Density

kg/s
0.0
0.6
1.4
2.8
5.6
6.9
22.2
27.8
55.6

1000 kg/m3
gpm
0.1
8.8
22.0
44.0
88.1
110.1
352.2
440.3
880.6

m3/hr
0.015
2
5
10
20
25
80
100
200

mm
8
56
81
107
142
155
246
269
355

Self venting flow

m/s
DN
0.08
#N/A
0.22
80
0.27
100
0.31
125
0.35
150
0.37
200
0.47
250
0.49
300
0.56
400

NPS
#N/A
3
4
5
6
8
10
12
16

Hydraulic
mm
1.0
11.5
18.2
25.8
36.4
40.7
72.9
81.5
115.3

m/s
5.33
7.99
4.26
2.66
1.60
1.70
0.67
0.64
0.43

4000
4
DN
25
25
25
40
40
50
80
100
125

200

250

400
350

f(x) = 42.6922781331 x^0.4

R = 1

300
250
flow (m3/hr)

200
150
100
50
0
0

50

100

150

DN (mm)

mm
m
NPS
1
1
1
1.5
1.5
2
3
4
5

DN
###
###
###
###
###
###
###
###
###
###
###

Art Montemayor

February 12, 2004

Rev: 1(02-22-04)

Gravity Flow in a Pipe

Designing Piping For Gravity Flow

P. D. Hills, Imperial Chemical Industries PLC
Chemical Engineering Magazine; Sept 05, 1983
Gas entrained in liquid flowing by means of gravity from a vessel can reduce the outlet
pipe's capacity and cause flow to surge cyclically. These problems can be avoided by
carefully designing for either full-liquid or two-phase flow.

Entrainment curtails liquid gravity flow from vessels by raising the pressure drop (above that for singlephase flow) through the outlet piping, and reducing the static head available for overcoming the pressure
drop. A similar problem can arise when a liquid is near its boiling point, or contains dissolved gas,
especially if the absolute pressure at any point in the piping falls below atmospheric pressure, as occurs
in a syphon.
Consider the case of liquid flowing from the bottom of an absorption column through a pipe that has
been sized for full liquid flow (Figure 1).
When the liquid level in the column is low enough, the pressure drop and reduction of head restrict the
flowrate, and the liquid level rises (Figure 1b). Eventually, the level rises high enough to stop entrainment
(Figure 1c). However, gas still in the outlet pipe causes the level to continue to rise until the gas is all
swept out (Figure 1d). Now, the outlet pipe is running full flow (as was assumed in the design), but the
static head, becoming higher than was assumed, creates excessive flow, which causes the level to fall
until entrainment occurs again and the cycle is repeated (Figure 1e).
Such ascillations can be severe, depending on system geometry. In one case, the peak flow from a tank
exceeded the capacity of its vacuum breaker sufficiently to collapse the tank.

General expression for liquid flowrate

In this article, liquid flowrates are generally expressed in terms of a dimensionless superficial volumetric
flux, JL, which is defined by:

JL

Here,
QL = the volumetric flowrate;

4 QL

gd

d = the pipe ID
g = the gravitational acceleration constant (32.174 ft/s2 or 9.81 m/s2)
Equation (1) is similar to the Foude number. It is used in preference to the Froude number, because
the later's definition varies, depending on circumstances. All Equations in this article are in consistent units.

Designing for gravity flow

Three approaches to the design of gravity drainage systems are possible:

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Art Montemayor

February 12, 2004

Rev: 1(02-22-04)

Gravity Flow in a Pipe

1. For full flow, with the outlet piping size based on single-phase criteria;
2. For self-venting, with the liquid velocity in the outlet pipe kept low enough to allow gas to
flow counter-currently to the liquid.
3. For gas entrainment, but with the system designed to accommodate it.
In general, the first approach can be expected to result in the smallest pipe diameter and should be given
preference. However, in many instances, it is not possible to ensure full pipe flow - in which case, the
alternatives may have to be adopted.

Designing for flooded flow

To avoid gas entrainment in the full-pipe-flow design, the liquid level in the vessel must always be high
enough to keep the pipe inlet flooded. To achieve this, some form of control will be necessary, such as
via a control valve (Figure 2a) or a vertical loop in the piping (Figure 2b). If the latter is used, a syphon
break will be necessary (shown in Figure 2b), and the piping downstream of the syphon break cannot be
assumed to run flooded because gas is likely to be entrained at the syphon break. Of course, either
arrangement will increase the system pressure drop and reduce somewhat the benefits of the
flooded-flow design.
Single-phase criteria can be applied to designing sections of outlet piping in which flow can be expected
to be flooded. If piping that is certain to be flooded is preceded by a self-venting section, the self-venting
section's minimum length should be 0.5 m, to provide for gas disengagement, before the piping is
reduced for single-phase flow (Figure 2c).
The criteria for flooded outlets are Equation (2) for outlets from the base of vessels, and Equation 3 for
outlets from the side of vessels:

QL 2
h
J L 1.6 : h 0.892

d from the region of the

g
d
Here, h is the liquid's depth in the vessel away
outlet.

2h
JL

: h 0.811

QL

0.23

gd

Here, h is the liquid's height above the top of the outlet away from the region of the outlet.

Designing unflooded (self-venting) piping

Side-outlet piping - Coming off from the side of a vessel, piping should be sized such that:

J L 0.3 : d

0.4

4 QL

0.3 g 2
This ensures that the line will run less than half full at its
entrance. The level
in the vessel away from the
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J L 0.3 : d

g 2
0in.3a Pipe
Gravity Flow

Art Montemayor

February 12, 2004

Rev: 1(02-22-04)

outlet will be less than 0.8 d above the base of the line. The capacity of such an overflow line can be
found from Curve 1 in Figure 3.
Near-horizontal piping - If such a pipeline will run only partially full, it must be inclined to provide the
static head to overcome friction losses. A minimum slope of 1:40 is recommended.
To avoid having the liquid carrying gas forward, adequate free area must be left in the pipe to allow gas
to pass backward. For pipes up to 200 mm (8") diameter, liquid depths should not be more than half the
pipe diameter. For larger pipes, depths up to three-fourths of the diameter may be possible.
When flow in a partially-filled pipe is uniform (i.e., constant depth), the energy lost through friction is
balanced by the potential-energy change due to the inclination of the pipe. In such a case, the mean
velocity, VL is related to the inclination and the depth of flowing liquid by equation (5) [1]:

0.22

VL 32 g m i 2 log

1
14
.
8
m
2
perimeter); m g mi
= the hydraulic mean depth (flow area/wetted
1

Here,
m
i = the inclination of the pipe from the horizontal;
= the pipe roughness; and,
= the kinematic viscosity

Figure 3 gives the volumetric capacity for established flow in half-full and three-quarters-full rough and
smooth pipes. The curves were calculated via Equation (5) for pipes of slope 1:40 and a fluid having
a kinematic viscosity of 10-6 m2/s (e.g., water at 20 oC). The absolute roughness used for the rough
pipes was 0.25 mm (moderately rusty mild steel). The results are not very sensitive to liquid viscosity.
The capacity of a rough pipe is increased by about 1% for a totally inviscid liquid, and is only reduced
by about 10% for a liquid having a kinematic viscosity of 10-5 m2/s. Thus, the Figure 3 water curves
can be safely used for most liquids.
The initial velocity in an outlet line designed to run half full is less than the equilibrium velocity in a pipe
having a slope of 1:40. As the liquid accelerates down the pipe, the liquid depth diminishes with distance
to that of the depth corresponding to the established flow at a given flowrate. To maintain a constant
relative depth, a tapered pipe would be necessary. As this is impractical, reducing the pipe diameter
stepwise is recommended. Tapered reducers should be installed to avoid sudden disturbances in the flow.
For long lengths of pipes, the following design approach is suggested:
1. Size the outlet line on the side of a vessel for JL = 0.3 (Curve 1 of Figure 3). If the resulting
pipe size is not standard, choose the standard size higher than the calculated size. Continue
the size so chosen for at least ten pipe diameters.
2. Determine the pipe diameter corresponding to half-full established flow for the required flowrate
(using Curve 2A or 2B or Figure 3). Again, select the nearest standard pipe size higher than the
calculated size.
3. Reduce the pipe diameter from the outlet size to the established-flow size, using an eccentric
reducer that will not change the slope of the bottom of the pipe. Preferably, the reducer's
minimum length should be twice that of the upstream pipe diameter.
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Art Montemayor

February 12, 2004

Rev: 1(02-22-04)

Gravity Flow in a Pipe

If the foregoing procedure is followed for pipes of 1:40 slope, the liquid depth after the reducer will not
exceed 75% of the pipe diameter.
For long, large-diameter (>200 mm or 8") inclined pipes, it may be worth considering a second reduction
down to the size corresponding to an established-flow relative depth of 75%. This reduction can be made
after 50 pipe diameters (see Curve 3A or 3B of Figure 3).
For short pipe runs, the additional cost of tapered reducers - especially if of a "gentle" angle, as
recommended (which may not be standard), or of lined pipe - may exceed the savings in going to
smaller-diameter piping. In such cases, the entire length of the pipe should be of the large size.

Self-venting flow in vertical pipes

Liquid flowing vertically down does so as an annular film. In such cases, low superficial velocities are
necessary to avoid gas being sucked down with the liquid. Simpson's suggestion of basing pipe outlet
diameters on a limiting Froude number of 0.5 is recommended[2]:

J L 0.3

Equation (6) being the same as Equation (4), pipe diameters can be determined from Curve 1 in Figure 3.
This approach should be adopted when gas entrainment is to be avoided, as when a vertical pipe extends
into a vessel to below the liquid surface, or when the downstream piping must be designed for flooded flow.
Smaller pipe than that dictated by Equation (6) can be expected to cause surging.

Self-venting flow in complex systems

Little information is available on unflooded flow in systems that include bends, especially for flow changes
from vertical to nearly horizontal, and vice versa. Limited evidence suggests that even if the pipe diameter
is chosen for self-venting flow (as in a prior section on designing unflooded piping), entrainment and surging
may still occur due to the effects of the bends in the system. The design recommendations now given are,
therefore, offered only tentatively.
Bends in the horizontal (or nearly horizontal) plane will not necessarily cause problems if the 1:40 slope i
continued with the bend and the bend is gentle (preferably, the radius equaling five diameters).
In the vertical plane, the number of bends should be limited as much as possible. Gently sloping piping i
preferable to vertical runs. The radius of bends should be at least five diameters.
Bends from, or to, vertical sections should be sized as for vertical piping. Inclined piping following a ver
section can be sized for half-full established flow via the criteria for near-horizontal piping in the previou
discussion on designing unflooded (self-venting) piping. Changes in pipe diameter should be made by
means of asymmetric tapered (eccentric?) reducers whose lengths are equal to twice the larger diameter,
which are installed so that the bottom of the reducer has a slope equal to that of the piping at either end.

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Art Montemayor

Gravity Flow in a Pipe

February 12, 2004

Rev: 1(02-22-04)

If entrainment is acceptable
There are many occasions when it is not necessary to prevent entrainment. Sometimes, moderate surging
will not present a problem. In such cases, piping can be sized for smaller diameters at considerable savings.
Sometimes, surging caused by gas entrainment can be reduced by providing a means for the gas to escape
at a point downstream in the outlet pipe, such as via some type of gas-liquid separator. If this is practical,
the piping can be of smaller diameter. However, because it is not possible to predict the extent of
entrainment - and hence, calculate the pressure drop with certainty - any such approach should be adopted
cautiously.

Acknowledgment
The author wishes to thank Imperial Chemical Industries for its permission to publish this article.

References
1. Ackers, P.; Tables for the hydraulic design of storm drains, sewers, and pipelines;
Her Majesty's Stationery Office; 1969.
2. Simpson, L. L., Sizing piping for process plants; Chemical Engineering Magazine; June 17, 1968.

The Author
P. D. Hills is an engineering department heat-transfer and fluid-flow specialist with Imperial Chemical
Industries PLC (P. O. Box No. 7; Winnington, Northwich; Cheshire CW8 4DJ; England). Previously,
he had been a process engineer involved with process developemnt, plant troubleshooting, and process
design. He holds a B.Sc (Eng.) and a Ph.D. from Imperial College, London.

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Art Montemayor

February 12, 2004

Rev: 1(02-22-04)

Gravity Flow in a Pipe

Liquid

Liquid
Gas

Gas

he pressure

Fig. 1a. Gas is entrained in outlet,

restricting flow. Liquid flow in
exceeds flow out, and level rises.

Fig. 1d. Liquid level now stops gas flow

in. All gas has been swept from the outlet
piping, and a syphon is formed. Singlephase flow in outlet piping is helped by
higher head. Now, outlet flow exceeds
inlet flow, and level falls rapidly.

p entrainment

Liquid

Liquid
Gas

Gas

volumetric

Figurej1b. Higher liquid level reduces

entrainment, but flow out is still
restricted. Level continues to rise.
Figure 1d. Entrainment starts again.
Liquid flow is still high, helped by
syphon. Built-up gas pressure in
inlet pipe is released in a surge.
System is returning to first stage.

onsistent units.

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Art Montemayor

February 12, 2004

Rev: 1(02-22-04)

Gravity Flow in a Pipe

Liquid
Gas

ld be given
ch case, the

Figure 1c. Liquid level is now high enough to

prevent further entrainment. However, some
bubbles are still trapped in outlet, restricting
flow. Level continues to rise. Gas inlet flow is
beginning to be choked.

k cannot be

Entrainment causes surging by increasisng pressure drop in

piping and lowering head in vessel.
Figure 1.

be expected
self-venting

Figure 2a. Control valve

maintains level in vessel

h > hmin

LC

way from the

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Art Montemayor

February 12, 2004

Rev: 1(02-22-04)

Gravity Flow in a Pipe

Syphon break

han half the

h > hmin
Unflooded section

5
Figure 2b. Hydraulic loop ensures minimum level

rough and

ity in a pipe
with distance

s in the flow.

uired flowrate
gher than the

Unflooded section

>0.5 m

Figure 2c. Self-venting section precedes flooded piping

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Art Montemayor

Figure 2.

nd reduction
can be made

February 12, 2004

Rev: 1(02-22-04)

Gravity Flow in a Pipe

Designs ensure flooded flow in outlet piping

1,000.0

100.0
Flowrate, m3/hr
Curve 1 - Entrance
Curve 2A - 1/2 Full Rough Pipe

10.0

Curve 2B - 1/2 Full Smooth Pipe

Curve 3A - 3/4 Full Rough Pipe
Curve 3B - 3/4 Full Smooth Pipe

in Figure 3.

1.0

ipe extends
r flooded flow.

r flow changes
pipe diameter
ment and surging

Pipe Diameter, mm

The five curves on Figure 3 were regressed into convenient equations using the DataFit Program.
The resulting equations were as follows (X = pipe nominal diamter):
Curve 1 - Entrance (1.61291*10-16)X8 - (2.54*10-13)X7 + (1.6471*10-10)X6 - (5.708*10-8)X5 + (1.15*10-5)X4
Flowrate, m3/hr = - 0.0013715X3 + 0.095755X2 - 3.5023X + 52.2236
Curve 2A - 50% Full, Rough Pipe
Flowrate, m3/hr = (2.62564*10-10)X5 - (2.66294*10-7)X4 + 0.000101X3 - 0.0118969X2 + 0.757077X - 16.1818
Curve 2B - 50% Full, Smooth Pipe
Flowrate, m3/hr = (1.08964*10-9)X5 - (8.775*10-7)X4 + 0.000272X3 - 0.033197X2 + 2.03677X - 43.8909
Curve 3A - 75% Full, Rough Pipe
Flowrate, m3/hr = (1.38617*10-5)X3 + 0.00376969X2 - 0.24957X + 6.7

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Art Montemayor

February 12, 2004

Rev: 1(02-22-04)

Gravity Flow in a Pipe

Curve 3B - 75% Full, Smooth Pipe

Flowrate, m3/hr = (-1.17109*10-7)X4 + 7.27977*10-5)X3 - 0.0039268X2 +0.287834X - 6.1111

erable savings.

gas to escape
is practical,

d be adopted

June 17, 1968.

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