CAMBRIDGE A LEVEL

PHYSICS

PARTICLE AND
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
(A2)

L E A R N I N G O U TC O M E S
No.

LEARNING OUTCOME

Apply the mass energy conservation principle to

calculate the reaction energy in a nuclear process.

ii

Understand what is meant by mass excess and the

relationship and mass excess and nuclear
processes.

iii

Relate the concept of binding energy with the

mass defect.

iv

Relate binding energy and binding energy per

nucleon.

Graph the relationship between binding energy

p e r n u c l e o n a g a i n s t n u c l e o n n u m b e r.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
No.

LEARNING OUTCOME

vi

Differentiate between nuclear fission and fusion.

vii

Understand the term activity and decay constant.

viii

Use the exponential decay method to calculate the

n u m b e r o f u n d e c a y e d n u c l e i a n d a c t i v i t y.

ix

Understand what is meant by half life and

calculate the half life of a radioactive sample.

UNITS OF MA SS
As we have learned at AS Level,
the SI unit for mass is the
kilogram.
Physicists have also developed an
alternative unit for mass, the
atomic mass unit (symbol = u).

UNITS OF MA SS
1 u is equivalent to


the
mass of 1 atom of the


 isotope, in kilograms.

The mass of one atom of  =
 kg.

UNITS OF MA SS


Hence,
kg.
The table on the next slide shows
the masses of some light nuclides
in atomic mass units.

UNITS OF MA SS
Table 43.2, page
1441, Section 43.1:
Properties of
Nuclei; Chapter 43:
Nuclear Physics;
Sears and
Zemanskys
University Physics,
Young and
Freedman, 13th
edition, Pearson
Education, San
Francisco, 2012.

UNITS OF MA SS
The table below lists the masses
of the nucleons and the electron
in atomic mass units:
Particle

Mass (u)

Proton

1.007276

Neutron

1.008665

Electron

0.000549

MASS - ENERGY
C O N S E R VAT I O N

As we have learned at AS
Level, mass energy is
conserved in a nuclear
process, but, however, mass
itself is not conserved.

MASS - ENERGY
C O N S E R VAT I O N
The difference between the total
mass after the reaction and the
total mass before the reaction
gives us an idea of the amount of
reaction energy involved.

MASS - ENERGY
C O N S E R VAT I O N
We may use Einsteins mass energy

equation
; where:

  reaction energy, in J;

     , in
kg, and


 speed of light, .  




   .

MASS - ENERGY
C O N S E R VAT I O N
What if we have masses in atomic
mass units (u)?
We now use
,
where:

E = energy, MeV, and

m = mass, in u.

931.494 MeV/u is a conversion
constant.

MASS - ENERGY
C O N S E R VAT I O N
We can also use a different
version of Einsteins equation:


This version relates the change in

energy with the change in mass.

EXAMPLE

Table 43.1, page 1441, Section 43.1: Properties of Nuclei; Chapter 43: Nuclear
Physics; Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th
edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

MA SS E XC ESS
The mass excess of a nuclide is the
difference between its actual mass,
in atomic mass units (u) and its
mass number.
Mathematically:
mass
mass excess
excess  mass
mass #in
#in u'
u'  neutron
neutron number

MA SS E XC ESS

Figure 31.3, page 493, Chapter 31: Nuclear Physics; Cambridge International AS and
A Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and Woodside, 2nd edition,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.

MA SS E XC ESS
The table on the previous slide gives
some nuclides and their masses.

Question 7, page 494, Chapter 31: Nuclear Physics; Cambridge International AS and
A Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and Woodside, 2nd edition,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.

MA SS E XC ESS
We can use mass excess values to find
out whether a nuclear reaction is
feasible.
We can do this by calculating:
I.
II.
III.

the total mass excess of the reactants,

the total mass excess of the products,
and
comparing both values.

MA SS E XC ESS
If the total mass excess of the
products is smaller than the total
mass excess of the reactants, the
reaction is feasible.
On the other hand, if the converse is
true, then the reaction will not be
feasible.

MA SS E XC ESS
Let us have a look at an example:
-

Nuclide

1

/0 2 534 2 37

Mass Excess (u)

-

+0.045563

1

/0

0.073843

5

34

0.085588
+0.008665

MA SS E XC ESS
Using the values from the table in the
previous slide, we can obtain:
I. Total mass excess of reactants
u
II. Total mass excess of products
 0.073843 2 0.085588 2 3 
0.008665  0.133436 u

MA SS E XC ESS
In this example, the total mass
excess of the reactants is larger than
the total mass excess of the
products.
This means that the products will be
more stable than the reactants.
Hence, this reaction will occur.

MA SS DE F EC T
If we were to measure the mass

of one nucleus of the 
isotope, it will be different from
the total mass of the 6 neutrons
and the 6 protons make up the
nucleus.

MA SS DE F EC T

Figure 31.1, page 492, Chapter 31: Nuclear Physics; Cambridge International AS and
A Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and Woodside, 2nd edition,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.

MA SS DE F EC T
By using the values from the
table on the previous slide, we
will obtain a mass defect of
 kg for this
carbon nuclide.
What is the mass defect, in u?

MA SS DE F EC T
Definition: The mass defect is
the difference between the
total mass of the individual
nucleons and the mass of the
nucleus.

MA SS DE F EC T
Why is there a mass defect?
This mass defect exists because
when the individual nucleons
formed the nucleus, some of the
mass was converted into
potential energy that is used to
hold the nucleons together.

BINDING E NE RGY
The strong force is responsible in
producing
this
change
in
potential energy and thus binds
the nucleons.
Work must be done to separate
these nucleons apart to an
infinite amount of separation.

BINDING E NE RGY
Definition:
The
binding
energy of a nucleus is the
energy required to separate
all the nucleons in a nucleus
to an infinite amount of
separation.

BINDING E NE RGY
By using mass energy equivalence,
we can use the mass defect and
convert it into the binding energy.
To achieve this, use this conversion
factor:
of mass defect is
equivalent to
of
binding energy.

EXAMPLE

Exercise 43.39, page 1476; Chapter 43: Nuclear Physics; Sears and Zemanskys
University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San
Francisco, 2012.

BINDING E NE RGY

Examples from Page 367; Section 13.7: The Mass Defect, Chapter 13: Nuclear Physics;
International A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and Brown, Hodder Education,
United Kingdom, 2008.

BINDING ENERGY PER

NUCLEON
The binding energy per nucleon
is equal to the binding energy of
the nucleus divided by the total
number of nucleons present.

BINDING ENERGY PER

NUCLEON
Why is the binding energy per
nucleon important?
The binding energy per nucleon
value gives us the stability of that
nuclide relative to its neighbours,
i.e. how hard is it for that nuclei to
radioactively
decay
into
its
neighbours.

BINDING ENERGY PER

NUCLEON
Figure 31.4,
page 495,
Chapter 31:
Nuclear Physics;
Cambridge
International AS
and A Level
Physics
Coursebook,
Sang, Jones,
Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition,
Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge,
UK,2014.

BINDING ENERGY PER

NUCLEON
The graph on the previous slide shows a
sketch of the binding energy per nucleon
for several elements.
The higher the value of the binding
energy per nucleon compared to its
neighbours, the harder it is for that
nuclei to decay radioactively into one of
its neighbours.

BINDING ENERGY PER

NUCLEON
The nuclide with the highest
binding energy per nucleon is
@
.

5

Peaks representing  ,  and

? indicate nuclides that are
relatively stable to their numbers.

EXAMPLE

Questions 9 amd 10, page 496, Chapter 31: Nuclear Physics; Cambridge International
AS and A Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and Woodside, 2nd edition,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.

NUCLEAR FISSION
Nuclear fission is a decay
process in which an unstable,
heavy nucleus splits into two
fragments of almost the same
mass.

NUCLEAR FISSION
The two fragments, known as fission
fragments will have a higher binding
energy per nucleon as compared to
the parent nucleus.
Nuclear fission is achieved by
bombarding the heavy nucleus with
a neutron.

NUCLEAR FISSION
An example of a fission reaction
is seen below:
Page 370; Section 13.10: Nuclear Fission, Chapter 13: Nuclear Physics; International A/AS Level
Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and Brown, Hodder Education, United Kingdom, 2008.

NUCLEAR FISSION
Fission
reactions
are
accompanied by the release of
energy because the binding
energy per nucleon after the
reaction is higher than that
before the reaction.

NUCLEAR FUSION
Nuclear fusion occurs when
two or more small nuclei
come together (fuse) to form
a larger nucleus.

NUCLEAR FUSION
Nuclear fusion only occurs under
conditions of high pressure and
temperature; e.g. on the Suns
surface and in stars.

NUCLEAR FUSION
The examples below are of nuclear fusion
reactions:

Page 1469, Section 43.8: Nuclear Fussion; Chapter 43: Nuclear Physics; Sears and
Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson
Education, San Francisco, 2012.

F USION vs. F ISSION

Figure 31.6, page 496, Chapter 31: Nuclear Physics; Cambridge International AS and A
Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and Woodside, 2nd edition,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.

F USION vs. F ISSION

As seen on the graph on the previous
slide, fusion and fission occur in
order to increase the binding energy
per nucleon.
Nuclei in between A and B tend to
undergo fusion, while nuclei in
between B and C tend to undergo
fission.

EXAMPLES

Question 16; Set 45: Structure of the Nucleus and Radioactivity; page 228; PROBLEMS IN
PHYSICS ; E.D GARDINER, B.L McKITTRICK; McGraw Hill Book Company, Sydney 1985.

EXAMPLES

EXAMPLES
Question 17; Set
45: Structure of
the Nucleus and
Radioactivity;
page 228;
PROBLEMS IN
PHYSICS ; E.D
GARDINER, B.L
McKITTRICK;
McGraw Hill
Book Company,
Sydney 1985.

EXAMPLES
Question 18;
Set 45:
Structure of
the Nucleus
and
Radioactivity;
page 228;
PROBLEMS IN
PHYSICS ; E.D
GARDINER,
B.L
McKITTRICK;
McGraw Hill
Book
Company,
Sydney 1985.

R A D I AT I O N D E T E C T I O N
Outlined below are methods of radiation
detection:

R A D I AT I O N D E T E C T I O N

R A D I AT I O N D E T E C T I O N

R A D I AT I O N D E T E C T I O N

R A D I AT I O N D E T E C T I O N

Examples from Pages 355 - 357; Section 13.14: Detecting Radioactivity; Chapter 13:
Nuclear Physics; International A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and
Brown, Hodder Education, United Kingdom, 2008.

NUC LEA R DEC AY

If we were to use a GM
counter
to
measure
radioactivity by listening to the
number of clicks, we will not
be able to predict when the
next click is heard.

NUC LEA R DEC AY

If we were to use a ratemeter,
the reading on the ratemeter
fluctuates up and down.
This occurs because of the
random and spontaneous
nature of nuclear processes.

NUC LEA R DEC AY

It is random because

we cannot predict which

nucleus in a sample will
decay, and
ii. The probability that each of
the nuclei will decay in per
unit of time is constant. This
probability is known as the
decay constant, .
i.

NUC LEA R DEC AY

If we plot a graph of count
rate vs. time, we would
obtain a graph as seen on
the next slide.
The fluctuations indicate
the random nature of
nuclear decay.

NUC LEA R DEC AY

Figure 31.8, page 497,
Chapter 31: Nuclear
Physics; Cambridge
International AS and A
Level Physics Coursebook,
Sang, Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd edition,
Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge,
UK,2014.

NUC LEA R DEC AY

Nuclear decay is spontaneous
because:
i.

its
occurrence
is
independent of any external
or environmental factors,
and
ii. not affected by the presence
of other nuclei.

ACTIVITY
Radioactive nuclei undergo
decay.
Therefore, the amount of
parent nuclei reduces with
time.

ACTIVITY
AB
AC

The rate of nuclei decay,

is
directly proportional to the
amount of undecayed nuclei
present in the sample, .
Hence

AB
AC

ACTIVITY
We can rewrite this expression
AB
as
where:
AC

decay constant that has







units of
.

the minus sign indicated this is
a decay.

ACTIVITY
Definition: The decay constant,
is defined as the probability
per unit time interval that the
nuclei will undergo decay.

AB
AC

is also known as the

activity of the source, .

ACTIVITY
Definition: The activity of a
radioactive source is the number of
nuclear decays produced per unit of
time in the source.
Activity is measured in Becquerels
(Bq) , and 1 Becquerel is 1 decay per
second.

ACTIVITY
By

combining the equations

AB
AB
and
, we will
AC
AC
obtain
, where:

  activity of the sample, in Bq;

B  number of undecayed nuclei,
and

D  decay constant, in E  .

EXAMPLES

Questions 12 and 13, page 499, Chapter 31: Nuclear Physics; Cambridge International
AS and A Level Physics Coursebook, Sang, Jones, Chadha and Woodside, 2nd edition,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK,2014.

EXAMPLES
Questions 15 and 16, page
501, Chapter 31: Nuclear
Physics; Cambridge
International AS and A
Level Physics Coursebook,
Sang, Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd edition,
Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge,
UK,2014.

HALF LIFE
The

solution

equation
the form of

of

the
is in
.

HALF LIFE
The quantities number of
undecayed nuclei, activity,
and received count rate, all
have the general form


DC

HALF LIFE
We now have three equations
that relate these three
quantities with time,

DC



DC
DC

HALF LIFE
If we plot the equation B  B FDC , for
three different values of ,we would
obtain:
Figure 31.9, page 497,
Chapter 31: Nuclear
Physics; Cambridge
International AS and A
Level Physics
Coursebook, Sang,
Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd edition,
Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge,
UK,2014.

HALF LIFE
Definition: The half life,
H , of a
radioactive nuclide is the time taken
for the number of undecayed nuclei
to be reduced to half its original
number.
How do we calculate the value of IKJ ?

HALF LIFE
K ,
At
J
substitute
into

DC




M.

When we
the
equation

, we obtain

NOKH




By taking the natural logarithms on

.P
both sides, we get
H
D

EXAMPLES
Question 18, page 501,
Chapter 31: Nuclear
Physics; Cambridge
International AS and A
Level Physics Coursebook,
Sang, Jones, Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd edition,
Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge,
UK,2014.

EXAMPLES
Questions 19 and
20, page 501,
Chapter 31:
Nuclear Physics;
Cambridge
International AS
and A Level
Physics
Coursebook,
Sang, Jones,
Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition,
Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge,
UK,2014.

EXAMPLES
Question 21, page
501, Chapter 31:
Nuclear Physics;
Cambridge
International AS
and A Level
Physics
Coursebook,
Sang, Jones,
Chadha and
Woodside, 2nd
edition,
Cambridge
University Press,
Cambridge,
UK,2014.

HOME WOR K
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Question 8, Paper 4, Summer 2008.

Question 9, Paper 4, Summer 2009.
Question 8, Paper 41, Winter 2009.
Question 8, Paper 42, Winter 2009.
Question 8, Paper 41, Summer 2010.
Question 8, Paper 42, Summer 2010.
Question 8, Paper 41, Winter 2010.
Question 8, Paper 41, Summer 2011.

HOME WOR K
9. Question 8, Paper 42, Summer 2011.
10.Question 8, Paper 41, Winter 2011.
11.Question 8, Paper 43, Winter 2011.
12.Question 9, Paper 41, Summer 2012.
13.Question 8, Paper 42, Summer 2012.
14.Question 8, Paper 43, Winter 2012.