Growel Cattle Farming

Manual

Table of Contents
VITAL SIGNS.................................................................................................3
POINTS OF THE BOVINE.............................................................................3
BASIC TERMINOLOGY.................................................................................4
TYPES OF CATTLE ......................................................................................4
CATTLE BEHAVIOUR AND HANDLING .......................................................5
IDENTIFICATION OF CATTLE......................................................................7
DENTITION AND AGING ..............................................................................8
BODY CONDITION .......................................................................................9
CATTLE FEEDING AND NUTRITION .........................................................13
INTERNAL PARASITES (WORMS) ............................................................15
EXTERNAL PARASITES AND SKIN CONDITIONS ...................................17
EYE CONDITIONS ......................................................................................21
CALVING RELATED INJURIES AND ILLNESSES .....................................23
FOOT AND LEG CONDITIONS (LAMENESSES) .......................................30
BREEDING NOTES AND CALVING ...........................................................32
BUYING AND CARING FOR A HOUSE COW ............................................34

VITAL SIGNS
Resting vital signs
Pulse rate:
Respiratory rate:
Temperature:

70 (40 - 100) beats/min

31 (27 - 40) breaths/min
38.6C

Temperature can be taken by inserting a thermometer into the anus and resting it
against the rectal wall. Ensure you keep hold of it or attach string to prevent it
disappearing. A glass thermometer (needs shaking down first) or a digital
thermometer can be used, both should be lubricated before insertion (spit, water,
vaseline). Digital thermometers provide a reading much more quickly and are
easier to read.
Pulse can be felt under the tail. Once the artery is located, hold lightly and count
the beats for one minute.
Respiration is easily counted by watching the rise and fall of the ribs and
abdominal wall. Normal resting breathing is gentle and rhythmic without effort.

POINTS OF THE BOVINE

Females have an udder with four teats suspended between the back legs. Bulls
have paired testicles in a pendulous scrotum. Males will also have teats (non milk
producing) in front of the scrotum.

In bullocks this is replaced by a cod that may be quite large due to fat.
The area above the udder/scrotum and below the anus/vulva is the escutcheon.
Cattle can be horned, naturally polled (polly) or dehorned.
Some Bos indicus breeds have a pronounced hump at the top of the shoulder
(wither).

BASIC TERMINOLOGY
Bull calf
Heifer calf
Bobby calf
Bull
Heifer
Cow
Steer
Bullock
Store cattle
Mickey bull

Entire male under one year

Female under one year
Calf from five days to six weeks taken from its mother
Entire adult male
Young female of breeding age or with first calf
Adult female after first or second calf
Castrated male
Castrated male, usually older/heavier than a steer
Animals in moderate condition intended for fattening before sale
Feral, gone wild. Also called a scrub bull or scrubber.

TYPES OF CATTLE
From earliest times, cattle have been used for meat and milk production and as
beasts of burden. Dairy breeds are lightly framed in comparison with the heavily
muscled beef breeds.
Bos taurus
European and British origins.
Commonest dairy breed is the Holstein-Friesian, large black and white cattle.
Bos indicus
Tropical cattle, of African and Indian/Pakistani origin.
They are heat tolerant and less susceptible to the effects of cattle tick cf. British
breeds.
Commonest beef breed is the Brahman (Zebu) and their crosses. They are large,
humped, predominantly grey cattle (some browns).
Dairy breeds include Red Sindhi and Sahiwal.
Bos taurus x Bos indicus
Many crosses have been tried in an attempt to combine the best of both.
Popular beef crossbreeds are the Braford (Brahman x Hereford) and Santa
Gertrudis (Brahman x Shorthorn).
Dairy crossbreeds include the Australian Friesian Sahiwal (Sahiwal x Friesian).

CATTLE BEHAVIOUR AND HANDLING

Cattle are herd animals and conform to a peck order. A bovine singled out and
separated from the herd can become very agitated, even dangerous. Cattle will
vocalise distress more than other species; if an otherwise healthy bovine is
bellowing there is a problem (unless in season) separated from the herd, lost
calf, out of water.
Restraint of cattle
Cattle can be taught to lead and tie up but this is seldom done except for show
purposes. Dairy cows are generally used to a lot of handling and are trained to
stand in a bail for milking purposes, secured by a head gate and/or a chain
behind and possibly a leg restraint. Beef cattle and others are typically handled
in a crush, of which there are many sizes, strengths and types, into which they
are run through a race or chute.
Individual animals, if quiet enough and not too big, can be controlled by bending
the head around against the neck, and/or grasping the lower jaw, and/or holding
the tail up and pushed slightly forward over the hindquarters.
If more serious restraint is required and no crush is available, cattle can be easily
and humanely cast using Reuffs method.

Various forms of nose grips are also available but should be used with care to
avoid damaging the nose.

Many bulls have had a nose ring inserted to which a rope can be clipped for
handling purposes. Bulls, particularly dairy bulls, are notoriously untrustworthy. If
faced with an angry bull, the advice is to back away slowly rather than turning
and running if possible.
Moving/drafting cattle
In nature, cattle in a herd move quietly, slowly and calmly. Handling techniques
that mimic this response are far less stressful than those based on fear - noise,
stock whips, rushing at the animals, shouting, etc. However, normal talking is
important to let animals know where you are, also has a calming effect in itself.
Stress-free movement of cattle is achieved by applying pressure from the side
rather than from directly in front or behind as is traditional. A person should be
close enough to the animals that they will take notice (but not too close to deeply
invade the flight zone and cause panic) and about opposite the shoulder of a
single animal or opposite the front section of a group of animals. This is the point
of balance. All species of livestock will move forward if the handler stands
behind the point of balance. They will back up if the handler stands in front of the
point of balance In a group situation, moving the front animals forward in this way
is an automatic signal for the ones behind to move up and follow without being
chased or goaded to do so.

IDENTIFICATION OF CATTLE
RSPCA Australia supports the marking of animals for identification. The preferred
method is microchip or other electronic methods, which cause minimal pain or
suffering. Where branding is necessary, freeze branding should be used.
Branding
Cattle (over 100kg) intended for sale in Queensland must carry a fire or freeze
brand registered with the Dept of Primary Industries and Fisheries and traceable
through their register. It is commonly on the rump but other acceptable positions
include the neck, shoulder and thigh. The brand itself will be a three-piece
combination of letters or numbers or symbols with possibly some additional
numbers below (drop numerals) identifying individuals or year. Some stud cattle
might carry a registered symbol brand instead of the three-piece.

Earmarks
Earmarks are used in conjunction with a registered brand to aid in identification
of cattle. (RSPCA Australia believes that hot iron (fire) branding and ear
mutilations are unacceptable means of identification). Special earmarking pliers
remove portion of either or both ears in a pattern according to the registered
code. It is illegal to remove more than one third of the earflap or to use a knife for
earmarking.
NLIS
The National Livestock Identification System (NLIS) was introduced 2005-2006
and is compulsory. Using special scanner-readable ear tags or rumen boluses in
combination with the ear tags, it is designed to track cattle whole-of-life, from
property of birth to slaughter. The tags are white or orange and affixed through
the middle of the right earflap. The history of every NLIS-tagged animal is stored
on a central database allowing rapid and accurate traceability vital in disease
outbreak. RSPCA QLD has an exemption that allows the Inspectors to transport
cattle to the shelter without NLIS tags but all cattle leaving the RSPCA must have
an NLIS tag.

DENTITION AND AGING

Dentition varies because of genetics and diet, but examination of the teeth of
cattle remains the most practical method of age determination if it is not known
otherwise from tags or brands.

Cattle have eight incisors in the lower jaw only. They are replaced in the upper
jaw by a tough dental pad.
At or soon after birth, calves have all eight temporary incisors. These are quite
white and much smaller than the permanents that will replace them.
Below is a guide for estimating the age of cattle according to eruption of the
permanent incisor teeth, starting with the two in the middle (1-2) called the
centrals. In the sketch, the bigger teeth with the black shading are the
permanents.
Eruption of permanent incisors
0
1-2
3-4
5-6
7
8

Approximate age (months)

Less 18
18-30
24-36
30-42
36-48
42+

Four permanent teeth, two more are emerging either side, having pushed out the temporaries.
This is a six tooth, aged 3 years, give or take six months.

BODY CONDITION
The obvious way to judge whether a bovine is too thin or not is by sight, but this
is not always easy without some experience. Dairy cattle in particular are
naturally lighter framed and have more prominent bony points (e.g. hips) than
beef cattle; it can be difficult to judge whether they are in fact in acceptable
condition.

Body condition scoring is a quantitative way to estimate condition. It uses

palpation to assess fat cover and gives a score from 0 to 5 or 6 or 8 or 10,
depending on the system used. Condition Scores commonly used in cattle are
generally preparation of animals for market, however techniques can also be
used for our benefit in discussing a condition of an animal.
It does require experience in assessing what actually is being felt. The two areas
palpated are:1.
The spinous processes or short ribs
2.
Around the tail head.

The degree of prominence of the short ribs is judged by placing the fingers flat
over the them and pressing the thumb into their ends. A condition score from 1 to
6 is given according to how easily the short ribs can be felt with the thumb.

The degree of fat cover around the tail head is assessed by using the fingers and
thumb and should be done at the same time as assessing the short ribs. A
condition score is given according to the fat that can be felt.

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Explanation of condition scoring using a 1 to 6 scale:0.

Very thin, emaciated, starving.
1.
The individual processes are sharp to the touch, no tail head fat. The hip,
bones and ribs are prominent.
2.
The individual processes can easily be felt, but feel rounded, rather than
sharp. There is some tissue cover around the tail head. Individual ribs are
no longer visually obvious.
3.
The short ribs can only be felt with firm thumb pressure. Areas either side
of tail head have fat cover which can be easily felt.
4.
The processes cannot be felt and fat cover around the tail head is easily
seen as slight mounds, soft to touch. Folds of fat are beginning to develop
over the ribs and thighs.
5.
The bone structure of the animal is no longer noticeable and the tail head is
almost completely buried in fatty tissue.
6.
Area around tail base completely filled out and the back is completely
rounded
The score can be varied half a score depending upon the amount of tail head fat,
for example if the short rib palpation (using the thumb) gives score 4 but the tail
head is a typical 3, the score would then be 3.5.
On a 0 to 6 scale, cattle with a condition score of 3 and under are too thin.
Cows should be between 4.5 and 5.5 at calving and should not lose more than
one condition score in early lactation.
Note-: Blood albumin levels can be a good indicator of chronic or long-term
weight loss.

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12

CATTLE FEEDING AND NUTRITION

People moving onto small acreage often get one or two grass eaters, but are
usually unaware of just how much feed these animals need. This is also true of
some real estate agents, who market anything above half an acre as having
room for a pony or other grazing animal. What looks initially like an expanse of
abundant grass is often sour and unpalatable, or more weeds than anything else.
Before long most of the useable grass will be eaten or trampled allowing even
more weeds to take over. Particularly in winter, native grasses disappear to
almost nothing and lose their nutritive value. (Note: Some small acreage blocks
might initially have good stands of clover, which can cause bloat in cattle. See
Bloat in Diseases section.)
As with all other species the amount of food required is dependant on the age,
weight and nutritional levels of the available pasture.
The following table based on pastures in SE Qld illustrates very well the sort of
area actually required to maintain cattle year round without hand feeding and in
non-drought conditions. Even the best (irrigated oats) requires half an acre (0.4
hectare) per animal. The table refers to adult cattle, not young growing stock
which have a much greater requirement/kg of body weight for good quality
grazing in order to grow properly.
South East Queensland carrying capacity and production levels
Class of country
Uncleared forest - native
pasture
Cleared forest - native pasture
Cleared scrub - native pasture
Cleared scrub - sown pasture
River flats - native pasture
River flats - sown pasture
Oats rain grown

Carrying capacity
(ha/beast)

Annual gain (kg)

4-8

100

2-4
1.2 - 1.6
0.8 - 2.0
1.2 - 1.6
0.8 - 1.2
0.4

105
150
180
150
180
110
(100 days)

Adult Equivalents
Cattle of different ages and therefore body size have different capacities for the
amount of feed they can eat in a day. As a result, the number of animals a
property can support will vary depending on their size. To be able to assess the
number of animals a property can carry it is necessary to adjust all animals to the

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basis of an adult equivalent. Based on the nutrient requirements of animals of

different ages, table 2 has been drawn on which can be used for conversion.

Table 2 Adult equivalents for cattle of different ages

Age
0-6
6
18
months months months
Liveweight (kg)
110
160
230
Appetite (kg)
3.3
4.8
6.4
Adult equivalent (AE) 0.3
0.4
0.5

30
months
340
9.5
0.8

42
months
450
12.2
1.0

Mature cow
(450kg+calf)
15.5
1.3

Hand feeding
The safest and easiest way to fully handfeed cattle is with good quality hay
upwards of 12kg/day for an adult cow, depending on type of hay. But many other
options are available, often much more economical.
Basic principles
1. If there is still an adequate and palatable supply of dry pasture, feeding a
protein supplement or precursor (urea) may be sufficient. These include
Commercial preparations such as blocks, loose mixes and liquids
Urea/molasses roller drums
Vegetable protein meals
Adding urea to the drinking water (Note: urea can be toxic)
2. As the dry season/winter or drought worsens, supplements to grass
providing both protein and energy will be required. These include
Fortified molasses (molasses plus urea and/or vegetable oil)
Whole cottonseed
Grain (but care must be taken to avoid digestive upsets e.g.
acidosis)
Grain mixes (including e.g. urea, salt, bentonite, sulphur, cal/phos)
3.

If no or little grass is available, animals will have to be fully handfed,

including with hay or silage as a roughage source. Legume hay is always
expensive but cattle can utilise much lesser quality hay like cereal hay and
even stubble and straw, in combination with urea and molasses.
Depending on availability and economics, grain or pellets can be fed as
well, meaning the hay intake is reduced.

Water
Water is the most essential nutrient for life. All animals can live days or weeks
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HD:Users:bodhimcgee:Documents:RSPCA:Content
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water. Cattle drink large quantities
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manual:Cattle-Manual.doc
of water, exact daily requirements being influenced by ambient temperature, feed
intake and physical activity. A rough estimate for a milking dairy cow is 120 150
litres of water per day, but this can nearly double in very hot weather.

INTERNAL PARASITES (WORMS)

Worms are predominantly a problem in young cattle. Calves are exposed to

infective larvae as soon as they begin grazing at a few weeks of age. Young
cattle are far more susceptible to internal parasites with cattle over 18-24 months
frequently immune unless stressed by poor nutrition or raising a calf. Note:
mature cattle from the inland shifted closer to the coast may not have this
immunity.
Signs of worms include illthrift (not doing well), scouring, anaemia and a soft
swelling under the jaw (bottle jaw) due to oedema. These symptoms do not
become obvious unless the infestation is severe and/or the animals are low in
condition due to inadequate food intake.
It is very important to ensure that animals classed as wormy are not in fact
starving and it is food they need rather than worming. Apart from drought, too
many animals in too small a paddock (overstocking) is the commonest reason for
lack of grass.
Types of worms affecting cattle in Qld are roundworms, flukes and tapeworms.
Roundworms are by far the most important and widespread, flukes and tapes
being restricted to certain areas only. The common roundworm species are
Barbers pole (Haemonchus placei)
Hair and black scour worms (Trichostrongylus spp)
Small intestinal worms (Cooperia spp)
Hook worm (Bunostomum phlebotomum)
Nodule worm (Oesophagostomum radiatum)
Diagnosis of a worm problem is on clinical signs (being careful not to confuse
with starvation) and on the number of eggs passed in the dung (faecal egg
counts). The faeces of at least 10 animals should be sampled and tested, either
in a vet laboratory or by using a faecal egg counting kit available commercially.
Care must be taken in interpreting results because worm burdens fluctuate
rapidly. Also a moderate burden under normal weather conditions may be
potentially lethal in a drought situation.
Significant worm egg counts (cattle 6-18 months old)
Eggs per gram

Haemonchus
Cooperia
Oesophagostomum
Bunostomum
Trichostrongylus axei
Trichostrongylus colubriformis
Ostertagia

Significant

Dangerous

200
500
200
200
100
500
500

1,000
10,000
1,000
500
1,000
3,000
3,000

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Treatment of worms is with one of a number of constantly changing chemicals

that can be poured on, injected or administered as an oral drench. Many also

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EXTERNAL PARASITES AND SKIN CONDITIONS

The major external parasites affecting cattle in Qld are cattle ticks, buffalo flies
and lice.
Cattle ticks and tick fever
Cattle ticks (Boophilus microplus) are the most serious external parasite of cattle
in Australia. In Qld they are restricted to certain areas. The cattle tick infected or
ticky zone comprises all of coastal Qld and extends inland for a varying number
of kilometres. There is then a buffer or cattle tick control zone (e.g. along the
Great Dividing Range in SE Qld), then all of inland Qld is tick free. Note: The
movement of livestock is strictly controlled to ensure this situation continues. A
waybill, travel permit and dipping or spraying may be required. Check with local
stock inspector or DPI & F call centre Ph: 13 25 23.
Cattle ticks in large numbers cause loss of condition and even death through tick
worry and loss of blood. Also they carry and transmit tick fever. Ticks can be
found anywhere on the body but particularly on the escutcheon, tail head, flanks,
dewlap and ears. Cattle develop some resistance after repeated exposure,
particularly Bos indicus and their crosses.
The organisms responsible for tick fever (red water fever) are carried by cattle
ticks. They cause red blood cells to break down, releasing haemaglobin which is
excreted in the urine hence brown or red urine.
Signs of tick fever are presence of cattle ticks
sick with a temperature
red to brown urine
pale mucus membranes (lining of mouth, eyes)
history of recent movement from a tick-free area
Make comfortable with shade and water and seek veterinary advice.

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Identification of ticks that may be on cattle

Fully fed adult females (enlarged several times). Bodies are
dark blue/black when engorged with blood.

Scrub tick

NZ bush tick

Cattle tick

Legs

first and last pair

brown, others
pale; in V shape
line from snout
down sides of
body; legs are
close to the
mouth

dark red-brown;
first pair close to
snout;

pale cream; wide

space between
first pair and
snout;

Body

pear shaped to
oval;

oval;

oval to
rectangular;

Face

oval, wider at
rear;

broadly oval;

oval, wider at
front;

Snout

very long;

short, wider at
face;

short, straight;

Control and Treatment

Contact your Veterinarian for chemicals and other treatments that can be used.
Buffalo flies
Buffalo flies cause extreme discomfort and distress in cattle, also loss of weight
and production. They cannot complete their life cycle on other animals but do
attack them, especially horses running near or with cattle. They are small
(6mm), grey, narrow flies that can rise in clouds around an animal if disturbed
As the tumour enlarges, it can virtually take over the whole eye and ulcerates
and bleeds easily. Bacterial invasion results in a festering, foul-smelling growth.
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The cancer cells can spread to lymph nodes and then to other organs. Surgical
treatment is possible in the early stages, using cryosurgery or electrocautery
techniques, sometimes removal of the whole eye. The best prevention is
selection of cattle with eye pigment. It is an offence under prevention of cruelty
legislation to allow cancer eye to develop to the advanced stages. but seldom
leave otherwise except to lay eggs in freshly deposited cow dung. Each fly might
puncture the skin and take blood 10 to 40 times a day. Some cattle are more
sensitive than others and show a strong allergic response and itching resulting in
skin damage and sores. Note: in some parts of Qld, buffalo flies carry a small
worm-like parasite (Stephanofilaria spp) which also cause itchy skin lesions.
Control and treatment is by non-chemical means where possible using buffalo
fly traps and encouraging dung beetles. For chemical control, see Appendix 1
under Treatments for buffalo fly.
Cattle lice
Both sucking and biting lice are found on cattle in Australia. They may not be
easy to see unless the hair coat is parted. They are dark red-brown to grey, from
pinhead size to 4.5 mm, have six legs and move through the hair when not
actively feeding. In severe infestations they can be found all over the animal but
lighter infestations are confined to areas like the neck, dewlap, head, udder, tail
base. Heaviest infestations occur during winter and in cattle low in condition or
with lowered resistance due to worms. Lice usually disappear with the arrival of
warmer weather and shedding of the winter coat.
Signs are due to skin irritation, some cattle are more sensitive to lice than others
and rub against trees and posts, damaging the skin. Severe infestations of
sucking lice can cause anaemia.
Life cycle
The eggs laid by the female louse are attached to the hair. Nymph forms (young
lice resembling adults but smaller) hatch and pass through three intermediate or
nymphal stages to become adults. The complete cycle, from egg-laying until the
next generation is mature and laying eggs, takes about 28 days, but can vary
from 21 to 30 days. All these stages take place on the animal. Environmental
temperatures play an important part in affecting lice numbers. The optimum
temperature for development through the life cycle is 16C.
During hot weather there is little development of new populations and burdens
fall to low levels during summer as most of the lice present die off. Most lice die
within a week or less of removal from the host animal.
Cattle in poor condition and on poor nutrition are more likely to build up a bigger
burden of lice, and the lice are likely to remain on them longer. It seems that
healthy cattle in good condition develop some form of natural resistance that
controls a lice burden.

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Signs
Lice irritate the skin when feeding. To seek relief, some cattle will rub against
trees and posts, damaging their skin. Although rubbing is a good indicator of lice
infestation, cattle will also rub for other reasons, e.g. when shedding their coats.
Cattle severely infested with sucking lice may become anaemic because of the
amount of blood lost. Routine treatment is seldom warranted but if necessary,
see Appendix 1 under Treatments for lice.
WARTS
Warts are caused by a virus (bovine papilloma virus) and are commonest in beef
cattle and young cattle. Cattle under two years of age are most susceptible and
the condition usually will disappear within six months without any treatment. They
are usually confined to the neck and shoulder region but can also be on the
head, teats or penis. They are described as squat, pedunculated, flat or tags and
begin as raised hairless lesions, varying in size from a pea to a tennis ball. If
cattle rub larger warts, they can bleed and become infected.

Warts are highly contagious and infected animals should be kept separate if
possible. But they are self-limiting, meaning they usually disappear within six
months without any treatment. Large pendunculated lesions can be removed
surgically or by tying with a ligature around the base. In chronic infections some
animals may lose condition or have other complications from the warts
necessitating veterinary help. There is no vaccine currently registered for use on
warts in Qld.
Tumours and Lumps
It can be difficult to make are they suffering? judgements about tumours and
tumour-like conditions. The rule of thumb is that if the animal is still getting
around easily and handling the natural terrain, is still eating and behaving
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normally, is not lame nor isolated from the herd, then suffering is probably not
occurring. If tumours start to cause general signs of illness and/or pain, then
suffering is significant and veterinary advice must be sought.

EYE CONDITIONS
Pink Eye
The commonest eye condition in cattle. Spread by flies and dust particularly in
dusty mustering and yard conditions.
Signs are (usually one eye only)
eye is obviously weeping, half-closed and red-looking (conjunctiva)
aversion to sunlight, excessive blinking
eye goes cloudy in the middle and may ulcerate
Many animals spontaneously recover within 35 weeks, but the condition does
respond well to antibiotics. In a small percentage the eye may rupture, resulting
in permanent blindness. These cattle are suffering and should be isolated from
the herd and either disposed of or treated. It is important to check that an
obviously sore and weeping eye is not due to e.g. grass seeds, which will need
removal for the eye to recover.
Cancer eye
This is the most common form of cancer in cattle. It is a skin cancer occurring on
the eyeball, eyelid and third eyelid particularly if there is unpigmented skin
around the eye. Like skin cancer in humans, it is thought to be due mainly to UV
radiation. Breeds such as Hereford, Poll Hereford and white-faced Friesian are
most susceptible, as are older cattle (over five years).
All eye cancers begin as some sort of small growth on or about the eye. These
may be wart- or horn-like, or in the form of a flat plaque as shown below

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COMMON ILLNESSES, DISEASES, INJURIES

(in alphabetical order)
Blackleg
A clostridial disease that can cause sudden death in young, rapidly growing
cattle. An animal found still alive is depressed, not eating and is lame in one or
more legs. There will be swelling of the muscles of the hindquarters, shoulders or
neck and crackling due to gas under the skin may be felt. Fortunately, an
effective vaccine is readily available and usually included in any routine
vaccination program.
Bloat
Cattle have four stomachs the rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomosum. The
largest is the rumen, a huge fermentation vat full of bacteria. The digestion
process produces a lot of gas, normally expelled by belching.

Sometimes the belching mechanism does not work this can be due to
excessive gas production due to grazing succulent pastures, particularly legumes
like clover and lucerne. But other types of pastures and feeding methods can
cause it as well, as can any physical obstruction of the oesophagus, as in choke
and some downer cow cases (see below).
Signs
Obvious swelling in upper left flank, sticks up above level of backline
Increasing distress and discomfort may kick at flank, get up and down,
bellow
Rapid breathing mouth may be open with tongue sticking out
Death occurs rapidly if animal gets down
Treatment in mild cases is with anti-bloat preparations by mouth. More severe
cases require a vet. If there is no time to wait for the vet, a wide-bore trochar and
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cannula or even a sharp, clean knife can be inserted into the rumen high on the
left flank where the swelling is greatest. After gas and froth is released, an antibloat preparation is poured through the cannula into the rumen to help break
down remaining froth and foam (Note: important to read the label). Vegetable oil
(250500 ml) or paraffin oil (100200 ml) can be used in an emergency.
Prevention. Various anti-bloat preparations and strategies are available. Consult
vet or DPI & F. Be aware that monensin products are toxic to dogs and horses.

CALVING RELATED INJURIES AND ILLNESSES

Calving Paralysis
Usually in heifers after difficult calving. The cow is bright and alert but has no
control in one or both hind legs. Time and careful nursing is required.
Physical injuries, dislocated hips, back injuries can be a side effect of the
hormones released at calving time to soften the ligaments and assist the calf
through the pelvis. This can also cause joints to be dislocated and muscles and
ligaments to tear. Injured cows are bright and alert and usually eat and drink
normally, though limbs may be in abnormal positions. A veterinarian should be
called to assess these animals if they fail to rise within 36 hours. Dislocations can
often be corrected. Animals with a poor prognosis should be humanely
destroyed. Others will require careful nursing and must be rolled at least 3 times
daily and given food, water and shelter.
Mastitis and uterine infections and tears are also related to calving see later
Choke
Acute choke is an obstruction in the oesophagus (food pipe) and an emergency
in all species if it also obstructs the airway. In cattle the object is usually stuck
high up in the oesophagus near the throat, or it can be in the entrance to the
windpipe, which is rapidly fatal. Objects causing choke include plastic bags,
potatoes and other whole vegetables, or large fruit like mangoes, apples and
oranges.
Signs of choke include:
anxiety, distress, head shaking, stretching the neck out, exaggerated
mouthing and forced attempts to swallow
profuse salivation, maybe regurgitation of food and water
unusual lump may be felt along the ventral neck
bloat occurs rapidly because of animals inability to belch
history but do not rely on information about the paddock being apparently
clean. Cattle have little oral discrimination, meaning they tend to vacuum up
the oddest things while grazing.
What to do:
Seek veterinary help, but if life threatening, you will have to do your best.
23

depending on the state of the animal either take to yards and restrain in a
headbail or at least secure with a halter to nearest substantial object (not
human).
insert between the upper and lower molar teeth the left and right sides of a
Drinkwater gag if one is available

grab tongue and pull out while carefully reaching down back of mouth as far
as you can and pull out the object. An assistant may be able to push the
object from the outside up towards the mouth.
BEWARE of exceptionally sharp molar teeth they will shred your arm.

Constipation
Constipation is an indication of reduced water intake so is seen in travelling
stock, or those yarded for too long, or during droughts, when maintaining a
potable water supply may be more critical than providing adequate grazing. If
prolonged, dehydration will result (see below).
Dehydration
Inadequate water intake or excessive loss (e.g. diarrhoea) will result in
dehydration if prolonged. Signs include sunken eyes, skin remaining tented when
pinched, decreased rumen movements - can be seen or listened to upper left
flank, normally one to three per minute. Nursing cows will have reduced milk
output, resulting in hungry calves. The obvious treatment is to provide water,
which can include a rehydration product if available (e.g. Lectade).
Diarrhoea (scouring)
Cattle normally have fairly loose dung but with diarrhoea, it is much runnier and
passed more often. It might also contain blood and be excessively smelly.
Diarrhoea results from the food passing through the digestive system too quickly
for water to be absorbed from it - or there is too much fluid in the feed to begin
with (very lush young pastures).
There are many causes in cattle and calves, including microorganisms, diet (e.g.
grain overload), poisons in the environment and from plants. Scouring calves in
particular can rapidly dehydrate and die so a vet should be called to establish the
cause and instigate treatment. Note age of the cattle, diet, other signs of ill
health, anything in the environment that could be the cause. Treatment may
include antibiotics and rehydration fluids such as Lectade.
Downer Cow Syndrome
24

Downer cattle are unable to get up. The syndrome can occur in beef animals but
is much more common in dairy cows. Causes include:1. Calving-related injuries and illness
a)
b)
c)
d)

prolapsed disc
uterine rupture
calving paralysis
Septic metritis and vaginitis

2. Trauma
a)
b)
c)
d)
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

rupture of round ligament

dislocation of hip joint
pressure necrosis
ruptured tendons

Grass tetany
Injuries due to trauma
Ketosis
Mastitis
Milk fever (hypocalcaemia)
Three-day sickness (ephemeral fever)
Toxaemia (blood poisoning)

(Note: see individual headings in this section for more information on the above
causes.)
Diagnosis will be helped by noting
1. recent history from whoever is in charge if it is not obvious why the animal
is down
2. if lactating, is there milk from all four teats?
3. is the cow on her sternum, alert and apparently without pain? Or is she
lying right out? Is there bloat? Limbs in normal position? Ewe Necked?
4. any discharges mouth, nose and particularly vulva?
General care of the downer cow move her to a dry sheltered shed with good footing and straw bedding
push her up onto her sternum, support her with hay bales and roll her from
side to side several times daily to encourage circulation and prevent
pressure sores. Complications will develop if allowed to lie flat out e.g.
bloat, aspiration, pneumonia.
regularly encourage her to get up (but without resorting to electric goads
or dogs, as some farmers do). Massage her lower limbs first to restore
circulation. If she makes an attempt to rise, help her by grasping the root
of the tail and lifting
offer feed and water, remove wet and soiled bedding and hay
25

hip clamps or slings suspended from above (beam or tractor attachment),

or some other type of lifting device (e.g. special inflatable bag) can be
used to get her to her feet and help circulation. Steady her and give her a
chance to take the weight, but if she cannot, let her back down before it
becomes too painful or tissue damage occurs
so long as the cow looks bright, sometimes struggles to rise and continues
to eat and drink, recovery is possible. A cow that refuses feed and water
and continually reverts to lying on her side when not supported should be
euthanased.

Grass tetany
The cause is complex, affected cattle always have low magnesium levels in the
blood but calcium and potassium are involved as well. It occurs most commonly
in older cows with young calves grazing young grass-dominant pastures or early
lush cereal crops.
Signs The first sign may be finding dead cows with froth from the mouth and
nose and evidence of leg paddling before death.
Excitement and muscular spasms (tetany) are the most common symptoms.
Early signs include twitching of the face and ears and a stiff gait or wobbling.
They may go down similar to milk fever. Galloping, bellowing, staggering,
goosestepping are more advanced signs.
Treatment A vet will usually inject calcium and magnesium intravenously followed
by an injection of magnesium under the skin. Stock owners often have calcium
and magnesium solutions on hand they can inject themselves under the skin.
The cow should be restrained in a crush or bail or tied with a halter to something
strong, but try to avoid unnecessary stress - it might make the symptoms worse.
Also they can make a very rapid recovery so be aware of safety precautions.
Hardware disease
Lack of oral discrimination in cattle (they eat anything!) means they happily
swallow pieces of wire, nails and other sharp objects along with their normal
food. Once in the first stomach (reticulum) these objects can push through the
wall into the sac surrounding the heart. The illness is not as common now that
wire is no longer used to tie hay bales.
Signs include not eating, reluctance to move, rigid or humped back, tucked-up
appearance, grunt when passing dung. May recover or progress to more serious
signs of toxaemia (see below).
Treatment Surgery to remove the sharp object in valuable cattle. Prevention is by
dosing cattle with magnets which sit in the reticulum and attract any metal
objects.

26

Heat stress
Heat stress has caused some catastrophic losses particularly of feedlot cattle.
Conditions under which it most likely occurs are prolonged high temperatures
with high humidity, little or no wind, overnight temperatures remaining high.
During a heat wave, the first day without wind can be lethal to cattle. Fat cattle,
new arrivals, dark cattle, stressed cattle, cattle on high energy rations, recently
calved dairy cattle and ill cattle are the most susceptible. Running out of water is
a major contributing factor.
Treatment Provide ample water and shade. In heat wave conditions avoid
handling and confining cattle. Feedlots should install shade and have access to
an emergency water supply.
Ketosis
Fairly common, usually seen the first two months after calving and is due to
insufficient feed intake to support the high milk output. The cow uses her own fat
reserves to compensate, this releases products called ketones which poison her.
Signs Decreased appetite and milk yield, loss of weight, cattle may excessively
lick and chew or grind their teeth, walk aimlessly, go down.
Treatment is veterinary, aided by providing adequate, good quality feed.
Lantana poisoning
All forms and colours of this attractive escaped garden shrub are potentially toxic.
Poisoning is more likely in young stock recently introduced to a paddock
containing lantana. Also much more likely where animals are forced to eat
lantana because there is little else in the paddock.
Signs are primarily due to liver damage and photosensitisation. Therefore
jaundice of whites of eyes and gums, reddening and swelling and blistering of
unpigmented skin which may include muzzle, ears, around eyes, body. Other
signs include avoidance of sunlight, weeping and reddened eyes, not eating,
depression, black tarry dung. Death may occur in a few days but more commonly
1 to 3 weeks if untreated.
Treatment needs to be prompt and under veterinary direction. Includes activated
charcoal, antibiotics, fluid therapy, good nursing.

27

Leptospirosis
Humans can get this disease! And so can other animals.
Fortunately, most dairy cattle are vaccinated against it, usually as part of a
combined vaccination against leptospirosis and clostridial diseases. There is an
onus on dairy farmers to ensure vaccination of their cattle for the sake of the
animals as well as human health. There is no vaccine available for humans.
Leptospirosis primarily affects calves - causes fever, depression and red urine
(redwater). In cows it causes abortion and mastitis
Mastitis
Mastitis is inflammation of one or more quarters of the udder and can be minor or
a life-threatening emergency. At the very least, it leads to hungry calves, loss of
milk and often permanent damage to the udder. Causes are usually bacterial
infections introduced from outside through the teats by poor hygiene, flies,
wounds and injury (e.g. cow stepping on the udder), poor maintenance of milking
machines, also it can occur as part of general infections. A cow down for several
days is a candidate for mastitis and all downer cows should be checked for it.
Signs are: cow may flinch or kick when touched on the udder and will not allow the calf
to suckle
reluctant to walk
one or more quarters are swollen, red or pale to bluish and has firm lumps.
the secretion is nil or watery (emergency) or normal but with clots or custardlike lumps in the milk
Treatment Seek veterinary advice urgently if the secretion is nil or watery, the
cow is sick and the rectal temperature is lower than or in the low end of the
normal range. This indicates a particularly severe and life-threatening mastitis.
Milk fever
This illness is caused by low levels of calcium in the blood. It is commonest in
high producing cows over 5 years in very good to overfat condition, at or before
calving up to a few days afterwards.
Signs are: excitement in early stages, stiff legs, muscle tremors, staggery gait
the cow lies down on sternum, becomes drowsy and unable to rise
head is turned back onto the flank and cow has a dry muzzle and is
constipated
if untreated, the cow lies on her side, develops bloat and can die

Treatment needs to be prompt with calcium borogluconate injected under the

skin. If not up in an hour or so a vet should be called.
Physical injuries, dislocated hips, back injuries
Hormones released at calving time (and mating) soften the ligaments to assist
the calf through the pelvis. This encourages the dislocation of joints and may
allow ligaments and muscles to tear. Injured cows are bright and alert and
28

usually eat and drink normally. Limbs may be in abnormal positions. A

veterinarian should be called to assess these animals if they fail to rise within 36
hours. Dislocations can often be replaced. Animals with a poor prognosis should
be humanely destroyed. Others will require careful nursing
and must be rolled at least 3 times daily.
Respiratory illnesses
Cattle in Australia do sometimes get respiratory illnesses, but nowhere near as
often or as severely as in colder countries, where cattle are closely confined
indoors for several months of the year. An exception is bovine respiratory
disease (BRD) which can affect more than 50% of cattle in the first four weeks
they are moved into a feedlot. Stress is a major instigating factor, it lowers
resistance and allows viral and bacterial infections to become established. Other
stressful situations, e.g. transport (including live export) can have the same
result.
The typical signs of respiratory illness in all cattle (pasture or feedlot) are : depressed, lethargic, reluctant to move
coughing, nasal discharge, also from eyes. Becomes thick and yellowcoloured as the illness progresses
rapid weight loss
rapid, shallow breathing unrelated to external temperature
Treatment is veterinary combined with good nursing and stress reduction or
removal.
Three-day sickness (bovine ephemeral fever)
Caused by a virus spread by mosquitoes and midges. Large numbers can be
affected in an outbreak, it is usually more severe in bulls, cattle in very good
condition, pregnant and lactating cows.
Signs are fever, stiffness, lameness, loss of appetite, lying down. Pregnant cows
may abort. Recovery in a few days though some cattle become downers and
might have to be euthanased (see Downer cow syndrome). Death can occur in
severe cases.
There is no specific treatment except to avoid stressing sick animals. Antiinflammatory drugs can be used on valuable animals.
Prevention is by vaccination.
Toxaemia (blood poisoning)
Toxaemia may result from any local or general infection that becomes
overwhelming, meaning the animals own defences cannot fight it. It can result
from severe mastitis, uterine damage and infection (metritis), infection of internal
organs due to hardware disease (peritonitis, reticulitis). Also it can be caused by
damage to internal organs like the liver, allowing normally expelled toxins to
accumulate in the body.
Common signs are depression, not eating, separation from the herd, dry nose,
lying down, signs of gut pain e.g. humped back, some may become downers
(see Downer cow syndrome).
29

Treatment is veterinary and aimed at controlling the infection and supportive

therapy.
.
Trauma
Crushes. Poorly designed and operated crushes, races and restraint devices for
cattle can cause bruising, limb injuries and fractures, even death due to pressure
on arteries supplying the head. Hydraulic crushes in the hands of yahoo
operators can squeeze cattle to death. Cattle can get down in a crush or get
their legs caught through the rails and suffer a varying degree of injury, including
spinal fracture and paralysis.
Inadequate partitioning in trucks causes injury, even death by sheer pressure of
bodies and asphyxiation as vehicles stop and start or traverse hilly, winding
terrain.
Cattle grids can fracture legs if cattle are forced across them (e.g. by dogs).
Horns cause injury in confined spaces yards, trucks.
Road accidents will result in multiple injuries to transported cattle, some requiring
euthanasia. Livestock transport operators are legally required to provide for the
euthanasia of hopelessly ill or injured cattle as quickly as possible. The police
also have this power if no vet is available.
Deep wounds can result in tetanus three days to three weeks later. Signs include
stiffness, muscular spasms and tremors, lockjaw (perhaps with grass hanging
from mouth), the eyes look funny (third eyelid is across the eye), unsteady gait.
Bruising may lead to other fatal clostridial diseases like blackleg after a few days,
which can cause sudden death.
Treatment Aside from humane considerations, a three-legged bovine is not very
functional. Therefore only a limited time should be allowed for recovery from
injury. If down but not in pain and with no obvious fracture, an accident victim
should be moved to a quiet, shaded place (e.g on the carry-all of a tractor) and
given at least a week to recover under supervision with water and feed. Transit
tetany may be an added complication due to the stress of the accident or the
transport itself. Animals are weak, staggery, froth at the mouth and go down.

FOOT AND LEG CONDITIONS (LAMENESSES)

Joint ill (Navel ill etc)
See Foot and Leg conditions above. Relates to an infection of the tissues of the
joints acquired soon after birth, probably via the umbilicus. The damage to the
joints is such that the animal will be permanently crippled as it grows heavier
even if treated. In extensively managed cattle herds, affected calves are usually
30

not found until it is too late and thus must be destroyed. All cases of joint ill are
considered to have very poor prognoses.
Sole injuries. Cattle are cloven-hoofed, meaning thay have two claws. Heavy
cattle are prone to lameness due to bruising (stone bruise), penetration and/or
excessive wear of the sole of one or both claws. Wet weather and rough, stony
footing also predispose. Poor handling, yarding, droving methods are other
factors.
Infection and swelling of structures and tissues within the claw occurs. Because
of the rigidity of the hoof wall, this causes great pain unless the pressure is
relieved by pus breaking out around the coronary band. Sometimes the infection
extends up into the tissues and muscles of the leg itself causing such severe
lameness that the animal has to be euthanased.

Treatment of penetration injuries and sole bruises requires removal to a flat, dry
area free of sharp objects and stones. A penetration injury may need careful
paring down of the surrounding sole to allow pus to escape. Antibiotics are
sometimes needed seek veterinary advice.
Cattle continually standing on very muddy ground might have a footrot-like
infection of the skin between the claws with or without sore, inflamed and scabby
heels. This will usually clear up once on dry ground again, though may need
antibiotic assistance. Small stones mixed with mud and grass sometimes
accumulate between the claws and might need manual removal.
31

Bulls are prone to arthritis particularly if overweight due to too much grain feeding
and lack of exercise. Results in lameness, reluctance to serve cows, swelling of
joints may be obvious. Show cattle overfed with grain can be similarly affected,
also they can founder (due to laminitis, an acute foot inflammation).

BREEDING NOTES AND CALVING

(See also Calving-related injuries and illnesses under Common Illnesses,
Diseases and Injuries [above])
Breeding data
Puberty:
Duration of oestrus (heat):
Return of heat if not pregnant:
Gestation (pregnancy):
Return of heat after calving:

12 - 18 months
14 22 hours
21 days
283 days (about 9 months)
about 6 weeks but variable

Signs of heat in cows (bulling) moist vulva, jumped on by other cows, excited,
might be bellowing.
Difficult calving (dystocia)
Normal calving in cattle should take 1-2 hours not 3 days.

32

The normal birth position of a calf, forefeet first - one foot just preceding the other, head lying on
the knees and the backbone lying against the backbone of the mother.

Suspect dystocia if:

history of prolonged separation of the cow from the herd (day+)
full udder, fat cow, no calf (check that not lying dead somewhere) and
minimal or very smelly vulval discharge and cow may have tail held out
prolonged or intermittent straining ( for a day+)
parts of calf protruding from vulva
It is best to call a vet straight away but some or all of the following can be done
while waiting: yard the cow and put her in a crush or race
wash genital area
lubricate arm and gently insert into vagina and feel around inside. Knees
mean the calf is coming out frontways, hocks mean a backwards (breech)
delivery. One leg, no legs or no head (unless breech) will require expert
assistance to deliver. Be aware of tangled twins! Live calves may suck or
even bite fingers.
swollen, dead calf may be obvious by feel and smell. If the cow is down and
in poor condition and there is no vet on the way, euthanasia might be the best
option
if inexperienced, do not try to pull out the calf.
33

BUYING AND CARING FOR A HOUSE COW

Which breed?
There are several breeds of dairy cattle from which to choose. The smaller
Jerseys and Guernseys need less feed to maintain their body weight and so are
quite popular as house cows. They produce less milk than the larger framed
breeds but their milk has more butterfat.
The bigger breeds, Holstein-Friesian and Illawarra also have their place. They
are more expensive to buy but they have a higher resale value when they are
sold. They also produce a bigger and more valuable calf.

Where to buy?
Cows or calves can be brought from auction sales held locally or from dairy
farms. Farmers who are selling out often hold public clearing sales on their
farms.

What to look for Buying a calf

Calves that are to be purchased for rearing as house cows should have been
weaned from their mothers and inspected to ensure they do not show the
following faults:-

wet/infected naval cord

swollen joints/lameness
discharge from eyes/nose
sign of scour (diarrhoea)
distressed breathing
physical abnormalities

When transporting calves to your property keep them warm and dry. It is
important to keep calves in a dry, warm area for at least the first 2 to 3 weeks of
their life.
Buying a cow

1.

Health

Avoid rough looking cows. Udders should be soft and pliable. Cows with hard or
lumpy udders have probably had mastitis. All four quarters should be balanced in
size.
Try milking the cow by hand and check the first few squirts of milk for blood clots.
Clots can indicate mastitis.

2.

Temperament
34

The cow should be quiet to handle - not prone to climbing through fences. If you
intend milking her in the paddock, she needs to be very docile and preferably
have had some experience as a house cow.
A young cow on her second calf is a good choice. She will have been broken in
but will not have many of the problems associated with older cows. Check that
she is free of bad habits and easy to milk.

3.

Milk production

Check with the farmer that the cow can produce enough milk for the family.
Legal requirements

1.

Permission to keep a cow

If you live in a metropolitan area, check with the Shire Council laws which relate
to keeping livestock.

2.

Moving stock

Cattle cannot be legally moved without a WAYBILL and NLIS tags. Cows and
calves moved to a tick-free area from a tick area must be dipped or sprayed
before being moved to a clearing dip. In addition to the WAYBILL, a travel permit
must also be obtained from the Stock Inspectors Office. Other documentation
may also be required - Vendor Declaration and Tail Tags. Your local DPI stock
inspector will advise you about this procedure.

3.

Branding

All cattle over 100 kg live weight must have a brand before they are sold. Some
exemptions apply to stud cattle being sold for stud purposes.
Freeze and fire brands are the only legal methods of identification of ownership
of commercial cattle. Brands must be registered. Application forms are available
from Department of Primary Industries stock offices.
Large flexible rubber or plastic ear tags may be used for individual identification
but cannot be used for legal identification.
Feeding

1.

Pasture

Feeding the house cow must be considered before purchase. Good pasture is
the most economical feed for cows. As a rule of thumb one to two hectares of
good quality, fertilised pasture will support a house cow.
In Queensland in the dry months (April to September) the quantity and quality of
paddock feed may not meet the cows need. To keep the cow milking you have
to give her supplements e.g. molasses, crushed grain, lucerne hay, dairy meal.
35

2.

Hand feeding

If you completely hand feed her - an average cow (weighing 450 kg) needs the
equivalent of 12 kg of good hay each day to maintain body condition and produce
4.5 litres of milk. for each extra 4.5 litres she will need 2 kg of grain (eg. maize).
Hay is expensive to buy. However cows need some roughage either as pasture
or hay.
The value of various feeds
Young, green pasture - good quality fed, high in energy and protein.
Mature, dry pasture - low in energy and possibly protein. Feed energy
supplement eg. grain, molasses and perhaps protein supplement eg. soybean
meal.
Water and shade
The cow should have free access to drinking water at all times. A mature cow
needs about 70 litres daily, depending on daily temperatures and humidity.
During summer, make sure adequate shade is available. Avoid tethering cows
without shade during hot weather.

Milking the cow

Most house cows are milked by hand. For the sake of family health, pay strict
attention to hygiene. Docile house cows can be milked in the paddock, but a
covered area with a cement floor is recommended for good hygiene and
protection from the weather.
The cows udder and teats should be washed, cleaned and dried before milking,
and the milker should have clean, dry hands. After milking dip teats in iodine
solution. Dairy buckets must be clean and sterilised. After milking, rinse the
buckets with cold or lukewarm water, then scrub with a warm detergent solution
followed by a scalding with boiling water. Do not leave any manure around the
milking area - it is of more value in the garden..

How long can you milk a cow?

Ideally, a cow should be mated to calve once a year. You can expect her to milk
for 10 months. She should not be milked 2 months before calving. To dry the
cows off just stop milking and stop feeding meal and grain and let her graze
pasture. However, cows should be kept in good condition during this dry period
as their condition at calving controls production during the following lactation.
You may need to feed some hay or concentrate to make sure the cow calves in
good condition.
Milk from cows with long lactations (more than 10 months) can become stale
tasting, but it will return to normal after the next calving.

36

Weed tainting of milk

Weed-tainted milk in not pleasant to drink and when the milk is heated it can
accentuate the taint. The problem occurs between June and November when
weeds appear on bare or cultivated ground.

Weeds causing taints

Because the flush period of natural pasture growth does not coincide with the
flush weed growth, there is naturally a lack of competition from non-tainting
feeds.
Anything which affect the growth of cultivated winter crops or pastures such a low
rainfall, low soil moisture, poor germination or poor soil fertility, will allow weeds
to grow at the expense of fodder plants. The greater the quantity of weeds eaten
- the stronger the taint in milk.
Bittercress (Coronpus didymus) is the most common and most readily eaten
milk-tainting weed. It is estimated that bittercress is responsible for more than
80% of weed taints in Queensland butter. The period of flush growth of
bittercress in from July to October inclusive.
Wild carrot (Daucus sp.) which gives a distinctive carrot odour, occasionally
causes milk taints in the winter and early spring. It is a problem in the Moreton
region.
Turnip weed (Rapistrum rugosum) and wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum)
occasionally cause milk taints on the Darling Downs.
Hexham scent (Melilotus indica), slender celery (Apium leptoophyllum) and
fishweed (Chenopodium trigonon) have also been reported to cause taints in milk
and cream but because of the comparatively small amount affected, their taints
are not commonly recognised in butter.
Turkey berry or coral berry (Rivina humilis) growing in the shady areas of some
coastal scrubs is the only important summer growing weed which taints milk and
cream.

Preventing weed taints

The prevention of weed taints in milk is basically achieved by providing sufficient
well-managed fodder crops and pastures to meet the requirements of the cow.
The weed taint problem has been overcome on many farms through irrigation
and the more intensive management of temperate pastures achieved by high
seeding rates, better fertilising, the use of travelling irrigators and strip grazing.
On dryland farms the situation is obviously more difficult particularly in dry years.
However the same principle of well-managed crops and pastures especially
applies to conserved fodder.
37

Control measures
If milk is being tainted, control of the problem can only be achieved if non-weedy
feed is available. Control lies in preventing cows from eating weeds or in
controlling their intake of milk-tainting weeds.
The following strategies may help in minimising the problem: Give the cow access to weed-free pastures, crops or conserved fodder
immediately before grazing weed infested pastures and crops. The cows will
be more selective when grazing the weedy pasture.
Graze the least weed-infested areas after the morning milking and the worst
infested areas after the afternoon milking.
Make hay of weed infested pastures and crops and then feed out at a
controlled rate, preferably during a non-weedy period. The quantity of weed
which has to be eaten by the cow before taints become apparent is
approximately 4.5 kg (dry matter) per day.
Nitrogen fertiliser may be used to improve the quantity of feed available from
irrigated crops and pastures and reduce weed competition.
Where feed is in very short supply, control is difficult, if not impossible.

Chemical control
Chemical weed control can have a role in reducing the weed-taint problem.
However, it is costly and cost should be compared with the loss in returns caused
by milk taints.
For rates and types of chemicals for particular weed problems, contact your local
agricultural merchandise outlet.

Mating the cow

A cows gestation period is about 283 days. For your cow to calve once a year,
you will need to remate her 60 to 90 days after calving.
Two methods of breeding are available: natural service and artificial breeding. An
artificial breeding service is available in many areas. This method gives you a
choice of breeds and eliminates the need for keeping a bull. The cow also has no
chance of contacting venereal disease. contact your local veterinary surgeon
who may arrange to inseminate your cow.
Picking a cow in season (on heat) can be difficult, particularly if you only have
one cow. Watch for excitement, bellowing and unusual behaviour. The heat
period will occur at 18 to 24 day intervals and last between 10 - 18 hours..
38

Calving
There should not be any calving problems provided you have not used a bull of a
large breed over a small cow. Most cows do not need assistance and will calve
within a couple of hours. If there is some difficulty, contact a veterinary surgeon.

How soon can you use the milk?

The first milk (colostrum) after calving, is thick, yellowish and sticky. The calf
needs colostrum in its first day of life to become immune to diseases. You can
drink the milk 5 to 10 days after calving.

Routine treatment
Tick control In a tick-infested area, the cow will need to be treated regularly
with a tickicide.
Buffalo Fly Causes severe irritation around the eyes, neck, and head. Treat
the cow with a product registered for Buffalo fly during periods of infestation ie.
January to June.
Disease control If you keep calves, have them vaccinated against all the
common diseases, for example, blackleg, tetanus, leptospirosis and tick fever.

Health problems
Mastitis (udder inflammation) is the most common disease in dairy cows. Good
hygiene and care when milking, lessen the chance of mastitis infection.
Antibiotics are needed to cure it. Special tests can be used to detect mastitis, but
flecks of clots in the milk are a sure indication. When antibiotics are used the milk
should not be drunk but may still be fed to calves.
When a cow has been treated with antibiotics for a mastitis infection and is
suckling a calf the calf must not be sold for slaughter until a safe withholding
period has passed. This depends on the type of antibiotic used for treatment.
Please consult your local veterinary surgeon for this advice.

Using the milk

A well cared for cow will give more milk than is needed by the average family.
Remember milk from house cows may only be consumed be people living on the
property. To sell or even give away milk to other consumers would be a breach of
the Milk Licensing Regulations under the Dairy Industry Act 1993.
The surplus may be used in the following ways: To suckle a calf during the day Confine the calf at night and obtain the
household milk in the morning, then let the calf run with the cow all day. This
way, you will only have to milk once a day. also, if you are away for a day or
so, the calf will drink the milk.
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 To make yoghurt or home-made cheese

For cream To use as fresh cream or for home-made butter.

Home pasteurising
The reason for pasteurising milk from a house cow is to eliminate any chance of
human infection from disease organisms.
Place the container of milk inside another container which contains water. (This
stops the milk solids from sticking to the sides of the container).
Heat the milk to between 63 C and 66 C (145 to 160 F) and hold it at this
temperature for 30 minutes. Do not boil it. Then cool it as quickly as possible.

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