Wednesday, 1 June y

Chemistry Topic 4
Periodic Patterns of Atomic Radii
- The measure of an atom is its atomic radii.
- It can be either the covalent radius or the metallic radius
Covalent Radius- is half the distance between the nuclei of neighbouring atoms in
molecules.
Metallic Radius- is half the distance between the nuclei of neighbouring atoms in the
metallic crystals

- Covalent radius can be measured for most elements- commonly referred to as the
atomic radius

- Noble gases do not have atomic/covalent radii.

Trends of atomic radii: increase down a group
: decrease across a period
: after some decrease, it is relatively constant across the transition
metals (Titanium to Copper)
*Trends of atomic radii are generally opposite the trends of the first ionisation energies
: As atomic radii become larger- the 1st Ionisation energies become smaller.
But in any one atom both trends have the same effects of:
- the size of nuclear charge

- the distance of the outer electron shell from the nucleus

- the shielding effect of filled inner electron shells upon the outer shell
Down any one group
- the nuclear charge increases, but the distance and shielding effects increase even
more, as extra electrons are added.

- the overall result is an increase in atomic radii

Across periods 2 & 3
- the nuclear charges increase from element to element.
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- the distance and shielding effects remain fairly constant, because electrons are added
to the same outer shell.

- As the increasing attraction pulls the electrons

closer to the nuclei, the radii of the atoms
decrease.

Periodic Patterns of Ionic Radii

- The radii of Ions also decrease across a period
*Remember elements on left form cations, elements on the right form anions
- The radii of cations, Na(+) to Si(4+) are smaller than their atoms

- The radii of anions, P(2-) to Cl(-) are larger than their atoms
- Both decrease from left to right

Periodic Patterns of Melting Points for Elements 1-36

Solids
- In any melting solid there is a large number of particles entering the liquid phase.

- If the forces in between the particles is

strong the melting point is high

- If the forces in between the particles is

weak the melting point is low

- The peaks on the graph are Carbon and

Silicon, both from group IV, their high m.p
are due to the strong covalent bonds
between atoms of these elements. These
bonds exist in the giant molecular lattice
structure, these bonds break when melting
occurs.

- The troughs (0K) are elements that have diatomic molecules or those in Group 18.
Due to weak forces of attraction that are easily broken. The diatomic molecules are
easily separated from each other as temperature rises.

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- Elements Groups I, II, III, have similar positions on the rising parts of the curve. Most
of the elements in these groups are metals. The metallic bonding is stronger on
moving from Group 1-2-3, due to more outer shell electrons available to be mobile
and take part in bonding.

Periodic Patterns of Electrical Conductivity

- Measured in Siemens per meter (Sm-1)
- Conductivity values show how easily electrons move through the element
- Metallic elements
have higher
electrical
conductivities then
molecular elements

Periodic
Patterns of 1st
Ionisation
Energies
- peaks- Noble
gases
troughs- group 1 Alkali metals

- general increase across a period but has variations.

- Elements 21-29 have a smaller increase than other series of elements.

Wednesday, 1 June y

Variations of the first Ionisation energies

- The number of protons in their nuclei and so their positive nuclear charges are
different.

- An increase in positive nuclear charge will tend to cause an increase in first Ionisation
energies.

- Forces of attraction between the positive nuclear charge and the negatively charged
electrons decreases as the quantum number of the shells increases, the further the
shell is from the nucleus the lower the first Ionisation energies.

- Filled Inner electron shells shield outer electrons. The outer electrons are repelled by
the electrons in the filled inner shells so the first Ionisation energy falls.

First Ionisation energies across a period/groups

- The trend is a general increase, however this is an uneven trend.
- variations in the trend are due to the repulsion of electrons caused by the pairing of
electrons in orbitals decrease, it is smaller than orbitals with unpaired electrons.

- Note how elements from the same groups have similar positions on the plot of the first
ionisation energies.

- First Ionisation Energies generally decrease down a vertical group with increasing
atomic number

- With increasing proton number in any group:

the positive nuclear charge increases
the atoms radius increases so the distance of the outer electrons from the nucleus also
increases with each new shell.
the shielding effect of the filled inner electron shells increases as the number of inner
shells increase
* The distance and shielding effects together reduce the effect of the increasing nuclear
charges from element to element down any group.

First Ionisation Energies and Reactivity of Elements

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Wednesday, 1 June y

- gives measure of energy required to remove electrons from atoms and form positive
ions.

- the lower the first Ionisation energy of an element the more easily the element forms
positive ions during reactions.

- In elements with low first ionisation energy, one or more electrons are relatively free to
move from atom to atom in the metallic bonding of the structure

- The characteristic chemical properties of metallic elements include the formation of

positive ions

- Elements with low Ionisation energies react more quickly vigorously

Successive Ionisation energies and the periodic table

-

The position of an element in the periodic table

It provides evidence for the general pattern of electron shells.
Predicts simple electron configuration of an element
confirms the position of an element in the periodic table.
For all elements successive Ionisation energies steadily increase as electrons are
removed

- A large increase occurs between two successive energies when the next electron is
removed from a lower electron shell.

Period 3 Oxides and Chlorides

Sodium
- O2 = 4Na(s) + O2(g)> 2Na2O(s)
-

Burns with yellow/orange flame, forms white products

Cl = 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) > 2NaCl(s)
Burns with bright orange flame, forms white products

Magnesium
- O2 = 2Mg(s) + O2(g) > 2MgO(s)
Burns easily with bright white flame, forms white products
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- Cl = Mg(s) + Cl2(g) > MgCl2(s)

Burns with bright white flame, forms white products

Aluminium
- O2 = 4Al(s) + 3O2(g) > 2Al2O3(s)
-

Only powdered form burns, forms white products

Cl = 2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) > 2AlCl3(s)
Burns with bright yellow flame, forms pale yellow/ white volatile product

Phosphorus (V)
- O2 = P4(s) + 5O2(g) > P4O10(s)
-

Burns with yellow flame, forms clouds of white smoke and white product
Cl = P4(s) + 6Cl2(g) > 4PCl3(l)
PCl3(l) + Cl2(g) > PCl5(s)
Burns with bright yellow flame, forms a liquid,
then in excess gas for a pale yellow solid.

Sulphur
- O2 = S(s) + O2(g) > SO2(g)
Burns with blue flame, forms colourless gas
= 2SO2(g) + O2(g) > 2SO3(g)
heated in excess gas with vanadium oxide catalyst, forms colourless gas

Silicon (IV)
- O2 = Si(s) + O2(g) > SiO2(s)
-

Burns if heated strongly

Cl = Si(s) + 2Cl2(g) > SiCl4(l)
Reacts when Cl is passed over it, creates colourless liquid.
Or heated Si in Cl gas, forms volatile liquid.

Period 3 with Water

Sodium
- 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) > 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
when placed in water, floats and fizzes. If stuck in one place it can become hot enough
to catch fire burning with an orange flame.

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Magnesium
- Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) > Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g) [ reaction with water ]
-

the reaction is slow with water, but the product is Magnesium hydroxide
Mg(s) + H2O(l) > MgO(s) + H2(g)
[ reaction with steam ]
the reaction is vigorous with steam, but the product is Magnesium oxide

*Both give Alkaline solutions

But Na is more reactive with H2O than Mg
Aqueous NaOH is a stronger alkali than Mg(OH) 2 because NaOH is more soluble in
water

Variations of oxidation states of oxides and chlorides

- Across period 3 oxidation states of oxides and chlorides increase
- In the highest oxidation state the elements usually have oxidation states that
corresponds to the number of electrons in their outer shells.

Oxidation States
- Oxidation states are usually the amount of electrons the atom has to gain or lose or
share to bond ionically or covalently to form a bond

- The oxidation state of uncombined elements (so not compounds) is always zero. Such
as each atom in H2(g) or O2(g) or Na(s) or S8(s) has an oxidation state of zero.

- The oxidation states of hydrogen in a compound is +1, except in metal hydrides (e.g
NaH), when it is -1

- The oxidation state of oxygen in compounds is -2, except in peroxides (e.g H2O2)
when it is -1

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Acids and Bases

Ceramics
- Ceramics are generally known as containing compounds that have giant structures.
- They are non-metallic, non-polymeric solids that have been hardened by heating to
high temperatures.

- They are used in furnace linings, electrical insulators, glass and crockery.
- Furnace linings need to withstand high temperatures so compounds such as
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and Magnesium oxide (MgO) are used.

- Silicates are based on Silica (SiO2) they are strong, hard and have great rigidity
- They are also electrical and thermal insulators, and in overhead power lines, in glass
and in crockery. A con to silicates is they're brittle.

- High-grade Silicon (IV) oxide is used in tiles used in U.S. Space shuttles as heat
shields during re-entry to Earths atmosphere.