Article

Applied Energy 157 (2015) 195216
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Applied Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apenergy
Overview of the off-grid photovoltaic diesel batteries systems

with AC loads
V. Salas a,, W. Suponthana b, R.A. Salas a
a
b
Electronic Technology Department/Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain

Leonics Co., Ltd, Thailand
h i g h l i g h t s
Off-grid Mini-grids can be implemented in different ways. It depends on the AC load prole.
Not always the AC coupled is the best option.
There are different PV inverters that can be used in the implementation.
New PV inverter concept, multiport inverter, is being deployed in off-grid Mini-grids.
In medium and high penetration the control strategy of all elements of the Mini-grid system is a key point.
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 6 November 2014
Received in revised form 4 June 2015
Accepted 25 July 2015
Keywords:
PV Hybrid
Off-grid
Mini-grids
Multiport inverter
MPPT
Charge controller
a b s t r a c t
The target of this manuscript is to make a review about the Off-grid Photovoltaic Diesel Hybrid Systems
(Off-grid Mini Grids) where only AC loads are connected. It will take into consideration the different types
(performed through of the DC coupled, AC coupled or hybrid DCAC coupled congurations), solutions
(PV/Diesel and PV/Diesel/Energy Storage) related with the diesel hybridization of those systems and their
main elements (power converters). So, it will encompasses an analysis about the current state of the technique of converters implemented in those systems, including the stand-alone inverters, bidirectional,
multiport and even the grid-connected inverters implemented in the AC coupled systems. In addition,
the standardization in this topic will be analyzed too.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
3.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
Power converters implemented in the PV Hybrid Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196
2.1.
Battery charging systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
2.2.
PV inverters implemented in PV Hybrid systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
2.2.1.
Stand-alone inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
2.2.2.
Grid-interactive inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
2.2.3.
Bidirectional inverter (BDI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
2.2.4.
Multiport input/multi output inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
2.2.5.
Grid-connected inverters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
PV diesel hybrid solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .202
3.1.
Integration of the photovoltaic into genset systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
3.1.1.
Low penetration (<20%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
3.1.2.
Medium penetration (2065%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
3.1.3.
Continuous genset operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 916248867.

E-mail address: vicente.salas@uc3m.es (V. Salas).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.07.073
0306-2619/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
196
V. Salas et al. / Applied Energy 157 (2015) 195216
3.1.4.
Intermittent genset operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Power management in PV hybrid systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
3.2.1.
Grid forming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
3.2.2.
Supervisoy control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
3.2.3.
Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .209
4.1.
Small-scale PV Hybrid System, less than 100 kW scale systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
4.2.
Medium-scale PV Hybrid System, more 100 kW scale systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.3.
Large-scale PV Hybrid Systems, more than 1000 kW scale systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.3.1.
Case Study 1: 4.2 MW PV/Diesel/Battery Micro Grid System implemented in a remote site in Tanjung Labian, Malaysia, 2012. 210
4.3.2.
Case Study 2: 3.3 MW, PV/Diesel/Battery Micro Grid System implemented in a remote site at Kemar Villages, Gelik, Perak,
Malaysia, November 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
4.3.3.
Case Study 3: 4.93 MW, PV/Diesel/Battery Micro Grid System implemented in a remote site at Banggi Island, Kudat, Sabah,
Malaysia, March 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
4.3.4.
Case Study 4: 2.84 MW PV/Diesel/Battery Micro Grid System implemented in a remote site at Sswee Island, Kalangala,
Lake Victoria, Uganda, September 2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
International standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .213
5.1.
Standards related with PV modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.2.
Standards for battery charge controllers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.3.
Standards for inverters (stand-alone, bidirectional, interactive and grid-connected) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.4.
Standards for batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
5.5.
Standards related to consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .214
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .214
3.2.
4.
5.
6.
1. Introduction
At present, a huge of inhabitants worldwide including still lack
access to utility electricity, most living in small remote villages or
isolated islands far away from power grid [1,2].
A utility grid extension to these off-grid locations is impractical
and uneconomical due to such conditions as dispersed population
or rugged terrain [3]. As a result, the electrical demand of such
places is normally powered by diesel generators [46] or even with
no power supply.
The signicant rise of diesel price and subsequent environmental pollution concerns [7], however, have drawn extensive public
attention to the need of renewable energy applications such as
solar photovoltaics (PV) power.
Standalone renewable energy systems (RESs) have a reputation
for being inexhaustible, environmentally benign, reliable, efcient,
and with cost-effective characteristics and are hence seen to be the
most likely viable energy supply solutions to such areas. Besides,
renewable energy holds the key to future prosperity and a healthy
global environment and is considered a promising means of solving the problems of environmental pollution [810].
Therefore, the last decade has witnessed a dramatic expansion
in the use of renewable energies as substitutes of fossil-based
energy, a noted by-product being the potential to reduce atmospheric degradation [11].
A potential solution for addressing these problems can be the
use of the photovoltaic hybrid systems. A photovoltaic hybrid system is a system that is formed by combining two energy sources,
at least, including the photovoltaic energy. They can be off-grid or
grid-connected. Regarding off-grid, the PV Hybrid systems can be
divided into: micro (less than 5 kW), small (530 kW), medium
(30100 kW), large (100 kW1 MW) and very large (greater than
1 MW) systems [1214].
Micro PV hybrid systems are related to residential solutions.
Small PV hybrid systems are suitable for supplying the power
needs of a small rural village where the energy consumption is
quite limited; for instance a village with no, or very few, productive
or commercial activities. Medium-size hybrid systems are suitable
to supply the power needs of a village where productive and commercial activities use energy during the daytime.
In the literature there are some review manuscripts about the

PV Hybrid systems. However, those paper reviews primary issues
regarding the drivers, specic benets of hybrid renewable energy
systems (HRES) [1520].
Then, this manuscript is focused in showing the state of the
technique of off-grid PV Hybrid Systems, with elements such photovoltaic generator, genset and energy storage, where will be analyzed the current state of the technique of the power converters
implemented in those systems and the solutions that can be implemented nowadays.
2. Power converters implemented in the PV Hybrid Systems

Power converters are a very important component in these systems, especially in view of evolution not just only in their quality
and performance in recent years but rather for having arisen new
challenges along with new opportunities. So, in those types of systems the following power converters often are used: battery charging systems and PV inverters.
2.1. Battery charging systems

They are based on the charge controller. Battery charge controllers regulate the ow of electricity from the photovoltaic generator to the battery. Its function is to regulate the voltage and
current from the photovoltaic arrays to the battery in order to prevent overcharging and also over discharging.
There are four general types of charge controllers, categorized
by the method used to regulate the charge from the solar modules
to the batteries [21,22]: shunt type charge controllers; series type
charge controllers; PWM (pulse width modulation) charge controllers and MPPT charge controllers.
The shunt charge controller is the rst type of chargers developed and are the simplest ones still on the market today. They
short-circuit the energy from the solar panel when the battery
reaches the full charge. In general, shunt type charge controllers
are low cost and reliable, with simple design and suitable for small
off grid photovoltaic systems.
197

Table 1
Some important parameters related with MPPT charge controllers.
Manufacturer
XW MPPT 80 600 Model
MPPT inputs number
Nominal battery voltage (V)
Maximum battery current (A)
Maximum open circuit voltage (V)
Leonics
Morningstar
Outback
Schneider
SMA
Steca
Studer
Victron
SCM-480200
TS-MPPT-60
Flexmax 60
XW MPPT 80 600
1
1
1
1
480
48
1260
2448
200
60
60
80
<550
<150
<150
<500
Tarom MPPT 6000-M

VT-80
BlueSolar MPPT 150/85
2
1
1
1060
1248
1248
60
80
85
<200
<150
<150
Series type charge controllers are very similar to shunt type

charge controllers, instead of short-circuiting the solar panel output they open the circuit, interrupting the path to the batteries.
For disconnecting the circuit, this type of controllers use a relay
or a solid-state switch. After the batteries reach a set voltage value,
the solar module is disconnected from the batteries. When the battery state of charge goes down, the switch is reset and the panel is
once again connected to the batteries.
Pulse width modulation charge controllers simulates a variable
charging current, given by variable power output of the solar panel
or by the battery state of charge, switching a series element at a
high frequency for variable periods.
The MPPT controllers are DCDC converters, as a matching
interface between the PV generator and the battery. The main
function of a MPPT controller is to adjust the PV generator output
in order to transfer maximum energy to the batteries [2326]. This
offers a high efciency over a wide range of operating points.
About their electrical specications four important parameters
must be taking into consideration: the nominal battery voltage,
the MPPT inputs, the input voltage and the shade-tolerant
Maximum Power Point Tracking. So a review a state of technique
about the current MPPT charge controllers marketed has been
done considering those parameters, Table 1.
Regarding to the nominal battery voltage, two ranges are found:
the rst one with 12, 24 o 48 VDC (low voltage) and another one
with 120, 240 and 480 VDC (high voltage). And the input voltage
is related to maximum open circuit voltage of the PV array admissible to be connected to the equipment. So, two ranges can be distinguished: low voltage and high voltage (600 VDC), high voltage
MPPT (HVI-MPPT). The benet of using a high voltage charge controller is the ability to have one long series string of solar panels
wired together, or fewer strings in a system. This reduces the number of cables, reduces wire size and voltage drop issues, and
reduces the number of breakers in the system for easier wiring
and faster installation.
Table 2
Characteristics of the different types of off-grid inverters.
Square wave inverters
Modied sine wave

inverter
Sine wave inverter
Simple technology
Better efciency
Risk of generating odd

harmonics
Fewer harmonics than

square wave inverters.
Precise regulation of
voltage
Appropriate for
powering many
devices (televisions,
engines, table saws)
Technique similar to
inverters used for
connecting to grid but
with simpler circuits and
no protection from or
synchronisation with
grid
Elevated efciency
No regulation of
outgoing voltage
(varies with charge
and incoming
voltage)
And, another important parameter is the ability or not for

obtaining the MPPT under solutions shaded of the PV arrays.
However, this topic is focused practically to domestic applications
[27,28].
In addition, those products often have up to four stage charging:
bulk, absorption, oat and optional equalization; it often includes
temperature compensation at the controller or at the battery when
using the optional remote temperature sensor; protected against
reverse polarity, short circuit, overcurrent, lightning and transient
surges, high temperature and reverse current at night.
Nowadays, charge controllers provide several communication
options. They can use a proprietary protocol and/or
non-proprietary open standard such as MOD-BUS and MODBUS
TCP/IP protocols for RS-232, EIA-485, and Ethernet networks.
Additionally, HTTP, SMTP, and SNMP are often supported for web
page, email, and network message support.
With respect to the implementation, there are three options:
charging rooms, charging cabinet and charging containers.
2.2. PV inverters implemented in PV Hybrid systems
They can be divided into two categories: stand-alone and
grid-connected inverters. Stand-alone inverters are further subdivided into stand-alone inverter, grid-Interactive inverter, bidirectional inverter and multiport inverter (called hybrid inverter too).
2.2.1. Stand-alone inverter
This converter is designed for remote stand-alone application,
or off-grid power system, with battery backup where the inverter
draws its DC power from batteries charged by PV array and converts to AC power. On the market today there are three different
of power inverters: square wave, modied sine wave and pure sine
wave inverter. These inverters differ in their output, providing
varying levels of efciency and distortion that can affect electronic
devices ways, Table 2.
Those inverters are used only in the DC coupled conguration,
Fig. 1, as will be shown later.
Suitable for practically

every type of user
Fig. 1. DC coupled conguration implemented in some PV Hybrid Systems. Source:
Leonics.
198
Fig. 2. PV grid-interactive inverter. Source: Leonics.
Fig. 3. Operation of the a PV grid-interactive inverter. Source: Leonics.
generator into AC power for supplying to load and feed the excess
energy back to utility grid line. When utility power is not available,
the inverter can operate as backup power source to supply power
from PV panels and battery, Fig. 3.
In a grid-interactive system, that inverter is a much smarter,
more agile device and capable of doing three things as opposed
to the one-trick grid-tied inverter [29]: like a grid-tied inverter, a
grid-interactive type can convert solar-generated DC power to AC
power; it can also function as a battery charger and store energy
in a battery system designed for residential and commercial applications and it can convert battery-produced DC during an outage
into useable AC power and charge those batteries during the day
from the PV generator or a genset. It can even turn a generator
on as needed. Having battery-back up taking care of power needs
in the evening means the generators run time and fuel consumption can be greatly reduced during an outage.
Fig. 4. AC coupled conguration implemented in some PV Hybrid Systems. Source:

Leonics.
2.2.2. Grid-interactive inverter

This inverter can operate on both grid-tied and stand-alone
off-grid operations, according to the Fig. 2.
So, when the utility power is available, the inverter can operate
as grid-tie inverter that converts DC power generated by PV
2.2.3. Bidirectional inverter (BDI)

This inverter has two ports: AC and DC ports. In the DC port is
connected a battery bank. So this type of inverter is called as battery inverter too. In some models have some extra input where can
be connected coming from the output of the charge controller. And
in the AC side is connected the AC line, where the utility grid or a
genset(s) (AC conguration) can be coupled. And the AC loads too.
Sometimes some equipment can have two independent AC outputs, one of these as an auxiliary output (non-critical load).
They have a dual control, therefore the bi-directional inverter
operates in two modes: VCVSI (Voltage Control Voltage Source
Inverter) mode, as rectier, and like CCVSI (Current Control
Voltage Source Inverter) mode, operating as off-grid inverter

Table 3
Off-grid bidirectional inverters for different brands. Single-phase and three-phase.
Manufacturer
Model
Phase
Range of power
(kW)
Battery
voltage (V)
Ingeteam
Ingecon Hybrid
AC Link
Apolo S
Apolo STP
Apolo M
Apolo MTP
FX and VFX
Sunny Island
Compact and
Xtender
Conext XW
Multiplus
HIS1
HTDI
60250
330820
1
3
1
3
1
1
1
330
15100
520
152400
23
58
0.57
48
48
120240
120480
1248
48
1248
7
1
1
3
7
0.85
1.28
1501800
48
1248
2448
672
Leonics
Outback
SMA
Studer
Schneider
Victron
Zigor
Table 4
Three-phase off-grid PV Hybrid system options for a AC coupled conguration.
Three-phase
system
String
inverter
Option
Option
Option
Option
X
X
1
2
3
4
Central
inverter
Bidirectional
single-phase
Bidirectional
three-phase
X
X
X
X
X
X
[30]. In addition, it has Intelligent Battery Management for charging and discharging the batteries.
The BDI (Bidirectional Inverter) can be integrated in the AC coupled topology, Fig. 4 [31,32].
Currently, the BDI (Bidirectional Inverter) is marketed as a single compact enclosure for ranges between 0.8 kW up to 1800 kW.
And where even the lithium batteries are approved for almost all
models.
According to Table 3, can be seen that about the battery voltage
there are two types of BDI: with low voltage (12, 24 and 48) and
with high voltage (330, 820). In addition, it can be distinguished
between single-phase (up to 20 kW) or three-phase (up to
1800 kW). Although there are much more models for
199
single-phase (with brands as Leonics, Outback, SMA, Studer,

Schneider, Victron and Zigor) than for three-phase (with only three
brands: Ingeteam, Leonics and Zigor).
The BID permits a modular design of any PV off-grid plant. So, it
is possible to design any three-phase system with single-phase
units, Table 4.
For example, SMA uses the SMA multicluster technology where
the off-grid systems can be extended at any time as the energy
demand increases, from 3 to 300 kilowatts. Another brands have
similar products, Fig. 5.
Bidirectional inverters can operate as simple converter and also
as controller of grid-connected inverters in an AC coupled conguration [33].
Typically the active power of the grid-connected inverter can be
controlled without any communication. In this case a frequency
droop method can be implemented in the bidirectional inverter
and the grid-connected inverter. In addition a function for voltage
dependent power reduction can be implemented too to prevent
from over voltage caused tripping.
There is also a possibility to implement communication
between the bidirectional and the grid-connected inverter or to
implement load measurement to limit the maximum power that
is to be consumed by the BDI. This can be done with by using an
external controller.
Finally, it is also possible to control BDI with a proprietary protocol and/or non-proprietary open standard such as MOD-BUS
and MODBUS TCP/IP protocols for RS-232, EIA-485, and
Ethernet networks. Additionally, HTTP, SMTP, and SNMP are often
supported for web page, email, and network message support.
2.2.4. Multiport input/multi output inverter
In a photovoltaic hybrid system with batteries, the PV and the
batteries need a power electronic interface to be connected to
the load. One solution is to use a system formed by a hybrid inverter that consist of two inverters, operating in parallel whose outputs are tied to the AC output through a multiwinding step-up
transformer, similar to [34].
Another possible conguration can be a multi input DC/DC converter with an additional AC/DC inverter stage for feeding the AC
loads. Or with the power stage according to [35].
Fig. 5. Block circuit diagram for a three-phase multi-cluster Off-grid system. Source: SMA.
200
Fig. 6. The schematic block diagram of the multiport input/multi output inverter.
Fig. 7. Classication of the PV Hybrid inverters.
However, in both cases, they consist of multiple power processing stages that contribute to lowering the efciency of the overall
system.
Finally an alternative to inverter topologies previously presented that simplies and reduces the cost of those inverters while
increasing their reliability can be a single-stage multi-input high
frequency topology [36]. It is able of both stepping up or down

the voltage, Fig. 6.
It is based on the single input/single-output partial resonant AC
Link converter [37].
In all topologies shown before, in fact, the nal inverter implemented is a multiport inverter with three ports: two for input and
one for output, implemented in a single compact enclosure. Then,
those inverters incorporate a PV input where the PV eld can be
connected directly to the inverter without using another extra output inverter. The PV input has MPPT management too. Also, as in
the bidirectional inverters, the multiport inverter has implemented
a battery management technology that ensures the maximum life
of the storage system, by controlling constantly the battery temperature (often using a three-wire PT100 sensor).
From the energy point of view, the inverter implemented will
have four possible power ow scenarios, depending on the power
generated by PV modules, the battery state of charge, and the load
requirements: (1) from the PV modules to the load; (2) from the
battery to the load; (3) from the PV modules to the load and the
battery; (4) from the PV modules and the battery to the load.
Fig. 8. BPT-S 5 Hybrid Battery-storage solar inverter system. Source: Bosch.

Table 5
Battery hybrid integrated inverters.
Brand
Model
System power
(kW h)
Battery nominal
voltage (V)
ABB
REACT-3.6-TL
REACT-4.6-TL
2
2
Bosch
BPT-S 5 Hybrid
4.4
6.6
8.8
11
13.2
96
144
192
240
288
GoodWe
GW5048D-ES
GW3648D-ES
0.5
0.5
4060
4060
Kostal
PIKO BA System
2.8
228
PowerRouter
Power Router Solar

Battery
3.6
48
SMA
Sunny Boy 3600

Smart Energy
Sunny Boy 5000
Smart Energy
150
150
If the grid is considered, there will be another scenario in which

power ows from the grid to the battery.
Regarding these hybrid inverters, nowadays, two different
products are marketed, Fig. 7: single-phase (25 kW) and
three-phase (30300 kW) hybrid inverters.
The single phase products are dedicated to home applications
whereas the three-phase are implemented for industrial applications. In its turn, the small size hybrid inverters can be distinguished into without batteries integrated (Ingeteam) and with
batteries integrated (ABB, Bosch, Fronius, GoodWe, Kostal,
PowerRouter and SMA, for instance). The batteries more often used
201
in these inverters are Li-ion, except Kostal product where only OPzV
battery type can be connected. Anyway, by using single-phase
equipment can create three-phase off-grid system as well as
increasing the system power by connecting inverters in parallel.
Fig. 8 shows an example of topology for those inverters.
In general, they are applicable for both on-grid and off-grid PV
systems and can control the ow of energy hybrid with its working
situation able to be switched automatically or manually.
During the daytime, the PV plant generates electricity that can
be provided to the loads, fed into the grids or charged the battery.
The power stored can be released when the loads require it during
the night. In the Table 5 is shown a list of some battery hybrid integrated inverters. According Table 5, the battery nominal voltage
varies between 40 up to 288 Volts.
Instead, medium size hybrid inverters are always three-phase
inverters where the power rating is from 120 to 300 kW for each
inverter and 50200 kW for MPPT charge controller. In addition,
they can parallel operation of inverters for total inverter power
up to 1200 kW and up to 2000 kW of PV. They are design for operate in micro grid operation with utility line or operate as
stand-alone PVDG Hybrid, Fig. 9. Then, then can provide backup
power to load when utility grid line is not available and supply
load and charge battery from PV panels at the same time [38].
2.2.5. Grid-connected inverters
These inverters have a technology well known, [3941] and
they only can be implemented in the PV Hybrid systems along with
a bidirectional inverter in an AC coupling conguration. Then, they
always are running as current source. The stand-alone operation is
not possible for those inverters.
The AC bus is made by the bidirectional inverter or by the genset, [4244].
Fig. 9. Multiport inverter (quad-directional inverter) implemented by Leonics.
202
Fig. 10. World crude oil prices. Source: Bloomberg, Thomson Reuters.
This inverter is cheaper than another converters used in PV

Hybrid systems, and very mature and tested equipment. In accordance to the guidelines managed by the bidirectional inverter or by
external controller has the ability of modify the energy generation
(active power) from PV generator by means of frequency, [45,46].
In addition, nowadays, they have a lot of another abilities that
some can be used in PV Hybrid Systems: Passive Anti-Islanding
function (V, f), Active Anti-Islanding functions (frequency shift),
Reactive Power Supply (Q), Low Voltage Ride-Through (LVR),
Short Circuit Current Supply (Isc), Tertiary Control (Active Power
depending on frequency) and Remote Control Functions to set
Power Output and Power Factor.
3. PV diesel hybrid solutions
Diesel generators are often used to secure the basic energy supply in applications where the public grids do not provide a source
of energy. It is estimated that ve hundred gigawatts of power
from diesel gensets provide industrial companies with electricity
worldwide [47].
A diesel generator is an electricity supply grid in which one or
more diesel gensets represent the primary source of power and
perform the task of maintaining a stable frequency and voltage.
Diesel gensets offer a reliable and continuous source of electricity.
Precisely, diesel generators and combustion engines are mainly
used for off-grid generation. The advantages of combustion engines

are low installed capacity, high shaft efciency, suitable for
start-stop operation and high exhaust heat.
The key issue faced by diesel solution is the variation in the
load. Diesel-powered electric generators are typically sized to meet
the peak demand. However, severe variation in the load results in
poor engine performance. However, a diesel generator performs
efciently when it is operating close to its rated capacity. And continued operation at lower loads results in an inefcient
diesel-generator performance, higher cost of energy and increased
the maintenance [48].
In some remote locations, a dual diesel generator system is
employed. When the load is light, the smaller generator is used;
as the load increased, the manual switch is transferred to the larger
generator. This approach results in some fuel savings, however
managing this dual system is time consuming and impractical.
Despite comparatively low investment costs for purchasing the
machines they have some disadvantages or limitations. First, the
grid that they create is totally dependent on diesel, which is a
non-renewable and scarce energy source. The operation under
30% is totally no recommendable. The fuel consumption is
non-linear to load ratio. So it has low efciency at low load. Also,
in the start-up stage there will be some delay and it can relevant
in cascaded systems. And the maintenance intervals are based on
operational hours.
Fig. 11. Classication of the PV Hybrid Systems according to PV penetration.
203
Fig. 12. With string inverters. Source: SMA.
On the other hand, the energy generated is expensive due to

high prices of fuel and the difculty of supplying and storing it,
Fig. 10. Furthermore, diesel-based systems have to face constant
price increases and high OPEX (Operational Expenditures) directly
related to the use of fuel. Apart from that, CO2 emissions increase
with the use of gensets.
In addition, the operating costs for maintenance and fuel are
rather high. The current development of the crude oil price on
the global market, in particular, is leading to a drastic rise in costs,
Fig. 10. In addition, there is the logistical problem of transporting
the diesel fuel, which has a strong inuence on the overall costs,
particularly if it has to be transported to remote areas.
On the other hand, PV plants offer an inexpensive but irregular
source of electricity. So, combining the two technologies could
allow cost reduction of the overall electricity supply. An integration of photovoltaic energy (hybridization) could be included to
reduce the fuel consumption of diesel generators and hence their
high operating costs. That is, a PVDiesel system. The favorable
price trend of photovoltaic systems could provide for a short amortisation period. However, it will depend of load prole.
3.1. Integration of the photovoltaic into genset systems

PVdiesel hybrid solutions may hold the answer to reducing
fuel costs and increasing energy security for different applications
(Solar Home and low electrication regions) sectors, countries and
even continents (Africa) [4955].
According to the PV penetration (the fraction of PV power

installed with respect to the load prole), the integration of the
PV into pre-existing or new diesel systems can be divided into,
Fig. 11: Low penetration systems (PV penetration < 20%);
Medium penetration systems (where the control is needed), action
PV penetration 2065% and High penetration systems with PV penetration between 65% and 100% and where energy storage systems
must be installed [56,57].
The penetration level of photovoltaic energy in a hybrid power
system mainly depends upon load prole, local weather conditions
and the customers preference. With a given PV penetration level,
system components can be sized using various approaches.
In addition the implementation of those congurations according with the penetration chosen can be done: decentralized (by
using string inverters, Fig. 12, and small bidirectional inverters)
or centralized, Fig. 13, (by using central inverters and large bidirectional inverters).
3.1.1. Low penetration (<20%)
A low penetration off-grid solar connection refers to a PV system with an output capacity of approximately equal to 20% compared to the capacity of the load. Then, all PV energy can be used
in the system and that the diesel generator is always operating
at its nominal conditions, i.e. that the load is equal to the nominal
load of the genset(s) and that the contribution of the PV to the load
coverage is negligible.
In this solution the genset is the main power supply and is
designed to operate daily, full time, along with PV generator, to
204
Fig. 13. With Central inverters. Source: SMA.
supply power to the load. The function of PV generator is to reduce

fuel usage. And, there is no special management or equipment
required as the PV system acts as a simple negative load on the diesel mini-grid. Genset is used always as for grid generation. And the
grid frequency is within operational limits. Genset is the master of
the control. The genset acts as the main governor of the system
running under normal operation mode.
The elements for this solution are: PV generator, PV
grid-connected inverter and genset(s). The PV Inverter, coupled
by the AC bus, monitors the frequency and adjusts its power injection in order to both maximize the fuel saving, and to ensure minimum genset load and spinning reserve (it can be dened as the
unused capacity which can be activated on decision of the system
operator and which is provided by devices which are synchronized
to the network and able to affect the active power). Always the PV
grid-connected inverters operate in MPPT mode of operation [58].
When the electricity production of the PV system reduces,
clouds for instance, it is similar to turning on a piece of equipment
whereby the spinning reserve of the generator can now supply
more electricity to meet the demand. Then, the PV power plant
control in diesel genset operated systems and it can accommodate
all natural uctuations.
Benets of low penetration include: no energy storage required
(low cost); no specialised control system required (easily
installed), many utility scale reference sites (well proven) and
lower investment/commitment.
3.1.2. Medium penetration (2065%)

Two possible solutions can be implemented for this PV penetration: continuous operation genset (single or multiple genset) or
intermittent operation genset (multiple gensets under master
slave control).
In continuous operation the gensets are not switched off. And
under intermittent operation some genset(s) are switched off with
low load. In both cases, additional control equipment must be
included.
In continuous operation the genset(s) always is used for grid
generation. So, diesel generators establish the grid voltage and frequency. It operates as voltage source. But in this time, the PV generator may not work at full time as a load reduction.
Two different ranges can be distinguished: PV penetration
between 20% and 40% and PV penetration between 40% and 65%.
In both cases an additional control must be added.
For a PV to Diesel Ratio between 20% and 40%, high irradiance
and low load could lead to an inacceptable operating point for
the genset. In that case, fast transients due to changes in irradiance
could result in inacceptable voltage or frequency uctuations.
Therefore active control is required to keep grid operating within
specied limits. This is technically possible but has implications
on the economical model, since the PV generator will sometime
operate below the theoretical power limits and thus reduce
khW/kW ratio. An active control should allow maximizing the PV
to Diesel ratio while maximizing PV kWh/kW ratio.

Table 6
Controllable characteristics and means of control for components typically found on
mini-grids.
Elements
Controllable characteristic
Control possibilities
PV generator
Power
Communication line
Frequency
Batteries
Depth of discharge
Number of cycles per day
Charge/discharge power
Communication line
Frequency
Energy management
Genset
Number of start/stop cycles

Generation power
Communication line
Start/stop signal
Frequency
Consumption
Power consumption (on/off)
Communication line
Frequency User
For a PV penetration between 40% and 65% additional components are required, such as short and long-term energy storage.
Two possible dispatch strategies of genset operation can be possible: continuous and intermittent operation [5961].
3.1.3. Continuous genset operation
Any PV Hybrid system under continuous operation in medium
penetration has the following elements: PV generator, genset(s),
PV grid-connected inverter, wattmeter and control system. The
control is required for protecting the diesel generator(s) from
low loading and limiting generator cycling. It must be taken into
account that it is not recommendable that a genset is operated at
load below than 0.15 of its nominal power. This value may also
be recommended to secure the electrical stability of the grid
formed by the generator of the gensets. As a consequence for systems without storage, PV power has to be dumped in the case that
the effective load (loadPV power) is pushed to this boundary. This
affects again the fuel savings. A reduction of these losses however
can be achieved by splitting the total DGS (Diesel Generators)
capacity into several units with at best unequal sizes, together with
the appropriate scheduling. By this, the required minimal load can
be reduced to that for the smallest of the diesel units.
Then, the control system establishes communication with the
power meter, PV inverters and load control managing
demand-based PV feed-in into the diesel-powered grid. This control system helps to the system in the following items: minimum
diesel load (it guarantees that the diesel generator does not operate under a minimum load level, in order to ensure a longer engine
life); reverse power protection (it avoids a power ow from the
inverter to the genset, for example, in the event of a total load disconnection); stability against irradiance variations (stability
against irradiance variation it is guaranteed by the spinning
reserve of the genset, previously sized for the maximum possible
load) and load control (it allows switching loads on when the genset load level is low and there is a PV generation surplus) [62].
Advantages for this solution are: reduction of diesel consumption, lower cost of energy, unlimited resource and resource
availability.
3.1.4. Intermittent genset operation
In this type of operation, the on/off control of genset is imposed.
Two different systems can be distinguished: without energy storage and with energy storage. In both cases are necessary two types
of controllers: a diesel manager and a system controller.
In systems where there is no energy storage, the photovoltaic
inverters inject current to the diesel grid, being detected by the
genset as a load reduction. The controller monitors the genset
units, obtaining which ones are operating as well as their load
level. This information is used to determine the maximum power
that the solar inverters can supply in order to guarantee the system
stability, i.e. in a cloud-shading event.
205
The monitoring process of the genset units can be made by a

power meter device or by an Ethernet Modbus/TCP straight from
the genset (if available). The general system can be monitored
via SCADA or dedicated software [63,64].
The system controller often is based on PLC and limits the PV
output power to guarantee that the available spinning reserve is
enough to meet the energy demand in a cloud shading event.
This system provided the following functionalities: guaranty of
genset minimum load, protection against reverse power ux, monitoring, spinning reserve guarantee and reactive power control
(from the PV inverters, for those installations with high reactive
power consumption).
3.2. Power management in PV hybrid systems
When the batteries are implemented in the system four elements must be controllable: PV generator, genset(s), energy storage and load, Table 6.
And depending of the element there will be different controllable characteristic and control possibilities, [65,66].
A good operation of any PV Hybrid system can be achieved only
by a suitable power management between their elements. It is fundamental optimize the use of all elements: optimize the PV energy,
minimize the wear the batteries and consume the smallest possible quantity of fossil fuel. It will manage power ows among the
different energy sources and the storage unit in the system.
A control strategy consists of certain predetermine control settings implemented when installed the system. Such settings concern the timing on certain values representing the system state,
such as the battery state of charge and demand placed on the system. Normally, the PV generation is the primary source, the battery
as the supplement and the diesel generator as back-up source of
energy [67,68].
In Table 7 is shown the power management related to PV
Hybrid systems structured into three groups: grid forming, supervisory control and communications [69].
3.2.1. Grid forming
The possible grid forming architectures that can be implemented into those systems can be the following [70]: genset dominated system, power converter (PC) dominate system, single
switch (genset & PC) and multi-master inverter dominate.
With respect to PV Hybrid systems all methods can be implemented except to PC dominate that corresponds to the classical
PV + Batteries architecture.
Either of the methods reviewed above are capable of regulating
mini-grid voltage and frequency to meet current user needs. The
choice of strategy employed will depend on the architecture of
the mini-grid (centralized or decentralized), the generation mix
(diesel dominated or high penetration of PV generator), and the
economics of incorporating auxiliary stabilization mechanisms,
such as energy storage systems or dispatchable loads.
The genset dominated the system is a typical conguration for
a diesel mini-grid that has multiple AC sources (gensets and PV
inverters) connected to the mini-grid and simultaneously supplying power. The gensets (one of various) make the grid forming
and the other sources are in synchronizing to the mini-grid in voltage and frequency. This is the typical architecture for low PV penetration [71].
The single switched master mini-grid architecture can have
multiple AC sources connected to the mini-grid (typically battery
inverters and a genset), but the grid forming control is switched
between the genset, Fig. 14, and the bi-directional inverter(s),
Fig. 15.
This the typical AC coupled conguration. This allows the genset to be turned off and the system to operate only from PV
206
Table 7
Grid forming, supervisory control and communication in PV Hybrid Systems.
Grid forming
Supervisory control
Communication
(1) Genset dominate system

(1.a) Single genset
(1.b) Multi genset
(A) Genset Operation Control

(A.1) Alternate operation diesel units
(A.2) Parallel genset operation with load sharing reverse and transients
covered by diesel
(i) Communication Line

(i.1) Hardware/Protocol
(i.2) RS485/Modbus + Proprietary
(i.3)
(i.4)
(i.5)
(i.6)
CAN/CANopen
IEEE P1547-3 guide line
IEC 61850-7-420
UESP developed by CIA
(2) Power Converter (PC) dominate system

(2.a) Single PCE master
(2.b) Multi PCE master & slave
(B) Genset Dispatching Control

(B.1) Schedule genset
(B.2) SOC-based diesel operation
(B.3) Load-based diesel operation
(B.4) Cycle charging
(B.5) Micro cycling charging
(ii) Grid Line Characteristics

(ii.1) Frequency
(ii.2) Frequency & Voltage Droop
(3) Single switch master (genset & PC)
(D) PC Supervisory Control with Storage

(D.1) Transient support (peak shaving)
(D.2) PV and genset-base battery charging
(D.3) PV battery charging only
(D.4) Predictive control
(iii) OnOff Signal
(4) Multi-master inverter dominate
generator and storage. These architectures are typically used in

smaller village micro grids, which do not have sufcient base load
to support continuous genset operation or multiple genset plants.
With sufcient energy storage and PV capacity, very high PV penetration can be achieved. In some systems, the genset is used only
as a backup [72,73].
The multi-master inverter-dominated architecture has a
decentralized control architecture in which several generating
sources distributed within the mini-grid cooperate to act as
grid-formers. Generally, most of these sources are interfaced to
the mini-grid by power electronic interfaces (inverters), but conventional genset using droop control may be integrated as well
[7477].
In the multi-master genset dominated architecture, one or
more genset maintain an AC grid to regulate voltage and stabilize
frequency. Renewable energy sources (RES) such as solar photovoltaic (PV), small wind turbines, and/or run-off river hydro power
sources also supply part of the load when the energy source is
available.
At least one of the gensets operates continuously, while the
other(s) can be dispatched based on variations in load demand
and changes in the RES availability. In most cases, a diesel dominated mini-grid does not have any sort of energy storage or only
utilizes short-term energy storage to assist with transient
dynamics of the system. The RES usually operate as passive generation units, injecting as much power as possible, with little or no
participation in the control strategy. The renewable sources can
be seen as negative loads that reduce the amount of power
demanded from the gensets [65,69].
In Fig. 16 is shown the different applicability of the different
forming strategies with respect to the architecture (centralized or
decentralized) and the PV penetration [78].
3.2.2. Supervisoy control

Regarding to the supervisory control, it is related with the dispatch strategy of the system (the control algorithm for the interaction among the components). It is a process of allocating the
required load demand between the available generation units such
that the cost of operation is at its minimum [7981].
The system dispatch controller should determine the starting or
stopping the diesel generator, battery charger operation, and
cutting-in or cutting-out the photovoltaic generator.
The following parameters should be taken into consideration:

Minimum battery SOC (State of Charge) control point (SOCmin),
Maximum battery SOC control point (SOCmax), Diesel generator
minimum loading, Diesel generator maximum loading, Diesel generator starting point (fraction of battery capacity), Diesel generator
starting point (fraction of netload), Diesel generator stopping point
(fraction of battery capacity) and Diesel generator stopping point
(fraction of netload). In Table 8 is shown different dispatch strategy
for the elements of any PV Hybrid Systems.
The supervisory control can be subdivided into four groups:
genset operation control, genset dispatching control, power converter supervisory control without storage and power converter
supervisory control with storage.
In a Genset Operation Control two possibilities can be shown:
alternate or parallel operation.
In the alternate operation diesel strategy only one diesel genset
is used at any time. Parallel operation of gensets is never used.
Typically, this situation corresponds to a power plant with identical gensets having a rated power bigger than the peak load. During
low demand periods or when the solar panels are providing energy,
the genset will operate inefciently at a very low loading.
In turn, in parallel genset operation with load sharing reverse
and transients covered by diesel. For the off-grid battery-less HES
(Hybrid Energy System) conguration, at least one of the VSDGs
(Variable Speed Diesel Generator) is required to operate as the
grid-form generator while the other will be the grid-feed generator
that supplements the power supply. The function of the grid-form
generator is to hold the grid voltage and frequency constant at
desired level [82,83].
In a genset dispatching control different possibilities can be
given: schedule genset, SOC based diesel operation, load-based
diesel operation, cycle charging and micro cycling charging.
In schedule genset the Diesel genset operates according to a
predetermined scheduled program. With such a strategy, it is difcult to optimize the battery charging and the operation of the genset, according to the uctuations of the daily solar resource, [84].
In SOC-based diesel operation the diesel genset operates
according to the battery state of charge (SOC). This strategy provides both reliability in meeting the load, and condence that batteries are being cycled appropriately [85,86].
Under load-based diesel operation the diesel genset operates
when the load power exceeds the combined capacity of the storage
and PV. This guaranties a correct loading for the genset [87,88].
207
Fig. 14. Diesel generator is the master of system (Source: Leonics).
Fig. 15. Bi-directional inverter is the master of system (Source: Leonics).
(load following strategy), whenever a generator is needed it

produces only enough power to meet the demand. Load following
tends to be optimal in systems with a lot of renewable power,
when the renewable power output sometimes exceeds the load.
The load following strategy is a dispatch strategy whereby whenever a generator operates, it produces only enough power to meet
the primary load. Lower-priority objectives such as charging the
battery bank or serving the deferrable load are left to the renewable power sources [15,8991].
Under the cycle charging strategy, whenever a generator operates, it runs at its maximum rated capacity (or as close as possible
without incurring excess electricity) and charges the battery bank

with the excess [9295]. Applying this kind of strategy may require
optimization of state of charge (SOC) set points. Charging the battery
to its full capacity is applied periodically, but not at every cycle. When
using the cycle charging strategy, the controllable power sources
(generators, battery bank, grid) dispatches power in a two-step process: (1) selects the optimal combination of power sources to serve
the primary and thermal load according to the load-following strategy and (2) ramps up the output of each generator in that optimal.
And in a micro cycling strategy is similar to load following one.
The generator starts if the battery SOC crosses minimal level but it
208
Fig. 16. Architecture vs PV penetration (%).
runs in short intervals, keeping the SOC at the same level. The battery is re-charged from renewable sources. Charging the battery to
its full capacity is applied periodically if there is not enough renewable sources available for longer periods.
Another supervisory can be the power converter control without storage, where the following controls can be distinguished:
PV supply load and use excess energy to charger battery, power
limit control/Back feed control, dummy load dispatching and
deferrable load dispatching.
And the last supervisory control is the power converter supervisory control with storage in where three different types of control
can be distinguished: transient support, PV and genset-base battery charging and PV battery charging only.
In the transient support the reserve power is provided by a
storage unit, capable of delivering very quickly a high level of power.
In the PV and genset-base battery charging the gensets are
operated at their optimal efciency level to cover the load and
charging the battery with the surplus power. Typically, the diesel
gensets are running when the load level is high in order to reduce
the amount of energy to be stored in the battery. When the load
level is low, the load can be directly fed by the battery and the gensets
can be switched off in order to avoid inefcient low loading operation.
In the PV battery charging only the batteries are charged by PV
only. The gensets are not able to charge the batteries. The main role
of the battery is to shift solar power use to optimal periods of the day.
The Peak shaving strategy consists on operating the genset at
full power. Battery power is only used to meet buffer instantaneous uctuations around the netload. Battery power is used as a
buffer to meet short-term uctuations of the load demand only

and it is not intended for supplying average load demand. Excess
PV power us used to replenish the battery. The diesel generator
will only charge the battery under certain exceptional conditions
when it has to be operated above the minimum loading condition
that produces excess power [96,97].
Predictive control strategy: In contrast to conventional control
strategies, the predictive control strategy seeks to optimise strategic decisions using the available information of past, present, and
future operating conditions. This concept constitutes a new
approach to the operational control of PVdiesel hybrid energy
systems. A predictive control strategy can consider the future supply and demand situation to determine the optimal operating period for the motor generator, resulting in a true energy management
system [98,99].
3.2.3. Communication
Although the communication between different elements of the
installation such as smart meters, sensors, monitoring systems and
data management systems is very important the control the ow of
information among them it is even more signicant above all when
is being spoken about the communication between the management power system and the power converters, that is objective
of this part of this manuscript. There are two different sets of communications technologies based on wired and wireless [100,101,86].
The wired communication directly to the equipment can be
implemented by using some popular serial data protocols [102
110], such as communication Modbus + Proprietary, CAN/CANope
n, IEEE P1547.3 guide line, IEC 61850-7-420 [107] or UESP developed by CiA.
Nowadays, almost all equipments have many of input communications mentioned before.
Another approach for communication can be done by using
wireless and by means of grid line characteristic: frequency and
frequency and voltage drop or onoff signal.
Regarding wireless communication short and long-range communications can be distinguished, Table 9. For instance, Home
Energy Management System (HEMS) requires a short distance network, called Home Area Network (HAN).
On the other hand, in an AC coupled conguration, where there
will be bidirectional and grid-tie inverters, one of the method simpler and more cost-effective communication solution is using the
Table 8
Dispatch strategy for the different elements of any PV Hybrid System.
Element
Action
Dispatch strategy
Diesel
Diesel starts
At specic battery level that is determined by the state of charge (SOC) or battery terminal voltage
At specic site load power which is measured as a percentage of the diesel generator or inverter rated capacity
At specic renewable output power as a percentage of the peak power of the PV generator
After a specic time period
At xed, at the full power rating
Diesel meeting the entire load and charging the battery if required
Diesel meeting the base load with battery supplying the transient load
At specic battery level that is determined by the SOC or battery terminal voltage
At specic site load power which is measured as a percentage of the diesel generator or inverter rated capacity
At specic renewable output power as a percentage of the peak power of the PV generator
At specic power transferred to battery
At specic diesel operating power level
After a specic time period
Diesel generator
operation
Diesel stops
Inverter
Inverter operation
To meet the transient load

To meet all or part of the load
Battery
charger
Battery charger
starts
Battery charger
power level
Battery charger
stops
(1) At the beginning of the diesel operating. (2) At specic battery level during the running of the diesel generator. (3) At specic
diesel operating power level. (4) At specic PV output power
(1) Fixed at the full power rating of the charger. (2) Varying to meet the maximum battery charging rate
At specic battery level
At specic diesel operating power level
At specic PV output power

Table 9
Comparison of different wireless technologies.
Technology
Spectrum
Coverage range (km)
GSM
GPRS
3G
WIMAX
PLC
ZigBee
9001800 MHz
9001800 MHz
1.921.98 GHz
2.53.5 GHz
130 MHz
2.4915 MHz
110
110
110
1050
13
0.30.50
frequency and grid voltage for the control of the AC bus (AC grid)
[111116].
Nowadays, the modern grid-tie inverters come with a lot of
functionality compared to inverters of the past. Key features
including grid frequency dependent are related with the active
power reduction, Grid frequency dependent power reduction
(GFPR) or with the reactive power characteristics, including power
factor or Q, Grid Voltage dependent Power reduction (GVPR) and
Reactive Power as a function of Voltage (Q = f(V)), [117].
That is to say, the main control strategy in microgrids can be
linked to the communication by means of the frequency and AC
voltage bus. Then power sharing without extra cabling can be done
if the components determine their instantaneous active and reactive power set value. The supervisory control just provides parameter settings for each component.
Such approach results in some advantages such as: more simple
expansion of the system, increased redundancy, as the system does
not rely on a vulnerable bus system, for optimization a simple bus
system is sufcient and a simplied supervisory control.
For instance, the frequency can be modied as a function of the
battery status or consumer on the AC bus can switch on/off according to the information carried out by the frequency [118].
3.2.3.1. High penetration (65100%). PV Diesel systems with more

than 65% penetration of PV capacity may produce more electricity
than required on days with high solar irradiance and low
energy demand. An increase in PV penetration up to 100% can be
done to reach an economic optimum, including any support for
diesel off-mode. Then, in order to ensure that all energy is used
entirety energy storage system and a specialised and complex control management system must be implemented. Energy storage
209
integration provides substitute to the spinning reserve genset

operation.
In the design of a PVdieselbattery hybrid system, the problem
is to select a suitable size blending of generator components, PV
array, diesel generator and storage battery, and an appropriate dispatch strategy for the diesel generator, which will result in a
least-cost system [119121].
This normally requires the use of sophisticated commercial
computer simulation software [122].
An important effect and importance is the diesel dispatch strategy on system performance and energy cost, in order to recommend the appropriate dispatch strategy [123125].
In these systems PV generator is the main power supply and is
designed to supply a high fraction of total energy demand. The
functions of the genset are to recharge the battery bank and to
complement the PV energy generator power supply when there
is insufcient solar resource. Due to this high penetration level of
renewable energy, large battery banks are usually required in these
systems.
In this case, the AC bus (grid bus) is formed by the PV inverter(s)
during the day and by the battery system during the night. This time,
the genset(s) powers down completely and it is used as a back-up.
Only it brings on as is needed, when loads > PV + Energy Storage.
A specialised control management system must be used to
ensure a safe and reliable integration between all elements. The
control unit communicates with the converters and PV generator
to guarantee an economical operation of the photovoltaicdiesel
grid. These types of systems are more complex, above all for large
and very large power. The control unit has different another functions: limiting inverter power if required, ensures that sufcient
control energy is available and assists in the management of storage with systems, guaranty of genset minimum load, protection
against reverse power ux, spinning reserve guarantee, reactive
power control and monitoring.
4. Case studies
4.1. Small-scale PV Hybrid System, less than 100 kW scale systems
Case study of Small-scale PV Hybrid System total power 75 kW
is the system installed at schools in Sabah, in Malaysia. The PVDG
Fig. 17. Case study of small-scale PV Hybrid System total power 75 kW is the system installed at school in Peninsular Malaysia, in Malaysia.
210
hybrid system consists of PV module 20 kWp, Bidirectional inverter 25 kW, Lead Acid Battery 1500 Ah 240 Vdc, and Diesel
Generator 30 kW. The system diagram is exhibited as follow in
Figs. 1719.
4.2. Medium-scale PV Hybrid System, more 100 kW scale systems
Case study of Medium-Scale PV Hybrid system total power
370 kW is the system installed at technical college in Cambodia,
Kampong Chheuteal (see Figs. 20 and 21). The PVDG system consisted of PV 120 kWp, Bidirectional inverter 75 kW, Lead Acid battery 1500 Ah, and Diesel Generator 100 kW. System operate since
September 2014 with the aim to reduce usage of diesel fuel from
100% to only 30%.
4.3. Large-scale PV Hybrid Systems, more than 1000 kW scale systems
Fig. 18. Implementation of the case study of Fig. 17.
Around de world there are few installations greater than 1 MW

where OFF-grid PV Hybrid system is installed. For instance, in
Fig. 22 is shown a map where four installations were implemented
in the Malaysia.
In the following is shown four case study.
Fig. 19. Implementation of the case study of Fig. 17.
4.3.1. Case Study 1: 4.2 MW PV/Diesel/Battery Micro Grid System

implemented in a remote site in Tanjung Labian, Malaysia, 2012
In Fig. 23 is shown the 4.2 MW hybrid system implemented
in Tanjung (Malaysia) that consists of 900 kW Bi-directional
battery Inverter with AC coupling by using 750 kW Grid
Connected Inverter and DC coupling with MPPT Charge
Controller for 512 kWp PV which can generate energy from PV
for 1.82 GWh and supply electrical power to 700 families in 7
villages, school, clinic, and government house over 14 km distribution network in Tanjung Labian, Lahad Dhatu, Sabar, East
Malaysia, Fig. 24.
Fig. 20. Case study of Medium-Scale PV Hybrid system installed in Cambodia at Kampong Chertial College by NSTDA, Thailand working for the IT Project under H.R.H.
Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorns Initiatives.
211
Fig. 21. Daily graph of the implementation of the Cambodia system according to Fig. 20 installed in Cambodia at Kampong Chertial College by NSTDA, Thailand working for
the IT Project under H.R.H. Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorns Initiatives.
Fig. 22. MW Off-grid PV Hybrid installations implemented by Leonics.
212
Fig. 23. Diagram of the installation implemented in Tanjung Labian (Malaysia), by Leonics.
Fig. 24. Equipment for the installation implemented in Tanjung Labian (Malaysia), by Leonics.
4.3.2. Case Study 2: 3.3 MW, PV/Diesel/Battery Micro Grid System

implemented in a remote site at Kemar Villages, Gelik, Perak, Malaysia,
November 2012
The 3.3 MW total power hybrid system consists of Diesel
Generator 1600 kW, 600 kW Bi-directional battery Inverter with
AC coupling by using 250 kW Grid Connected Inverter and DC coupling with MPPT Charge Controller for 600 kW PV which can generate annual energy from PV for 1.08 GW h and supply electrical
power to 400 families in 5 villages, schools, clinic, and government
houses over 10 km distribution network in Kemar Villages, Perak,
Malaysia.
4.3.3. Case Study 3: 4.93 MW, PV/Diesel/Battery Micro Grid System

implemented in a remote site at Banggi Island, Kudat, Sabah, Malaysia,
March 2014
Generator 1350 kVA, 900 kW Bi-directional battery Inverter with
AC coupling by using 250 kW Grid Connected Inverter 3 units
for 750 kW, 75 kW Grid connect inverter 3 for 200 kW at remote
site and DC coupling with MPPT Charge Controller for 210 kW PV
which can generate annual energy from PV for 1.48 GW h and supply electrical power to 900 families in 14 villages, schools, clinic,
and government houses over 25 km distribution network in
Banggi Island, Kudat, Sabah, Malaysia.
4.3.4. Case Study 4: 2.84 MW PV/Diesel/Battery Micro Grid System

implemented in a remote site at Sswee Island, Kalangala, Lake Victoria,
Uganda, September 2014
Generator 1320 kW, 400 kW Bi-directional battery Inverter with
AC coupling by using 125 kW Grid Connected Inverter x 4 units
for 436 kW and DC coupling with MPPT Charge Controller for
192 kW PV which can generate annual energy from PV for
0.80 GW h and supply electrical power to 400 families in 10 villages, schools, clinic, and government houses over 40 km distribution network in Sswee Island, Kalangala, Uganda.
5. International standards
Mainly, the IEC standards related with PV Hybrid Systems are
linked to the JWG 1 (JWG TC 82/TC 88/TC 21/SC 21A) of the
Technical Committee (TC) 82 of IEC (International Electrotechnical
Committee). That group has the scope to prepare guidelines for
Decentralized Rural Electrication (DRE) projects which are now
being implemented in developing countries. However, nowadays
in IEC there are only specic publications about the small renewable
energy and hybrid systems for rural electrication, in the IEC/TS
62257 series, and not for big systems. The IEC/TS 62257 series are
Technical Specications (TS) and not Standards. The purpose of this
series is to assist to renewable energy project managers, engineers
and system designers as well as operators to choose the right system
for the right place; design the system and operate and maintain the
system.
Also, the IEC 62124 (Photovoltaic (PV) stand alone systems
Design verication), veries system design and performance of
stand-alone photovoltaic systems. The performance test consists
of a check of the functionality, the autonomy and ability to recover
after periods of low state-of-charge of the battery, and hence gives
reasonable assurance that the system will not fail prematurely. The
testing conditions are intended to represent the majority of climatic zones for which these systems are designed.
In addition, IEEE provides standards for this topic, for instance
the IEEE Guide for Design, Operation, and Integration of
Distributed Resource Island Systems with Electric Power Systems.
It provides a alternative approaches and good practices for the
design, operation, and integration of distributed resource (DR)
island systems with electric power systems (EPS). This includes
the ability to separate from and reconnect to part of the area EPS
while providing power to the islanded EPSs. This guide includes
the DRs, interconnection systems, and participating EPSs.
5.1. Standards related with PV modules
In Table 10 is shown the standards related with the photovoltaic modules, including topics as quality (IEC 61215 and IEC
Table 10
Standards related with PV modules.
61464) and safety (IEC 61730). The IEC 60904-1 provides procedures for the measurement of currentvoltage characteristics of
photovoltaic devices in natural or simulated sunlight.
5.2. Standards for battery charge controllers

For safety, the manufacturers often comply with the IEC
60335-1 (Household and similar electrical appliances Safety
Part 1: General requirements) and the IEC 60335-2-29 (Particular
requirements for battery chargers). The rated voltage of the appliances being not more than 250 V for single-phase appliances and
480 V for other appliances.
About the performance and functioning, the specic IEC standard for battery charge controllers is the IEC 62509, Battery charge
controllers for photovoltaic systems Performance and functioning that establishes minimum requirements for the functioning
and performance of battery charge controllers (BCC) used with lead
acid batteries in terrestrial photovoltaic systems. The main aims
are to ensure BCC reliability and to maximise the life of the battery.
This standard should be managed in conjunction with IEC 62093
(Balance-of-system components for photovoltaic systems
Design qualication natural environments).
With respect to safety, these can comply with the IEC 62109-1
(safety of power converters for use in photovoltaic power systems
Part 1: General requirements.
5.3. Standards for inverters (stand-alone, bidirectional, interactive and

grid-connected)
Inverters installed in those systems often complies with the following standards: with respect to safety, they can comply with the
IEC 62109-1 (safety of power converters for use in photovoltaic
power systems Part 1: General requirements) and the IEC
62109-2, that covers the particular safety requirements relevant
to inverter products as well as products that have or perform inverter functions in addition to other functions, where the inverter is
intended for use in photovoltaic power systems. Inverters covered
by this standard may be grid-interactive, stand-alone, or multiple
mode inverters, may be supplied by single or multiple photovoltaic
modules grouped in various array congurations, and may be
intended for use in conjunction with batteries or other forms of
energy storage.
Efciency is another important parameter to be into consideration. This one is related with two standards: IEC 61683 and IEC
62891.
And with respect to the EMC nowadays there are a lot of possible standards related with this topic. Fortunately, there is a project
for a specic standard, IEC 62920, where the EMC requirements
and test methods for grid connected power converters applying
to photovoltaic power generating systems will be dened (see
Table 11).
Standard
Title
IEC 61215
Crystalline silicon terrestrial photovoltaic modules Design

qualication and type approval
IEC 61464
Thin-lm terrestrial photovoltaic modules Design

qualication and type approval
IEC 61730
PV module safety qualication

Part 1: Requirements for construction
Part 2: Requirements for testing
Standard
Title
IEC 61683
Photovoltaic devices. Part 1: Measurement of photovoltaic

current voltage characteristics PV Modules eld test
IEC 62891
Photovoltaic systems Power conditioners Procedure for

measuring efciency
Maximum point power point efciency in photovoltaic
converters
IEC 60904-1
213
Table 11
Standards related with efciency in PV power converters.
214
Table 12
Standards about batteries.
Standard
Title
IEC 60896-11
Stationary lead-acid batteries:

Part 11: Vented types General requirements and method
tests
Part 21: Valve regulated types Methods of tests
Part 22: Valve regulated types Requirements
IEC 61427
Secondary cells and batteries for photovoltaic energy systems

(PVES)-Part 1: Photovoltaic off-grid application
IEC 62485-2
Safety requirements for secondary batteries and battery

installations-Part 2: Stationary batteries
IEEE 1361
Practice for determining performance characteristics and

suitability of batteries in photovoltaic Systems-Field test
Table 13
Standards related with consumptions.
Standard
Title
IEC 60969
Self-ballasted lamps for general lighting purposes

Performance Requirements
IEC 61347-1-4
Lamp control gear:

Part 1: General and safety requirements
Part 3: Particular requirements for AC-supplied electronic
ballasts for uorescent lamps
Part 4: Particular requirements for DC-supplied electronic
ballasts for general lighting
5.4. Standards for batteries

There are a lot of standards about batteries but Table 12 summarized the more related with PV Hybrid systems.
5.5. Standards related to consumption
In Table 13 is depicted the standards related with lamps.
6. Conclusions
A review about the current state of the technique of Off-grid
Photovoltaic Hybrid Systems for AC loads has been done. The different power converters implemented in those systems have been
collected, such as: regulators and inverters. New power converters
haven found marketed recently.
Regards to the installations it has been found that the cost of the
system depends on different topics: load prole, site, size of individual component and a dispatch strategy. In addition, the integration of the photovoltaic into genset systems have been analyzed, in
their different percentage: low penetration (<20%), medium penetration (2065%) and high penetration (65100%). According to the
analyzed done is possible to conclude that in low penetration is not
necessary extra control nor energy storage system. However, in
medium and high penetration in order to ensure that all energy
is used entirety energy storage system and a specialised and complex control management system must be implemented. Energy
storage integration provides substitute to the spinning reserve
genset operation. In the design of a PVdieselbattery hybrid system, the problem is to select a suitable size blending of generator
components, PV array, diesel generator and storage battery, and
an appropriate dispatch strategy for the diesel generator, which
will result in a least-cost system.
The power management system has been analyzed too, including the grid forming, the supervisory control and the
communication.
Finally, a short review about the international standards related
to PV Hybrids has been done too.
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Applied Energy 157 (2015) 195216

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Overview of the off-grid photovoltaic diesel batteries systems

Electronic Technology Department/Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain

Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 916248867.

V. Salas et al. / Applied Energy 157 (2015) 195216

In the literature there are some review manuscripts about the

2. Power converters implemented in the PV Hybrid Systems

2.1. Battery charging systems

V. Salas et al. / Applied Energy 157 (2015) 195216

XW MPPT 80 600 Model

MPPT inputs number

Nominal battery voltage (V)

Maximum battery current (A)

Maximum open circuit voltage (V)

Tarom MPPT 6000-M

Series type charge controllers are very similar to shunt type

Modied sine wave

Sine wave inverter

Risk of generating odd

Fewer harmonics than

And, another important parameter is the ability or not for

Suitable for practically

V. Salas et al. / Applied Energy 157 (2015) 195216

Fig. 2. PV grid-interactive inverter. Source: Leonics.

Fig. 3. Operation of the a PV grid-interactive inverter. Source: Leonics.

Fig. 4. AC coupled conguration implemented in some PV Hybrid Systems. Source:

2.2.2. Grid-interactive inverter

2.2.3. Bidirectional inverter (BDI)

V. Salas et al. / Applied Energy 157 (2015) 195216

single-phase (with brands as Leonics, Outback, SMA, Studer,

V. Salas et al. / Applied Energy 157 (2015) 195216

Fig. 7. Classication of the PV Hybrid inverters.

frequency topology [36]. It is able of both stepping up or down

Fig. 8. BPT-S 5 Hybrid Battery-storage solar inverter system. Source: Bosch.

V. Salas et al. / Applied Energy 157 (2015) 195216

Power Router Solar

Sunny Boy 3600

If the grid is considered, there will be another scenario in which

Fig. 9. Multiport inverter (quad-directional inverter) implemented by Leonics.

V. Salas et al. / Applied Energy 157 (2015) 195216

This inverter is cheaper than another converters used in PV

used for off-grid generation. The advantages of combustion engines

Fig. 11. Classication of the PV Hybrid Systems according to PV penetration.

V. Salas et al. / Applied Energy 157 (2015) 195216

Fig. 12. With string inverters. Source: SMA.

On the other hand, the energy generated is expensive due to

3.1. Integration of the photovoltaic into genset systems

According to the PV penetration (the fraction of PV power

V. Salas et al. / Applied Energy 157 (2015) 195216

Fig. 13. With Central inverters. Source: SMA.

supply power to the load. The function of PV generator is to reduce

3.1.2. Medium penetration (2065%)

V. Salas et al. / Applied Energy 157 (2015) 195216

Number of start/stop cycles

Power consumption (on/off)

The monitoring process of the genset units can be made by a

V. Salas et al. / Applied Energy 157 (2015) 195216

(1) Genset dominate system

(A) Genset Operation Control

(i) Communication Line

(2) Power Converter (PC) dominate system

(B) Genset Dispatching Control

(ii) Grid Line Characteristics