occurs when the energy from ionizing radiation causes
electrons to move into higher energy levels temporarily). The light released
can be converted to an electrical signal. The size of the electrical signal
depends on the number of electrons moved into higher energy orbits and
can therefore be related to the amount of radiation causing the scintillation.
Scintillation is a very important detection mechanism for radiation monitoring
and detectors which use this mechanism are known as scintillation
detectors.
1.3
Thermoluminescence
When electrons in certain materials absorb energy they will move into higher
energy levels or forbidden bands. They remain trapped in these bands until
the material is heated to a certain temperature. The heat energy releases
the electrons and the material emits light as the electrons move back to their
original level. The light is converted to an electrical signal which can be
related to the amount of incident radiation. Thermoluminescent materials
are used for monitoring personal doses (i.e. dose to individual people) and
will be discussed further in Module 2.5 Personal Dosimetry.
1.4
Chemical Mechanisms
Ionizing radiation can cause chemical changes. This effect is observed in

the use of photographic film for personal dosimetry, medical x-rays and
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industrial radiography. In some cases, ionizing radiation increases the rate

at which chemical reactions occur and this mechanism can be used for
measuring high doses during the irradiation of medical equipment.
1.5
Heating
Ionizing radiation can increase the temperature of the absorbing medium

and careful measurement of this increase can give a radiation dose
measurement. This technique (known as calorimetry) is not suitable for
routine measuring equipment in radiation protection as high doses are
needed to cause even small temperature rises. It is however used as a
primary standard for instrument calibration (see Module 2.4 Use of Radiation
Monitoring Instruments).
1.6
Biological Mechanisms
High doses of radiation can cause biological changes in living cells. This will
be discussed further in Module 1.6 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation.
Biological changes are only used for dose estimation in extreme
circumstances where personnel are suspected of having accidentally
received a high dose.
1.7
Summary of Detection Mechanisms
Table 1 summarizes the mechanisms which can be used to detect ionizing

radiation.
Table 1
Summary of the Mechanisms Used for Radiation Detection
Mechanism
Ionization
Production
Main Use
Radiation
monitoring
Type of Instrument
1. Ion chamber
Detector
1. Gas-filled
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instruments
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2. Proportional counter
2. Gas-filled
3. Geiger-Mller counter
3. Gas-filled
4. Solid state
4. Semiconductor
Scintillation
Radiation
monitoring
instruments
Scintillation counter
Crystal or liquid
Thermoluminescence
Personal
dosimetry
Thermoluminescent
Dosimeter (TLD)
Crystal
Chemical
Personal
dosimetry
Photographic film
Photographic
emulsion
Heating
Primary standard
and instrument
calibration
Calorimeter
Solid or liquid
Biological
Accident
situations
Biological tissue
Biological tissue
SELF-CHECK 1
Now see how much you have understood by answering the following
questions in your workbook:
1. Why do we need to monitor ionizing radiation?
2. How do radiation detectors operate?
3.
a) List the six mechanisms of radiation detection.

b) Which of these are important for radiation monitoring instruments?
c) Which of these are important for monitoring personal dose?
Now check your answers with the model answers in your workbook.
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2.
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DETECTORS BASED ON IONIZATION
As already mentioned, many radiation monitoring instruments use the

ionization as the detection mechanism, and the two types of detectors which
are most commonly used are gas-filled detectors and solid state
conductivity detectors.
2.1
Gas-Filled Detectors
Gas-filled detectors consist of a chamber filled with a gas (often air) and two
voltage plates known as electrodes. The positive electrode is called the
anode and is often in the centre of the chamber. It is electrically insulated
from the outer casing. The outer casing of the chamber is often the negative
electrode or cathode.
Figure 1 shows a simple diagram of a gas-filled
detector.
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Gas-filled
chamber
Figure 1
A Simple Gas-Filled Detector
2.1.1 How they work
Incoming radiation interacts with the walls of the chamber or the gas
particles and produces ion pairs. When a voltage is applied between the
electrodes, positive ions are attracted towards the negatively charged
cathode, and the electrons are attracted towards the positively charged
anode. A charge builds up on the anode, causing a voltage change in the
circuit. This change in voltage is referred to as a pulse, and the presence of
this pulse causes a current to flow in the external circuit. By detecting either
this pulse or current, we can detect the presence of ionizing radiation.
The size of the pulse depends on the number of electrons collected by the
anode and this can depend on the amount of ionizing radiation entering the
chamber as well as its type and energy.
In addition, the size of the pulse is also a function of the voltage applied
between the cathode and the anode. Figure 2 shows how the pulse size (or
height) varies as the applied voltage is increased.
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Figure 2
The Variation of Pulse Height with Voltage for a Gas-filled Detector
As you can see from Figure 2, this variation in pulse height with voltage
shows a number of clearly defined regions. These regions are known as the
recombination,
ion
chamber,
proportional,
Geiger-Mller
and
continuous discharge regions.

2.1.1.1
The recombination region
When the voltage on the chamber is quite low, the force on the ions (which
attracts them to the electrodes) is also quite low. In this situation, there are
two processes which are competing for the ions.
One of these is ion
collection and the other is ion recombination. This means that, after an ion
has been formed, it may recombine to become neutral again before it can be
collected by the electrodes. Hence, the pulse in the external circuit depends
on the outcome between these two processes.
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As the voltage across the electrodes is increased, more of the ions reach the
electrodes and the pulse size increases (see Figure 2).
However,
recombination of ions is still significant and so this region is known as the

recombination region. Gas-filled detectors are not normally operated in
this region as the recombination of ions makes it very difficult to measure the
quantity of incoming radiation.
2.1.1.2
Ion chamber region
When the voltage is large enough, almost all the ions generated will reach
the electrodes and the loss of ions through recombination is negligible. In
this region nearly all the ions are being collected and the pulse size no
longer increases with applied voltage. Instead, it levels out to a plateau
known as the ion chamber region (see Figure 2).
The current flowing in the circuit also reaches a maximum value known as
the saturation current. This saturation current is proportional to the amount
of radiation entering the chamber and if the amount of radiation is increased,
then the saturation current is also increased.
2.1.1.3
Proportional region
As the voltage is increased past the ion chamber region, the pulse size starts
to increase again.
We can explain why the pulse size increases if we
consider what is happening to the ions. As the applied voltage is increased,

the ions not only gain enough energy to reach the electrodes, but they also
gain enough energy to be accelerated. This acceleration causes more ion
pairs to be produced through secondary ionization of the particles in the gas.
This process is known as gas multiplication and it results in the collection
of more ions and therefore a larger pulse.
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Figure 3 shows a single electron being accelerated towards the anode and
producing an avalanche of ions.
Figure 3
Gas Multiplication in the Proportional Region
The increase in the number of ions collected is a function of the applied
voltage. However, the total pulse size that results is also proportional to the
initial number of ions produced in the gas. For this reason, the region of a
gas-filled detector where this occurs is known as the proportional region.
2.1.1.4
Geiger-Mller region
If the voltage is increased still further, the gas multiplication is so great that a
single ionizing particle produces multiple avalanches along the length of the
anode, resulting in a very large pulse.
The region where this occurs is
known as the Geiger-Mller (G-M) region and in this region, the size of the
pulse is the same, regardless of the quantity of energy originally deposited.
Instead, the pulse size is controlled more by the external circuit than by the
gas-filled chamber, and the pulse height shows a very small rise as the
voltage is increased (see Figure 2).
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2.1.1.5
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Continuous discharge region
If the voltage is increased beyond the Geiger-Mller plateau, then the voltage
is high enough to ionize the gas molecules directly and a large signal is
generated even when the radiation field is removed. This is called the
continuous discharge region and as the readings can be misleading,
radiation detectors should not be operated in this region.
Radiation detectors must not be operated in the continuous discharge

region.
SELF-CHECK 2
1.
What is the basic detection mechanism on which all gas-filled detectors

depend?
2.
Fill in the gaps with a suitable word or phrase:

Gas-filled detectors consist of a chamber filled with a ____ and two
voltage plates known as __________. The positive electrode is called
the _______ and the negative electrode is called the __________.
Incoming radiation interacts with the walls of the chamber or the gas
particles and produces ____ _______.
When a voltage is applied
between the electrodes, the _________ _____ are attracted towards

the negatively charged electrode, and the _________ are attracted
towards the positively charged electrode. A charge builds up, causing a
voltage change in the circuit. This change in voltage is referred to as a
__________, and this causes a current to flow in the external circuit.
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By detecting either this voltage change or current, we can detect the

presence of ionizing radiation.
3.
a)
List the five regions of a gas-filled detector.
b)
Complete the following table by matching the different regions with

their descriptions.
Region
4.
Description
1.
a)
The region where the applied voltage is large

enough to cause acceleration of ions.
2.
b)
The region where almost all ions are being

collected and the current reaches a constant
value known as the saturation current.
3.
c)
The region where many ions do not reach the

electrodes.
4.
d) The region where the voltage is high enough to

ionize the gas molecules directly.
5.
e)
The region where the size of the pulse is the

same regardless of the amount of energy
deposited.
Which of these regions are used for detecting ionizing radiation?

2.1.2 Resolving time, dead time and recovery time

Before considering the operation of the different types of gas-filled detectors,
it is important to understand the concepts of dead time, recovery time and
resolving time. This is because if resolving time of a detector is too long, at
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high counting rates the pulses from the detector may be spaced so closely in
time that a lot of the information is lost. This means that the total counts may
then be grossly underestimated.
The resolving time of a detector is defined as the minimum amount of time
which must separate two events in order that they are recorded as two
separate processes. The resolving time depends on the following factors:
The dead time of the detector (i.e. length of time for the signal or pulse to
build up sufficiently for it to be detected); and
The recovery time (i.e. length of time for the detector to recover from an
ionization event and return to its original condition).
Figure 4 shows how the dead time and recovery time for a Geiger-Mller
detector combine to give resolving time.
Pulse Voltage
Dead Time
Time
Resolving Time
Recovery
Figure 4
Resolving Time for a G-M Tube
The detector resolving time will depend on what interactions are taking place
in the detector. However, the overall resolving time of a whole instrument will
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also depend on the dead times associated with electronic components of the
counting system.
In
practice,
the
terms
dead
time
and
resolving
time
are
used
interchangeably. Whichever term is used, the quoted value is taken to be a

measure of the ability of the instrument to distinguish two separate events
which occur very close together in time. Manufacturers specifications often
use the term dead time to describe the combined behaviour of the detectorcounting system.
2.1.3 Types of gas-filled detectors
In the following section we will look at the three types of gas-filled detectors
used in radiation monitoring instruments. The three types are as follows:
Ionization chambers;
Proportional counters; and
Geiger-Mller counters.
2.1.3.1
Ionization chambers
Ionization chambers (more commonly known as ion chambers) are

designed to operate at saturation current in the ion chamber region shown in
Figure 2. The average current output is measured and is proportional to the
amount of radiation to which the chamber has been exposed. Since the
output is not dependent on the voltage, there is no need for a highly stable
power supply. However, it is important that the voltage is steady enough to
ensure that saturation current is maintained.
To prevent the ion chamber from operating in the proportional region, the
applied voltage is limited to less than that required to cause secondary
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ionization of the gas molecules. If a 25V power supply is used, the energy
gained by an electron accelerating between the electrodes cannot be greater
than 25 eV. This energy is not enough to cause further ionization.
The currents produced in ion chambers are very small, typically in the order
of 10-12 A, and so must be amplified for measurement purposes. Hence
instruments which incorporate ion chamber detectors require quite complex
solid state circuitry to amplify these extremely small direct currents.
The design of ion chambers and the choice of filling gas depend on the
particular application of the instrument.
In portable radiation monitoring
instruments, the chamber is usually air-filled and constructed of low atomic

number materials. If the instrument is to be used to measure alpha or beta
radiation, the chamber must have thin walls or a thin end window. The only
way that this type of detector can be used to discriminate between the types
of radiation is by placing a shield over the thin end window to prevent the
alphas or betas from entering the chamber.
A typical beta/gamma portable radiation monitoring instrument containing a
ion chamber detector is shown in Figure 5. Note the sliding metal plate
which is incorporated into the design of the instrument. By sliding this plate
over the end window of the ion chamber, you can distinguish between beta
and gamma radiation.
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Thin end
window
Sliding
metal plate
Front View
Rear View
Figure 5
A Typical Beta Gamma Radiation Monitoring Instrument Incorporating
an Ion Chamber Detector
Note that ion chambers may also be incorporated in other instruments to

distinguish between the different energies of the incoming radiation. This
process is known as spectroscopy
2.1.3.2
Proportional Counters
A proportional counter operates in the proportional region as shown in

Figure 2. The effect of the gas multiplication may increase the number of
ions produced by 10 4. This means that for each electron produced by the
original ionization event, there may be ten thousand additional electrons
produced.
Therefore each ionization event can be distinguished and
counted.
The output from a proportional counter is a series of pulses which are
counted by a counting circuit. In general, the resolving time is generally very
short for these counters (less than a microsecond) so high pulse rates can
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be counted. However, the amplitude of each pulse is very small (of the order
of millivolts) and pre-amplification is required before the pulses can be
counted.
Have another look at Figure 2. You will notice that the slope of the graph in
the proportional region is quite steep. This means that a slight variation in
the applied voltage will have an effect on the pulse height. It is therefore
important that a stable high voltage supply is used as this will ensure that
any change in output is related to the change in incoming radiation rather
than a change in the applied voltage.
As noted earlier, the total pulse size is proportional to the energy deposited
by the radiation. Hence, proportional counters can be used with a pulse
height discrimination circuit to distinguish between the types of radiation on
the basis of their ionizing ability. For example, if the instrument is exposed to
both alpha and beta radiation of about the same energy, the alpha radiation
will produce a much greater number of ion pairs for the same path length so
the pulse height will be much larger. If different external circuits are used,
proportional counters can also be used to distinguish between the different
energies of the incoming radiation (i.e perform spectroscopy)
Gas flow proportional counters are often used for counting samples (see
Figure 6). The counting chamber has a very thin end window to allow alpha
and beta particles to enter the chamber. The term gas flow is used because
there must be a continuous flow of gas into the chamber to replace the gas
that has diffused out through the thin end window. The type of gas used is
usually a mixture of one of the inert gases with a hydrocarbon. For example,
the gas commonly known as P-10 is frequently used. This gas consists of
90% argon and 10% methane.
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Figure 6
A Gas Flow Proportional Counter
2.1.3.3
Geiger-Mller (G-M) counters
Geiger-Mller counters operate in the Geiger-Mller (G-M) region shown in

Figure 2 and use a filling gas such as the P-10 used in proportional counters.
The height of the output pulse is independent of the energy of the ionizing
particle.
This means that it is not possible to distinguish electronically
between alpha and beta radiation.
Nor is it possible to measure or
discriminate between the energies of the incoming radiation.

In the Geiger-Mller region, a discharge takes place all along the anode.
This discharge must be quenched to prevent it from continuing by itself and
to prevent multiple pulses forming.
Use of an appropriate gas such as
organic gases (e.g. ethyl alcohol) or halogens (e.g. chlorine, bromine) in

addition to the filling gas will provide this quenching. Organic gases are used
up during the quenching process, therefore organically quenched tubes have
a limited useful lifetime of about 10 9 counts. Halogens have the advantage
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of not being used up in the quenching process so halogen-filled tubes have a

much longer lifetime and are more useful in high count rate situations.
Geiger-Mller counters can be made in a variety of shapes and sizes. For
the majority of applications, the counter is cylindrical and is known as a GM
tube (see Figure 7).
G-M Tube
with thin end
window
Figure 7
A Radiation Monitoring Instrument with A Geiger-Mller Tube
A small G-M tube can be sufficiently sensitive to measure low dose rates
whereas an ionization chamber with similar sensitivity would need to be
much larger. If the counter is to be used to detect alpha and beta radiation, it
must have a thin window to let the radiation enter the tube.
A G-M counter usually counts pulses in the same way as the proportional
counter. However, it can be modified to measure average current as done by
the ionization chamber. One advantage of G-M counters is that the output
pulse is in the order of a few volts, so the signal does not require preamplification and the circuitry can be kept simple. This means that GeigerMller counters are very rugged and are therefore commonly used in the
workplace for monitoring gamma radiation.
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If G-M detectors are to be used as dose or dose rate meters, they must have
a response similar to human tissue over a wide energy range. As G-M tubes
over-respond at energies below about 200 keV, they are usually encased in
suitable filtration material to ensure that the energy response is as linear as
possible. This is called energy compensation.
One of the disadvantages of a G-M counter is their long resolving time. This
is usually of the order of 100 to 300 microseconds which means that this
counter is not suitable for high counting rates where pulses are forming very
quickly. A condition called foldback can occur in high radiation fields where
the pulses are being produced so quickly that they attach themselves to the
tail of the previous pulse before the anode has been cleared of charge.
Pulses following the initial pulse are therefore too small to be registered. If
an instrument is turned on in a high radiation field, it will initially show a rise
in reading, but this rapidly falls back to zero wrongly indicating that the field is
safe.
A G-M counter may read zero in an area of high dose rate because of
foldback.
Additional circuitry can be built into the detector to prevent this potentially
hazardous situation. Unless the instrument specifications provided by the
manufacturer clearly state that foldback will not occur, you should always
assume that it may be a problem.
2.1.4 Summary of gas-filled detectors
Many portable radiation monitoring instruments use gas-filled detectors.
Table 2 summarizes their properties and characteristics. Remember that it is
important to consider the thickness of the window through which the
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radiation enters the detector if you are hoping to detect alpha or beta
radiation.
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Table 2
Summary of Gas-filled Detectors
Detector
Ionization
Chambers
Type of
Radiation
Efficiency
Alpha
High (with suitably thin

end window)
Used for counting and

spectroscopy.
Beta
Moderate (with suitably

thin end window)
Used in portable radiation

monitoring instruments.
<0.1%
Used in portable radiation

monitoring instruments.
X-rays
Depends on window
thickness
Useful for most energies

encountered in radiation
protection.
Alpha
High (with suitably thin

end window)
Used for counting and

spectroscopy.
Beta

thin end window)
Used for counting all energies.
Gamma
Proportional
Counters
Gamma
Geiger-Mller
Counters
Comments
Can be used for spectroscopy with

energies <200 keV.
<1%
X-rays
Depends on window
thickness
Alpha

thin end window)
Cannot discriminate between

energies.
Beta

thin end window)

energies.
<1%

energies but used (with suitable
energy compensation) in portable
radiation monitoring instruments
Depends on window
thickness

energies but used (with suitable
energy compensation) in portable
radiation monitoring instruments
Gamma
X-rays
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY
Operational Characteristics of a Geiger-Mller Detector
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This is a practical assignment in which you will learn how to set up a G-M
tube so that it will operate correctly and give consistent results. The details
are found in your workbook.
Contact your supervisor to arrange a
convenient time to complete this practical task.
SELF-CHECK 3
questions in your workbook.
1. a) Match the following terms with their descriptions:
Term
Description
1. Resolving time
a) The minimum amount of time which

must separate two events in order that
they are recorded as two separate
processes.
2. Dead time
b) The length of time for the detector

to recover from an ionization event and
return to its original condition.
3. Recovery time
c) The length of time for the signal or

pulse to build up sufficiently for it to be
detected.
b) Why is it important to consider the resolving time of a gas-filled

detector?
2. Which two types of gas-filled detectors require current amplification?
3. a) Which type of gas-filled detector requires a stable high voltage power
supply?
b) Why is this so?
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4. Which type of gas-filled detector can be used with a pulse height

discriminator circuit to distinguish between the types of ionizing
radiation?
5. Which types of detectors require thin end windows to discriminate
between different radiation types?
6. a) Which type of detector is commonly used to detect gamma radiation in
the workplace?
b) Why is this so?
7. a) Explain the term foldback in relation to Geiger-Mller counters.
b) Why is it important to consider the possibility of foldback?
2.2
Solid State Conductivity Detectors
Conductivity refers to the ability of a material to conduct an electric current

and materials which have good conductivity (e.g. metals), are known as
conductors. Materials which have poor conductivity (e.g. wood) are known
as insulators. A semiconductor is a material with properties somewhere in
between these two extremes, and although there are a number of
substances with semiconducting properties, the ones most commonly used
for radiation detection are the crystalline solids of silicon and germanium.
Solid state conductivity detectors are so named because they consist of
semiconducting crystalline solids.
When ionizing radiation interacts with
these solids, the overall conductivity of the material is increased.
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increase is then measured, it can be related to the amount of incident

radiation.
2.2.1 How they work
To understand how solid state conductivity detectors work we need to
consider the interaction of ionizing radiation with semiconducting materials
on a microscopic scale. As you may remember for Module 1.1 Structure of
Matter, electrons can only exist in definite energy levels. In solids, these
energy levels are referred to as energy bands. These energy bands are
separated by areas known as forbidden bands, and the highest energy
band in which electrons usually exist is known as the valence band.
Ionizing radiation can give enough energy to an electron in a semiconducting
crystalline solid to move it from its usual energy level (in the valence band)
through normally forbidden levels (in the forbidden band) and up into a
higher energy state (known as the conduction band).
As it does so it
leaves a vacancy (or hole) in the valence band (see Figure 8).
KEY
Conduction Band
= Electron
= Hole
Forbidden Band
Incident radiation
Valence Band
Figure 8
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The Formation of an Electron-Hole Pair by Ionizing Radiation

The raising of the electron to the conduction band is known as ionization
and the resulting electron-hole pair can be compared to the ion pair in a gasfilled detector. In the same way as positive and negative ions move between
electrodes in a gas-filled detector, the ion pair will move in a solid state
detector when a voltage is applied. This movement results in a pulse in the
external circuit which can be measured.
Note that in reality, the positively charged material cannot move in a
crystalline solid.
What actually happens is that holes are filled by
neighbouring electrons which move across and leave another hole behind.
In this way, the holes appear to move.
Solid state conductivity detectors consist of semiconductors which have had
their conductivity enhanced.
In general, the conductivity is improved by
introducing impurities to the semiconductor material. This process is known

as doping and the introduced impurities provide either extra electrons or
extra holes. If the impurity provides extra electrons to the valence band (e.g.
in the case of arsenic or phosphorus doping), then these loosely bound
electrons can move to the conduction band with only a small amount of
energy being deposited in the material. In this way, the main conduction
mechanism is the movement of negative charges and the material is known
as an n type semiconductor. If the impurity provides extra holes to the
valence band (e.g. in the case of boron or gallium doping), then the main
conduction mechanism is the movement of positive holes and the material is
known as a p type semiconductor.
Solid state conductivity detectors actually consist of p and n type material
joined together. An electric voltage is applied across the junction so that the
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holes and electrons move away from the junction. The area around the
junction is free of holes and electrons and is known as the depletion layer.
This depletion layer is the part of the material which will detect any incident
radiation (see Figure 9).
n type
p type
Electrons
Holes
-
+
+
+
+
Depletion Layer
+ V
Figure 9
The Basis of a Solid State Conductivity Detector
When ionizing radiation passes through the depletion layer, it forms electronhole pairs.
The electron-hole pairs move apart causing a pulse in the
external circuit. This pulse can then be measured. In this way, the depletion
layer forms the sensitive volume of the solid state detector and it is
equivalent to the chamber in a gas-filled detector.
2.2.2 Types of detectors
There are many different types of solid state conductivity detectors available
for detecting ionizing radiation.
The types of solid state conductivity
detectors considered in this module are:
Diffused junction diodes;
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Surface barrier detectors;
Ion implantation detectors;
Lithium drifted detectors; and
High purity germanium detectors.
2.2.2.1
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Diffused junction diodes
In diffused junction diodes the p type impurity has been allowed to diffuse
or spread into the n type material. This creates a depletion region just below
the crystal surface (typically about 1m below the surface) as shown in
Figure 10. The surface layer represents a dead layer or window through
which the radiation must pass before entering the sensitive volume.
Incident radiation
window
1 m p type material
depletion layer
n-type material
+
V
-
Figure 10
The Basis of a Diffused Junction Diode
This window can be a disadvantage in charged particle spectroscopy
because some of the lower energy particles may not be detected. To avoid
this disadvantage, diffused junction diodes have been replaced in many
charged particle spectroscopy applications by surface barrier detectors (see
Section 2.2.2.2). However, diffused junction diodes (made of either silicon or
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germanium) are still used for charged particle detection as they are more
rugged than surface barrier detectors.
Another practical use of silicon diffused junction diodes has recently been
discovered. These diodes (often referred to as silicon PIN photodiodes)
can be incorporated in electronic dosimeters (see Figure 11) to measure the
amount of gamma radiation being received by a person over time (i.e. to
measure personal gamma dose).
Figure 11
An Electronic Dosimeter Incorporating a Silicon PIN Photodiode
Note that electronic dosimeters are also manufactured with G-M detectors.
The main advantage of using a solid state detector is that the instrument is
lighter in weight.
2.2.2.2
Surface barrier detectors
Surface barrier detectors have a very thin layer of p type material

deposited on n type material (see Figure 12). Again the incident radiation
needs pass through this layer to reach the sensitive volume but due to the
thinness of this layer in this type of detector, charged particles can easily be
detected.
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Incident radiation
Very thin p type layer
Depletion layer
n type layer
V
+
Figure 12
The Basis of a Surface Barrier Detector
As well as being extremely efficient at detecting charged particles, surface
barrier detectors are also very good at separating out the different energies
of the incoming radiation (i.e. they have very good energy resolution). For
example, surface barrier detectors can separate the three families of alpha
particles from Am-241 with energies of 5.486, 5.443 and 5.389 MeV.
One of the main problems with surface barrier detectors is that the crystal
surface must be kept very clean and free from oil or other foreign material.
They are also very sensitive to light because light photons can reach the
sensitive volume and create electron-hole pairs.
2.2.2.3
Ion implantation detectors
An alternative method of introducing impurities at the surface of a

semiconductor is to expose the surface to a beam of ions produced by an
accelerator. For example, a silicon crystal exposed to boron ions will have a
layer of p type material formed close to the surface. This method of doping
is called ion implantation and it gives a much more stable crystal which is
less likely to be affected by environmental conditions. In fact, these type of
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detectors are very rugged, and they can be manufactured with thin end
windows for alpha and beta detection.
Ion implantation detectors have a wide variety of applications including alpha
spectroscopy, low energy beta detection and heavy ion detection.
2.2.2.4
Lithium drifted detectors
Surface barrier and ion implantation detectors are very good for the
spectroscopy of charged particles but, due to inherent impurities in the
semiconductor crystals, they do not have a large enough sensitive volume
for photon (i.e. gamma ray and x-ray) spectroscopy.
To counteract the
effects due to these impurities, semiconductors can have lithium added to

them to create a bigger sensitive volume. The area between the p type and
n type materials is then known as the lithium drifted or intrinsic region and
the size of this intrinsic region determines the sensitive volume of the
detector (see Figure 13).
Note that, although adding lithium to a semiconductor is considered to
provide a much bigger sensitive volume, in real terms, the size of the whole
detector is actually very small. This means that one advantage of this type
of solid state conductivity detector is that the detector dimensions can be
kept much smaller than the equivalent gas-filled detector.
n type region
n
Intrinsic
region
p type
region
t
y
p
e
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Figure 13
The Basis of a Lithium Drifted Detector
When lithium is added to a germanium crystal, the detector is called a
lithium drifted germanium (or Ge(Li)) detector. At room temperature the
lithium atoms will continue to move through the germanium crystal changing
the nature of the intrinsic region, so it is important that a Ge(Li) detector is
always kept at a very low temperature (using liquid nitrogen), even when not
being used. Lithium drifted germanium detectors are efficient detectors of
gamma radiation and have excellent energy resolution.
Lithium drifted silicon (or Si(Li)) detectors, as their name suggests,
consist of a lithium drifted silicon crystal. These Si(Li) detectors are very
similar to the Ge(Li) detectors but have the advantage that they can be
stored at room temperature without any damage to the crystal. They can be
operated at room temperature but their performance is greatly improved if
they are cooled by liquid nitrogen before use. Silicon has a much lower
atomic number that germanium so it is less likely to interact with gamma
radiation. Lithium drifted silicon detectors are therefore not as efficient at
detecting gamma radiation as Ge(Li) detectors. However, they make good
detectors for very low energy gamma rays (less than about 150 keV), x-rays,
and beta particles.
2.2.2.5
High Purity Germanium Detectors
Pure germanium has a high efficiency for the detection of gamma radiation.
Hence if the impurities in a germanium crystal are kept low, it is possible to
obtain depletion layers (sensitive volumes) that are comparable with those in
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a Ge(Li) detector. This type of detector is called a high purity germanium

(or HPGe) detector (see Figure 14).
Liquid Nitrogen
Dewar
HPGe
detector
Figure 14
A Typical High Purity Germanium Detector (HPGe) Arrangement
Like the Ge(Li) detector, the HPGe detector acts as an efficient gamma
detector with excellent energy resolution. Similarly, both detectors require
cooling with liquid nitrogen for efficient operation but one advantage of the
HPGe detector is that it may be stored at room temperature when not in use.
2.2.3 Summary of solid state conductivity detectors
Table 3 summarizes the properties of the various solid state conductivity
detectors.
Table 3
Summary of Solid State Conductivity Detectors
Detector
Main Uses
Diffused
Junction Diode
Charged
particle
Production
Advantages
More rugged than

surface barrier
Disadvantages
Lower energy
particles not detected
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detection
Silicon PIN
Photodiode
Surface Barrier
Ion
Implantation
Photon
detection
Lightweight
Alpha and beta

spectroscopy
Efficient at detecting
charged particles.
Surface must be kept

very clean
Very good energy

resolution
Very sensitive to light
Less likely to be
affected by
environmental
conditions
Very rugged
Efficient detectors of
gamma radiation
Excellent energy
resolution
Must be kept at liquid

nitrogen temperatures
at all times
Good detectors for

very low energy
gamma rays ( 150
keV), x-rays and beta
particles
Less likely to interact

with gamma radiation
than Ge(Li) detectors
Should be cooled to
liquid nitrogen
temperatures during
operation
should be cooled to
liquid nitrogen
temperatures during
operation
Alpha
spectroscopy
Low energy
beta
monitoring
Lithium Drifted
Germanium
Ge(Li)
Gamma
spectroscopy
Lithium Drifted
Silicon Si(Li)
Beta, gamma
and x-ray
spectroscopy
High Purity
Germanium
(HPGe)
2.3
Gamma
spectroscopy
Can be operated at
room temperature
Efficient detectors of
gamma radiation
Excellent energy
resolution
May be stored at
room temperature
when not in use
Solid State Detectors Versus Gas-filled Detectors
Solid state detectors have a number of advantages over gas-filled detectors

and these are as follows:
Solid state conductivity detectors are much smaller.
They have much better energy resolution for all radiation types.
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They have much higher efficiency for gamma radiation.

The sensitive volume of the detector can be chosen to suit the application.
The main disadvantages of solid state detectors are that:
They may need to be cooled to liquid nitrogen temperatures for operation.
They are sometimes less portable than gas-filled detectors.
SELF-CHECK 4
1.
Fill in the gaps with a suitable word:

a) A material which has poor electrical conductivity is known as an
____________.
b) A material which has medium conductivity is known as a
____________.
c) A material
which
has good
conductivity is known
as a
____________.
2.
Name the two semiconductor materials commonly used in solid state

conductivity detectors.
3.
a) What is doping?
b) Why are semiconductor materials doped?
4.
In what way are semiconductor detectors like gas-filled detectors?
5.
Explain the term energy resolution.
6.
Which type of solid state conductivity detector would be best for

detecting the following types of radiation?
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a) Alpha particles.
b) Beta particles.
c) Low energy gamma and x- rays.
d) Medium and high energy gamma rays.
7.
What are the advantages of solid state conductivity detectors over gasfilled detectors?
3.
DETECTORS BASED ON SCINTILLATION
3.1
How they work
Scintillation detectors rely on the fact that some materials (known as

phosphors) will emit visible light when electrons change energy levels. If
you remember from Module 1.4, Interaction of Radiation with Matter, ionizing
radiation can give electrons sufficient energy to move into a higher energy
shell. In a phosphor, these electrons do not remain in the higher energy
level for very long. Instead, they fall back to their original level and, as they
do so, they emit photons of visible light (see Figure 15)
Higher energy shell

Electron goes up to higher
energy level
Electron returns to lower energy level

with visible light released
Incident radiation
Lower energy shell
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Figure
The Scintillation Process
The number of photons of light emitted, and therefore the intensity of the
light, is proportional to the energy of the incoming radiation.
Hence,
scintillation detectors can be used not only to detect radiation but also to
separate out the energies (i.e they can be used for spectroscopy purposes).
3.2
Types of Scintillation Detector
The phosphors which can be used in radiation detectors must have certain
properties, as follows:
They must convert a large fraction of the absorbed energy into light
energy.
The time between the excitation of the electron and the emission of the
light photon must be short.
They must allow the light photons produced to pass through the material.
The emitted light must be able to be converted easily and efficiently to an

electrical signal.
A variety of materials meet these criteria and these make up the basis of
scintillation detectors. The types of scintillation detectors discussed in this
module are as follows:
Zinc sulphide detectors;
Sodium iodide detectors;
Plastic organic scintillators; and
Liquid organic scintillators.
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Some of these phosphors may have small quantities of impurities (called

activators) added to control the way in which the electrons move back to the
lower energy levels. This ensures that the photons emitted will be visible
light photons.
3.2.1 Zinc sulphide detectors
Zinc sulphide (ZnS) detectors commonly have atoms of silver added as
activators. These type of detectors, known as ZnS(Ag) detectors, are very
efficient for detecting ionizing radiation. However, as this type of material
does not allow the visible light photons to pass through it very easily, it can
only be used in thin layers (see Figure 16). Although this means that these
detectors are useful for detecting alpha particles and heavy ions, the main
disadvantage is that the thin layer can easily be pierced by sharp objects.
Thin film Zinc

Sulphide detector
Figure 15
A Zinc Sulphide Detector
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3.2.2 Sodium iodide detectors

Sodium iodide detectors with thallium atoms added NaI(Tl) are very efficient
for the detection of gamma radiation, even more so than solid state
conductivity detectors. However, the crystal will absorb moisture from the
atmosphere and deteriorate very rapidly. It is therefore canned in an airtight container. The container is often made of aluminium (see Figure 17)
Sodium iodide
detector
and may have a thin end window.
Figure 16
A Portable Sodium Iodide Detector Used for Gamma Ray Detection
The NaI(Tl) crystals can be made in various thicknesses. A thin crystal of
thickness 3 mm is very efficient for detecting gamma radiation up to about
150 keV. A thicker crystal is needed for maintaining a high efficiency for
higher energy gammas.
A NaI(Tl) detector is easier to use in the work
environment than a solid state conductivity detector because it does not

need to be cooled.
It also has a much better measuring efficiency,
particularly at higher energies. However, its energy resolution is poor when

compared with a solid state detector.
Figure 18 shows a typical sodium iodide detector with the related circuitry for
gamma spectroscopy.
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Sodium
Iodide
detector
Figure 17
A Typical Sodium Iodide Detector for Gamma Spectroscopy
3.2.3 Plastic organic scintillators
Plastic organic scintillators are cheap and can be manufactured in a variety
of different shapes and sizes.
They are often used in conjunction with
ZnS(Ag) detectors for monitoring alpha and beta radiation.

3.2.4 Liquid organic scintillators
Liquid organic scintillators have a special use for monitoring alpha and beta
radiation, particularly low energy beta radiation such as carbon-14 and
tritium. Use of a liquid scintillator allows the contaminant of interest to be
mixed directly with the scintillant and can lead to very high detection
efficiency.
3.3
Summary of Scintillation Detectors
Table 4 summarizes the properties of the various scintillation detectors.

Table 4
Summary of Scintillation Detectors
Detector
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Main Uses
Advantages
Disadvantages
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Zinc Sulphide
Detection of
alpha particles
and heavy ions
Efficient for detecting

alpha particles and
heavy ions
Thin layer can

easily be pierced
by sharp objects
Sodium Iodide
Gamma
spectroscopy
More efficient for

detecting gamma
radiation than solid
state conductivity
detectors
Poorer energy
resolution than
solid state
conductivity
detectors
Does not need to be

cooled
Monitoring alpha
and beta radiation
Cheap
Can be manufactured
in different shapes
and sizes
Monitoring alpha
and low energy
beta radiation
High detection
efficiency when
contaminant is mixed
with the scintillant
Gamma detection
Plastic Organic
Liquid Organic
3.4
Photomultiplier Tubes
Photomultiplier (or PM) tubes are necessary in scintillation circuits to

convert photons of light from the scintillator into electrical pulses. They are
also used to increase the size of the initial signal. Although, strictly speaking,
PM tubes are really part of the electronic system rather than the detection
mechanism, they are included in this section because they are of specific
use with scintillation detectors and are not part of general counting circuits.
3.4.1 How they work
Firstly, the incident radiation interacts with the phosphor to produce a light
photon.
This light photon then hits a surface coated with light-sensitive
material known as a photocathode. The energy from this light photon is

absorbed by an electron in the light sensitive material and this electron gains
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enough energy to leave the photocathode. The ejected electron forms the
basis of the electrical signal but, in practical terms, the signal must be
amplified by a series of dynodes. Each dynode is basically an anode which
releases about four electrons for every electron it collects.
The dynode
system requires a very stable high voltage power supply in order to operate
consistently. Figure 19 shows how the energy is transferred from the original
scintillation event to the external electrical circuit.
Figure 18
A Scintillation Detector Arrangement Incorporating a Photomultiplier
Tube
SELF-CHECK 5
1.
Fill in the gaps with a suitable word or phrase:

Scintillation detectors rely on the fact that some materials (known as
_______) will emit visible light when electrons change _______ _____.
When ionizing radiation interacts with the electrons in this type of
material, they are given enough energy to move to a _______ energy
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shell. These electrons do not remain in here for very long. Instead,
they fall back to their original level and, as they do so, they emit
_______ ______.
2.
Can scintillation detectors be used for spectroscopy purposes? Explain

your answer.
3.
Which type of scintillator would you use for detecting alpha particles
and heavy ions?
4.
Which type of scintillator would be best for detecting gamma radiation?
5.
Which type of scintillator would be best for detecting tritium?
6.
a) Give two advantages of using a sodium iodide detector compared

with a germanium detector.
b) What is the major disadvantage of sodium iodide detectors?
7.
Why are photomultiplier tubes needed for scintillation detection

systems?
4.
NEUTRON DETECTORS
4.1
How they work
Neutrons are uncharged particles and so do not cause ionization directly.

However, when they interact with material they produce secondary ionizing
particles and it is the detection of these particles which allows us to detect
neutrons.
The most common interactions used in neutron detectors are;
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the reaction with boron-10, which produces alpha radiation;
the reaction with helium-3, which produces a proton; and
elastic scattering by hydrogen nuclei.
Page 49
The first two interactions are most likely to occur for neutrons with energies
up to about 0.5 eV. These neutrons are at the bottom of the intermediate
neutron range and in the thermal neutron (0.025 eV) range.
Elastic
scattering can be used to detect fast neutrons.

4.2
Types of Neutron Detectors
There are several factors to be taken into account when designing a suitable
neutron detector:
Moderating material must be used to slow down fast neutrons (without
absorbing them) so that they will interact with the detector material.
The detector material must have a high cross section (i.e. a high
possibility) for the particular reaction to occur so that detectors can be
built which are not too large.
The heavy charged particles formed during the interaction with the
detecting material must all be stopped within the active volume of the
detector.
Four types of neutron detectors which fit this criteria are as follows:
Boron trifluoride proportional counters
Helium proportional counters
Gas recoil proportional counters
Bubble detectors
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4.2.1 Boron trifluoride proportional counters

Boron trifluoride proportional counters consist of a gas-filled proportional
counter filled with boron-10 enriched boron trifluoride (BF 3).
This gas
provides the filling gas for the detector as well as the target for incoming
thermal neutrons. The nuclear reaction which occurs in the detector is given
by Equation 1:
10
B + n 7Li +
This reaction is often written as 10B(n,)7Li.

The lithium nucleus and the alpha particle both have sufficient energy to
cause secondary ionization in the filling gas, and these secondary ionization
events can then be detected. Note that, some neutron interactions produce
a 0.48 MeV gamma ray. Hence, a suitable discrimination circuit is necessary
to distinguish between the incoming neutrons and resultant gamma rays.
Boron trifluoride proportional counters can also be used to detect
intermediate and fast neutrons (up to 10 MeV). However, in this case, the
detector must be surrounded by a moderating material such as polyethylene
to slow down the neutrons before capture (see Figure 20). Cadmium filters
are used to provide a uniform energy response.
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Proportional counter
filled with Boron-10
enriched BF3 gas
Cadmium loaded
polyethylene sphere
Figure 19
A Boron Trifluoride Counter
As well as being good detectors for thermal, intermediate and fast neutrons,
boron trifluoride proportional counters can be used for neutron spectroscopy
purposes.
4.2.2 Helium proportional counters
Helium proportional counters are similar in many respects to boron trifluoride
proportional counters.
The main detection mechanism involves thermal
neutron capture, but if a moderator is used, helium proportional counters can

be used to detect intermediate and fast neutrons.
As the name suggests, helium proportional counters use helium as both the
target and filling gas. The important reaction is given in Equation 2:
He + n 3H + p
[2]
This is often written as 3He(n,p)3H.

In this reaction, a tritium nucleus and proton are formed and it is these
charged particles which produce the secondary ionization.
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Again, helium proportional counters can be used for neutron spectroscopy

purposes.
4.2.3 Gas recoil proportional counter
Gas recoil proportional counters use elastic scattering with hydrogen nuclei
as their mechanism of detection. In these counters, neutrons with energies
greater than about 500 keV are detected using a proportional counter filled
with a hydrogen-rich gas such as methane. A fast neutron will collide with a
hydrogen nucleus (which is just a single proton) giving it energy.
This
nucleus will then go on to produce secondary ionization.

In some gas recoil proportional counters the hydrogen atoms may be
supplied by using material such as polyethylene in the walls of the counter.
The counter is enclosed in a thin sheet of cadmium which absorbs thermal
neutrons.
4.2.4 Bubble detectors
Bubble detectors contain microscopic liquid drops suspended in a gel-like
material. Incoming neutrons transfer enough energy to the liquid drops to
make them suddenly boil and change into a bubble. These bubbles are
visible to the eye and can be counted (see Figure 21).
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Figure 20
Bubble Detectors Before (left) and After (right) Neutron Exposure
The actual neutron dose is proportional to the density of bubbles, and these
remain fixed in the material until the dosimeter is reset.
Bubble dosimeters are mainly used for personal dosimetry. However, they
can also be used for environmental monitoring.
4.3
Summary of Neutron Detectors
Table 5 summarizes the properties of the various neutron detectors

Table 5
Summary of Neutron Detectors
Detector
Main Uses
Boron trifluoride
proportional counters
Helium proportional
counters
Production
Detection of thermal neutrons
Can be used to detect neutrons

up to 10 MeV with suitable
moderator
Neutron spectroscopy
Detection of thermal neutrons
Can be used to detect neutrons

up to 10 MeV with suitable
moderator
Neutron spectroscopy
Comments
Gamma rays may be

produced so a
discriminator circuit is
necessary
Gamma rays may be

produced so a
discriminator circuit is
necessary
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Gas recoil
proportional counters
Detection of fast (< 500 keV)

neutrons
Bubble detectors
Personal dosimetry
Environmental monitoring
Page 54
SELF-CHECK 6
1.
Why cant neutrons be detected using the detectors learnt about in

previous sections?
2.
a) What modifications are needed to proportional counters to allow

them to detect neutrons?
b) Why is a material such as polyethylene often used to surround the
detector tube?
3.
Which type of neutrons are most likely to interact with boron or helium?
4.
Which type of neutrons are most likely to undergo elastic collisions with
hydrogen nuclei?
5.
Which type of neutron detector can be used for personal dosimetry?

5.
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
So far in this module we have been considering different types of detectors.

Once the energy of the ionizing radiation has been converted to an electrical
signal, various electronic components must be added to the detection system
to provide a meaningful reading.
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The electrical signals produced by detectors are of two types direct

current (as in the ion chamber) and pulse. If the signal is measured as a
direct current, the average current over many interactions is recorded and
the circuit is said to be operating in current mode. If the signal is measured
as a change or drop in voltage, individual interactions are recorded and the
size of the pulse is dependent on the number of electrons collected. This is
known as pulse mode.
Direct current output is measured by a direct current amplifier whereas a
pulsed output is measured in a counting circuit.
Figure 22 shows the
components of a general counting circuit.
High Voltage
Supply
Scaler
Pre-amp
Amplifier
Discriminator
Rate meter
MCA
Detector
Figure 21
A General Counting Circuit
In this section we will look briefly at the functions of a direct current amplifier
and the different components of a counting circuit. Remember that in a field
instrument all components are usually built into the instrument, which may
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limit the capabilities of the instrument. A laboratory instrument can have

more functional components attached.
5.1
Voltage Supply
A stable direct voltage supply is necessary to supply the operating potential

for the detector. Field instruments are dependent on batteries to supply the
voltage. The level of the high voltage and the degree of stability required
depends on the type of detector. The voltage supply is known traditionally as
the HV (high voltage) supply.
5.2
Direct Current Amplifier
A direct current amplifier increases a very low current, in the order of 10 -12 A,
to a current which can be measured by an ammeter, in the order of 10 -3 A.
This requires a high gain. (The gain of an amplifier is the ratio of the size of
the output pulse to the size of the input pulse.) Since the necessary gain is
so high, any slight change in the input signal can have a large effect on the
output measurements.
For this reason high standards of insulation and
cleanliness must be maintained. Direct current amplifiers are mainly used

with ion chambers and some semiconductor detectors operating in current
mode.
5.3
Pre-amplifier
The output from most detectors is so small that it must be amplified before
going to the main amplifier. The pre-amplifier (pre-amp) is often built into the
detector housing. In the case of scintillation detectors, it forms part of the
photomultiplier system. The pre-amplifier must be capable of amplifying the
signal without causing additional noise. Electronic noise consists of signals
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which tend to hide the signal coming from the detector and can be due to
such events as the thermal movement of electrons.
5.4
Pulse Amplifier
The amplifier shapes the pulse and increases it to a level which is suitable
for the counting equipment being used.
The gain which needs to be
provided by the amplifier depends on the size of the pulse coming from the
detector.
5.5
Discriminator
A discriminator allows us to discard pulses which are either too large or too
small. A low level discriminator ignores pulses below a set level which is
very useful for eliminating unwanted noise. If both a low level and an upper
level discriminator are used and set close together, the instrument will
operate as a single channel analyser (SCA) and only accept pulses of a
narrow range.
Discriminators provide a standard size pulse for counting
equipment when the pulse falls within the set range.

5.6
Counting Devices
There are three types of counting devices:

1. A scaler which gives a visual display of the counts which have
accumulated in the counting time. It will usually include a timing device
so that a count time can be preset. Scalers are most frequently used in
laboratory equipment for counting samples.
2. A rate meter which gives a continuous indication of the rate of arrival of
pulses and is the normal counting device for field instruments. The
reading on the meter will be constantly changing as pulses are counted.
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The reading can be smoothed out electronically but too much

smoothing can result in a slow response to a changing pulse rate which
can be unsatisfactory for workplace monitoring.
3. A pulse height analyser (PHA) or multi-channel analyser (MCA)
which is used when the pulse height depends on the energy of the
ionizing radiation.
It separates the pulses into different channels
according to their heights.
The number of pulses counted in each
channel is shown on a visual display and provides information about

the energy spectrum of the radiation.
SELF-CHECK 7
1.
What type of detector would require a direct current amplifier?
2.
List the components of a general counting circuit.
3.
What is the main function of the following equipment?

a) The pre-amplifier.
b) The pulse amplifier.
c) The discriminator.
4.
Name the three types of counting devices. Which of these is normally

used in field instruments?
5.
Which counting device would you use with an HPGe, Ge(Li) or NaI(Tl)
detector if you were attempting to identify a mixture of different
radionuclides?
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KEY POINTS
The six basic methods of radiation detection are: ionization, scintillation,

thermoluminescence, chemical mechanisms, heating and biological
mechanisms.
Radiation detectors which rely on ionization consist of gas-filled detectors

and solid state conductivity detectors.
The three types of gas-filled radiation detectors are ionization chambers,

proportional counters and Geiger-Mller counters.
The resolving time of a detector is defined as the minimum amount of

time which must separate two events in order that they are recorded as
two separate processes.
The dead time of the detector is the length of time for the signal or pulse
to build up sufficiently for it to be detected).
The recovery time is the length of time for the detector to recover from an
ionization event and return to its original condition.
Ionization chambers operate at saturation current and are used for

counting and spectroscopy.
The average current output from an ionization chamber is proportional to

the amount of incident radiation. The output is very small and must be
amplified.
Ionization chambers do not need a stable high voltage supply.
If ionization chambers are used to measure beta radiation, they must

have a thin end window.
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In proportional counters, the total pulse size is proportional to the energy

deposited by the radiation.
The total pulse size in proportional counters is very small and requires
amplification.
Proportional counters require a stable high voltage supply.
Proportional counters are used for counting and spectroscopy.
Geiger-Mller detectors cannot distinguish between types and energies of

incident radiation.
G-M detectors must be quenched to prevent the discharge continuing by

itself.
G-M detectors do not require amplification.
G-M detectors have long resolving times and hence foldback can occur in
high radiation fields.
G-M tubes require energy compensation.
Solid state conductivity detectors consist of n type and p type

semiconductors. These semiconductors may also be doped.
Solid state conductivity detectors include surface barrier detectors,

diffused junction diodes, ion implantation detectors, lithium drifted
detectors and high purity germanium detectors.
Surface barrier detectors have very good energy resolution and can be
used for charged particle spectroscopy.
Diffused junction diodes may not detect low energy particles because of
their dead layer.
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Silicon PIN photodiodes can be used for gamma ray detection in

electronic dosimeters.
Ion implantation detectors are quite rugged and can be used for alpha
spectroscopy and low energy beta detection.
Lithium drifted detectors have lithium added to them counteract the

impurities in the semiconductor crystals.
This creates a bigger
sensitive volume for photon spectroscopy.
Ge(Li) detectors must be kept at very low temperatures at all times.
Si(Li) detectors are not as efficient as Ge(Li) detectors but they may be
stored at room temperature when not in use.
HPGe detectors have the highest efficiency for photon detection and they
may be stored at room temperature when not in use.
Solid state conductivity detectors are much smaller than gas-filled

detectors.
Scintillation detectors consist of phosphors which emit visible light when

excited electrons move back to lower energy levels.
Typical scintillation detectors are: ZnS(Ag) detectors, NaI(Tl) detectors,

plastic organic scintillators and liquid organic scintillators.
ZnS(Ag) detectors exist as thin layers and can be used for detecting
alpha particles and heavy ions.
NaI(Tl) detectors are efficient scintillation detectors for x- and gamma

radiation but have poor energy resolution.
Plastic organic scintillators can be used for monitoring alpha and beta
radiation.
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Liquid scintillators can be used for detection of low energy beta particles.
Scintillation detectors require photomultiplier tubes to collect and amplify

the signal.
Neutron detectors require secondary ionization to take place before the

neutron can be detected.
Gas-filled
proportional
counters
with
boron-10
(boron
trifluoride
proportional counters) or helium (helium proportional counters) can be

used to detect neutrons. A moderating material is needed to slow down
fast and intermediate neutrons.
Fast neutrons can be measured using a gas recoil proportional counter.
Bubble
dosimeters
can
be
used
for
personal
dosimetry
and
environmental monitoring.
Direct current amplifiers are needed for detectors operating in the current
mode.
A general counting circuit contains a pre-amplifier, a pulse amplifier, a

discriminator and a counting device.
Scalers, rate meters and pulse height analysers are all types of counting
devices.
FINAL ASSIGNMENT
This assignment is to be completed under test conditions, so spend some
time now studying this module. Then contact your supervisor to arrange a
suitable time to complete the assignment.
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GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Activator
An impurity added to phosphors to ensure that only

visible light photons are emitted from excited
electrons returning to lower energy levels.
Anode
A positively charged electrode.
Avalanche
The process in which a free electron produces

more free electrons, which in turn produce more
free electrons and so on.
Cathode
A negatively charged electrode.
Conductor
A material that allows electrical current to pass

through it.
Current mode
An electrical signal measured as a current.
Dead time
The length of time for a signal or pulse to build up

sufficiently for it to be detected.
Depletion layer
The area at the junction of n-type and p-type

semiconductors which is free of electrons and
holes.
Doping
The process whereby semiconductors such as

germanium and silicon have impurities introduced
to improve their conductivity.
Dynode
A positively charged electrode which multiplies the

number of electrons in a photomultiplier tube.
Electrode
A metal plate to which an electric voltage is applied.
Energy compensation
A method of ensuring that a detector responds to

all photon energies in the same way.
Energy resolution
The ability to separate measurements of particles

or photons with different energies.
Foldback
An effect which gives an apparent zero reading on

a detector in a high radiation field.
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Gas multiplication
The increase in the number of ion pairs formed in a

gas-filled detector.
Insulator
A material that does not allow electric current to

pass through it.
Intrinsic region
The region in a silicon or germanium detector that

has had lithium added. This creates a thick
sensitive volume of material suitable for the
collection of electron-hole pairs created by incident
radiation.
Ionization
The process whereby electrons are removed from

atoms or molecules thus producing ion pairs.
n-type semiconductor
A material which has been doped with an impurity

that provides extra electrons. In this material
conduction is improved by the movement of
negative charges.
Photocathode
An electrode coated with light sensitive material

from which electrons are emitted.
p-type semiconductor
A material which has been doped with an impurity

that provides extra holes. In this material
conduction is improved by the effective movement
of positive charges.
Pulse mode
An electrical signal measured as a change or drop

in voltage.
Quenching
The suppression of an electrical signal in a gasfilled detector.
Recombination region
The low voltage region of a gas-filled detector in

which recombination of ions occurs.
Recovery time
The length of time for a detector to recover from an

ionization event and to return to its original
conditions.
Resolving time
The minimum amount of time which must separate

two events to ensure that they are recorded as two
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separate processes.
Saturation current
The constant current which occurs when almost all

ions generated in the chamber of a gas-filled
detector reach the electrodes.
Scintillation
The production of light accompanying the

movement of electrons from high energy orbits to
lower energy levels within an absorbing material.
Semiconductor
A material which allows an electric current to pass

through it better than an insulator but not as well as
a conductor.
Sensitive volume
The part of a detector which detects radiation.
Spectroscopy
The process whereby detectors separate out the

energies of radiation so as to identify the
radionuclides present in the radioactive material.
Thermoluminescence
The release of energy in the form of visible light

when previously excited electrons return to lower
energy
levels.
For
this
to
occur
the
thermoluminescent materials must be heated in
order to release the electrons trapped in higher
energy levels.
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Radiation Protection Distance Learning Project

Module 1.5 Methods of Radiation Detection

INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY

DISTANCE LEARNING MATERIALS

Prepared by Safety and Radiation Science

Radiation Protection Distance Learning Project

Radiation Protection Distance Learning Project

This material has been prepared by an extensive team of international

The support of ANSTO management in providing the resource and

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MECHANISMS USED FOR DETECTING RADIATION..........................6

DETECTORS BASED ON IONIZATION..................................................9

The recombination region.....................................................11

Ion chamber region..............................................................12

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Continuous discharge region...............................................13

Geiger-Mller (G-M) counters..............................................19

2.1.4 Summary of gas-filled detectors..................................................21

Diffused junction diodes.......................................................27

Surface barrier detectors......................................................28

Ion implantation detectors....................................................29

Lithium drifted detectors.......................................................29

High Purity Germanium Detectors.......................................31

2.2.3 Summary of solid state conductivity detectors............................31

DETECTORS BASED ON SCINTILLATION.........................................34

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3.3 Summary of Scintillation Detectors.....................................................38

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discusses these various interactions and introduces the main physical

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This time estimate is for

Do not worry if you need more time to understand the

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10) State the advantages and disadvantages of each type of radiation

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NOW YOU ARE READY TO START WORK

MECHANISMS USED FOR DETECTING RADIATION

Since ionizing radiation cannot be detected by our bodies senses we rely on

Radiation detectors operate by detecting a change in the

There are several effects caused by ionizing

Ionization is caused directly by alpha and beta radiation and indirectly by

Many radiation monitoring

instruments use ionization as the detection mechanism.

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Scintillation is the production of light following the movement of electrons

(Remember from module 1.4 Interaction of Radiation with

Ionizing radiation can cause chemical changes. This effect is observed in

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industrial radiography. In some cases, ionizing radiation increases the rate

Ionizing radiation can increase the temperature of the absorbing medium

Summary of Detection Mechanisms

Table 1 summarizes the mechanisms which can be used to detect ionizing

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a) List the six mechanisms of radiation detection.

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DETECTORS BASED ON IONIZATION

As already mentioned, many radiation monitoring instruments use the

Figure 1 shows a simple diagram of a gas-filled

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Radiation Protection Distance Learning Project

continuous discharge regions.

The recombination region

One of these is ion

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between the electrodes, the _____ _ are attracted towards