Pipeline Design PDF

Surface Facilities
Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved
Schlumberger Private
Pipelines Design, Operation and Maintenance

Leonardo Montero R., M.Sc.
Engineering Required Before Designing a Pipeline

Exploration and Production
Well System
Definition
Reservoir
Simulation
Reservoir
Geology
Drilling
Reservoir
Description
Pipelines
Manifolds
Reservoir
Management
Controls
Exploration
Geology
Production
Management
Geoscience
Petroleum Engineering
Process
Definition
Host
Engineering
Pipeline
Design
2
Geophysics
Facility
Engineering
Pipelines - Terminology
Flowlines & Gathering Lines The lines travel
short distances within an area. They gather products
and move them to processing facilities.
They carry
together.
many
products,
often
Flowlines are usually small, e.g. 2- 4 in diameter,

and gathering lines bigger (say 4-12 )
mixed
Feeder Lines - These pipelines move products

from processing facilities, storage, etc., to the main
transmission lines
Typically 6-20 in diameter
Carry variety of products, sometimes batched.
3
Pipelines - Terminology
Transmission Lines - These are the main conduits of oil
and gas transportation.
These lines can be very large diameter (up to 56 in)
Natural gas transmission lines deliver to industry or

distribution system.
Crude oil transmission lines carry different types of
products, sometimes batched, to refineries or storage
Petroleum product lines carry liquids such as refined
petroleum products or natural gas liquids.
Distribution Lines - These lines allow local distribution

from the transmission system.
These lines can be large diameter, but most are under
6 in diameter
4
Pipelines - System
Storage
Commercial
Residential
Gathering
Production
Wells
Platforms
Surface Facilities
Industrial & Utilities
Pipeline
Storage
Transportation
Metering Equipments
Compression Station
Plants
IT System
Drawdown Analysis
Linepacking Analysis
Distributors
Distribution
Gate Station
Metering Equipment
Compression Stations
5
Wells
Oil and Gas Transportation by Pipelines

Offshore
Receiving Facilities
J- Tubes
Risers
Process Equipment
Wyes
Tees
Hot Taps
Flowlines
Cables
Land Pipeline
Transmission
Shore Approaches
Crossings
Manifolds
Distribution Lines
Trunk Lines
6
Pipelines are Preferred
Pipeline is the main mode of transportation for liquid

and gas, for several reasons:
Less damaging to the environment

Safety: It is the safest the for oil and gas
transportation
Economical: Is the most efficient method to
transport high volume
Reliability
7
Pipelines Around the World

750
625
Thousands
Onshore Gas Trans > 300.000 miles

Offshore Gas Trans > 6.000 miles
Onshore Gas Gathering > 21.000 miles
Offshore Gas Gathering > 6.000 miles
Onshore Distribution > 1.000.000 miles
Liquid Trans. Lines > 157.000 miles
375
250
125
0
UK
Western Europe USA
Rest of The World
8
Length (Miles)
500
Gathering Lines
Lines
Gathering
9
Flowlines and Gathering Lines

These lines travel short distances within an
area.
Gathers products and moves them to

processing facilities.
Flowlines are usually small, e.g. 2- 4in
diameter,
Gathering lines bigger (say 4-12 )
They carry many products, often mixed
together.
10
Flowlines and Gathering Lines

Grapa a nivel
sublacustre
LL-83
LL-33
M-LH-9
)
974
3' (1
363
12"
8"
LL-34
4047' (1977)
1331' (1989)
LL-35
Linea de 8" que debe ser

desactivada
0)
99
' (1
69
82
9)
97
' (1
67
54
LL-39
(1
97
9)
63
0'
15
99
'
68
04
'(
19
90
)
61
84
'(
19
80
)
4000'
1)
98
(1
Grapa colocada para corregir

corrosin en vertical.
'
21
46
Tank Farm
(1
99
0)
Multiphase Manifold
LL-29
LL-41
(nueva)
Vertical deteriorado (corroido)
Multiphase Pipeline
Oil Pipeline
LL-16
7)
75
.3
"-0 75
12 -0.3
"
12
80)
' (19
1070
10
"-0
38
.3
49
65
'(
19
8
88)
' (19
1330
8)
98
' (1
48
11
Oil Manifold
20, 3%
visible
(1990)
; 5591'
20"-0.375
12"-0.375;
4651' (1990)
Flow Station
42
6'
(1
16"
- 0.3
75;
98
8)
M-LH-8
508
0' (1
996
)
16"
6"
Macolla 3
31,8%
27
87
'
(19
74
)
98
9)
96
00
'
32
72
'
12"-0.44";
10"-0.365;
97
9)
-0
.3
8;
24
"
(19
73
)
16
";5
24"
995)
LL-87
10
28
' (1
M-LH-7
61
57
' (1
(1
98
8)
13,5%
(1 9
88
)
23
2'
12"-0.44;
)
88
(19
(1
99
2)
0'
50
LL-20
)
90
.44
"-0
12
(19
77
8'
(1
99
6)
3)
99
' (1
36
4
1
5;1
.37
"-0
24
'
17
67
200' (1
.38; 6
16"-0
00
0'
16"
16"-0.375
663' (1980)
6"
6)
98
LL-37
12"
24"
24"-0.375
;2430' (1
993)
16"-0.375; 14033' (1996)
' (1
00
00
5;2
.37
"-0
24
20"
LL-41
LL-47
11
Gas Gathering System: Example

The gas gathering system consists of several interconnected pipelines with
diameter between 4 and 12 inches and low pressure line (< 500 psi).
Equations:Bernoulli
*Beggs & Brill
* Moody o Darcy
*Weymouth
* Panhandle A/B
* AGA
Gas
Plant
FS-5-9
FS-1-8
Gas
Plant
FS 2-6
PE 8-3
Evaluation with Simulators:

*Pipephase, Stationary State
* Pipesim, Stationary State
* TGNET, Dynamic State
FS 5-6
MG-CL-1
PA
EM-2
EM-1
FS 16-5
FS 9-5
Gas
Plant
FS 22-5
FS 21-5
PC-VII
FS-23-5
Low Pressure System
FS 1-5
High Pressure System

12
Gas Gathering System: Types
The smallest gathering system consists simply of two

or more gas wells interconnected by piping and tied
directly into a distribution system.

For large fields and for several interconnected fields
involving hundreds of miles of piping, gathering
systems may include such equipment as drips,
separators, meters, heaters, dehydrators, gasoline
plant, sulfur plant, cleaners and compressors, as well
as piping and valves.
13
Wellhead
Flowlines
Header
Axial Gathering System

In the axial gathering system, several
wells produce into a common flowline.
14

Wellhead
Compression Station
Radial Gathering System

Flowlines emanating from several different wellheads
converge to a central point where facilities are located.
Flowlines are usually terminated at a header, which is
essentially a pipe large enough to handle the flow of all
the flowlines
15

Loop Gathering System
Compression
Station
Wellhead
Separator
16
Gathering System: Well Center

Well Center Gathering System
The well center gathering system uses radial philosophy
at the local level for individual wells, brings all the
flowlines to a central header
Well Center
Central Gathering Section

17
Gathering System: Trunk Line

Trunk Line
Header
18
Well Head
Uses
an
axial
gathering scheme for
the groups of wells.
Uses several remote
headers to collect
fluid.
Is more applicable to
relatively
large
leases, and no cases
where
it
is
undesirable
or
impractical to build
the field processing
facilities at a central
point.
Gathering System: Decision

The choice between the gathering systems
is usually economic.
Technical
criterion.
feasibility
may
be
The cost of the several small sections of

pipe in well-center system is compared to
the cost of single large pipe for the trunkline system.
another
The production characteristics of the field
19
Gathering System: Pipeline System

Series Pipelines
LA
LB
Parallel Pipelines
LC
A
B
A
C
Loopless Pipeline Systems
Looped Pipelines
LA
LC
q2
q1
NCE 1
Node 1
number
pressure p1
q3
3
2
p2
qn-1
qn
n-1
qn + 1
n-1
p3
pn-1
pn
n+1
pn+1
B
20

Series Pipelines
LB
LC
Series pipelines: The inlet

and outlet pressures for the
system are different, For this
system,
the
flow
rates
through each of the pipe legs
are equal
LA
qA = qB = qC = qt
pt = pA + pB + pC
pA pB pC
Le = LA + LeBA + LeCA
21

Parallel Pipelines
A
B
qA qB qC
pA = pB = pC
Because the pipelines are

in parallel with a common
inlet
and
outlet,
the
pressure drop through
each of them is the same,
but the flow rates are not.
From Weymouth equation
5
pA = pB = pC
pipelines:
Parallel
de
Le =
fe Le
0.5
dA
fA LA
0.5
0.5
dB
dC
+
fB LB fC LC
0.5
qt = qA + qB + qC
22

Looped pipelines
Looped
LA
LC
A
B
Le = LC + (Le )AB
A
looped pipeline is one in
which only a part of the line
has a parallel segment. The
original pipeline is looped to
some distance with another
line to increase the flow
capacity.
pipeline:
23

Loopless Pipelines
q2
q1
NCE 1
2
p2
qn
qn-1
n-1
qn + 1
n-1
p3
pn-1
pn
n+1
pn+1
loopless pipeline system,

defined as one where the
NCE's (node connecting
elements) joined by nodes
form no closed loop
Node 1
number
pressure p1
q3
Loopless Pipelines : A
24
Gathering System: Equations for Complex Gas Flow
25
Flow
Flow of
of Fluid
Fluid
26
Flow of Fluid
Fluid is defined as a single phase of gas or liquid or both.
Each sort of flow results in a pressure drop.
Three categories of fluid flow: vertical, inclined and
horizontal
Overall production system
27
Flow of Fluid
Possible Pressure Losses
p8= Pwh-Psep
Gas Flowlines
p6= Pds-Psep
Pwh-Pds = p5
Pds
Flowlines
Separator
Psep
Surface Choke
Tanks
p7= Pwf-Pwh
Pdv
p4= Puv-Pdv
Puv
Safety Valves
Well
Bottom Hole
Restriccin Pdr
p3= Pur-Pdr
Reservoir
Pwh
Pur
Pwf
Pwfs-Pwf = p2
p1=Pm- Pwfs
p2=Pwfs- Pwf
p3=Pur- Pdr
p4=Puv- Pdv
p5=Pwh- Pds
p6=Pds- Psep
p7=Pwf- Pwh
p8=Pwh- Psep
Loss in porous medium

Loss across completion
Loss across restrictions
Loss across safety valves
Loss across surface choke
Loss in flowlines
Total loss in tubing
Total loss in flowlines
Pwfs
Pm
Pe
p1=Pm-Pwfs
Source: Handbook of Petroleum and Gas Engineering, William Lyons
28
Flow of Fluid
Production Pressure Profile
Drainage
Boundary
Wellbore
Wellhead &
(Perforations)
Choke
Separator
Stock
Tank
Po
Pressure
Pwf
Pwf
Psp
ro
PST
Reservoir
Tubing
Flowline
Transfer Line
29
Source: Handbook of Petroleum and Gas Engineering, William Lyons
Flow of Fluid
SINGLE-PHASE FLOW: Liquid and gas velocity in a pipeline
u=q/A
30
It is the flow rate (q), at pressure and temperature in the pipe,

divided by cross-sectional area of the pipe (A). It is calculated by
the following equation:
Pipeline Fluid Flow

pipeline
velocity
pipeline
velocity
A) Laminar Flow
Laminar Flow
B) Turbulent Flow
Re < 2000
Turbulent Flow Re > 2100

R = Du
/
31
Flow of Fluid
Single-Phase Flow: Liquid
Pressure Drop Calculation
g dz + 2 f u2 dL = 0
D gc
gc
g z
+
p = p1 p2 =
gc
(Energy Equation)
u2 + 2f u2 L (
= constant)
2gc
D gc
Where:
p = pPE + pKE + pF
pPE
pKE
pF
u
D
L
f
: pressure drop due to potential energy change

: pressure drop due to kinetic energy change
: frictional pressure drop
: velocity of the fluid
:pipeline internal diameter
:Length of the pipe
: friction factor
32
: liquid density
dp + udu +
gc
Flow of Fluid
pPE , the pressure drop due to potential energy change
2
(a) Upward flow
(b) Downward flow
z = z2 z1 = L sin
pPE = (g/gc)
L sin
Horizontal Flow
=0
pPE = 0
33
Flow of Fluid
pKE = the pressure drop due to kinetic energy change
Is the pressure drop resulting from the change in the velocity of the fluid
between positions 1 and 2.
= constant , A = constant
pKE = (
/2gc) u2 = (
/2gc) (u22- u12)
pKE = 0
q = constant
u = q/A , A = D2/4 u = 4q/
D2
Where:
pKE = 8
q2/
2gc(1/D24 1/D14)
u = Velocity of the fluid, ft/sec.

q = Volumetric flow rate, ft3/sec.
D = Pipeline internal diameter, ft
= Liquid density, lbm/ft3
A = Pipeline cross-sectional area, ft2
34
Flow of Fluid
pPE , the pressure drop due to potential energy change
Example No. 1
Suppose that 1000 bbl/d of brine (w= 1.05) is being injected through 2
7/8-in, 8.6-lbm/ft (I.D. = 2.259 in.) tubing in a well that is deviated 50
from vertical. Calculate the pressure drop over 1000 ft of tubing due to
the potential energy change.
Solution:
pPE = (g/gc) L sin

For downward flow in a well deviated 50 from vertical, the flow
direction is
-40 from horizontal, so is -40:
pPE = (32.17/32.17) (1.05) (62.4) (1000) sin (-40) = - 292 psi
(lbf/lbm) (lbm/ft3) (ft) (ft2/144 in2) = lbf/in2 = psi
35
Flow of Fluid
pKE = 1.3x10-8q2
1
4
D2
For oilfield units bbl/d for flow rate, lbm/ft3 for density, and in. for
diameter, the constants and unit conversions can be combined to
yield:
1
4
D1
Where
q = Volumetric flow rate, bbl/d
D = Internal pipeline diameter, in.
36
Flow of Fluid
Example
u1
u2
D1
D2
37
Suppose that 2000 bbl/d of oil with a density of 58 lbm/ft3 is

flowing through a horizontal pipeline having a diameter reduction
from 4 in. to 2 in., as illustrated in the figure. Calculate the kinetic
energy pressure drop caused by the diameter change.
Flow of Fluid
Solution:
Since = constant, then pKE = 8
q2/
2(1/D24 1/D14)
q = (2000 bbl/d)(5.615 ft3/bbl)(day/86400 sec.) = 0.130 ft3/sec.

D1 = (4/12) ft = 0.3333 ft
D2 = (2/12) ft = 0.16667 ft
pKE =
8(58 lbm/ft3)(0.130 ft3/sec.)2

(
2 x 32.17 ft-lbm/lbf-sec2)]
1
1
]
(0.3333)4
(0.16667)4
pKE = 0.28 psi
38
Flow of Fluid
pf = the pressure drop due to friction
The frictional pressure drop is obtained from the equation:
pf =
f
u2L
2gcD
Where: f = is the Moodys friction factor.

In laminar flow
NRe < 2100
In turbulent flow NRe > 2100

where
f = 64/NRe
f = f(NRe,)
NRe : is the Reynolds number
: is the relative pipe roughness
which are given by:

NRe = ud/
= k/D
(k = Absolute roughness, in)
39
Flow of Fluid
where

u = Velocity, ft/s
D = Internal pipeline diameter, ft
= Liquid viscosity, lbm/ft-s
Other expresions:
NRe = 1488 uD/
where:
: Liquid density, lbm/ft3
u : Velocity, ft/s
D : Internal pipeline diameter, ft
: Liquid viscosity, cP
40
Flow of Fluid
In oilfield units
NRe = 1.48 q
/D
= 92.35 Lq/D
Where:
: Liquid density, lbm/ft3
: Liquid specific gravity
L
q : Volumetric flow rate, bbl/d
D : Internal pipe diameter, in.
NRe = 1.722 x 10-2 w D/A

Where:
w : Mass flow rate, lbm/d
A : Pipeline cross-sectional area, ft2
41
Flow of Fluid
Equations to calculate the friction factor f = f(NRe,)
Intermediate precision
Low precision
High precision
(Zigrang and Silvestre, Transactions of
the ASME, 280/vol. 107, June 1985)
- The Colebrook-White equation (implicit in f):

1/
f = -2 log[(/3.7065) + 2.5226/(NRef)]
(Needs iteration to solve for f)
- The Chen equation (explicit in f):

1/
f = -2 log{(/3.7065) (5.0452/ NRe) log [(1.1098/2.8257) +
(7.149/NRe)0.8981]}
- The Moodys friction factor diagram
f = f(NRe,)
42
Flow of Fluid
Click to edit Master title style

Moody friction factor diagram
43
Flow of Fluid
Relative Roughness of Common Piping Material.
44
Flow of Fluid

Hasta aqu vamos
Example
Calculate the frictional pressure drop for the 1000 bbl/d of brine injection
described in Example No. 1. The brine has a viscosity of 1.2 cP, and the
pipe relative roughness is 0.001.
Solution:
First, the Reynolds number must be calculated to determine if the flow is
laminar or turbulent.
NRe = uD/
= 1.48q
/D
= (1.48)(1000bbl/d)(65.5 lbm/ft3)/(2.259 in.)(1.2 cP)
= 35,700 > 2100 the flow is turbulent
Using Chen equation:
1/
f =
-2log{ 0.001
3.7065
(0.001)1.1098
5.0452
7.194
log [
+(
4
2.8257
3.57 x 10
3.57 x104
)0.8981 ]}
45
Flow of Fluid

f = 0.0252
4(1000 bbl/d)(5.615 ft3/bbl)(1day/86,400 s)
= 2.33 ft/s
[(2.259/12) ft]2
p F =
(0.0252)(65.5 lbm/ft3)(2.33 ft/s)2 (1000 ft)

2(32.17 ft-lbm/lbf-s2)[(2.259/12) ft]
= (740 lbf/ft2)(ft2/144 in2) = 5.14 psi

Notice that the frictional pressure drop is considerable less than the potential
energy or hydrostatic pressure drop, which it was calculated to be -292 psi in
Example No. 1
46
u = q/A = 4q/
D2 =
Flow of Fluid

Example
The 1000 bbl/d of injection water described in Examples 1 and 3 is supplied

to the wellhead through a 3000 ft long, 1 in. I.D. flow line from a central
pumping station. The relative roughness of the galvanized iron pipe is
0.004. If the pressure at the wellhead is 100 psia, what is the pressure at the
pumping station, neglecting any pressure drops through valves or other
fittings?
Solution:
/D
= 1.48(1000 bbl/d)(65.5 lbm/ft3)/(1.5 in.)(1.2 cP) = 53,900
NRe = 1.48q
1/
f =
-2log{ 0.004
3.7065
(0.004)1.1098
5.0452
7.194
log [
+(
4
2.8257
5.39 x 10
5.39 x104
)0.8981]}
f = 0.0304
47
Flow of Fluid

pF = p1 p2 =
= 5.3 ft/s
[(1.5/12) ft]2
(0.0304)(65.5 lbm/ft3)(5.3 ft/s)2 (3000 ft)

2(32.17 ft-lbm/lbf-s2)[(1.5/12) ft]
= 20,864 lbf/ft2 = (20,864 lbf/ft2) (ft2/144 in.2) = 145 psi

p1= p2 + 145 = 100 + 145 = 245 psia
This is a significant pressure loss over 3000 ft. It can be reduced
substantially by using larger pipe for this water supply, since the
frictional pressure drop depends approximately on the pipe diameter to
the fifth power
48
u = q/A = 4q/
D2 =
4(1000 bbl/d)(5.615 ft3/bbl)(1day/86,400 s)
Flow of Fluid
In oilfield units
=11.5x10-6
fQ2L L
f
u2L
pf =
2gcD
D5
Q : Liquid flow rate, bpd

f : Moddy friction factor
L : Length of the pipe, ft
: Liquid specific gravity
L
The most common use of this equation is

to determine the pipe diameter
49
Flow of Fluid
f
u2L
pf =
2gcD
=11.5x10-6
fQ2L L
D5
To determine de diameter of the pipe

The equation can not be solve directly
Assume a friction factor (start with 0.025)
Determine the Reynolds number
Read the friction factor in figure and
compare.
Iterate the solution until the friction factor
converge.
50
Flow of Fluid
Hazen-Williams Formula: To avoid iteration
1.85
HL = 0.015
4.87 1.85
Where
HL : Head loss due to friction. ft
Q : Liquid flow rate, bpd
C : friction factor constant
: 140 for new steel pipe
: 130 for Cast iron pipe
: 100 for riveted pipe
L : Length of the pipe, ft
L xw
P =HL
144
51
Pressure Drop in Liquid Pipeline

Exercise
A pipeline transport condensate (800 bpd) and water (230 bpd). The
condensate and water specific gravity are 0.87 and 1.05, respectively.
Viscosity = 3cP, Length of the pipeline 7,000 ft., Inlet pressure 900 psi
and temperature 80C.
Determine the pressure drop for 2 inch, 4 inch and 6 inch I.D, using
the general equation and Hazen Williams (Assume C=120. Assume
Old pipeline (=0.004)
52

Solution
Mixtures rule
L= X1x 1 + x2x 2 =
(230)
(800)
1.05 +
0.87
(230 +800)
(230 +800)
L= 0.91
In oilfield units
NRe =
92.35 x0.87x1030 28,853

92.35 Lq
=
=
D
D3
D
f = f(NRe,)
Pressure Drop
pf =
f
u2L
2gcD
=11.5x10
-6
fQ2L L
D5
53

Solution
Mixtures rule
Pressure Drop
pf = 11.5x10-6
pf =
=11.5x10
-6
fQ2L L
f = f(NRe,)
f
u2L
pf =
2gcD
D
f (1030)2x7000x 0.91
D5
f 77,716
5
54
6 inch
14427
0.0020
0.032
77.7
7200
0.0010
0.034
2.6
4809
0.0007
0.038
0.4
Re
/D
f (from chart)
P (psi)
2 inch
Diameter
4 inch
55
Flow of Fluid
56

Solution
Hazen-Williams
1.85
HL (ft)
P (psi)
L xw
P =HL
144
2 inch
Diameter
4 inch
6 inch
192
6.6
75.6
2.6
0.4
L
Q
HL = 0.015 4.87 1.85
D C
57
Flow
Flow of
of Fluid
Fluid
Single
Single phase:
phase: Gas
Gas
58
Flow of Fluid
Single-Phase Flow: Gas

Steady state flow in simple pipeline systems: Gas flow equations
The basic energy balance on a unit mass basis:
=
u=
MW p
ZRT
g dz + 2 f u2 dL + dWs= 0 (Energy Equation)

D gc
gc
(From the real gas law)
28.97g p
4
qsc Z
D2
ZRT
T
Tsc
psc
p
dz = sin dL and dWs = 0

ZRT dp +
28.97gp
dp + udu +
gc
g
sin +
gc
(The velocity in terms of the volumetric flow

rate at standard conditions)
(Neglecting for the time being any
kinetic energy change)
8f
2gcD5
T
Tsc
psc
p
2
qsc Z
dL = 0
59
Flow of Fluid

Where:
qsc : gas flow rate measured at standard conditions, Mscfd

psc : pressure at standard conditions, psia

Tsc : temperature at standard conditions, R
p1 : upstream pressure, psia
p2 : downstream pressure, psia
D : diameter of pipe, in
g : gas specific gravity
T : flowing temperature, R
Z : average gas compressibility
f : Moody friction factor
L : length of pipe, ft
60
Flow of Fluid

To solve this equation notice that:
Z, T and p are functions of position, z
b)
Rigorously solution need: T = T(z) and Z = Z(T,p) (Equation of

State)
c)
This approach will likely require numerical integration
d)
Alternatively,
e)
Average values of Z and T can be assumed
f)
Mean temperature (T1 + T2)/2 or Log-mean temperature
a)
Tlm = (T2 T1)/ln(T2/T1)

h)
Solving for horizontal flow yields
p12 p22 =
(16)(28.97) g f ZT
2gcD5R
pscqsc
Tsc
)L
61
Flow of Fluid

Where: f = f(NRe,)
D R Tsc
and
NRe =
4(28.97) g qsc psc
Moody diagram
= k/D
For oilfield units:

p12 p22 = 2.5175 x 10-5
g f ZT qsc2 L
D5
Where:
p : psia
q : Mscfd
D : in.
L : ft
NRe = 20.09
g qsc
: cP
T : R
62
Flow of Fluid
28.97 g p
ZRT
and
u=

In a high-rate, low-pressure line, the change in kinetic energy may be
significant. In this case, for a horizontal line, the energy balance
equation is:
dp/
+ udu/gc + 2 f u2 dL/gcD = 0
For a real gas:
4 q Z ( T )( psc )
D2 sc
Tsc p
The differential form of the kinetic energy term is

udu =
4qscZ T
D2
psc
Tsc
dp
p3
Substituting for and udu, assuming average values of Z and T

over the length of the pipeline, and integrating we obtain for oilfield
units
63
Flow of Fluid

p12 p22 = (4.195 x 10-7)
2
g Z T qsc
+ ln
p1
p2
D4
6fL
Where:
p1 and p2 are in psia
T is in R
qsc is in Mscfd
D is in in.
L
is in ft
The friction factor is obtained from the Reynolds number and pipe
roughness, with the Reynolds number given in oilfield units by
NRe = 20.09
g qsc
D
64
Flow of Fluid

NRe = 20.09
g qsc
D
The equation is an implicit equation in p and must be solved

iteratively.
It can be solved first by neglecting the kinetic energy
term; then, if ln(p1/p2) is small compared with 6fL/D, the kinetic

energy pressure drop is negligible.
65
Flow of Fluid

p12 p22 = (4.195 x 10-7)
g Z T q2sc
D4
6fL
D
+ ln
Example
Gas production from a low-pressure gas well (wellhead pressure = 100
psia) to be transported through 1000 ft of a 3.in.-I.D., line ( = 0.001) to a
compressor station, where the inlet pressure must be at least 20 psia.
The gas has a specific gravity of 0.7, a temperature of 100 F and an
average viscosity of 0.012 cP. What is the maximum flow rate possible
through this gas line?
Solution:
p1
p2
Solving for q:
qsc =
(p12 p22) D4
0.5
(4.195 x 10-7) g Z T [(6 f L/D) + ln(p1/p2)]

66
Flow of Fluid

f = 0.0196
and (2) that Z = 1 at these low pressures. Then
qsc =
qsc =
(1002 202)(3)4
0.5
(4.195 x 10-7)(0.7)(1)(560) {[(6)(0.0196)(1000)/3] + ln(100/20)}

4.73 x 109
39.2 + 1.61
0.5
= 10,800 Mscfd
Checking the Reynolds number,

NRe = (20.09)(0.7)(10,800)/[(3)(0.012)] = 4.2 x 106
67
Assuming (1) that the friction factor depends only on the pipe
roughness. Then from the Moody diagram, for high Reynolds number
and a relative roughness of 0.001
Flow of Fluid

So the friction factor based on fully rough wall

turbulence is correct.
It is found that this line can transport over 10
MMscfd. Notice that even at this high flow rate
and with a velocity five times higher at the pipe
outlet than at the entrance, the kinetic energy
contribution to the overall pressure drop is still
small relative to the frictional pressure drop.
68
Flow of Fluid

Steady state flow in series pipeline systems: Gas flow equations
Waymouth Equation
and
qsc = 1.11 D2.67
0.5
f = 0.032/D1/2
p12 p22
L g Z T1
Where:
qsc : gas flow rate, MMscfd
D : pipe internal diameter, in.
p1 : inlet pressure, psia
p2 : outlet pressure, psia
L : length of pipe, ft
g : gas gravity
T1 : temperature of gas at inlet, R
Z : compressibility factor of gas
69
Flow of Fluid

Waymouth Equation
Comments:
Moody friction factor is independent of the Reynolds

number and dependent upon the relative roughness.
For a given roughness, , the friction factor is merely a
function of diameter.
Industry experience indicates that Weymouths
equation is suitable for most piping within the
production facility.
Good for short lengths of pipe with high pressure drop
and turbulent flow
70
Flow of Fluid

Panhandle Equation
C
n
NRe
NRe = 5 x 106 to 11 x 106
n = 0.146
NRe > 11 x 106
n = 0.039
f=
Using this assumption and assuming a constant viscosity for

the gas,
0.059
p12 p22
D2.62
A) qsc = 0.020 E
g0.853 Z T1 Lm
B) qsc = 0.028 E
p12 p22
g0.961 Z T1 Lm
0.51
D2.53
71
Flow of Fluid

Panhandle Equation
Where:
E : efficiency factor
= 1.0 for brand new pipe
= 0.95 for good operating conditions
= 0.92 for average operating conditions
= 0.85 for unfavorable operating conditions
Lm : length of pipe, miles
In practice, Panhandles equations are commonly used for large

diameter, long pipelines where the Reynolds number is on the straight
line portion of the Moody diagram.
72
Flow of Fluid

Spitzglass Equation
Assuming that:
f= 1+
3.6
D
+ 0.03 D
1
100
T = 520R (60F)
p1 = 15 psi (near-atmospheric pressure lines)
Z = 1.0
p < 10%p1
73
Flow of Fluid

Spitzglass Equation
p = 12.6
D5
2
g qsc
Z T1 f L
p1 D5
or expressing pressure drop in terms of inches of water, the Spitzglass

equation can be written:
1/2
hw D5
Where:
qsc = 0.09
g L 1 +
3.6
D
+ 0.03 D
hw : pressure loss,
inches of water
74
p12 p22 = 2.5175 x 10-5
g f ZT q2sc L
Flow of Fluid

Example : Pressure Drop in Gas line

Given: Gas flow rate
= 23 MMscfd
1
Gas viscosity
= 3 cP
Gas
Gas specific gravity
= 0.85
Length
= 7,000 ft
L,D
Inlet pressure
= 900 psia
Temperature
= 80F
Z = 0.67
= 0.004 (assume old steel)
Calculate: The pressure drop in a 4-in and 6-in I. D. line using the:
1. General equation
2. Assumption of P < 10% p1
3. Panhandle B equation
4. Weymouth equation
75
Flow of Fluid

Solution:
1. General equation
NRe = 20.09
g qsc
D
20.09(0.85)(23000)
D (0.013)
p12 p22 = 2.5175 x 10-5

p12
p12
p22
= 2.5175 x
p22
10-5
30,212,269
D
g f ZT qsc2 L
D5
f(0.85)(0.67)(540)(23,000)2(7,000)
D5
2.87 x 1010 (f)

D5
76
Flow of Fluid

D
7.6 x 106
NRe
/D
f (from Moody
diagram)
5.0 x 106
0.001
0.00066
0.0198
0.0180
p12 p22
555 x 103
p2
505
6-in.
395 psi
Variable
4-in.
66 x 103
863
37 psi
77
p1= 900 psia

Flow of Fluid
Moody friction factor diagram
0.0198
0.018
78
Flow of Fluid

g qsc2 Z T1 f L
p = 12.6
p = 12.6
p1
(for p < 10%p1)
D5
(0.85)(23)2(0.67)(540)(7000) f
(900)
D5
p2 = p1 + p
4-in.
p (psi) 308
P2 (psi)
2. Approximate Equation
592
1.59 x 107 (f)

D5
6-in.
37
863
79
Flow of Fluid

3. Panhandle B equation
g0.961 Z T1 Lm
23 = 0.028 (0.95)
p22
= 810 x
103
D2.53
E = 0.95 (assumed)
0.51
(900)2 p22
D2.53
(0.85)0.961(0.67)(540)(1.33)
235 x 106
D4.96
4-in.
6-in.
p2
753
882 psi
147
18 psi
80
qsc = 0.028 E
Lm = 7000/5280 = 1.33 miles
0.51
p12 p22
Flow of Fluid

3.
Weymouth equation
qsc = 1.11 D2.67
p12 p22
0.5
L g Z T1
(900)2 p22
23 = 1.11 D2.667
1/2
(7000)(0.85)(0.67)(540)
p22
= 810
x103
9.44 x 108
D5.33
4-in.
6-in.
P2
476
862 psi
424
38 psi
81
Flow of Fluid

Solution:
6 In
4 In
P2
(psia)
P
(psia)
P2
(psia)
General
Equation
395
505
37
863
P < 10% p1
308
592
37
863
Panhandle B
Equation
Weymouth
Equation
147
753
18
882
424
476
38
862
P
(psia)
82
Flow of Fluid

Application of Gas Flow Equations: Recommended guidelines
The general gas flow equation is recommended for most general usage.
If it is inconvenient to use the iterative procedure of the general equation
and it is not known whether the Weymouth or the Panhandle equations
are applicable,
Compute the results using both Weymouth and Panhandle equations and use
the higher calculated pressure drop.
Use the Weymouth equation only for small-diameter (3-6 in.)
Use the Panhandle equation only for large-diameter (10 D)
Use the Spitzglass equation for low pressure vent lines less than 12 inches in
diameter.
When using gas flow equations for old pipe, attempt to derive the proper
efficiency factor through field tests. Buildup of scale, corrosion, liquids,
paraffin, etc. can have a large effect on gas flow efficiency.
83
Flow of Fluid
Single Phase Flow Correlations

Available.
Moody
Dry Gas Equation (AGA)
Panhandle A
Panhandle B
Weymouth
Hazen Williams
84
Flow of Fluid
Applicability of Single Phase Correlations
AGA
Panhandle A
Panhandle B
Hazen Williams
Weymouth
Horizontal
Oil Flow
Vertical Gas
Flow
Horizontal
Gas Flow

Moody
Vertical oil
Flow
85
Horizontal Pipeline
The pressure drop in horizontal pipe is

basically caused by friction.
The friction factor is a function of

Reynolds number and roughness.
86
Multiphase
Multiphase Phase
Phase Flow
Flow
87
Multiphase Flow: Concepts and Definitions

Multiphase Flow:
Is the flow of several phases.
The biphasic flow is the most simple of the
multiphase flow
There are different types of multiphase flow in the

oil industry
Gas-Liquid,
Liquid-Liquid,
Liquid-Solid,
Gas-Solid,
Gas-Liquid-Solid,
Gas-Liquid-Liquid.
Immiscible Liquids: Immiscible liquids are those
that are not soluble.
88
Multiphase Flow: Concepts and Definitions

Flow Pattern or Flow Regime: is the geometric
configuration of the phases in the pipeline. The

Flow pattern is determined by the interface
interaction or form.
Interface: is the surface that separates the two

phases.
Phase Inversion of the two immiscible

liquid dispersion: is the transition of a disperse
to a continuous phase and vice versa.
Phase Inversion Point: is the volumetric fraction

of the disperse phase that becomes a continuous
phase.
89
Multiphase Flow
Plug
Slug
Annular
Stratified Wavy
Annular Intermittent
Stratified Smooth
Stratified
Gas-liquid flow regimes: Horizontal Flow
Bubble Flow
Spray
90
Multiphase Flow
Stratified Smooth:
a distinct horizontal interface

separates the gas and liquid flows. This flow pattern is
usually observed at relatively low rates of gas and liquid
flow
Stratified Wavy :
as the airflow rate is increased, surface

waves appear on the stratified flow interface. The smooth
interface will become rippled and wavy
Plug :
for increased airflow rates the air bubbles coalesce

forming an intermittent flow pattern in which gas pockets
will develop. These pockets or plugs are entrapped in the
main liquid flow and are transported alternately with the
liquid flow along the top of the pipe
Slug :
wave amplitudes are large enough to seal the

conduit. The wave forms a frothy slug where it touches the
roof of the conduit. The slug travels with a higher velocity
than the average liquid velocity.
91
Multiphase Flow
Annular :
for high gas flow rates the liquid flows as a

film on the wall of the pipe (the annular zone), while the gas
flows in a high-speed core down the central portion of the
pipe.
Bubble :
the gas forms in bubbles at the upper surface

of the pipe. The bubble and liquid velocities are about equal.
If the bubbles are dispersed though the liquid, the flow is
termed froth flow. Bubble flow pattern occurs at relatively large
liquid flow rates, with little gas flow
Spray:
for very great gas flow rates the annular film is

stripped from the pipe walls and is carried in the air as
entrained droplets.
92
Multiphase Flow
TWO-PHASE FLOW: Gas-Liquids
Gas
Oil/Water/Gas
Mixture
Oil + Water
Most frequently encountered in:

Well tubing
Flowlines
Mixing rules are used to

predict pressure drop in
pipelines
93
Multiphase Flow
a
TWO-PHASE FLOW: Gas-Liquid
Two-phase flow variables
w
a
Mass flow rate, w (lbm/s)

a-a
w = A u u = W/
A
wL: Liquid mass flow rate

wg : Gas mass flow rate
w : Total mass flow rate
w : wL + wg
wg
Volumetric flow rate, q (ft3/s)

wL
qL : Liquid volumetric flow rate
qg : Gas volumetric flow rate

q : Total volumetric flow rate
q = qL + qg
a-a
wL = LALuL
wg = g Ag ug
94
Multiphase Flow

Liquid Holdup, HL, Gas void Fraction, , (-)
HL =
HL =
HL =
The liquid Holdup is the fraction of a volume element in the two-phase flow
field occupied by the liquid phase.
Liquid phase volume in pipe element
Pipe element volume
VL
VL + Vg
AL
A
A = AL + Ag
Gas
HL + Hg = 1
Lquido
95
Multiphase Flow

Liquid Holdup, HL, Gas void Fraction, , (-)
Similarly, the gas void fraction is the fraction of the volume element that
is occupied by the gas phase. For two-Phase flow 0 < HL or < 1, where
for single-phase flow or HL are either 0 or 1.
Ag
= 1 - HL
= Hg =
A
qg
qg + qL
Where:
qL = qo + qw
gg : is the actual gas flow rate a P y T

96
Multiphase Flow

Superficial velocity (volumetric flux), (ft/s)
The superficial velocity of a phase is the velocity which would occur if

only that phase flows alone in the pipe. It is called also the volumetric
flux, and represents the volumetric flow rate per unit area of each of
the phases. Thus the superficial velocities of the liquid and gas
phases are:
qg
qL
usL =
and
usg =
A
A
The mixture velocity is the total volumetric flow rate of both phases
per unit area, and is given by:
uM =
qL + qg
A
= usL + usg
97
Multiphase Flow

Mass Flux, G (lbm/ft2-s)
GL =
Gg =
wL
A
wg
A
The mass flux is the mass flow rate per unit area, and is given by
= Liquid mass flux
= Gas mass flux
wL + w g
G=
= Total mass flux
98
Multiphase Flow

Actual (in-situ) Velocity, u (ft/s)
The superficial velocities defined above are not the actual velocities of
the phases, as each phase occupies only a fraction of the pipe cross
section. Thus the actual velocities of the liquid and gas phase are,
respectively:
qL
uL =
=
AL
qL
usL
=
A HL
HL
qg
ug =
=
Ag
qg
usg
=
A Hg 1 - HL
Ag
g
AL
99
Multiphase Flow

Slip Velocity, uslip (ft/s)

The actual velocities of the liquid and gas phases are usually different.
The slip velocity represents the relative velocity between the two
phases
uslip = ug uL
Quality x, (-)
The quality is the ratio of the gas mass flow rate to the total mass flow
rate across a given area
wg
x= w +w =
g
L
wg
w
100
Multiphase Flow

Example No. 7
Oil and natural gas flow in a 2 I.D. horizontal pipe. The in-situ flow rates
of the oil and the natural gas are 0.147 ft3/s and 0.5885 ft3/s, respectively.
The corresponding liquid holdup is 0.35. Determine:
1. The gas and liquid velocities and the mixture velocity
2. The actual velocities of the two phases
3. The slip velocity between de gas phase and the liquid phase
Solution:
A = (2/12)2/4 = 0.021821 ft2
1.usL = qL/A = (0.147 ft3/s) /(0.021821 ft2) = 6.74 ft/s
usg = qg/A = (0.5885 ft3/s)/(0.021821 ft2) = 27 ft/s
uM = usL + usg = 6.74 + 27 = 33.74 ft/s
101
Multiphase Flow

Solution (Cont.):
2. uL = usL/HL = 6.74/0.35 = 19.26 ft/s
ug = usg/(1 HL) = 27/(1 0.35) = 41.54 ft/s
3. Uslip = ug uL = (41.54 19.26) = 22.28 ft/s
102
Multiphase Flow
Ag
Gas
ug
Gas
Liquid
uL
Liquid
AL
qL
a-a
103
Fundamental phenomena in two-phase flow

a
qg
Multiphase Flow

Fundamental phenomena in two-phase flow: Slippage and Holdup
Holdup: When gas and liquid phases flow at the same velocity.
Ug
UL
ug = uL
UL
Ug
uslip = 0 (no-slip)
HL = L = qL/(qg + qL) = usL/(usg + usL)

104
Multiphase Flow

Fundamental phenomena in two-phase flow: Slippage and Holdup
Holdup: The velocity of the gas is greater than that of the liquid. thereby
Ug
UL
Ug
UL
ug > uL
uslip 0 (slip)
HL > L = qL/(qg + qL)
105
resulting in a liquid holdup that not only affects well friction losses
but also flowing density. Liquid holdup is defined as the in-situ
flowing volume fraction of liquid, It depends of the flow pattern.
Multiphase Flow
Flow Pattern Prediction: Baker Flow Regime Map

10-1
105
10
102
103
104
Bubble
Annular
Gg
104 Wave
By =
GL
Bx = G
g
Slug
)( L )
= (
62.4
0.075
Stratified
103
Gg
Disperse
Baker Parameters
1/2
1/3
Plug
102
10-1
10
GL
Gg
102
103
104
73
L ( 62.4 )2
=
L
L
Gg = g usg
GL = g usL
106
Multiphase Flow

Flow Pattern Prediction: Beggs and Brill flow regime map
uM2
NFr =
gD
UM : Mixture velocity
D : inside pipe
diameter
g : gravitational
acceleration
: liquid input
volume fraction
107
Multiphase Flow

Flow Pattern Prediction: Taitel-Dukler flow regime map
75.0
Bubbly
10.0
Intermittent
UsL 1.00
(ft/s)
0.10
Annular
Stratified
Smooth
0.01
0.1
1.0
Stratified
Wavy
10.0
UsG
(ft/s)
100.0
900.0
108
Multiphase Flow

Flow Pattern Prediction: Mandhan flow regime map
Dispersed Flow
Bubble
Flow
Liquid superficial velocity, vSL, ft/s.
10.0
Slug Flow
1.0
Annular
Flow
Wavy
Flow
0.1
Stratified
Flow
0.01
0.1
1.0
10.0
Gas superficial velocity, vSG, ft/s

100
109
Multiphase Flow

Flow Pattern Prediction: Gregory -Mandhane-Aziz flow regime map
(Plug)
110
Multiphase Flow

Flow Pattern Prediction:
Example: Predicting horizontal gas-liquid flow

regime
Using de Baker, Mandhane, and Beggs & Brill flow regime
maps, determine the flow regime for the flow of 2000 bbl/d
of oil and 1 MMscfd of gas at 800 psia and 175F in a 2
in. I.D. pipe. The oil density and viscosity are 49.92 lbm/ft3
and 2 cP, respectively. The oil-gas surface tension is 30
dynes/cm and the gas density, viscosity and the
compressibility factor are 2.6 lbm/ ft3, 0.0131 cP and 0.935
respectively. The pipe relative roughness is 0.0006.
111
Multiphase Flow

Solution for Baker :
Gg
GL
Bx = G
g
= [(2.6/0.075)(49.92/62.4)]0.5 = 5.27
)( L )
= (
62.4
0.075
1/2
1/3
73
L ( 62.4 )2
=
L
L
Gg = g usg
Bakers parameters
By =
GL = g usL
= (73/30)[(2)(62.4/49.92)2]1/3 = 3.56
A = (2.5/12)2 /4 = 0.0341 ft2
qL = (2,000bbl/day)(5.615 ft3/bbl)/(86,400 day/s) = 0.130 ft3/s
GL = wL/A = LqL/A = LusL ,
= (49.92lbm/ft3)(0.130 ft3/s)/(0.0341ft2) (3600 s/hr) = 6.85 x 105 lbm/hr-ft2
112
Multiphase Flow

Solution for Baker :
T )( psc )
q
Z
(
qg = sc
Tsc p
qg = (106 ft3/day)(0.935)(635R/520R)(15psia/800psia) 1day/86400s=

0.2478 ft3/s
Gg = wg/A = gqg/A = gusg= (2.6 lbm/ ft3 x 0.2478 ft3/s)/(0.0341 ft2)x(3600s/hr)=

Gg =6.8x 104 lbm/hr-ft2
By =
Gg
Flow Pattern: Bubble

= 6.8x 104 lbm/hr-ft2/ 5.27= 1.29x104
Bx GL/G
g = (6.85 x 105)(5.27)(3.56)/(6.8 x 104) = 188
though the conditions are

very near the boundaries
with slug flow and
annular mist flow
113
Multiphase Flow

10-1
105
10
102
103
104
Wave
Bubble
Annular
Gg
104
Disperse
Slug
Stratified
103
Plug
102
10-1
10
GL
Gg
102
103
104
114
Multiphase Flow
115
Multiphase Flow

Solution for Mandhane map :
UsL = qL/A = 0.130 ft3/s/(0.0341 ft2) = 3.81 ft/s

Usg = qg/A = 0.2478 ft3/s/(0.0341 ft2) = 7.27 ft/s
116
The Mandhane map is simply a plot of superficial liquid velocity versus

superficial gas velocity. For our values usL = 3.81 ft/s and usg = 7.27 ft/s, the
flow regime is predicted to be slug flow.
Multiphase Flow

Flow Pattern Prediction: Mandhan flow regime map
Dispersed Flow
Bubble
Flow
Liquid superficial velocity, USL, ft/s.
10.0
Slug Flow
1.0
Annular
Flow
Wavy
Flow
0.1
Stratified
Flow
0.01
0.1
1.0
10.0
Gas superficial velocity, USG, ft/s

100
117
Multiphase Flow

Flow Pattern Prediction: Gregory -Mandhane-Aziz flow regime map
(Plug)
118
Multiphase Flow

Solution:
The Beggs & Brill map. The parameters are

uM = usL + usg = 3.81 + 7.27 = 11.08ft/s
NFr = (11.08ft/s)/[(32.17ft2/s)(2.5in/12in/ft)] = 17.8
uM2
NFr =
gD
L = usL/uM = 3.81/11.08 = 0.35

From the Beggs & Brill flow regime map, the flow regime is predicted to be
intermittent.
Slug flow is the likely flow regime.
119
Multiphase Flow

Flow Pattern Prediction: Beggs and Brill flow regime map
uM2
NFr =
gD
UM : Mixture velocity
D : inside pipe
diameter
g : gravitational
acceleration
: liquid input
volume fraction
120
Multiphase Flow

Fundamental phenomena in two-phase flow: Pressure drop correlations
General energy flow equation
g
sin
gc
f u2
2 gc D
u
gc
dp
dz =
du
dz
Three main components for predicting pressure los are:

1. Elevation or static component
2. Friction component
3. Acceleration component
Total
Loss
Loss
Loss
Pressure = Caused by + Caused by + Caused by
loss
Elevation
Friction
acceleration
121
Multiphase Flow

Energy equation for horizontal flow
dp
dz
f u2
2 gc D
u
gc
dp
dz
dp
dz =
du
dz
+
f
dp
dz acc
or neglecting the kinetic energy effects

dp
dz
dp
dz
f
122
Multiphase Flow

Pressure Loss Components
Where:
: Density, lbm/ft3
u : velocity, ft/s
D : pipe diameter, ft
g : acceleration caused by gravity, ft/s2
gc : conversion factor, lbm-ft/lbf-s2
f
: friction factor
dp/dz : pressure gradient, psi/ft
123
Multiphase Flow

Horizontal Pressure Loss Prediction Methods
Over the years, numerous correlations have been developed to

calculate the pressure gradient in horizontal gas-liquid flow. The most
commonly used in the oil and gas industry today are those of Beggs
and Brill (1973), Eaton et al. (1967), and Dukler (1969).
These
correlations all include a kinetic energy contribution to the pressure
gradient; however, this can be considered negligible unless the gas
rate is high and the pressure is low.
Correlations most widely used
1. Beggs and Brill (JPT, 607-617, May 1973)
2. Dukler (AGA, API, Vol. 1, Research Results, May 1969)
3. Eaton et al. (Trans. AIME, 240: 815-828, 1967)
124
Multiphase Flow

Beggs and Brill correlation
Correlating parameters:
NFr = um2 / gD
L = usL/um
L1 = 316 L0.302
L2 = 0.0009252 -2.4684
L3 = 0.10 L- 1.4516
L4 = 0.5 L-6.738
125
Multiphase Flow

The flow regime transitions are given by the following:

Segregated flow exist if
L < 0.01 and NFR < L1 or L 0.01 and NFR < L2
Transition flow occurs when
L 0.01 and L2 < NFR L3
Intermittent flow exist when
0.01 L < 0.4 and L3 < NFR L1 or L 0.4 and L3 < NFR L4
Distributed flow occurs if
L < 0.4 and NFR L1 or L 0.4 and NFR > L4
126
Multiphase Flow


The flow regime transitions are given by the following:
Transition flow
If the flow regime is transition flow, the liquid holdup is calculated
using both the segregated and intermittent equations and interpolated
using the following
HL = A L(segregated) + B L(intermittent)
Where: A =
L3 - NFR
L3 L2
and
B=1-A
127
Multiphase Flow

Liquid holdup, and hence, the average density

HL() = HL(0) x
HL(0) = a Lb / NFRc
With the constraint that HL(0) L and
= 1 + C[sin (1.8
) 0.333 sin3(1.8
)]
Where
C = (1 - L)ln(d Le NLVf NFRg)
Where: a, b, c, d, e, f, and g depend on the flow regime and are given in the
following tables.
C must be 0 and NLV = usL(
L/g )1/4
128
Multiphase Flow


Beggs and Brill holdup constant
Flow pattern
Segregated
0.98
0.4846
0.0868
Intermittent
0.845
0.5351
0.0173
Distributed
1.065
0.5824
0.0609
With the constraint that HL(0) L

129


Beggs and Brill holdup constant
Horizontal flow
pattern
Segregated
uphill
0.011
-3.768
3.539
-1.614
Intermittent
uphill
2.960
0.305
-0.4473
0.0978
Distributed uphill
All flow pattern
downhill
C = 0, = 1, HL f(
)
No correction
4.70
-0.3692
0.1244
-0.5056
130
Multiphase Flow

Friction factor
The frictional pressure gradient is calculated from
dp
dz
ftp n um2
2 gc D
Where: n = L L + g g
ftp = fn (ftp / fn)
131
Multiphase Flow

Friction factor
The non-slip friction factor is determined from the smooth pipe curve on a
Moody diagram or from
fn = 1/ [2 log(NRen / (4.5223 log NRen 3.8215))]2
Where: NRen = n um D / n
and
n = L L + g g
The ratio of the two-phase to no-slip friction factor is calculated from

ftp / fn = eS
132
Multiphase Flow

Friction factor
Where:
S = [ln(y)] / {-0.0523 + 3.182 ln(y) 0.8725[ln(y)]2 + 0.01853[ln(y)]4}
and
y = L / [HL()]2
The value of S becomes unbounded at a point in the interval 1 < y <1.2, for
this interval,
S = ln(2.2y 1.2)
133
Multiphase Flow

Acceleration term
The kinetic energy contribution to the pressure gradient is accounted for with a
parameter Ek as follows:
dp
dz
s um usg
acc
gc p
dp
dz
= Ek
dp
dz
Where:
Ek =
s um usg
gc p
s = L HL + g (1 HL)
The total pressure gradient can be calculate from
dp
dz
dp
dz
el
(1 Ek)
dp
dz
dp
dz f
(1 Ek)
(For horizontal flow)

134
Multiphase Flow

Exercise No. 9
Given the following information for a pipe transporting a wet gas,
qg
= 400 MMscfd
qo
= 4000 stb/D
D
= 16 in. = 1.333 ft
g
= 0.70
API
= 40
p
= 2500 psia
T
= 60 F
= 0.0006 ft
Calculate the pressure gradient using the Beggs and Brill correlation
Solution:
1. Preliminary calculations
RP = 400 x 106/4000 = 100,000 scf/stb
o = 141.5/(131.5 + 40) = 0.825
A = (1.333)2/4 = 1.396 ft2
From empirical correlations
135
Multiphase Flow

Rs = 919 scf/STBO
Bo = 1.419 bbl/STBO
Z = 0.666
o = 1.359 cP
g = 0.0233 cP = 1.566 x 10-5 lbm/ft-s
o = 4.608 dyne/cm
Using fluid physical property values:
o = 42.45 lbm/ft3
136
Multiphase Flow

qo = qo Bo = (4,000)(1.419)(5.614)/86,400 = 0.369 ft3/s

qg = qo (Rp Rs)Bg = (4,000)(100,000 919)(0.003916)/86,400 = 17.963 ft3/s
usL = qo/A = 0.369/1.396 = 0.264 ft/s
usg = qg/A = 17.963/1.396 = 12.867 ft/s
um = usL + usg = 13.131 ft/s
L = usL/um = 0-264/13.131 = 0.02
n = o L + g (1 - L) = (42.45)(0.02) + (13.66)(1 0.02) = 14.236 lbm/ft3
n = L L + g (1 - L) = (1.359)(0.02) + (0.0233)(1 0.02) = 0.05 cP
137
g = 13.96 lbm/ft3
Bg = 0.003916 ft3/scf
Multiphase Flow

2. Determine flow regime

NFR = um2/gD = (13.131)2/(32.2 x1.333) = 4.02
L1
= 316 L0.302 = 96.96
= 0.0009252 L-2.4684 = 14.45

Since L =.01 and NFR < L2
Flow regime is segregated
L2
3. Determine liquid holdup

HL(0) = (0.98) (0.02)0.4846/(4.02)0.0868 = 0.13
4. Determine friction factor
numD/
n = 7.416 x 106
NRen = 1488
138
Multiphase Flow

fn = 1 / [2 log(NRen/ (4.5223 log NRen 3.8215))]2

= 0.00846
y = L /[HL(0)]2 = 0.02 /(0.13)2 = 1.18343
Since 1 < y < 1.2, then
S = ln(2.2 y 1.2) = ln(2.2 x 1.18343 1.2) = 0.339
ftp/fn = eS = e0.339 = 1.4035
ftp = fn (ftp/fn) = (0.00846)(1.4035) = 0.01187
139
Multiphase Flow

5) Determine (dp/dz)f
2
f
u
tp
n
m
(dp/dz)f =
=
2 gc D
(0.01187)(14.236)(13.131)2
(2)(32.17)(1.333)
= 0.340 psf/ft
6) Determine Ek
Ek = s um usg/ gc p
s = L HL + g (1 HL)
= (42.45)(0.13) + 13.66)(1 0.13) = 17.4 lbm/ft3
Ek = (17.4)(13.131)(12.867)/[(32.17)(2500)(144)] = 0.00025
140
Multiphase Flow

7) Determine the total pressure gradient

dp/dz = (dp/dz)f / (1 Ek) = 0.340/(1 0.00025)
= 0.340 psf/ft
= 0.00236 psi/ft
141
Multiphase Flow

Dukler Friction Factor

(dp/dz)f = f k um2 / 2 gc D
Where k = L L2 / HL + g g2 / Hg
f / fn = 1 + y / [1.281 0.478y + 0.444y2 0.094y3 + 0.00843y4]
Where y = ln(
L)
142
Dukler et al Correlation (case II Constant slip)

The Dukler et al correlation was based on similarity analysis and the friction
factor and the liquid holdup correlations were developed from field data.
This correlation is recommended in a design manual published jointly by
the AGA and API
Multiphase Flow

Dukler Friction Factor

fn = 0.0056 + 0.5 NRek-0.32
Where NRek = k um D / n
um = usL + usg
n = L L + g g
Dukler Liquid Holdup
An iterative or trial and error procedure is required to obtain a value of liquid
holdup using Duklers method. That is
143
Multiphase Flow

HL = f(
L, NRek)
and
NRek = f(HL)
The correlation is given in a graphical form with liquid holdup plotted

versus no-slip holdup with Reynolds number as a parameter. The
procedure for obtaining a holdup value is
Dukler Liquid Holdup
1) Calculate L
2) Estimate HL
3) Calculate NRek
4) Obtain HL from graph
5) Compare values of HL from step 2 and 4. If they are not sufficiently close,
set the value obtained in step 4 as the new value and return to step 3.
Agreement within 5% is considered close enough
144
Multiphase Flow

Dukler Acceleration Term

dp
dz
or
=
acc
Ek =
gc dz
1
gc dp
g usg2
Hg
g usg2
Hg
The total pressure gradient is
L usL2
HL
L usL2
HL
dp
=
dz
dp
dz
1 - Ek
f
145
Multiphase Flow

Example No. 10
Calculate the pressure gradient for the problem of Example No. 9 using
the Dukler et al. correlation and neglecting kinetic energy effects.
Solution:
1)Determine Liquid Holdup
Assume HL = 0.02
k = L L2 / HL + g g2 / Hg = (42.45)(0.02)2/(0.02) + (13.66)(0.98)2/(0.98)
= 14.236 lbm/ft3
NRek = 1488 k um D/
n = 7.416 x106
146
Multiphase Flow

HL = 0.02 convergence is obtain in the
2) Determine friction factor

fn = 0.0056 + 0.5 NRek-0.32 = 0.00877
y = -ln(
L) = -ln(0.02) =
f/fn = 1 + y / [1.281 0.478y + 0.444y2 0.094y3 + 0.00843y4] = 2.57
f = fn (f/fn) = (0.00877)(2.57) = 0.0225
147
From the figure for NRek =

first iteration.
Multiphase Flow

3) Determine pressure gradient
dp/dz = (dp/dz)f = f k um2 / 2 gc D = (0.0225)(14.236)(13.131)2 / [(2)(32.174)(1.333)]

= 0.6439 psf/ft
= 0.00447 psi/ft
148
Multiphase Flow

Eaton et al Correlation
Eaton Friction Factor

dp
f n um2
f wm2
= 2g D =
d
c
2 gc D A2 n
f
z
The two-phase friction factor is correlated with the group
f
wL
wm
0.1
0.057 (wg wm)0.5

g D2.25
This group is dimensionless for the units of lbm, ft, s. The

correlation is shown in graphical form. The viscosity has the units
of lbm/ft-s
149
Multiphase Flow
wm
wL 0.1
Friction Factor Eaton et al. Correlation
0.057 (wg wm)0.5

150
g
D2.25
Multiphase Flow

1.84 NLv0.575
Ngv Nd0.0277
p 0.05 0.1
NL
pb
Where: NLv = usL ( L /g

)1/4
Nd = D ( Lg /
)1/2
Ngv = usg ( L /g
)1/4
NL = L ( g/
L3)1/4
pb = 14.65 psi
HL is needed only for calculating the acceleration term
151
Eaton et al. Correlation

Eaton Liquid Holdup
Eatons analysis for acceleration loss requires a value of liquid holdup since
the acceleration term is based on change in actual gas and liquid velocities.
Liquid holdup was correlated with the following dimensionless group.
Multiphase Flow

Eaton et al. liquid Holdup Correlation
152
Multiphase Flow

Eaton Acceleration Term

The pressure gradient due to acceleration is given by
dp
dz
acc
wL uL2 + wg ug2
2 gc qm dz
Where uL2 = uL2(p1,T1) uL2(p2,T2)

and
ug2 is similarly defined
If we define Ek as
Ek = dz
dp
dp
dz
ac
c
wL uL2 + wg ug2
2 gc qm dp
The total pressure gradient can be calculated from:
dp
=
dz
dp
dz
1 - Ek
f
153
Multiphase Flow

Solution:
1)Determine friction factor
wL = L qL = (42.45)(0.369) = 15.664 lbm/ft3
wg = g qg = (13.66)(17.963) = 245.375 lbm/ft3
wm = wL + wg = 261.039 lbm/ft3
The correlation parameter
154
Example No. 11
Calculate the pressure gradient for the problem of Example No. 9 using the
Eaton et al. correlation and neglecting kinetic energy effects.
Multiphase Flow

0.057 (wg wm)0.5

g
D2.25
(0.057)[(245.375)(261.039)]0.5
(1.566 x
10-5)(1.333)2.25
Example No. 11
Calculate the pressure gradient for the problem of Exercise No. 9 using the
Eaton et al. correlation and neglecting kinetic energy effects.
= 4.822 x 105
From figure, Ordinate = 0.011

f = Ordinate/(wL/wm)0.1 = 0.011/(15.664/ 261.039)0.1 = 0.01457
2) Determine liquid holdup (Note this is not required since kinetic
energy effects are neglected.)
NLv = 1.938 usL (
L / L)1/4 = (1.938)(0.264)(42.45/4.608)1/4 = 0.891
Ngv = 1.938 usg (
L / L)1/4 = (1.938)(12,867)(42.45/4.608)1/4 = 43.439
155
Multiphase Flow

Nd = 120.872 D (
L / L)1/2 = (120.872)(1.333)(42.45/4.608)1/2 = 489.05
1.84 NLv0.575
Ngv Nd0.0277
p 0.05 0.1 1.84 (0.891)0.575

NL =
pb
(43.439) (489.05)0.0277
2500
14.65
0.05
(0.0266)0.1 = 0.03
From the figure HL = 0.09

3) Determine pressure gradient
dp
=
dz
dp
dz
f wm2
=
2 =
2
g
D
A
c
n
f
(0.01457)(261.039)2
(2)(32.174)(1.333)(1.396)2(14.236)
= 0.417 psf/ft = 0.0029 psi/ft

156
NL = 0.15726 L [1 / (L L3)] = (0.15726)(1.359)[1 / (42.45 x 4.6083)] = 0.0266
Flow of Fluid
Flow in Horizontal Pipes
Example of the simulation of the horizontal stratified two-phase flow

using the lattice Boltzmann method: It is observed that the wave,
which is generated at the flow inlet, moves downstream and is
deformed by the flow velocity difference between the two phases. The
color distribution represents the distribution of the flow velocity in
the flow direction
157
Flow of Fluid
Multiphase Flow Correlations
Industry Standard Correlation.
Dans & Ros
Orkiszewsk
Hagedorn & Brown
Beggs & Brill (Original & Revised)
Govier, Aziz & Forgarasi
Noslip
AGA & Flanigan
Oliemans
Gray
158
Flow of Fluid
Applicability of Two Phase Correlations
Oil Pipeline

Govier,
Aziz &
Forgarasi
Noslip

Oliemans
Gray
Dans
& Ros
Orkiszewsk
Hagedorn
& Brown
Beggs
& Brill
(Original & Revised)
AGA
& Flanigan
Gas
Condensate
Vertical Gas
Condensate
Vertical oil
Well
159
Effect of Flow Pattern on Pipeline corrosion

The presence of water in pipeline can cause
severe corrosion
Corrosion Rate depends on the flow pattern
Pipeline internal inspection shows that the

highest corrosion rate is obtained when low
flow velocity generates phase segregation
(stratified phases)
The deposition of water with solids
generates pitting corrosion and colonies of
SRB (sulfate reducing bacteria) at the
bottom of the pipeline
160

Flow Pattern is one the main consideration for corrosion risk on pipelines
Flow Diagram for Corrosion Risk evaluation on pipeline
START
STOP!!
NO CORROSION
POSSIBLE
STEADY STATE
CORROSION
YES
YES
DETERMINE
FLOW REGIME
IS
LIQUID WATER
POSSIBLE?
NO
STOP!!
NO CORROSION
POSSIBLE
IS
FLOW
DISRUPTION
PRESENT?
NO
NO
CAN
LIQUID WATER
CONTACT
WALL?
YES
TURBULENT
DEGREE
OF WATER
TURBULENT
EQUILIBRIUM
CORROSION
STAGNANT OR
LAMINAR
161

Type of Corrosion Under Multiphase Flow
Flow Pattern
2 phases gas/water
flow
Stratified
Free water
localization
Water Turbulence
Bottom
Stagnant to Laminar
Generally in the bottom,

circumferential mixed
Very Turbulent
Turbulent
Corrosion under
deposit
Corrosion induced
by flow
Corrosion induced
by flow
Slug
Type Of
Corrosion
Annular
2 phases oil/water flow
Segregated (Stratified)
Mixed
Bottom of the pipeline
Stagnant to Laminar

mixed.
Laminar to Turbulent
Turbulent
Dispersed
Mixed
3 phases gas/oil/water
flow
Stratified
Bottom of the pipeline,

separated
Slug
Annular
Stagnant to Laminar
Very Turbulent

mixed
Circumferential
Possible Turbulent
Corrosion under
deposit
Corrosion under
deposit
Corrosion induced
by flow
Corrosion under
deposit
Corrosion induced
by flow
Corrosion induced
by flow
162
Standards and Practices

Minimum pipeline transition velocity for
different mixing elements, ASTM-4177
163
Use of
of Software
Software
Use
-Liquid Line
Line Sizing
Sizing
-Liquid
-Gas Line
Line Sizing
Sizing
-Gas
-Multiphase Line
Line Sizing
Sizing
-Multiphase
164
Pipesim Session
Session
Pipesim
Gathering Network
Network Modeling
Modeling
Gathering
Gas Transmission
Transmission Modeling
Modeling
Gas
165
PIPESIM Network Analysis

1 day session
166
Network Simulation
Rigorous and comprehensive steady-state

multiphase network simulator
Combines the detailed well modeling capability of
the single branch model with the ability to solve
large complex networks
Networks of any size and topology (loops, multiple
sources & sinks, parallel flowlines, crossovers)
In-line flashing, black oil/compositional
Rigorous thermodynamic calculations
All single branch components can be included in a
network
167
Model Example
168
Model Example
Network Model
has no
Maximum Node
Limit
791 Wells
977 Branches
949 Nodes
169
Types of Networks
Gathering flowline systems
Distribution
(including
water
injection and gas lift distribution)
Looped networks (calculations in
flow direction
around the system)
Transmission lines systems
170
Steps in building a model

n Set units & job title
n Define components in the model:

n branches (flowline or trunklines)
n Enter physical data for each component
n Define global/local fluid models and flow
correlations
171
Basic Design
Design
Basic
Considerations
Considerations
172
General Considerations
The pipe design takes into consideration
pipe diameter and wall thickness selection
The idea is to find the internal diameter that

satisfies the flow regime for a given
pressure.
The procedure is by try and error (iterative
solution).
Select the diameter and the pressure drop is
calculated for a required flow.
173
Basic Design Considerations

Pressure drop through pipeline components
Pipe (Procedure).
For a diameter and flow, determine the

Reynolds number
Estimate the friction factor
Calculate the friction pressure drop
Obtain the total pressure drop
174

Elbows (Procedure).
Determine Reynolds number for a

given diameter and flow
Estimate the friction factor
P =2.16x10-4
K
U
2gc
U2
P =1.08x10-4 K
P =2.16x10
-4
K
Q2
d4
Where
P : Pressure drop, psia
K : Resistance coefficient
: Density, lbm/ft3
U : Flow velocity, ft/s
d : Internal diameter, in
Q : Flow rate, gpm
175

Resistance Coefficient for elbows
176

177

178

Valves (Procedures).
Obtain the resistance coefficient using

L/D from table and figures, same
procedure than elbows.
179

Valve Equivalent Lengths L y L/D y
and Resistance coefficient k
180
181
182
183
184
Pipeline Design
Design
Pipeline
185
Pipelines Around the World
186
Pipeline Design - Fundamental Elements

Pipeline design includes:
Selection of the route traversed by the pipe
Determination fluid to be transported and
the operational conditions
Calculation of pressure gradient
Selection of pumps and other equipment

Determination
material
of
pipe
thickness
and
Engineering economic analysis and a

market analysis to determine the optimum
system based on alternate designs
Each
design
considerations:
must
have
the
following
Safety
Leak and damage prevention
Government regulations
Environmental concerns
187
Pipeline Legislation
Pipeline Legal/Statutory Position
The operation of transmission pipelines

is usually controlled by national
regulations or laws. The selection of a
design code, or design calculations are
often limited by these regulations/laws.
USA
Regulations based heavily on the ASME
B31 standards.
188
Pipeline Design Codes

Oil and gas pipeline codes:
ANSI/ASME
B31.4
Petroleum Transportation
Liquid
ANSI/ASME
B31.8
Gas
Transmission and Distribution
Pipeline System
Others.
IGE/TD/1 is for methane gas only
In 1993 BS 8010 was introduced
International (ISO)
ISO 13623 - This is an
international pipeline standard,
covering oil and gas lines.
189

Pipeline Design Codes - Oil and Gas
Pipeline Codes treat oil and gas pipelines different
For oil pipelines:
No account is taken of population density in the

location of the pipelines
There is no specified distance to occupied buildings
It can generally build an oil pipeline with a high design
factor (0.72) in most locations.
For gas pipelines:
Account is taken of population density
Minimum distance from occupied buildings is specified
Design factor is lowered in populated areas (0.3 in UK,
0.4 in USA)
190

American Lifelines Alliance Matrix of Standards
and Guidelines for Natural Hazards:
Oil Product System
Aboveground Piping
Pumping Station Piping

Well Facilities
Refineries
Storage Tanks
Guide/Standard
Loading
Design
ASME/ANSI B31.4
ASME/ANSI B31.4
ASME/ANSI B31.3
API 2510
API 2508
ASME/ANSI B31.4
ASME/ANSI B31.3
API 2510
ASME/ANSI B31.4
ASME/ANSI B31.3
API RP 14E
ASME/ANSI B31.3
ASME BPV
API 2508
API 620
API 650
API 2508
None
None
None
None
None
Earthquake, Wind, Ice
None
None
None
None
None
None
Earthquake, Wind
None
None

Earthquake, Wind
Earthquake, Wind
Earthquake, Wind
Earthquake, Wind
Component
System Reliability
Buried Pipelines
Natural Hazard Provisions
191

American Lifelines Alliance Matrix of Standards
and Guidelines for Natural Hazards:
192
Pipeline Design - Location Classification

No restriction in this zone
Proximity
Corridor with
Limit building in this zone

Prevent, or severely limit,
Building in this zone
Prevent, or severely limit,

Building in this zone
Limit building in this zone
No restriction in this zone
193
Location Classification - USA

ANSI B 3 1.8
Classification
Area
Design Factor (hoop

stress/SMYS)
Sparsely populated areas,

farmland, deserts. One mile
section that has 10 or fewer
buildings
0.80
Class 1 (Div 2)
Sparsely populated areas,

farmland, deserts
0-10 buildings (rural)
0.72
Class 2
Fringe areas around cities and

towns) 11 45 buildings (area
around towns)
0.60
Class 3
Residential and industrial

areas. 46+ dwellings (e.g.
suburban)
0.50
Class 4
Dense areas with multi-story

buildings. Multi story buildings
0.40
Specified Minimum Yield Strength (SMYS)
Class 1 (Div 1)
194
Location Classification
Design Factors for Steel pipe Construction
ANSI 31.8
195
Location Classification
Design Factors for Steel pipe Construction
ANSI 31.8
196
Location Classification - Consequences
Gas Transmission Pipeline

Stress corrosion cracking
failure of 20-inch diameter
transmission natural gas
pipeline.
Southwest China's Sichuan

Province, January 2006. 9 killed 40 injured
197
Location Classification - Consequences
Gas Line,
12 dead,
86ft crater,
Internal corrosion
suspected.
198
Detailed Design - Design Stresses

Most pipelines around the world
have a maximum design factor of
0.72. To make sure that pipelines do
not fail by:
Buckling
Burst
Fatigue
Structural collapse (buckling)

Fatigue
Fracture
The design must prevent
Fracture
Loss of concentricity
Displacements
Therefore, It is necessary to control
the stresses below a design level or
design factor.
199
Design: Hoop Stress

Stress = Force/Area
Force is pressure in pipe

Area is function of diameter and
wall thickness
The internal pressure causes a
hoop stress
This stress tries to expand the
circumferences of the pipe
p D-2t
=
2t
= hoop stress
p
D
t
= internal pressure
= Outside diameter (conservative)
= wall thickness
200
Design: Axial Stress
The pressure also causes an axial

stress, that tries to elongate the
pipeline.
0.3xhoop stress if expansion

of the pipe is restricted, e.g. it
is buried and restrained by the
surrounding soil.
0.5xhoop stress if the pipe is
capped and free to expand,
e.g at bends.
201
The magnitude of this axial stress

is:
The 0.72 Design Factor

Most pipelines have a maximum design factor of
0.72
From ASME B31 Standard. A 72% SMYS

design stress is additionally based on
conservative assumptions, e.g. minimum wall
thickness.
The 72% SMYS limit based on the mill testing of
pipelines.
The mill test was typically 90% SMYS.
Operators agreed that a 1.25 safety factor on
this was reasonable, therefore the 72% SMYS
limit was created, and appeared in ASME
B31.8.
202
Design Hoop Stress
203
Overpressures
204
Offshore Pipeline Design
API Recommended Practice 1111, Design,

Construction, Operation, and Maintenance
of Offshore Hydrocarbon Pipelines (Limit
State Design)
Offshore Steel Pipelines, CSA Z662-99, Oil
and Gas Pipeline Systems
205

Minimum Burst Pressure, Pb
Or
D
Pb= 0.45(S+U)ln
Di
Pb= 0.90(S+U)
D-
Pb = minimum burst pressure, psi

S = 60 ksi, specified minimum yield strength (SMYS)
U = 75 ksi, specified minimum ultimate tensile
strength
t = 0.50 in, nominal wall thickness
D = 24.0 in, outside diameter
206

Hydrostatic Test Pressure, Pt
Pt = (Fd)(J)(T)(Pb)
where
Pt = hydrostatic test pressure, psi
Fd = 0.90, internal pressure (burst) design factor
J = 1.0, longitudinal weld joint factor
T = 1.0, temperature de-rating factor
Pb =minimum burst pressure, psi
207

Design Pressure, Pd
Pd = (0.80)(Pt)
where
Pd = design pressure, psi
Pt = 2326.6 psi, hydrostatic test pressure
208
Pipeline Design
Codes and standards
Materials
Internal corrosion
External corrosion
Insulation
Wall thickness
Stability
Upheaval Buckling (subsea)
Spans
209
Subsea Pipeline Design: Upheaval Buckling
210
Pipeline Design
Wall Thickness Criteria
Several standards throughout the world in

calculating required wall thickness.
ANSI 31.4 Liquid Petroleum Transportation
Piping System. Normally used in onshore
oil production
ANSI
31.8
Gas
Transmission
and
Distribution Piping System. Normally used
for gas line in onshore production facilities
ANSI 31.3 Chemical Plant and Petroleum
refinery Piping. It is used extensively for
offshore facilities
211
Pipeline Design
p D-2t
=
2t
From Hoop Stress
pD
t=
2 + P
212
Pipeline Design
ANSI B 31.3
100
2 SE + PY
100 + Tol
t = tc +
p Do
tc
= Corrosion allowance, normally 0.05 in

P = internal pressure, psia
Do = Outside diameter, in
t
= required wall thickness, in
S = Allowance stress for pipe material (see tables)
E = Longitudinal weld joint factor, 1.00 for seamless and 0.85 for ERW
= 0.80 electrical fusion weld
= 0.60 for furnace butt welded pipe
Tol = manufacturers' allowed tolerance
= 12.5% for API 5L pipe up to 20-in. diameter
=10% for API 5L pipe greater than 20-in. diameter)
Y = 0.4 for ferrous materials below 900F
213
Pipeline Design
214
Pipeline Design
215
Examples of
allowable stresses
for piping system
within the scope of
ANSI/ASME B31.4
Pipeline Design
216
Examples of
allowable stresses
for piping system
within the scope of
ANSI/ASME B31.4
Pipeline Design
217
Dimensions, weight
and maximum
allowable working
pressure of
petroleum line pipe,
API 5L
Pipeline Design
218
Dimensions,
weight and
maximum
allowable
working
pressure of
petroleum line
pipe, API 5L
Pipeline Design
ANSI B 31.8
t=
P
D
S
E
Y
F
T
2 FETS
p Do
= Required wall thickness, in

= internal pressure, psi
= Outside diameter, in
= minimum yield strength, psi
= Longitudinal weld joint factor, 1.00 for seamless, ERW
= Factor, 0.4 for ferrous material below 900F
= design factor (see table)
= temperature derating factor (see table)
ANSI B 31.4
t is the same as that for ANSI B 31.8 except the safety factor is fixed
at F = 0.72
219
Pipeline Design
ANSI B 31.8
220
Pipeline Design
221
Pipeline Design
Design F factor
222
Pipeline Design: Reason to Design

Installation
External pressure
Internal pressure
Protection from external impact

External corrosion
Internal corrosion
Stability
Spans
Buckling (Subsea)
223
Common Pipeline Design Codes

DnV 81
DnV 76
DnV 96
OS-F101 (DnV 2000)

BS 8010 Part 3
ASME/ANSI B31.8
ASME/ANSI B31.4
ASME/ANSI B31.3
API 1111 (Subsea)
CSA Z662-99
API 5L
224
Pipeline Design
Exercise
225
A 38 API crude oil flows at 100.000 bpd in a 16 in, standard wall

pipeline. Grade B carbon steel pipe with 35,000 psi yield strength
will be used. The service is type A, crosscountry, including
crossing in casings. What will be the design pressure rating of the
pipe. The flowing temperature is 70F
Pipeline Design
Exercise
Solution:
Maximum allowable
working pressure =
1181 psi
4
226
Erosional Flow
Fluid Erosion Occurs
Experiments in twophase flow systems indicate that

erosion of the products of corrosion occurs when
the velocity of flow exceeds the value given by:
227
Fluid erosion occurs when liquid droplets impact the

wall with enough force to erode the products of
corrosion, exposing the metal to the fluid and
allowing more corrosion to occur.
Erosional Flow
Fluid Erosion Occurs
Liquid
Ve =
C
1/2
(m)
Where
Ve : Erosional flow velocity, ft/s
m : Density of the fluid, lb/ft3
C : Empirical constant
: 150 to 200 for continuous,
non-corrosive or corrosion
controlled services
: 250 have been used successfully.
Small amount of liquid in gas
Ve =0.6C
T
g P
1/2
Where
T : Density of the fluid, lb/ft3
C : Erosional Flow Constant.
g
P
: specific gravity of gas at standard conditions

: Pressure, psia
API Recommended Practice 14E, "Design and Installation

of Offshore Production Platform Piping Systems,"
228
Erosional Flow
For corrosive and erosive service
D
Ve = Ks
1/2
(Qs)
Where
Qs : Solids (sand) flow rate, ft3/day
Ks : Fitting factor
D : Pipe inside diameter, in
229
Erosional Flow
Erosive Service Fitting Factor
230
Liquid Lines
Velocity in Liquid line
V =0.012
Ql
2
d
231
Gas Lines
Velocity in Gas Line
Field Units
V =60
Qg T Z
2
PD
Where
V
: Gas velocity, ft/s
T
: Temperature, R
D
: Internal diameter of the pipe, in.
Qg : Gas flow rate, MMscfd

P
Z
: Pressure, psia
: Compressibility factor
232
Pipeline Design
Design Exercise
Exercise
Pipeline
233

Exercise
A pipeline transport condensate (800 bpd) and water (230 bpd). The
condensate and water specific gravity are 0.87 and 1.05, respectively.
Viscosity = 3cP, Length of the pipeline 7,000 ft., Inlet pressure 900 psi
and temperature 80C.
Liquid flow a low pressure separator at 150 psi, the line is rated for
1480 psi.
Choose a line size and wall thickness using B 31.3, B 31.4,
and B 31.8.
Consider Vmax= 15 ft/s and Vmin = 3 ft/s
234
Determine the pressure drop for 2 inch, 4 inch and 6 inch I.D, using
the general equation and Hazen Williams (Assume C=120. Assume
Old pipeline (=0.004)

Solution
P = Line pressure low pressure separator
P = 900 150 = 750 psi
Velocity
V=
Qg
A
V =0.012
V = 15 ft/s
V = 3 ft/s
V =0.012
Qg
2
D
1030
2
D
D = 2.03 in
D = 0.91 in
235
236

Solution
ANSI B 31.3
t = 0.05 +
100
2 SE + PY
100 + Tol
1480 x 2.375
100
2 20000x1 + 1480x0.4
100 + 12.5
t = tc +
P Do
t = 0.155 in
Standard weight pipe
237
Pipeline Design
238

Solution
ANSI/ASME B 31.4
t=
2 FETS
Standard diameter for 2 inch

nominal diameter
1480 x2.375
2x0.72x1.0x1.0x35000
t =0.0697 in
F= 0.72 for B31.4
Minimum yield
strength see
table
239
t=
p Do
240
Pipeline Design
ANSI B 31.8
241
Pipeline Design
Design F factor
242

Solution
ANSI B 31.8
t=
2 FETS
t=
p Do
1480 x2.375
2x0.6x1.0x1.0x35000
t =0.0837 in
243
Pipeline Design
Design F factor
244
Use of
of Software
Software
Use
-Piping Design
Design (ANSI/ASME)
(ANSI/ASME)
-Piping
245
Pipeline Construction
Construction
Pipeline
246
247
Trenching
Trenching machines
uses
to
excavate
pipeline trench
Topsoil is removed from

the
work
area
and
stockpiled.
is
a
The U.S. Department of

Transportation
requires
the top of the pipe to be
buried a minimum of 30
inches below the ground
surface in rural areas
248
Pipeline Stringing
Distribute the various

pipe joints according to
the design plan, the type
of coating and wall
thickness (depend on soil
conditions).
249
Pipe Bending
Bending machine makes

slight bends in the pipe to
account for changes in
the pipeline route and to
conform
to
the
topography.
250
Pipe Welding
Side booms picks up each joint

of pipe, align it with previous
joint and make first part (pass)
of the well
Pipe gang move down the line
to the next section repeating
the process.
Welding is done according to
specifications
Welding must be approved
according
to
welding
inspection specifications
251
Coating
Coating is applied to inhibit
corrosion.
Done in coating facilities, then

delivered to construction site
The uncoated area at the joint
(3 to 6 inches from each end) is
coated after welding
Different coating system can
be applied (Liquid Epoxy, FBE,
wraps, etc)
252
Lowering
to
place
Use side booms

pipeline in the hole.
Non-metallic slings protect the

pipe and the coating as it is
lifted and moved into position
253
Backfilling
Uses
a
backhoe
or
padding
machine
depending of the soil
makeup.
The pipe and coating
must be protected as soil
is returned to the trench
254
Land Drain
Typical Repair of land drain cut by trench

255
Hydrostatic test
The final construction quality assurance test.
Done according to specification
The pipeline may be divided into section to

facilitate the test
Each section is filled with water upto a level
specified.
The pressure is held for specific period of time.
After test the pipeline is dried to assure it has no
water in it before fluid in put into the pipeline
256
Hot Tap, Stopple and By pass
Hot Tap.
Used to connect a new pipeline to another existing and

operational pipelines
Can be undertaken without the need for the pipeline to
be shut down. It is preferable in gas pipeline
Stopple
A way to isolating sections of live pipelines without the
need to stop operations and make-safe by evacuating
product from line and then cleaning/nitrogen purging
By pass
Once isolated the by pass can be used to maintain
product while repairs or maintenance are undertaken
on the pipeline
257
Hydrotesting
Hydrotesting
258
Pipeline Hydrotesting
Transmission pipelines are tested by
pressurizing them with water before going
into service.
Natural gas or air are not used to test at

high pressures
Hydrostatic
testing
of
transmission
pipelines is widely accepted as a means of:
Checking for leaks
Proving the strength of the pipeline
Removing defects of a certain size (the
higher the stress level in the test, the
more defects likely to fail)
Reducing residual stresses
259
Before Hydrotesting Pipelines
As required, pig launchers and receivers are

welded to the ends of the pipeline section
undergoing hydrostatic testing.
Remove natural gas liquids, lubricating oil,
and scale.
Once pre-pigging is completed, a high volume
pumping system is used to fill the pipe with
water.
After the pipe is full, the pumping system
increases the pressure to the desired level.
260
Hydrotesting Pipelines
Historically,
pipelines,
pressure
vessels and piping have been tested
from 1.1 to 1.5 times the design
pressure.
High level tests are popular in gas
pipeline codes. IGE/TD/1 requires
seam welded pipe to be tested to a
design
factor
of
1.05
(i.e.
105%SMYS).
261
Hydrotesting Safety Margin
262
Before Hydrotesting Pipelines

Treated with chemicals to prevent pipeline corrosion, clean
the pipeline, and/or stabilize the pH of the water
corrosion inhibitors
surfactants/cleaning agents
They may be present in the discharge test water and require
monitoring and treatment (regulations)
However, chemicals usually are not added to hydrostatic
test water in onshore lines
Offshore pipelines can be tested using seawater (O2
scavenger, inhibitor, and also biocide may be needed).
If fresh seawater (less than 3 months old) is used,
biocide may not be needed in most water depths
263
After the Hydrotest
Following completion of a hydrostatic test,

a pig can be used to push the water out of
the pipeline.
Solutions
can
be
used
during
pigging/precleaning activities to enhance
removal of material adhering to the interior
of the pipeline.
The pig is moved through the main
pipeline, typically with natural gas.
264
Pre-Service and In Service Hydrotesting

If the pipeline will be hydrotested (e.g. Preservice), always test a pipe to the highest
possible stress:
With biaxial stress, a buried pipeline

yields at ~1.09 SMYS, therefore
Yielding is unlikely at 100% SMYS,
Do not test over 110% SMYS,
Yielding does not harm pipe,
Yielding does not harm coating.
Test needs only to be 2 hours.
265
Pre-Service and In Service Hydrotesting

If In service hydrotesting is not always best
option:
Water is difficult to obtain, expensive

and polluting, Smart pigs can be better
Most of the pipe in a pipeline is usually
sound. It makes sense to use a
technique that will find the critical
defects and allow their repair, as
opposed to testing the entire pipeline
when it is unnecessary.
266
Hydrotesting Criticalities
Temperature
Ensure buried ground temperature at a

depth equal to that of the pipe
Commence measurements several days
before the test to a repeatable accuracy
Measure temperature of water entering
pipeline and allow stabilization
Carry out calculations for a range of
temperature variations in advance
267
Safety. Ensure crew are experienced

Acceptance. Extend the test if
necessary until a conclusive result is
obtained
268
Failures
Bursts are obvious, but

not common. Leaks can
take ages to find
Use liquid Nitrogen to
freeze a plug at halfway
point
Pressure loss will double
in affected section
Go to quarter point,
eighth point etc. until
remaining section can be
excavated by hand to find
leak
269
Use of
of Software
Software
Use
-Piping Considerations
Considerations
-Piping
-Hot Tap
Tap Design
Design
-Hot
-Stub Hydrostatic
Hydrostatic Pressure
Pressure Test
Test
-Stub
-Pipe Weight
Weight Coating
Coating
-Pipe
270
Pigging
Pigging
271
Why Pig?
Pigs help operation and efficiency by:

Removing substances (deposits) and

debris that may hinder process
systems or form corrosion cells
Help detect defects
Providing
hydrotest
an
alternative
to
the
272
Pigging
273
Pipeline Pig
Pipeline Pigs
In line inspection tools
`Metal Bodied
(Mandrel Pigs)
Solid Cast
Uni-Directional
Bi-Directional
(Cup)
(Disc)
Standard
Foam Pigs
Hard
Spheres
Soft
Solid
Medium
Special Pigs
Inflatable
Conical
274
Utility Pigs
Pigging Construction Characteristics

Three elements to be considered
Pig body: carbon
polyurethane
steel,
The type of seal: discs,

standards cups, conical cups
Modern Mandrel Pigs
The
fittings:
brushes,
scrapers
blades,
plough
blades, transmitter, housing,
gauging plates, magnets, etc.
Subsequent pigs can be sent in
trains and can comprise wire
brush pigs, magnetic pigs or
scraper pigs
275
Pig Functions
Debris removal
Cleaning
Gauging
Filling
De-watering
Drying
Separation (batching)
Condensate removal
Meter proving
Product displacement
Gel pigging
Coating application
276
The Uses of Pigs - General

Construction
Maintenance and
Repair
Corrosion inhibitor,
pre-inspection
cleaning,
decommissioning,
isolation,
recommissioning
Pipe wall cleaning.

Condensate Removal
Product separation.
Applying inhibitor
Inspection
Check for physical
damage, Detect
corrosion and other
defects. Leak
detection, mapping,
Line cover and
spanning
Renovation and
Rehabilitation
DeCommissioning
Gel pigging, applying

insitu coating,
chemical cleaning,
scale removal,
cleaning for
production
conversion
Product removal, pipe

wall cleaning,
inspection/testing inert
Removing
Construction debris.
Acceptance testing
(waterfill),
Commissioning
Operation
277
The Uses of Utility Pigs - Cleaning or Sealing
278
Pigging Construction Characteristics

Three elements to be considered
Pig body: carbon
polyurethane
steel,
The type of seal: discs,

standards cups, conical cups
Modern Mandrel Pigs
The
fittings:
brushes,
scrapers
blades,
plough
blades, transmitter, housing,
gauging plates, magnets, etc.
Subsequent pigs can be sent in
trains and can comprise wire
brush pigs, magnetic pigs or
scraper pigs
279
How do Pigs Work
Propulsion Methods
Gas
Liquid
280
How Do I Select a Pigs

There are 3 fundamental questions to
ask when selecting the appropriate type
of pig:
At
what
state
development will
performed
in
the
What is the function, of task of, the

pig?
pipeline
task be
Which pipeline design factors are

relevant and to what extent will
they influence pig design
281
Pipeline Design Factors

Internal conditions:
Pipeline products
Temperature
Pressure
Product flow
Deposits
Condensate (untreated gas lines)
Water (most lines)
Waxes (oil lines)
Scale
Mineral deposits
Rust
282

Pipeline specifications:
Pipeline
distance
length:
maximum
pigging
Pipeline diameter
Multiple pipeline diameter
Pipeline material
Internal lining
External coating
Bundles
Relative position features
283
Fittings and equipments:

Valves
Offtakes
Offtakes which connect to the main
pipeline at 90- Tees
Offtakes which connect to the main
pipeline at other angles Laterals
Wyes
Wyes with parallel bores
Wyes with over-size bores
Diverters
Bends
Traps
284
Smart Pig
Use to detect material loss

of metal and in some cases
deformation of pipelines
Propelled by flowing liquid
Record physical data (dent,
location of reduced pipe)
for integrity analysis.
285
Smart Pig Types

Metal Loss Detection
Leak Detection
Temperature and Pressure
Recording
Bend Measurement
Product Sampling
Wax deposit Measurements
Pipeline Profile
Mapping
Curvature Monitoring
Photographic inspection
Geometry Measurement
Crack Detection
Crack detection
Mapping
Curvature Monitoring
Photographic inspection
Similar to Metal loss
Use Ultrasonic and MFL
286
Smart Pig Types: Metal Loss Detection

Corrosion tools
Magnetic Flux Leakage
Induce Magnetic field
Magnetic flux data is converted to

material loss
Uses ASME B31G to determine
the pipes remaining strength
Ultrasonic
Similar physical data than MFL
Directly measures the thickness
No recommended for pipelines
with a paraffin build-up.
287
Smart Pig Types: Crack Detection
Determine cracks in the pipeline

Ultrasonic
The crack is detected on signal
back reflection.
Work on liquid pipelines
Transverse Magnetic Flux Leakage
Magnetize the pipe around its
circumference
detect
cracks,
such
as
longitudinal seams cracks and
longitudinal seam corrosion.
Elastic Wave Tool: locate and size
longitudinally oriented crack and
manufacturing defects
288
Smart Pig Types: Geometry Tools
Gather information about the physical

shape, or geometry, of a pipeline
Caliper Tools
Pipe Deformation Tools
289
The Ideal Pipeline for an Intelligent Pig?

Perfectly straight, from end to end.
Constant internal diameter, and no weld penetration.
Perfectly round.
Polished or epoxy coated inside surface.

No off-takes.
No valves or other devices.
Pumping light, unrefined oil at a speed of about 1
m/sec.
Therefore, unfortunately, not every pipeline can be
inspected with a smart pig.
Always check with the pig provider, to see if your
pipeline can be pigged.
290
Intelligent Pigs Requirements

To smart pig a pipeline it MUST be very clean.
Standard cleaning pigs may not be sufficient to
clean a pipeline prior to smart pigging.
Smart pigs such as MFL pigs have powerful

brushes/magnets that remove residual wax, etc.
Pigs using ultrasonic technology have problems
as residual substances such as wax can attenuate
their signals.
Therefore, pre-pigging cleaning is often a special
program normally carried out by the smart pigging
company itself.
291
Intelligent Pig Tolerances (Guide Only)

Internal Diameter - Standard pipeline
tolerances, but variable diameter pigs are
being developed.
Bends - 3D, but now most pigs can

negotiate 1.5D under certain conditions.
Forged Bends - it's best to have the
additional material on the outer diameter.
Bend Ovality - 2% or less
Off-takes - Utility pigs can safely traverse
70% (of nominal size) outlets, and intelligent
pigs can negotiate 60%.
Valves - Full bore, but some pigs can
negotiate some reduced valves.
292
Intelligent Pig Tolerances (Guide Only)

Internal Diameter - Standard pipeline
tolerances, but variable diameter pigs are
being developed.
Bends - 3D, but now most pigs can

negotiate 1.5D under certain conditions.
Forged Bends - it's best to have the
additional material on the outer diameter.
Bend Ovality - 2% or less
Off-takes - Utility pigs can safely traverse
70% (of nominal size) outlets, and
intelligent pigs can negotiate 60%.
Valves - Full bore, but some pigs can
negotiate some reduced valves
293
Pig Traps
Pigs are launched and received in traps.
These are usually made out of pipe 2 diameter
above the pipeline size.
Smart pigs are longer than utility pigs and need

longer traps.
Traps should be able to take pig with about 20
inches clearance at pig door, and 20 inches
clearance at first valve.
Valves around pig trap must be working,

and seated.
Traps need to be purged with nitrogen.
Pigs need to be cleaned. Steam cleaning or
high pressure water needed.
Beware of pig trap debris
294
Pigging Systems: liquid (pigs)
Launching
1. Close valves A and C.

2. Drain the launching trap by opening drain valve
C allow
air to displace the
liquid by opening vent valve E
D still open, open the

closure door and insert the first cap form a tight fit in the reducer at point X
Close and secure the closure door. Close drain valve D and leave vent valve
E open. Slowly fill the trap through valve C by venting the air through valve E
when is willing is completed, close vent valve E to allow pressure to equalize,
then close valve C
Open valve A fist and then open valve C. The pig is now ready for launching.
Partially close valve B. This will increase the flow of liquid through valve C
and behind the pig. Continue to close valve B until the pig moves out of the
3. When the trap is completely drained (0 psig) with valve
Starting Condition:
4.
5.
6.
trap into mainline stream as signaled by Pig-Signal indicator.

7. When the pig leaves the trap and enters the mainline, open valve B fully
295
Trap is pressurized
and full of liquid.
Valves A, B and C
are open. Valves D
and E are closed
Pigging Systems: liquid (pigs)
296
Pigging Systems: Gas (pigs)
297
Pigging Systems: Gas (pigs)
298
Pigging Systems: Gas (Spheres)
299
Pigging Systems: Gas (Spheres)
300
Typical Pig Launching System
301
Typical Pig Receiving System
302
Fundamental of
of Corrosion
Corrosion
Fundamental
303
Fundamental of Corrosion
Classification of Corrosion
Wet Environment:
Wet corrosion
or electrochemical corrosion, occurs in the
presence of an electrically conductive
medium, and electrolyte.
Dry Environment:
Dry corrosion
can be best characterized as a reaction
occurring in the absence of an electrically
conductive medium
Biological
304
Internal Corrosion Considerations

Electrochemical corrosion
Reactions at the anode:
Fe++
Iron Ion
2eElectrons
Feo
Iron in metal
Reactions at the cathode:

Acid solutions:
1.
H2O
2.
2H+ + 2e-
3.
2O= + 4H+
2H+ + O=
H2 Evolution at the cathode
2H2O
305
Factors Influencing Oilfield Corrosion

Pressure
P
Rc
PCO2 ,PH2S
Corrosion Rate
The formation of scales, paraffins and other solids are directly related
to pressure and temperature decreases creating environments for both
acid gas corrosion and Microbiologically Induced Corrosion (MIC) to
occur.
Fluid Velocity
The general rule:
Exceptions
V
V
V
Rc
Rc
Spread out the points of attack

Inhibit bacteria,
Reduce severe pitting
Stagnant fluid conditions: most corrosive

Rc condition occurring in oil and gas handling.
306

The corrosion reactions involved of three individual
compounds causing corrosion in oil and gas systems are:
Carbon Dioxide:
Hydrogen Sulfide:
1) Fe
H2O
Fe++ + 2e-
2) CO2 + H2O
H2O
3) H2 CO3
H2CO3
H+ + HCO3-
4) Combined 1) + 3) Fe++ + CO3=
2H+ + CO3=
FeCO3
1)
2)
3)
4)
Fe
Fe++ + 2eH2S + H2O
H+ + HSHS- + H2O
2H+ + S= + OHCombined 1) + 3) Fe++ + S=
FeS
H2O
Oxygen:
(H+ OH- ) with
1) Fe
H2O
Fe++ + 2e-
2)
4 Fe++ + 6H2O + 3O2
3)
Combined 1) + 2) 2Fe++ (OH=)3
4Fe (OH)3
Fe2O3 + 3H2O
307
CO2 Corrosion Considerations

The important factors governing the solubility of carbon
dioxide are pressure, temperature, and composition of the
water.
Corrosion rate primarily dependent on:

Corrosion reaction
Partial pressure of carbon dioxide
Temperature
Mass Transfer
Shear stress across the pipe wall surface
Secondary Factors
Acid concentration
Partial pressure of CO2
Henrys constant
System pH
Presence of H2S
Formation water
Water wetting of the pipe wall
Formation of protective deposition (scales, asphaltenes)
308
Corrosion in Oil and Gas Production System

Carbon Dioxide Corrosion Modeling
The NORSOK M-506 corrosion

rate model calculates the CO2
corrosion rate on basis of given
temperature, pH, CO2 partial
pressure and shear stress.
309
De Waard developed an empirical

model allowing calculation of the
corrosion rate in full pipe flow as
a function of the temperature,
partial pressure of CO2, and pH
of the solution. This model
predicts the corrosion rate with a
respectable degree of accuracy
for full pipe flow

De Waard Model.
1993
log Rc = 6.23 - 1119 + 0.0013 T+ 0.41log (fCO2 ) - .34pHact
1995
T+ 273
pHact is the actual pH of the brine which wets the pipewall
RC : Corrosion rate mm/year
pHact is the actual pH of the brine which wets the pipewall

fCO2 : fugacity of CO2 in bar
T: Temperature (C)
310
log Rc = 7.96 - 1710T - 0.67 log (fCO2)

The NORSOK M-506.
Valid for temperature 5 - 150 C, pH 3.5 - 6.5

CO2 partial pressure 0.1 - 10 bar and shear stress 1 150 Pa.
Not applicable when the H2S partial pressure is higher
than 0.5 bar or when the ratio between the partial
pressure of CO2 and H2S is less than 20.
The model can lead to underprediction of the
corrosion rate when the total content of organic acids
exceeds 100 ppm and the CO2 partial pressure is less
than 0.5 bar.
311

The NORSOK M-506 corrosion rate model
CO2 corrosion rate for carbon steel at each of the

temperatures (t); 20 C, 40 C, 60 C, 80 C, 90 C, 120 C
and 150 C is used:
RC = KT x 0.62fCO2 x (S/19) 0.146 + 0.0324 log (fCO2) x f(pH)T
Temperature 15 C
RC = KT x fCO20.36 x (S/19) 0.146 + 0.0324 log (fCO2) x f(pH)T
Temperature 5 C
RC = KT x fCO20.36 x f(pH)T
RC : Corrosion rate mm/year
fCO2 : fugacity of CO2 in bar

f(pH)T : pH factor at temperature t
KT : constant for the temperature t used in corrosion rate calculations
S : wall shear stress in Pa
T: Temperature (C)
312

Carbon Dioxide
Using the partial pressure of carbon dioxide as a way to

predict corrosion, the following relationship has been found
for vertical pipe and tubing:
A partial pressure above 30 psi usually indicates
corrosion.
A partial pressure between 7 and 30 psi may indicate
corrosion.
A partial pressure below 7 psi is considered noncorrosive
For horizontal lines where pockets of water collect,

corrosion can occur at partial pressures less than 7 psi.
313
Carbon Dioxide Corrosion
Corrosion Mitigation
Corrosion Allowance
Inhibition
Material selection (Corrosion
resistant alloys)
314
Carbon Dioxide Corrosion
Carbon dioxide corrosion represents the greatest risk

to the integrity of carbon steel equipment in a
production environment. Compared with the incidences
of fatigue, erosion, stress corrosion cracking, or
overpressurization, the incidences of CO2 related
damage are far more common.
315
H2S Corrosion Considerations

Hydrogen sulfide soluble in water produces a weak acid. It is very
aggressive as a corrodent.
H2S + CO2
Increase Corrosion
FeCO + H O
FeS + 2H 0
Fe(OH) + H S
FeCO + H S
FeS + CO + H O
Fe + H S
FeS + H
2
++
Fe(OH)2 + CO2
Another problem with H2S is that some of the hydrogen ions at the
cathodic areas enter the steel instead of evolving from the surface as
a gas.
Hydrogen blistering in low-strength steels

Hydrogen embrittlement in high-strength steels.
316

Aspects
Highly toxic and Hazardous to

personnel
General sulfide cracking corrosion
Precipitation (Well plugging)
Can result of SRB in System
Physical Removal
Air or gas stripping
Chemical Removal
Chlorine (only small amount of H2S)
Hydrogen Peroxyde
Aldehydes (also work as biocide)
317
Morphology : Pitting (no significant material loss)

Consequences :
Sulfide stress corrosion cracking (SSCC)
Hydrogen induced cracking (HIC)
Mitigation :
Materials selection (NACE MR0175)
Testing (NACE TM0177, NACE TM0284)
318
Factors Affecting Sulfide Reaction Rate

Distribution of Sulfite Species as a Function of pH
90
80
% Sulfite Species
100
70
60
SO2
50
HSO3SO3=
40
30
20
10
0
0
pH
As only SO3= reacts with O2

No reaction with O2 below pH =4.5
319
Oxygen Corrosion Considerations

Can cause severe corrosion at very low concentrations (less
than 1 ppm)
Oxygen is not present in produced water, but often comes in
contact with the water after it is brought to the surface.
320
CRA: Corrosion Resistant Alloy

Type of Corrosion : Pitting

Consequences : through-wall penetration
Mitigation :
Corrosion allowance, deoxygenation
Materials selection (CRA)
Internal lining
Corrosion rate is governed by transfer of oxygen to
the cathode. Corrosion rate is therefore increased
by:
An increase in oxygen concentration
An increase in temperature
Mass flow of oxygen to the surface caused by
fluid flow.
321

8
7
6
5
Corrosion, mm/y
Oxygen Corrosion of Mild Carbon Steel
49oC
32oC
9oC
4
3
2
1
0
10
Oxygen, ppm
Solubility of O2, effect of O2 concentration and temperature

on corrosion of mild carbon steel in pure water
322
Mainly important in water injection system

Oxygen attack on steel is proportional to:
Oxygen Concentration
Fluid Velocity
Temperature
Generally results in uniform corrosion on
steel surfaces
Pitting corrosion can occur under
scales/deposits
At O2 concentration < 5 ppb corrosion is
negligible
323
Oxygen Corrosion Prevention
O2 Removal
Deairators/Vacuum/Stripping Towers
Oxygen Scavenging
Use of Corrosion Resistant Materials
Stainless Steel alloys
FRP piping/Coating
Cathodic Protection
Eliminates need for O2 Control
Only to be considered if Reservoir
can accept O2
324
Oxygen Scavengers
Ammonium Bisulfide
2NH4HSO3 + O2(NH4)2SO4 + H2SO4

6 ppm NH4HSO3 reacts with 1 ppm O2
Does NOT react with Air
Does not require a Catalyst
Corrosive in Concentrated Form
SO4 supply to SRB
Other Oxygen Scavengers:
Sodium Sulfite : Na2 SO3
Sodium Metabisulfite : Na2S2O5
Sulfur Dioxide: SO2
325

Typical corrosion allowances for internal corrosion of
carbon steel subject to in service corrosion
Service condition
Corrosion
Allowance
3-mm (0.125) plus
inhibition
Inter-field gas lines
1.5-mm (0.063) dry or

3-mm (0.125) wet plus
inhibition (may require
CRA)
Stabilized or process
crude lines
2-mm (0.078) plus

inhibition
Dried gas lines
1.5-mm (0.063) dry
Inter-field oil lines
326

Flow Pattern for Field Flowline, Gathering lines
327

Flow Pattern in Wet, Gas Pipeline with Up to 5 Bbls liquid per MMSCF
328
External Corrosion Considerations

Corrosion Failure Mode
Seawater corrosion, abrasion of the
coating, and sea bottom movement
pitting
Galvanic corrosion (dissimilar metals

in an electrolyte)
Oxygen concentrations cell corrosion
(pitting and crevice corrosion)
Sulphate reducing bacteria
anaerobic conditions
in
galvanic
Bacteria
Induced
Corrosion
erosion
329

Design data needed for external corrosion control
Operating temperature
Water temperature
Water movement
Depth of water
Burial
Pipe size and length
330
Soil Corrosion Variables
Water
Represents the essential electrolyte required

for electrochemical corrosion reactions.
Degree of aeration
The oxygen concentration decreases with
increasing depth of soil
In neutral or alkaline soils, the oxygen
concentration has an important effect on
corrosion rate (participate in the reaction)
331

pH
Soils usually have a pH range of 5-8, generally not

considered to be the dominant variable affecting corrosion
rates.
More acidic soils obviously represent a serious corrosion
risk
Resistivity
Resistivity has historically been used as a broad indicator
of soil corrosivity.
High soil resistivity will arguably slow down corrosion
reactions.
Soil resistivity generally decreases with increasing water
content and the concentration of ionic species.
A high soil resistivity alone will not guarantee absence of
serious corrosion.
332

Redox Potential
The redox potential essentially is a measure of the
degree of aeration in a soil.
An high redox potential indicates a high oxygen

level.
Low redox values may provide an indication that
conditions
are
conducive
to
anaerobic
microbiological activity
Chloride level
Chloride ions are generally harmful, as they
participate directly in anodic dissolution reactions
of metals and their presence tends to decrease the
soil resistivity.
333

Sulfate level
Compared to the corrosive effect of chloride ion levels,
sulfates are generally considered to be more benign in

their corrosive action towards metallic materials
Microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC)

Microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) refers to
corrosion that is influenced by the presence and activities
of microorganisms and/or their metabolites (the products
produced in their metabolism).
Bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms can play a major
part in soil corrosion
334
Corrosion Control Methods
Chemical Treating (Inhibitors)

Coating and Linings

Cathodic Protection
Corrosion resistance alloys
Non-metallics
335
Corrosion Inhibitor
In general terms, is a
substance which, when
added
in
a
small
concentration
to
an
environment, effectively
reduces the corrosion
rate of a metal exposed
to that environment.
336
Basic Types of Corrosion Inhibitor
Various
Various production
production chemicals
chemicals that
that are
are
available
available for
for specific
specific applications
applications to
to help
help
corrosion
corrosioncontrol
controlin
inoil
oiland
andgas
gasfields:
fields:
Oil-soluble
Oil-soluble
Oil-soluble/brine-dispersible
Oil-soluble/brine-dispersible
Water-soluble
Water-soluble
Volatile
Volatile
Oxygen
Oxygenscavengers
scavengers
Surfactants
Surfactants
337
Corrosion Inhibitor Mechanism
The chemistries of batch and

continuous treatment corrosion
inhibitors are different.
Continuous treatment inhibitors
tend to form monomolecular
films on the steel surface.
Batch inhibitors are designed to
form thicker macrofilms
338
Corrosion Inhibitor
Typical inhibitors function by creating

a film or protective barrier
Most inhibitors are organic, cationic,

nitrogen-based, linear or cyclic amines,
fatty acids, or quaternary amine
chemistries
Many formulations have a surfactant
component
Corrosion inhibitors are formulated to
exhibit combinations of oil and water
solubility
339
Corrosion Inhibitor Composition
340
Inhibitor Batch Treatment
Effective at low fluid production volumes

Treatment is accomplished by pumping a

10% solution of inhibitor in hydrocarbons
or water into the well
The results of the application are difficult
to predict
Guidelines are generally based on barrels
of fluid produced per day (BFPD)
341
Inhibitors Continuous Treatment
Inhibitor is continuously injected in order

to maintain an inhibitor concentration of
typically 25 ppm to 100 ppm in the
produced fluid.
Continuous treatment requires a person to
maintain the equipment and adjust
equipment settings.
342
Corrosion Inhibition in Water Injection Systems
Mechanical methods are primarily used to remove

oxygen from water with a high oxygen content,
such as sea water:
Countercurrent gas-stripping towers.

Vacuum towers.
Obtaining water from deep sources (100ft)
Oxygen scavengers
Can reduce the oxygen content of the water
to less than 10 ppb.
The sulfite ion (SO3=) coming from NH4HSO3.
Hydrazine: at elevated temperature
Sodium hydrosulfite (NaHSO2)
343
Selecting Inhibitors
Must consider
Solubility
Emulsion tendencies
Foaming tendencies
Gunking tendencies
Partitioning
Common
laboratory
screening inhibitors:
tests
for
Wheel tests
Rotating cylinder electrode
Autoclave
Corrosion loops
344
Inhibitor Tests
Oil/Water Partitioning
Bubble Test
Rotating Cylinder Electrode
Solubility Test
Flow Loop
Field Trial
345
Inhibitor Pumping Problems
Inhibitor viscosity - Viscosity measurements

should be carried out at temperatures appropriate
to how and where the inhibitor is to be used.
Compatibility of inhibitor with pump materials - The

inhibitor must also be compatible with the pump
seals.
Line blockages - Due to poor cleaning when
chemicals are changed over.
Inhibitor storage tank empty - The storage tank
must be regularly checked to ensure timely
reordering of inhibitor supplies.
Abrasive particles in inhibitor - If fine solids such
as blasting sand find their way into the inhibitor.
346
Dilution of Corrosion Inhibitor in the Field

Oil pipelines are normally dosed with as-received.
Gas lines employ inhibitor diluted in methanol, or
some
other
alcohol
based
hydrate
inhibitor/suppressant.
Concentrations typically range from 0.5% up

to 5 or 10% in methanol when hydrate
treatment is required.
Dry gas lines, where the product is dewpoint
adjusted and TEG dried, will not normally be
inhibited.
Downhole injection typically employs 1% - 20%
corrosion inhibitor diluted in crude oil or diesel.
Batch chemicals are diluted in a locally available
solvent, as large volumes are needed, with 1:4 v/v
inhibitor/diluent between pigs for pipelines.
347

External Corrosion Coating Performance Requirements
Low permeability
Adhesion
Impact and abrasion resistance
Flexible
Inert
Application and repair
Temperature and UV stability
Resistant to cathodic disbondment
348

Typical Pipeline Coatings For Corrosion Control
External pipeline protective coatings
Fusion bond epoxy
With a rough coat

Polyethylene coatings (2 layer)
Three layer
Polyolefin coatings (3-layer PE and 3-layer PP)
Bitumen, asphalt and coal tar coatings
Coal tar epoxies
Coal tar urethanes
External concrete coatings
Weight coatings
Polymer concrete
349
Application diagram fusion bonded Epoxy

350
Application diagram PP three layers

351

Application diagram PP three layers
352

Design Of Risers Effects The Choice Of Coating Materials
Riser can be coated
Fusion Bond Epoxies
Three layer systems

Rubber linings
Risers can have extra wall thickness for
corrosion
and
mechanical
damage
allowance
353

Qualification Requirements for FBE coatings
Test
Acceptance Criteria
Maximum average radius:
6.0-mm (0.25 inches)
Cathodic Disbondment
(28 days)
Maximum average radius:

8.0-mm (0.3 inches)
Cross-Section Porosity
Rating of 1 to 4
Interface Porosity
Rating of 1 to 4
Flexibility (3o/Pipe
Diameter at 0 o C[32 o F]
or -30 o C [122 o F])
No cracks, tears, or
delamination
Impact Resistance
1.5 J (13 inch-pounds)

minimum
Hot-Water Soak
Rating of 1 to 3
Cathodic Disbondment
(24 hours)
354

Typical properties for extruded polyolefin coatings
Property
Typical value
Polyolefin Resin
Butyl Adhesive
Minimum 0.95 g/cm3
Minimum 1.00 g/cm3
Flow Rate
Maximum 0.75 g/10

minutes
Maximum 8.00 g/10

minutes
Tensile Elongation
500%
Tensile Strength
Minimum 19 MPa
(2,800 psi)
Hardness
60 (Shore D)
Dielectric Strength
>28 V/m (700 V/mil) for the total system
Water Absorption
Maximum of 0.02% for the total system
Density
355

Typical properties for coal tar enamel coatings
Typical value
Thermal Conductivity
0.16 W/m-K (1.1

BTU/ft2/h/oF/inch)
Electrical Resistance
1 x 1014 ohm-cm
Dielectric Strength
>10 V/m (250 V/mil)
Water Absorption
Water Vapor Permeability
2% or 0.3 g/30 cm2 (0.1 oz/50

in2)
6.5 x 103 perms
Cathodic Disbondment (60

days)
Adhesion
Maximum radius of 8-mm (0.3

in.)
2.4 MPa (350 psi)
Coefficient of Friction
0.59 to 0.91
Property
356

External Corrosion - Field joint systems
Matching system
FBE
3-layer PE/PP
Complementary system
Cold applied tape
Heat shrink sleeve
357

Cathodic Protection of Subsea Pipelines
Corrosion protection is afforded by the provision
of electrons for the cathodic reaction from an
external source. There are two sources:
Impressed current
Direct application of current
Used onshore and offshore
Sacrificial anode
Electrons provided by corrosion of an
another (more reactive material)
fit and forget system
Aluminum and Zinc are the most used
358

External Corrosion Impressed Current
Current is generated by a power source energizing
an inert anode.
Graphite, High-silicon, chromium

cast
iron,
Platinum-coated
materials, Aluminum, Magnetite,
Mixed metal oxide-coated titanium,
Conductive polymer, Scrap iron or
steel, Lead-silver Source
Power Supplies
Rectifiers
Solar (photovoltaic) cells
Engine generator sets
Wind-powered generators
Thermoelectric cells
359
Impressed Current Anodes

Sacrificial Anode CP System Design
The simplest cathodic protection system is the
galvanic anode system. In this type of system, a
mass of metal is electrically connected to the
structure being protected.
Aluminum
seawater.
primarily used
in
Magnesium - used in soil and

fresh water.
Zinc
One alloy for seawater
One alloy for soil and fresh
water.
Three criteria to be satisfied:
Initial polarization
Mean - mass of material over
lifetime
360
Final current demand
Sacrificial Anodes

Comparison of Anode Types
361
Cathodic protection design parameters

and coatings design considerations
Design parameter
Typical Value
20 25 ohm-cm
Saline Mud
100 150 ohm-cm
Anode open circuit potential

- buried
Anode open circuit potential
- seawater
Anode Consumption
-1.05 V (Ag/AgCl)
Anode Utilization Factor
0.80
Coating Breakdown Factor

(FBE)
Insulation Breakdown Factor
Design current density for

bare steel in seawater
0.5% to 1.0% (initial)

10% (after 30 years)
3% (after 30 years)
5% (after 30 years)
12mA/ft2 (initial)
7mA/ft2 (after polarization)
Design current density in

sand or mud
2mA/ft2 (initial and after

polarization)
Neoprene Breakdown factor
Seawater Resistivity
-0.95 V (Ag/AgCl)
1280 A hours/ pound
362
Operation of Pipelines
Modern long-distance pipelines are operated mainly

automatically by a computer at the headquarters of the
pipeline company.
The computer monitors the pressure, flow rates, and

other parameters at various locations along the pipe,
performs many on-line computations, and sends
commands to the field to control the operation of the
valves and pumps.
Manual intervention is frequently needed to modify the
automatic operation, as when different batches of fuels
are directed to different temporary storage tanks, or
when the system must be shut down or restarted.
363
Operation, Inspection and Maintenance
364
Monitoring and Inspection of Coatings
As part of the corrosion designs for offshore

pipelines corrosion monitoring and corrosion
inspection plans are needed.
These plans are intended to monitor the
effectiveness of corrosion mitigation and to
measure changes as the pipeline ages.
365
Determining the effectiveness of corrosion control

Side scanning sonar
Detect areas where the pipeline may be

bridging the ocean floor
Shifting of the ocean floor
Cathodic protection monitoring

Potential survey
Current drain surveys.
These surveys provide information

about the
Condition of the cathodic protection
system
Coating performance and coating
breakdown.
366
Monitoring and Inspection
P is proactive and R is reactive method

367
A Pipeline Management.....
Do not assume that you have a perfect
pipeline, if it is designed to code
You can have an acceptable pipeline design

you can have the most modern material but
you MUST have smart managers both
designing and running the pipeline
Codes do not include everything
Codes include some good things, but you do
not have to use them
Smart pipelines, smart pigs.. smart anything,
are useless without smart managers
368
Pipelines Safety Record
Pipelines are not dangerous or unsafe, but

their design, maintenance and management
can make them unsafe.
If anything can go wrong, it will.
369
Why Pipelines Fail

Cause
Offshore
(%)
40.9
35.5
5.5
Material Defect
8.6
8.2
Other
26.4
10
Corrosion
Third Party
Construction Defect
Onshore
(%)
20.4
40.4
4.1
Other: causes are primarily mechanical components (pig

traps, pressure regulators, etc), fire and operational error
370
Pipeline Integrity Management
Pipeline
integrity
management is a process
for
assessing
and
mitigating pipeline risks in
order to reduce both the
likelihood
and
consequences
of
incidents.
371
Elements of the Integrity Management System
Engineering and Design

Audit and Baseline Assessment
Management of change process

Risk and Reliability
Inspection and Maintenance
Operation Control and Monitoring
Fitness for Service
Repair and Rehabilitation
372
Pipeline Integrity Management Standard - API 1160 (5)
Identify Potential
Pipeline Impact to
HCAs
Initial Data Gathering

and Review
Initial Risk
Assessment
Develop Baseline
Plan
Perform
Inspection/Mitigation
Revise
Inspection/Mitigation
Evaluate
Program
Update Data
Reassess Risk
HCA: High Consequence Area

373
High Consequence Area
Unusually Sensitive Area

High Population Area

Other Populated Area
Commercial Navigable Waterway
374
Pipeline Design and Construction,

Satisfying all other legal and code
requirements
It is flexible
It is built by trained people, using defined

processes
It should be tailored to an operators needs,
An integral part is a risk assessment, and
this is a continuous process
It should be externally audited
There is no best approach
375
Baseline Assessment
Explanation of assessment method
Identification of the pipelines & segments covered by
the plan
A priority ranking of the pipeline/segments of each

system based on an analysis of risks.
Evaluation of risk factors
Assessment methods:
In-line inspection
Pressure test
Smart Pig
Direct assessment (e.g. coating inspection)
other new technology
Management methods for the pipeline segments may
include remediation or increased inspections as
necessary
Schedule for assessment
376
Risk and Reliability Based Inspection Strategy

Review Pipeline Data
Identify All Failure Mode
Risk Analysis
Risk Based Inspection

Assessment
Inspection Needs
Reliability Analysis
Inspection Methods
Inspection Integrity
Inspection Program
Inspection
Reliability Based
Inspection
Assessment
Evaluate Results
Feedback
377
Review Pipeline Data
Design data
As-built data
Past and present operating
conditions
Forecast operating conditions
Inspection data available
Loading and environmental data
378
Identification of all Failure Modes and Mechanisms

Corrosion (internal and External)
Mechanical Damage
Fabrication
Overpressure
Protection System
Operational conditions
379
Risk Assessment
For each failure mechanism/mode identified for each section of
the pipeline system the qualitative risk on the system is
determined as follows:
The chance of an Adverse Event

The likelihood of a hazard being realised
The combination of probability or frequency of
occurrence of a defined hazard (event) and the
magnitude of the consequences of the
occurrence
Risk
Risk==Probability
Probabilityof
ofFailure
FailurexxConsequence
Consequence
Risk
Risk==Frequency
FrequencyxxConsequence
Consequence
380
Risk Assessment
Boston Square Technique
2
Frequency
4
1
20
21
C
36
10
Consequences
381
Risk Assessment: use of probability

Cost-Risk Analysis model
Smart
Pig
Inspection
Frequency
Optimization
For Oil and Gas Pipelines
382
Risk Analysis
Forecasting the Consequences: Electromagnetic Inspection (smart pig)
Damage
depth
2000 (inch)
Rc
(inch/year)
damage 1
damage 2
damage 3
damage 4
damage 5
damage 6
damage 7
damage 8
damage 9
damage 10
damage 11
damage 12
damage 13
damage 14
damage 15
0.00110
0.00120
0.01110
0.00110
0.00110
0.00110
0.00110
0.00110
0.00101
0.00112
0.00113
0.00110
0.00110
0.00115
0.00230
0.22300
0.07125
0.09750
0.08250
0.10500
0.07500
0.31875
0.14625
0.21010
0.12750
0.12375
0.11625
0.11250
0.25875
0.10875
0.02219
0.00701
0.00864
0.00814
0.01039
0.00739
0.03177
0.01452
0.02091
0.01264
0.01226
0.01152
0.01114
0.02576
0.01065
damage "n-1"
0.00110
0.10500
0.01039
damage "n"
0.00110
0.10500
0.01039
Damage 1 Damage 2
di(t)=doi+Rc*t
Damage 3
Damage n
Damage
depth
1990 (inch)
(Damage depth)
dLIM
Corrosion Rate (Rc)
Failure Prob. t=10 years

doi
Time (Years)
t=5 years t=10 years
383
Risk Analysis
Forecasting Consequences
Forecast:
Consecuencias
Forecast
consequences
Frequency Chart
58,870 Displayed
.069
60,000 Trials
4119
High Frequency
Low consequences
.051
.034
Low Frequency
High Consequences
(Catastrophic failure)
.017
Mean = 40.39
.000
0.14
55.03
0
109.93
300.5
164.82
700.3
219.72
MM$
MMBs
384
Inspection Technique and Equipment

Close Interval Potential Survey
DCVG (DC Voltage Gradient)
Ultrasonic Inspection
Smart Pigs
Visual Inspection
Hydrostatic
DCVG
CIPS
385
Inspection Technique and Equipment
Integrated System
386
Approach to Assess Aging Pipelines

A review of the pipeline design has to be undertaken to
evaluate its fitness for purpose, and demonstrate its future
integrity.
Changes to Design Conditions

Errors or Unknowns at the Design

Stage
Seabed conditions
Thermal expansion
Spanning
Upheaval buckling
Revised Design Predictions Based
on Operational Knowledge
Extended Design Life
387
Defects and damage in an ageing pipeline system

Any reported defects in pipeline can be assessed using
fitness-for-purpose methods. However, the urgency of the
analysis and any resulting repair depends upon.
Defect severity: location, depth,

length, orientation
Financial/strategic value of pipeline
Threat to environment & public
relations,
Regulatory/legal/insurance
considerations
Failure/further failures consequences
388
Levels of Fitness-For-Purpose Assessments

Stages
Data
Level 1 Qualitative
e.g company or code
Workmanship level
Accept
Reject
Level 2 Quantitative
Accept
e.g ASME B31 G Code
As above +
pipe data and
pressure
Simple Stages
Defect
Size &Type
Reject
As above, plus
sample or material
sample
Level 3 Quantitative
Accept
Fracture Mechanic Calc.
Reject
Reject
Level 4 Quantitative Accept
Numerical Analysis.
Reject
Level 4 Experimental
Reject
Model full scale Testing
As above, plus plug

Construction of pipe
Material & defect data
Reject
Level 5 Probabilistic
Using Limit state analysis
or risk analysis
Repair
Accept
Accept
Accept
Experts Levels
As above, but
Additional defect,
Pipe & material Data
389
Conceptual Model for Enhanced Safety & Environmental

Protection for Pipelines in High Consequence Areas (HCAs)
HYDRO
TEST (3)
Mandatory Inspection
& Testing
Integration of Data
INSPECTION
& TESTING
(2)
HCAs
(1)
PIPELINE YES
AFFECTED
SMART
PIG (3)
NEW
TECHNOLOGY
(3)
OPS Review
X yrs Compliance
X yrs Evaluation cycle
OR
Mandatory Inspection
& Testing
OPS/INDUSTRY
MIN. NEW STANDARD
NO
Documents & Commun
COMPANY
DEFINED FREQ
EVAL. & REPAIR
CRITERIA
CLASS
LOCATION
RISK-BASED
(6)
INTEGRITY
MGMT
PROGRAM (4)
Integration of Data
Documents & Commun.
OPS Validation
BASE
REGUL
PROGRAM
COMPANY
SPECIFIC
PLAN
OR
OPS DEFINED
FREQ., EVAL.
&
REPAIR
CRITERIA
INDUSTRY
STD (5)
CURRENT REGS+
ADDITIONAL MEASURES
Y yrs Compliance
Y yrs Evaluation cycle
390
Integrated Diagnosis
Data
Thickness
Condition
Data
Voltage
Crack
Coating
External Corrosion
etc.
Diagnose
Acceptance
Criteria
Historical
Data
Age
Historical failure
History of Service
History of repairs
Type and number of repair
Number Sleeves
etc.
Analysis
Partial diagnosis
based on
historical failure
Prob. of Failure
t
Actual
Measures
Acceptance
Criteria
Partial diagnosis
based on
condition Data
Integrated
Diagnosis
Diameter
Schedule
Service: (Fluids)
Process Data
Location
Impact
Copyright 2006, NExT, Alletc.
rights reserved
Technical
Data
Practices
Standards
Norms
Partial diagnosis
based on
comparison with
standards
391
Integrated Diagnosis
Integrated
Diagnosis
Partial
Diagnosis
based on
historical failure
Partial diagnosis
based on
condition Data
Condition
Data
Partial diagnosis
based on
technical data
Historical
Data
Technical
Data
Risk
Risk= Probability of failure X Consequence
Risk=(1-Reliability) X Consequence
Reliability/Probability of failure
Reliability based
on historical Data
Reliability Based
on Condition
Consequences
Production
loss
Repair Cost
Environment
Impact
Safety
Impact
392
Reliability Definition: Based on Time to Failure

Reliability
R(t): Probability of the

Probability Distribution
of the time to failure
f(t)
random variable (time to failure) of

a
component,
equipment,
subsystem or system to be
analyzed in the time period.
Ideal
for failure pattern with high

frequency and low consequence
Based on statistical analysis of the

time to failure
Reliability
is estimated using the

probability distribution of the time
to failure.
tm
Time (t)
R (t ) = Pr(t t m ) = f (t )dt
tm
The
base for the estimation is the

preventive maintenance
393
Reliability Definition: Based on Stress/Strength

Reliability R(t): Probability of the
f(x)= pdf (Stress)
g(y)= pdf (Strength)
stress of a component, equipment,

subsystem, or system does not
exceed the its resistance to it.
Ideal for failure pattern with low

frequency and high consequence
Based on physical failure

Reliability is estimated using the
interference
theory.
stress-resistance
The estimation is based on the
R(t) = Pr(y x) = g( y)dy f (x)dx
0 x
predictive maintenance or condition

monitoring.
394
Equipment Reliability
Condition Based Reliability
Stress - Strength: Basic Equation
Stress :f(x)
Case I : Distributed Stress Punctual Strength
Strength : S
F = Pr( x S ) = f ( x )d x
Stress :S
Case II : Punctual Strength Distributed Strength
Strength: g(x)
C = Pr( y s ) = g ( y )d y
F = Pr( y s ) = g ( y )d y
Stress :f(x)
Strength: g(x)
Case III : Distributed Stress Distributed Strength
C = f ( x )d x g ( y )d y
0 y
F = 1 f ( x )d x g ( y )d y
0 y
395
C = Pr( x S ) = f ( x )d x
Stress - Strength: Basic Equation
Stress-Strength: Predetermined cases

Distribution
Weibul
Normal
Log-Normal
C = 1 e
k

x
C = 1 e
C = 1 e
k x

x
S

y

k
y

1
s
C =1 ln t
t e y
y
x = Stress
C=
C = 1 e
s y
C =

y
k x
C =
x
1
k
C =
ln
t
t x e x
Stress, Strength
Random
ALEATORIA
Stress, Ctt s
Exponential
Strength, Ctt k
x + y
Solve
RESOLVER
NUMERICAMENTE
Numerically

y
x
C =
2
2
y
x
ln e ty / e t x
C =
t 2x + t 2y
y = Strength
396
Condition Based Reliability/

Probability of Failure
Allows estimation of the reliability, the

probability of failure and risk associated to
equipment using condition data.
Ideal for equipment with limited historical

failure data (basically static equipment).
C( t ) = f ( x )d x g ( y )d y
0 y
Strength : g(y)
Based on interference
theory, where :
stress-Strength
Stress :f(x)
.- Stress: Monitored Condition

.- Strength: Condition Permissible value
Reliability is defined as the probability of
the monitored condition that does not
exceed the permissible value.
Basis
to
estimate
maintenance
the
predictive
397

Pressure
Vessel
No.
Inspection Opert. Time.
ti (days)
0
0
1
240
2
425
3
1139
4
1309
5
1706
6
2436
7
5968
8
6541
1
0.250
0.236
0.236
0.215
0.230
0.196
0.225
0.216
0.208
2
0.248
0.236
0.225
0.223
0.218
0.201
0.212
0.202
0.198
"E" = Wall Thickness (in.)

locations
3
4
5
6
0.248 0.253 0.248 0.251
0.241 0.236 0.245 0.239
0.240 0.231 0.236 0.238
0.223 0.215 0.212 0.221
0.233 0.223 0.221 0.228
0.201 0.200 0.203 0.209
0.212 0.215 0.213 0.211
0.201 0.188 0.204 0.199
0.188 0.175 0.177 0.184
7
0.250
0.226
0.243
0.221
0.231
0.204
0.221
0.208
0.198
8
0.252
0.235
0.242
0.215
0.231
0.199
0.213
0.210
0.201
398
Measure
Locations
Wall Thickness Data

Wall Thickness (E), VS Operation Time (t)
0.255
Thickness
at t1
0.245
Thickness
Distr.
LIM
Thickness
Distr.
Thickness
at t2
0.235
E E
F( t ) = 1
E2 + E2
LIM
0.225
0.215
Thickness
at t2
0.205
Thickness
Distr.
0.195
0.185
ESPESOR
Thickness
LIMITE
allowed
0.175
0
1000
t1
t2
2000
3000
4000
Operation time (t) (days)
5000
6000
7000
tn-nn---11
399

Benefits:
Allows the prediction of proactive diagnosis based on condition

Optimizes inspection intervals
Incorporates condition data to maintenance planning and
management
Applications
In general for predictive maintenance
with emphasis on static equipment
400
Condition based Reliability
Exercise
Use the Stress- Strength Theory
Depth of the Damage

T0
Damage by corrosion
T0
d0
Rc
Po
Yield
Stress
Diameter
(mm)
Initial
Thickness
(mm)
Depth of
damage
Previous
Measurement
Corrosion
Rate
Operation
Pressure
436.836
581.202
10.554
2.96
0.119
4.781
618.549
601.243
10.446
3.305
0.152
4.66
393.729
586.4
8.55
3.054
0.127
4.763
268.428
612.54
8.921
3.154
0.171
4.524
308.402
596.726
10.103
3.222
0.145
4.157
314.391
588.401
9.692
2.995
0.131
5.022
376.758
586.985
9.401
3.084
0.128
4.94
428.92
590.702
10.05
3.049
0.135
5.278
370.177
610.044
10.385
3.129
0.167
6.096
392.813
595.593
10.153
2.857
0.143
5.404
477.271
601.611
10.006
2.791
0.153
5.493
444.222
622.713
9.618
3.914
0.188
5.431
463.154
587.301
9.795
2.914
0.129
5.458
326.541
600.034
9.663
2.616
0.15
5.337
401
Estimate the reliability and failure

probability for 5, 10 and 15 years in a
pipeline having severe corrosion
damage
Sp
Condition Based Reliability Exercise
Pf =
2.Sp.T
D
T = T0 d ( t )
where
Pf ( t ) =
d ( t ) = d0 + Rc.t
2.Sp.( T0 ( d0 + Rc.t ))
D
Maximum Pressure Allowed (Pf) and Operation Pressure vs. Operation Time (t)
Pressure (kPa)
Pf Po
F( t ) = 1
2 +2
Po
Pf
14
Pf
Distrib.
Pf
Distrib.
12
16
10
8
Pf
Distrib.
6
4
2
PPo oDistrib.
Distrib.
0
0
t1
t2
Operation time (t) (Years)
10
12
t-n-1
14
402
Failure History Based Reliability/

Reliability Analysis for
repairable equipment
Minimal
possible
restoration
Normal
restoration
process
Poisson no
homogeneous
process
As good as New
Repair
partially
Restoration to
original condition
Restoration
generalized
process
Better than before but
As bad as before
worse than new

403

There are five (5) possible situations for equipment after being
repaired
1. As good as new
2. As bad as before
3. Better than before but worse than new
4. Better than new
5. Worse than before
The probabilistic models traditionally used in reliability analysis
are based on the situation 1 and 2, even though the third
situation looks more realistic
The main reason is the mathematical solution to simulate the
situation is not clear
404

Probabilistic model for restoration generalized

process, taking into consideration all possible
situations of the equipment after it has been
repaired:
This model allows estimation of the critical
value for diagnosis:
Number of expected failures in a period

Time for the Next Failure
405

F (t i ) = 1 e
i 1
t +q t j
i
j =1

Cumulative
Distribution of
time to failure
: Scale Parameter
q<0
Better than new
: Form Parameter
q=0
As good as new
q : Repair Effective
q i 1
tj
j =1
0 < q < 1 Better than before but worse than new
Parameter o Rejuvenation
q=1
As bad as before
parameter
q>1
worse than before
406

Results/ Turbocompressor
60
RGP Parameter
= 1768
= 2.14
q = 0.43
40
As bad as before
30
Better than before

but worse than new
20
10
As good as new
0
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
Operation Time (Hr)

407
Number of Failure
50

Benefits
Maintenance planning Optimization
Budget Optimization.
Stock Optimization
Application:
Dynamic or Rotating Equipment:
Turbines
Compressors
Pumps
Motors
408
Failure History Based Reliability
f(t)= Failure Probability Distribution
F(t)= Failure Cumulative Probability Distribution
Probability Distribution
of the Time to Failure
f(t)
Basic Definitions
f (t ) dt
R ( t ) = Pr( t t m ) =
tm
tm
R (t ) = 1 Pr( t t m ) = 1
tm
Time (t)
MTTF =
h(t ) =
t. f (t ) dt = R (t ) dt
0
=MTTF
f (t ) dt = 1 F (t )
f (t )
f (t )
=
R (t ) 1 F (t )
Hazard Rate
(Failure Rate)
R(t ) = e( h(t )).t

409
Repairable Items vs. Non- Repairable Items
Non repairable equipment : when its operative condition can not be restored
after a failure. Its life ends with only one failure and has to be replaced.
To characterize it probabilistically requires estimation of the rate of failure h(t).
(h(t)).t
R(t)= e
Repairable equipment : when its operative condition can be restored after a

failure by a repair action different than total replacement.
More than one failure during It life cycle
To characterize it probabilistically requires estimation of
frequency/occurrence or rate of failure (t) and the repair rate (t)
Calculate the reliability :
A(t) =
R(t) = e ( (t)).t
the
rate
and the availability :
(t )
(t ) + (t )
The availability is the probability of the equipment to be available at a time t.

To calculate the availability requires statistical analysis of time to fail and the
repair times
410
Reliability is calculated using the following equation:
Repairable Equipment: Failure History Based Reliability
Basic Nomenclature
t1
t2
t3
t4
n-1
tn
tK
t[1]
t[2]= t1 + t2
[3]
t[3] = t1 + t2 + t1 + t3
t[4] = t1 + t2 + t1 + t3 +t4
t[n-1]
t[n]
n =t1 + t2 + t1 + t3 +t4 +.tn-1 +tn
tK
=Analysis Interval = t 1 +t2 +t3 +t4 .. ........+ tn-1 + tn . + tK
ti
Time between failure i-1 and the failure i
t1, t2, t3 , t4 , tn
Time between successive failure
tK
Time after the last failure
t[i]
Accumulated operation time until the failure I
t[1], t[2], t[3], t[4]....t[n-1], t[n], t[K] Accumulated operation time
t[K]
Analysis intervals
411
t1
t2
t3
t4
n-1
tn
tK
t[1]
t[2]= t1+ t2
t[3]= t1+ t2+ t1+ t3
t[4]= t1+ t2+ t1+ t3 +t4
t[n-1]
Number of Failure
t[n] =t1+ t2+ t1+ t3 +t4 +.tn-1 +tn
t[K] =Analysis Intervals = t1 +t2 +t3 +t4 ..........+ tn-1 + tn .+ tK
t1
1
1
t2
2
2
t3
t4
4
4
tK
tn
n-1
F(t{K] )=
Failure Probability at the accumulated operation time t[K]
R(t[K] )=
Reliability at accumulated operation time t[K]
(t[K] )=
Number of expected failure at the accumulated operation time t[K]
(t[K] )=
Rate of failure at accumulated operation time t[K]
METTF(t[K] )= Mean expected time for the next failure at the accumulated operation time
t[K]
Probabilistic
Variables
412
Assumption on repairs:
Restoration Ordinary
Process ( R.O.P )
Restoration to original condition As good as new
Probabilistic Variables of Interest
R t[K ] = e
(t [ K ] ) =
t
K

( 1)
k =1
tK
[K]
(t ) =
( )
k 1
n = Number of Failures
( )
Ak t K
(k + 1)
F (t [ K ] ) = 1 e
t
K

Variables Estimation
[t
i =1
(t ) + (t )
1 /
1+
METTF t [ K ] = .

i =1
ln(t i ) + (t K ) ln( t K )
n t + (t )
i
K
i =1
1 n
= ln(t i )
n i =1
413
Poisson No-Homogeneous Process

( P.N.H.P )
f(t)
Minimum repair As bad as before
P (T t 2 ) I P (T > t 1 ) P (T t 2 ) P (T t 1 )
P (T t / T > t ) =
=
P (T > t 1 )
P (T t 1 )
2
t1
t
t2
F (t 2 ) F (t 1 ) 1 R (t 2 ) 1 + R (t 1 )
R (t 2 )
R (t [ i ] )
[i]
[ i 1 ]
P (T t / T > t ) =
=
=1
P (T t / T > t ) = 1
R (t 1 )
R (t 1 )
R (t 1 )
R (t [ i 1 ] )
2
If f(t) is assumed to be a
Weibull distribution, then
F (t [ i ] ) = 1 e
t [ i 1 ]
t[ i ]

414
Poisson No-Homogeneous Process

( P.N.H.P )
F (t [ K ] ) = 1 e
) e
) = 1 [(t
R t[K ] =
(t [ K ]
t [ n ]
t[ K ]

[n]
t

[n]
t[K]
[K]
(t ) =
( )
[K
t
( )
METTF t [ K ] = + t
[K ]
Variables Estimation
n = Number of Failure
+ t [ K ] ) (t [ n ] ) .
Minimum repair As bad as before
Probabilistic Variables of Interest
t[K ]
(t )
=
n
[K]
= n
(t [ K ] )
ln [ i ]
i =1 (t )
415
Reliability Analysis for a System
Key Questions
What is the probability of an

equipment to fail?

Analysis
Data History Based
Reliability Analysis
What is the probability that an

equipment failure make the
system fail and affect the
process?
Reliability Analysis for a

System
416

Control Volume
Allows estimation of failure

probability and reliability of a
system based on the probability of
failure of and reliability of each
component of the system
Is based on block diagram, fault
tree and Markov diagram
Allows
estimation
of
the
contribution of each component
or equipment in the probability of
failure and reliability of the system
Plant Shut Down

G1
S1
S2
System 2
Failure
System 1
Failure
G3
G2
Timer
Failure
A
A
Contactor
Failure
B
B
G4
ALARMA
FALLA
C
C
SubSystem B
SubSystem A
G6
G5
Fault Tree
Safety
Valve
Failure
D
D
Oper.
Failure
E
E
Interrup.
Failure
Oper.
Failure
F
F
E
E
417

Proposed Control Volume
Block II : Compression
Traditional Control Volume
Block III : Outlet/Discharge
Block I : Pre-Treatment
418

Plant
Block I
Pre-Treatment
Block II
Compression
System 1
Failure
Failures
System 2
Failure
System 3
Failure
System 4
Failure
System 5
Failure
System 6
Failure
Line A
Failure
Line B
Failure
Valve
Failure
Reliability Based
on Condition
Failures
Comp # 1
Failure
Comp # 2
Failure
OPER.
Failure
Reliability Based on
Historical Failure
Switch
Failure
Line A
Failure
Line B
Failure
Alarm
Failure
Vessel
Failure
Reliability Based
on Condition
419
Failures
Block III
Outlet/Discharge

Benefits:
Allows estimation of the reliability and availability indices for plants

and processes.
Supports the maintenance decision making for equipment, and

subsystem, based on its impact on the plant reliability.
Support the decision making for projects and redesign, based on

sensibility analysis.
Applications:
Gas Plants
Flow Stations
Water injection Plants
Electrical Plants
Process Plants
420
Cost - Risk Model

Total Impact =I(t)
I(t)= Impact on the business
I(t)=R(t)+Cost(t)
3000
Risk=R(t)
Optimal Point
2500
Cost per Year (k$)
3500
R(t)=Prob. of failure X Consequences
2000
Cost = Cost (t)
1500
Cost (t )=Cost of the action proposed
1000
to decrease the risk, modeled at

500
different frequencies .
1
9 10 11 12 1 3 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time (Years)
If the proposed action is executed at a frequency that correspond to :
1.- Optimal point
=> Minimum impact to the business
2.- Right to the optimal point
=> Assuming to much risk
3.- Left to the optimal point
=> Spending to much money
421
Risk Analysis
Cost-Risk Analysis model
Smart
Pig
Inspection
Frequency
Optimization
For Oil and Gas Pipelines
422
Risk Analysis
Forecasting the Consequences: Electromagnetic Inspection (smart pig)
Damage
depth
2000 (inch)
Rc
(inch/year)
damage 1
damage 2
damage 3
damage 4
damage 5
damage 6
damage 7
damage 8
damage 9
damage 10
damage 11
damage 12
damage 13
damage 14
damage 15
0.00110
0.00120
0.01110
0.00110
0.00110
0.00110
0.00110
0.00110
0.00101
0.00112
0.00113
0.00110
0.00110
0.00115
0.00230
0.22300
0.07125
0.09750
0.08250
0.10500
0.07500
0.31875
0.14625
0.21010
0.12750
0.12375
0.11625
0.11250
0.25875
0.10875
0.02219
0.00701
0.00864
0.00814
0.01039
0.00739
0.03177
0.01452
0.02091
0.01264
0.01226
0.01152
0.01114
0.02576
0.01065
damage "n-1"
0.00110
0.10500
0.01039
damage "n"
0.00110
0.10500
0.01039
Damage 1 Damage 2
di(t)=doi+Rc*t
Damage 3
Damage n
(Damage depth)
Damage
depth
1990 (inch)
dLIM
Corrosion Rate (Rc)

doi
Time (Years)
t=5 years t=10 years
423
Risk Analysis
Forecasting Consequences
Forecast:
Consecuencias
Forecast
consequences
Frequency Chart
58,870 Displayed
.069
60,000 Trials
4119
High Frequency
Low consequences
.051
.034
Low Frequency
High Consequences
(Catastrophic failure)
.017
Mean = 40.39
.000
0.14
55.03
0
109.93
300.5
164.82
700.3
219.72
MM$
MMBs
424
Optimization of the Replacement Frequency : Cost Risk

Analysis on Introducing New Technology
Project Description:
Optimize the
replacement frequency of the pipeline
based on:
Life cycle cost for each offshore zone:
Maintenance optimization
Higher benefit less negative impact
Two commercial software were used,
(asset performance tool life and span)
Risk Cost + Maintenance cost
3000
Optimal Point
2500
2000
1500
Risk Cost
Differed production
Failure
Equipment
Inefficiency
.
Life cycle decrease

Safety Impact
Environmental Impact
1000
Inspection
Cost
500
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Replacement Intervals ( Years )
Benefit:
Reduce the risk in the facilities
Reduce the negative impact on the
replacement
425
Decision
did
not
take
into
consideration the
following
factors:
Consequences of minor failures.
Environmental impact
Production deferment
by failures
(downtime)
Cost or Total Impact
3500
Cost per Year
Background:
The traditional replacement in shallow
subsea lines were highly influenced by:
Generalized degradation pattern
Budget Availability
Optimization of the Replacement

Frequency : Cost Risk Analysis
Riser repair with nonmetallic composite material
Project Description:
Validate the use of nonmetllaic
composite material to repair risers,
flow station and gas manifolds
Repair with traditional

procedure
Appropriated to use nonmetallic composite material
Repair without ASME B31G

426
Uncertainties
Why we talk about:
Over- Dimensioned
Over Maintenance or under
Over
Estimated
Budget
- Maintenance
or
Under Estimated Budget

Unplanned Shutdown
Intrinsically we are talking about:
Uncertainties
427
Uncertainties
Data:
Quality
Quantity
Mathematical Models
Where the uncertainties

come from
Human Behavior
Random Behavior
Ignorance
428
Uncertainties
Characteristics
Ignore it and
decide
Characteristics
Try to eliminate it
and decide
High cost in
information system
Data Quality Conflict.
Shocked by Analysis
Characteristics
Quantify and
decide
Reliability
Engineering
429
How to take
decision in the
presence of
uncertainties
High risk
High consequences
Depend of luck factor
Reactive environment
Over or under
dimensioned
Uncertainty Management
Measuring the uncertainties
D
T0
436.836
581.202
10.554
2.96
618.549
601.243
10.446
3.305
393.729
586.4
8.55
3.054
268.428
612.54
8.921
3.154
308.402
596.726
10.103
3.222
314.391
588.401
9.692
2.995
376.758
586.985
9.401
3.084
428.92
590.702
10.05
3.049
370.177
610.044
10.385
3.129
392.813
595.593
10.153
2.857
477.271
601.611
10.006
2.791
444.222
622.713
9.618
3.914
463.154
587.301
9.795
2.914
326.541
600.034
9.663
2.616
Example 1
Identify the probabilistic distribution that match

with data.
For each variable Identify:
.- Mean
.- Median
.- Standard Deviation
.- 30 % Percent confidence Interval
.- 90% confidence Interval
Sp
430
Measuring the uncertainties
Variable: Yield
Strength
Logarithm
Distribution
431
Uncertainty Propagation
Procedure that allows the inclusion and quantification of the uncertainties
associated to input variables in a decision making process.
If the input variables have uncertainties then the result or output has
uncertainties.
Inputs
Model
Outputs
A
B
E=
C
A+B+C
D
5%ELIM
Step 1:
Quantify
the
associated
to
variable
using
characterization
uncertainty
each
input
probabilistic
ELIM
95%ELIM
Step 2:
Step 3:
Uncertainty
propagation
associated to each variable in the
mathematical model.
Quantify
the
uncertainty
associated of the output or
probabilistic characterization
432 of
the results
Suggested method: Montecarlos

Simulation
Based on simulation techniques like Montecarlo, Latin hypercube, or genetic

algorithm.
Exercise
Propagate the variable uncertainties shown in the table below. The equation is for the
maximum pressure allowed or the failure pressure of a pipeline in presence of
corrosion.
Identify the probabilistic distribution that matches the pressure distribution (Pf) and
explain three different ways to represent the results (one point, interval with
confidence percentage, the whole distribution).
T0
2.Sp.E
Pf =
D
E = E0 d
2.Sp.( E0 d )
Pf =
D
Pf = Maximum pressure allowed

Sp = Yield Stress
D = Diameter
E = Wall thickness
Eo = Initial well thickness
d = Damage depth due to corrosion
Sp
T0
436.836
581.202
10.554
2.96
618.549
601.243
10.446
3.305
393.729
586.4
8.55
3.054
268.428
612.54
8.921
3.154
308.402
596.726
10.103
3.222
314.391
588.401
9.692
2.995
376.758
586.985
9.401
3.084
428.92
590.702
10.05
3.049
370.177
610.044
10.385
3.129
392.813
595.593
10.153
2.857
477.271
601.611
10.006
2.791
444.222
622.713
9.618
3.914
463.154
587.301
9.795
2.914
433
326.541
600.034
9.663
2.616
Damage Depth
Corrosion Damage
Exercise
d
D
Pf =
2.Sp.( E0 d )
D
5% Pf
Pf
95% Pf
T0
Sp
Step 1:
Step 2:
Step 3:
Estimate the uncertainties associated to each

variable
o
characterize
the
variable
probabilistically
Propagate the uncertainty associated to each

variable of the mathematical equation
Quantify the uncertainty associated to the

outlet variable (pf) or the probabilistic
characterization
Suggested method: Montecarlo Simulation

Suggested Software : MATHCAD
Suggested Software : RARE

CRYSTAL BALL
CRYSTAL BALL
Suggested Software : MATHCAD

CRYSTAL BALL
434
Exercise
Exercises Answer
T0
d
Pf =
Sp
5%Pf
2.Sp.(T0 d)
D
Pf
95%Pf
435
Traditional model
Inlet
Model
Outlet
A
B
C
E=
A+B+C
D
K = Acceptance Criteria
Decision Model:
if E > K then it is approved
if E < K then it is rejected
436
Risk Based Decision Model
Inlets
(Information)
Model that recognize, quantify and propagate the

uncertainties associated to variables
Models
Outlets
E=
A+B+C
D
E
K
PROB.(E > K)
PROB.(E < K)
K = Accepted Criteria
Decision Model:
If Prob. (E > K) x benefits > Prob.(E < K) x Consequences
Then it is approved; any other value is rejected
437

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Surface Facilities

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Pipelines Design, Operation and Maintenance

Engineering Required Before Designing a Pipeline

Flowlines are usually small, e.g. 2- 4 in diameter,

Feeder Lines - These pipelines move products

Natural gas transmission lines deliver to industry or

Distribution Lines - These lines allow local distribution

Industrial & Utilities

Oil and Gas Transportation by Pipelines

Pipelines are Preferred

Pipeline is the main mode of transportation for liquid

Less damaging to the environment

Pipelines Around the World

Onshore Gas Trans > 300.000 miles

Western Europe USA

Rest of The World

Flowlines and Gathering Lines

Gathers products and moves them to

Flowlines and Gathering Lines

Linea de 8" que debe ser

Grapa colocada para corregir

Vertical deteriorado (corroido)

16"-0.375; 14033' (1996)

Gas Gathering System: Example

Evaluation with Simulators:

High Pressure System

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Gas Gathering System: Types

The smallest gathering system consists simply of two

directly into a distribution system.

Gas Gathering System: Types

Axial Gathering System

Gas Gathering System: Types

Radial Gathering System

Gas Gathering System: Types

Gathering System: Well Center

Central Gathering Section

Gathering System: Trunk Line

Gathering System: Decision

The cost of the several small sections of

The production characteristics of the field

Gathering System: Pipeline System

Gathering System: Pipeline System

Series pipelines: The inlet

Gathering System: Pipeline System

Because the pipelines are

Gathering System: Pipeline System

Gathering System: Pipeline System

loopless pipeline system,

Gathering System: Equations for Complex Gas Flow

Overall production system

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

Loss in porous medium

Source: Handbook of Petroleum and Gas Engineering, William Lyons

It is the flow rate (q), at pressure and temperature in the pipe,

Pipeline Fluid Flow

Turbulent Flow Re > 2100

Copyright 2006, NExT, All rights reserved

: pressure drop due to potential energy change

(a) Upward flow

(b) Downward flow