Geokimia

Bumi & Semesta

temu ketiga
2013

Analytical methods

Analytical methods

Spectrometry (electromagnetic
waves, mostly X-rays)
Mass spectrometry

Excitation of the source:

Primary X-rays
Plasma

Spectrometry

Emitted
radiation

Energy Source

Emission
Detector

Absorbed
radiation
Sample

Output with
emission peak

Absorption
Detector

Output with
absorption trough

X-ray spectrum of an olivine

Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometer

From: http://www.es.ucsc.edu/images/vgms_c.jpg

Main (modern) devices

XRF (X-ray fluorescence)
Microprobe
The ICP family (Inducively Coupled Plasma):
ICP-AES (Atomic Emission Spectrophotometry)
ICP-MS and LA-ICP-MS

TIMS (Thermo-Ionization Mass Spectrometry)

SHRIMP (High Resolution Ion Microprobe)

In
situ?
XRF
Microprobe

Major

Traces

Some

Isotopes
Cheap and robust
Cheap

ICP-AES

(difficult)

Replaced by ICP-MS

ICP-MS

(difficult)

De facto standard

(difficult)

(possible)

Increasingly popular;
expensive, robust once
set up. Lot of potential
for isotopes

(possible)

Basic tool for

geochronology.
Complicated to use
(clean chemistry)

Regarded as stadard for

geochrono, but
extremely expensive
and difficult to use. Will
probably be replaced by
LA ICP MS

LA-ICP-MS

ID-TIMS

SHRIMP

Major and traces

Definitions
Major elements:
Concentration > arbitrary value (0.1 or 1 wt%
depending on the authors)
Components of main mineral phases

Trace elements:
Concentration < 0.1 %
Substitue in crystals but do not form phases
of their own

Note that...
The above definition means that major and
traces will behave in significantly different
ways
Major: control by mineral stability limits (P-T
conditions)
Traces: independant (or partially independant,
as will be discussed)

Conceptually, some elements could be major

in some systems, traces in other (cf .K in the
mantle or Zr in crustal magmas)

Common types of magma

Earth structure and

geochemistry

Introduction to Geochemistry
The field of geochemistry involves:
1. Study of the chemical composition of the Earth and other planets,
2. Chemical processes and reactions that govern the composition of rocks, water, and soils,
3. The cycles of matter and energy that transport the Earth's chemical components in time and
space, and their interaction with the hydrosphere and the atmosphere.
Some subsets of geochemistry are:
a) Isotope geochemistry: Determination of the relative and absolute concentrations of the
elements and their isotopes in the earth and on earth's surface.
b) Examination of the distribution and movements of elements in different parts of the earth
(crust, mantle, hydrosphere etc.) and in minerals with the goal to determine the underlying
system of distribution and movement.
c) Cosmochemistry: Analysis of the distribution of elements and their isotopes in the cosmos.
d) Biogeochemistry: Field of study focusing on the effect of life on the chemistry of the earth.
e) Organic geochemistry: A study of the role of processes and compounds that are derived
from living or once-living organisms.
f) Water Geochemistry: Understanding the role of various elements in watersheds.
g) Regional, environmental and exploration geochemistry: Applications to environmental,
hydrological and mineral exploration studies.

Definition and Sub-disciplines

Geochemistry uses the tools of chemistry to understand
processes on Earth.
The wide field of Geochemistry includes:
Trace element geochemistry
Isotope geochemistry
Petrochemistry
Soil geochemistry
Sediment geochemistry
Marine geochemistry
Atmospheric geochemistry
Planetary geochemistry and Cosmochemistry
Geochemical thermodynamics and kinetics
Aquatic chemistry
Inorganic geochemistry
Organic geochemistry
Biogeochemistry
Environmental geochemistry

Geochemistry = chemistry of the Earth

(i.e., of earth materials minerals and rocks)
The main focus of geochemistry is to:

Understand the principles governing the distribution and

re-distribution of elements, ionic species and isotope ratios
in earth materials, so that we can interpret the formation of
mineral assemblages: conditions (P, T, etc.), processes
(magmatic crystallization, weathering, chemical
precipitation, metamorphism, etc.), and even the age.

Predict changes in mineral assemblages (minerals,

concentrations of elements, isotopic ratios) if a given
mineral assemblage is subjected to different conditions (T,
P, interaction with a fluid, etc.)

Geochemistry plays an important role in forecasting the

quality of crude oil in the accumulation.

THE EARTH'S CHEMISTRY

The bulk of the Earth is made from iron, oxygen, magnesium and silicon.
More than 80 chemical elements occur naturally in the Earth and its atmosphere.
Mostly Earth is composed of three parts
1. Crust
2. Mantle (Upper & Lower)
3. Core
The Earth's crust is a thin layer of rock that floats on the mantle. The crust is made
mostly from oxygen and silicon (silicate minerals such as quartz), with aluminium,
iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, titanium and traces of 64 other elements.
The upper mantle is made up of iron and magnesium silicates; the lower is silicon
and magnesium sulphides and oxides.
The core is mostly iron, with little nickel and traces of sulphur, carbon, oxygen and
potassium.

Fig.- This diagram shows the percentages of the chemical elements that make up the Earth.

Fig.- This diagram shows the Earth interior.

EARTH'S INTERIOR
The Earth's crust is a thin hard outer shell of rock. Under the crust, there is a
deep layer of hot soft rock called the mantle.
The crust and upper mantle can be divided into three layers according to their
rigidity:
1.
2.

The lithosphere (The lithosphere is the upper, rigid layer of the Earth. It consists of the crust and
the top of the mantle and it is about 100 km thick ),
The asthenosphere (Below the lithosphere, in the Earth's mantle, is the hot, soft rock of the
asthenosphere. The boundary between the lithosphere and the asthenosphere occurs at the point where
temperatures climb above 1300C),

3.

The mesosphere.

Beneath the mantle is a core of hot iron and nickel. The outer core is so hot
(4500C - 6000C) that it is always molten. The inner core is even hotter (up to
7000C) but it stays solid because the pressure is 6000 times greater than on the
surface.
The inner core contains 1.7% of the Earth's mass, the outer core 30.8%; the
core - mantle boundary 3%; the lower mantle 49%; the upper mantle 15%; the
ocean crust 0.099% and the continental crust 0.374%.

Composition of Earth shells

Elements wt%

Crust

Mantle

Core

Continental

Oceanic

Upper

Lower

41.2

43.7

44.7

43.7

Si

28

22

21.1

22.5

Al

14.3

7.5

1.9

1.6

Fe

4.7

8.5

5.6

9.8

Ca

3.9

7.1

1.4

1.7

2.3

0.33

0.08

0.11

Na

2.2

1.6

0.15

0.84

Mg

1.9

7.6

24.7

18.8

Ti

0.4

1.1

0.12

0.08

0.3

0.2

Mn

0.07

0.15

0.07

0.33

Ni
Cr

0.51

Outer

Inner

10--15

80--85

80

20

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