Space

This article is about the general framework of distance

and direction. For the space beyond Earths atmosphere,
see Outer space. For the keyboard key, see Space bar.
For other uses, see Space (disambiguation).

ton's view, space was absolutein the sense that it existed

permanently and independently of whether there was any
matter in the space.[3] Other natural philosophers, notably
Gottfried Leibniz, thought instead that space was in fact
a collection of relations between objects, given by their
distance and direction from one another. In the 18th
century, the philosopher and theologian George Berkeley attempted to refute the visibility of spatial depth in
his Essay Towards a New Theory of Vision. Later, the
metaphysician Immanuel Kant said that the concepts of
space and time are not empirical ones derived from experiences of the outside worldthey are elements of an
already given systematic framework that humans possess
and use to structure all experiences. Kant referred to the
experience of space in his Critique of Pure Reason as
being a subjective pure a priori form of intuition.

In the 19th and 20th centuries mathematicians began

to examine geometries that are not Euclidean, in which
space can be said to be curved, rather than at. According to Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity, space around gravitational elds deviates from Euclidean space.[4] Experimental tests of general relativity
have conrmed that non-Euclidean geometries provide a
better model for the shape of space.

A right-handed three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system

used to indicate positions in space.

1 Philosophy of space

Space is the boundless three-dimensional extent in

which objects and events have relative position and
direction.[1] Physical space is often conceived in three
linear dimensions, although modern physicists usually
consider it, with time, to be part of a boundless fourdimensional continuum known as spacetime. The concept of space is considered to be of fundamental importance to an understanding of the physical universe. However, disagreement continues between philosophers over
whether it is itself an entity, a relationship between entities, or part of a conceptual framework.

1.1 Leibniz and Newton

In the seventeenth century, the philosophy of space and
time emerged as a central issue in epistemology and
metaphysics. At its heart, Gottfried Leibniz, the German
philosopher-mathematician, and Isaac Newton, the English physicist-mathematician, set out two opposing theories of what space is. Rather than being an entity that
independently exists over and above other matter, Leibniz held that space is no more than the collection of spatial relations between objects in the world: space is that
which results from places taken together.[5] Unoccupied
regions are those that could have objects in them, and
thus spatial relations with other places. For Leibniz, then,
space was an idealised abstraction from the relations between individual entities or their possible locations and
therefore could not be continuous but must be discrete.[6]
Space could be thought of in a similar way to the relations
between family members. Although people in the family
are related to one another, the relations do not exist independently of the people.[7] Leibniz argued that space

Debates concerning the nature, essence and the mode of

existence of space date back to antiquity; namely, to treatises like the Timaeus of Plato, or Socrates in his reections on what the Greeks called khra (i.e. space), or in
the Physics of Aristotle (Book IV, Delta) in the denition
of topos (i.e. place), or in the later geometrical conception of place as space qua extension in the Discourse
on Place (Qawl al-Makan) of the 11th-century Arab
polymath Alhazen.[2] Many of these classical philosophical questions were discussed in the Renaissance and then
reformulated in the 17th century, particularly during the
early development of classical mechanics. In Isaac New1

Gottfried Leibniz
Isaac Newton

could not exist independently of objects in the world because that implies a dierence between two universes ex- 1.2
actly alike except for the location of the material world in
each universe. But since there would be no observational
way of telling these universes apart then, according to the
identity of indiscernibles, there would be no real dierence between them. According to the principle of sucient reason, any theory of space that implied that there
could be these two possible universes must therefore be
wrong.[8]

Kant

Newton took space to be more than relations between material objects and based his position on observation and
experimentation. For a relationist there can be no real
dierence between inertial motion, in which the object
travels with constant velocity, and non-inertial motion,
in which the velocity changes with time, since all spatial measurements are relative to other objects and their
motions. But Newton argued that since non-inertial motion generates forces, it must be absolute.[9] He used the
example of water in a spinning bucket to demonstrate his
argument. Water in a bucket is hung from a rope and
set to spin, starts with a at surface. After a while, as
the bucket continues to spin, the surface of the water becomes concave. If the buckets spinning is stopped then
the surface of the water remains concave as it continues
to spin. The concave surface is therefore apparently not
the result of relative motion between the bucket and the
water.[10] Instead, Newton argued, it must be a result of
non-inertial motion relative to space itself. For several
centuries the bucket argument was considered decisive in
Immanuel Kant
showing that space must exist independently of matter.

PHILOSOPHY OF SPACE

1.4

Gauss and Poincar

In the eighteenth century the German philosopher

Immanuel Kant developed a theory of knowledge in
which knowledge about space can be both a priori and
synthetic.[11] According to Kant, knowledge about space
is synthetic, in that statements about space are not simply true by virtue of the meaning of the words in the
statement. In his work, Kant rejected the view that space
must be either a substance or relation. Instead he came
to the conclusion that space and time are not discovered by humans to be objective features of the world,
but imposed by us as part of a framework for organizing experience.[12]

1.3

gles in a triangle is less than 180 and the ratio of a

circle's circumference to its diameter is greater than pi.
In the 1850s, Bernhard Riemann developed an equivalent
theory of elliptical geometry, in which no parallel lines
pass through P. In this geometry, triangles have more
than 180 and circles have a ratio of circumference-todiameter that is less than pi.

1.4 Gauss and Poincar

Non-Euclidean geometry

Main article: Non-Euclidean geometry

Euclids Elements contained ve postulates that form the
N

90

90

Carl Friedrich Gauss

S
Spherical geometry is similar to elliptical geometry. On a sphere
(the surface of a ball) there are no parallel lines.

basis for Euclidean geometry. One of these, the parallel

postulate, has been the subject of debate among mathematicians for many centuries. It states that on any plane
on which there is a straight line L1 and a point P not
on L1 , there is exactly one straight line L2 on the plane
that passes through the point P and is parallel to the
straight line L1 . Until the 19th century, few doubted
the truth of the postulate; instead debate centered over
whether it was necessary as an axiom, or whether it was a
theory that could be derived from the other axioms.[13]
Around 1830 though, the Hungarian Jnos Bolyai and
the Russian Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky separately
published treatises on a type of geometry that does not
include the parallel postulate, called hyperbolic geometry. In this geometry, an innite number of parallel lines
pass through the point P. Consequently, the sum of an-

Although there was a prevailing Kantian consensus at

the time, once non-Euclidean geometries had been formalised, some began to wonder whether or not physical
space is curved. Carl Friedrich Gauss, a German mathematician, was the rst to consider an empirical investigation of the geometrical structure of space. He thought
of making a test of the sum of the angles of an enormous
stellar triangle, and there are reports that he actually carried out a test, on a small scale, by triangulating mountain
tops in Germany.[14]
Henri Poincar, a French mathematician and physicist
of the late 19th century, introduced an important insight in which he attempted to demonstrate the futility of
any attempt to discover which geometry applies to space
by experiment.[15] He considered the predicament that
would face scientists if they were conned to the surface
of an imaginary large sphere with particular properties,
known as a sphere-world. In this world, the temperature
is taken to vary in such a way that all objects expand and
contract in similar proportions in dierent places on the
sphere. With a suitable fallo in temperature, if the sci-

2 MATHEMATICS

Henri Poincar

entists try to use measuring rods to determine the sum

of the angles in a triangle, they can be deceived into
thinking that they inhabit a plane, rather than a spherical
surface.[16] In fact, the scientists cannot in principle determine whether they inhabit a plane or sphere and, Poincar
argued, the same is true for the debate over whether real
space is Euclidean or not. For him, which geometry was
used to describe space was a matter of convention.[17]
Since Euclidean geometry is simpler than non-Euclidean
geometry, he assumed the former would always be used
to describe the 'true' geometry of the world.[18]

1.5

Einstein

In 1905, Albert Einstein published a paper on a special

theory of relativity, which led to the concept that space
and time may be combined into a single construct known
as spacetime. In this theory, the speed of light in a vacuum
is the same for all observerswhich has the result that
two events that appear simultaneous to one particular observer will not be simultaneous to another observer if the
observers are moving with respect to one another. Moreover, an observer will measure a moving clock to tick
more slowly than one that is stationary with respect to
them; and objects are measured to be shortened in the direction that they are moving with respect to the observer.

Albert Einstein

force eld acting in spacetime, Einstein suggested that it

modies the geometric structure of spacetime itself.[19]
According to the general theory, time goes more slowly at
places with lower gravitational potentials and rays of light
bend in the presence of a gravitational eld. Scientists
have studied the behaviour of binary pulsars, conrming
the predictions of Einsteins theories, and non-Euclidean
geometry is usually used to describe spacetime.

2 Mathematics
Main article: Three-dimensional space (mathematics)
Not to be confused with Space (mathematics).

In modern mathematics spaces are dened as sets with

some added structure. They are frequently described as
dierent types of manifolds, which are spaces that locally
approximate to Euclidean space, and where the properties are dened largely on local connectedness of points
that lie on the manifold. There are however, many diverse mathematical objects that are called spaces. For
example, vector spaces such as function spaces may have
innite numbers of independent dimensions and a noOver the following ten years Einstein worked on a general tion of distance very dierent from Euclidean space, and
theory of relativity, which is a theory of how gravity in- topological spaces replace the concept of distance with a
teracts with spacetime. Instead of viewing gravity as a more abstract idea of nearness.

3.3

Cosmology

Physics

3.3 Cosmology

Many of the laws of physics, such as the various inverse Main article: Shape of the universe
square laws, depend on dimension three.[20]
In physics, our three-dimensional space is viewed as em- Relativity theory leads to the cosmological question of
bedded in four-dimensional spacetime, called Minkowski what shape the universe is, and where space came from. It
was created in the Big Bang, 13.8 bilspace (see special relativity). The idea behind space-time appears that space
[22]
lion
years
ago
and
has been expanding ever since. The
is that time is hyperbolic-orthogonal to each of the three
overall
shape
of
space
is not known, but space is known
spatial dimensions.
to be expanding very rapidly due to the Cosmic Ination.

3.1

Classical mechanics

4 Spatial measurement

Main article: Classical mechanics

Main article: Measurement
Space is one of the few fundamental quantities in physics,
meaning that it cannot be dened via other quantities because nothing more fundamental is known at the present.
On the other hand, it can be related to other fundamental quantities. Thus, similar to other fundamental quantities (like time and mass), space can be explored via
measurement and experiment.

3.2

Relativity

Main article: Theory of relativity

The measurement of physical space has long been important. Although earlier societies had developed measuring
systems, the International System of Units, (SI), is now
the most common system of units used in the measuring
of space, and is almost universally used.
Currently, the standard space interval, called a standard
meter or simply meter, is dened as the distance traveled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of exactly
1/299,792,458 of a second. This denition coupled with
present denition of the second is based on the special
theory of relativity in which the speed of light plays the
role of a fundamental constant of nature.

Before Einstein's work on relativistic physics, time and

space were viewed as independent dimensions. Einsteins
discoveries showed that due to relativity of motion our 5 Geographical space
space and time can be mathematically combined into one
objectspacetime. It turns out that distances in space or in See also: Spatial analysis
time separately are not invariant with respect to Lorentz
coordinate transformations, but distances in Minkowski
space-time along space-time intervals arewhich justi- Geography is the branch of science concerned with identifying and describing the Earth, utilizing spatial awarees the name.
ness to try to understand why things exist in specic locaIn addition, time and space dimensions should not be tions. Cartography is the mapping of spaces to allow betviewed as exactly equivalent in Minkowski space-time.
ter navigation, for visualization purposes and to act as a
One can freely move in space but not in time. Thus, locational device. Geostatistics apply statistical concepts
time and space coordinates are treated dierently both
to collected spatial data to create an estimate for unobin special relativity (where time is sometimes considered served phenomena.
an imaginary coordinate) and in general relativity (where
dierent signs are assigned to time and space components Geographical space is often considered as land, and can
have a relation to ownership usage (in which space is
of spacetime metric).
seen as property or territory). While some cultures assert
Furthermore, in Einsteins general theory of relativity, it the rights of the individual in terms of ownership, other
is postulated that space-time is geometrically distorted- cultures will identify with a communal approach to land
curved -near to gravitationally signicant masses.[21]
ownership, while still other cultures such as Australian
One consequence of this postulate, which follows from Aboriginals, rather than asserting ownership rights to
the equations of general relativity, is the prediction of land, invert the relationship and consider that they are in
moving ripples of space-time, called gravitational waves. fact owned by the land. Spatial planning is a method of
While indirect evidence for these waves has been found regulating the use of space at land-level, with decisions
(in the motions of the HulseTaylor binary system, for ex- made at regional, national and international levels. Space
ample) experiments attempting to directly measure these can also impact on human and cultural behavior, being an
waves are ongoing.
important factor in architecture, where it will impact on

the design of buildings and structures, and on farming.

Shape of the universe

Ownership of space is not restricted to land. Ownership of airspace and of waters is decided internationally.
Other forms of ownership have been recently asserted to
other spacesfor example to the radio bands of the electromagnetic spectrum or to cyberspace.

Space exploration

Public space is a term used to dene areas of land as collectively owned by the community, and managed in their
name by delegated bodies; such spaces are open to all,
while private property is the land culturally owned by an
individual or company, for their own use and pleasure.
Abstract space is a term used in geography to refer to a
hypothetical space characterized by complete homogeneity. When modeling activity or behavior, it is a conceptual
tool used to limit extraneous variables such as terrain.

In psychology

Psychologists rst began to study the way space is perceived in the middle of the 19th century. Those now
concerned with such studies regard it as a distinct branch
of psychology. Psychologists analyzing the perception of
space are concerned with how recognition of an objects
physical appearance or its interactions are perceived, see,
for example, visual space.
Other, more specialized topics studied include amodal
perception and object permanence. The perception of
surroundings is important due to its necessary relevance
to survival, especially with regards to hunting and self
preservation as well as simply ones idea of personal
space.

REFERENCES

Spatial-temporal reasoning
Spatial analysis

8 References
[1] space - physics and metaphysics. Encyclopedia Britannica.
[2] Refer to Platos Timaeus in the Loeb Classical Library,
Harvard University, and to his reections on khora. See
also Aristotles Physics, Book IV, Chapter 5, on the denition of topos. Concerning Ibn al-Haythams 11th century
conception of geometrical place as spatial extension,
which is akin to Descartes' and Leibnizs 17th century notions of extensio and analysis situs, and his own mathematical refutation of Aristotles denition of topos in natural philosophy, refer to: Nader El-Bizri, In Defence of
the Sovereignty of Philosophy: al-Baghdadis Critique of
Ibn al-Haythams Geometrisation of Place, Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press), Vol.
17 (2007), pp. 57-80.
[3] French and Ebison, Classical Mechanics, p. 1
[4] Carnap, R. An introduction to the Philosophy of Science
[5] Leibniz, Fifth letter to Samuel Clarke
[6] Vailati, E, Leibniz & Clarke: A Study of Their Correspondence p. 115
[7] Sklar, L, Philosophy of Physics, p. 20

Several space-related phobias have been iden- [8] Sklar, L, Philosophy of Physics, p. 21
tied, including agoraphobia (the fear of open [9] Sklar, L, Philosophy of Physics, p. 22
spaces), astrophobia (the fear of celestial space)
[10] Newtons bucket. st-and.ac.uk.
and claustrophobia (the fear of enclosed spaces).
The understanding of three-dimensional space in humans [11] Carnap, R, An introduction to the philosophy of science,
p. 177-178
is thought to be learned during infancy using unconscious
inference, and is closely related to hand-eye coordination.
[12] Lucas, John Randolph. Space, Time and Causality. p.
The visual ability to perceive the world in three dimen149. ISBN 0-19-875057-9.
sions is called depth perception.
[13] Carnap, R, An introduction to the philosophy of science,
p. 126

See also
Absolute space and time
Aether theories
Cosmology
Eect of spaceight on the human body

[14] Carnap, R, An introduction to the philosophy of science,

p. 134-136
[15] Jammer, M, Concepts of Space, p. 165
[16] A medium with a variable index of refraction could also
be used to bend the path of light and again deceive the
scientists if they attempt to use light to map out their geometry

General relativity

[17] Carnap, R, An introduction to the philosophy of science,

p. 148

Personal space

[18] Sklar, L, Philosophy of Physics, p. 57

[19] Sklar, L, Philosophy of Physics, p. 43

[20] Greene, Brian (2003). The Fabric of the Cosmos. New
York: Random House. ISBN 0-375-72720-5.
[21] chapters 8 and 9- John A. Wheeler A Journey Into Gravity and Spacetime Scientic American ISBN 0-71676034-7
[22] Cosmic Detectives. The European Space Agency
(ESA). 2013-04-02. Retrieved 2013-04-26.

External links
Seth Shostak on Space Exploration

10

10
10.1

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10.2

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