4.

1 UNDERSTANDING THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM

Heat is a form of energy that flows from a hot body to a cold body. SI unit: Joule, J.
Temperature is the degree of hotness of a body. SI unit: Kelvin, K.
When two objects with different temperatures come into thermal contact, heat energy is transferred
between the two objects. Heat is transferred in both directions. When thermal equilibrium is reached,
the net rate of heat flow between the two bodies is zero.
There is no net flow of heat between two objects that are in thermal equilibrium.
Two objects in thermal equilibrium have the same temperature irrespective of shape, mass, size or type
of surface.

Comparison of two objects before and after achieving thermal equilibrium

Before
After
The two objects have different temperature
The two objects have equal temperature
The rate of energy transfer rate are different
The rate of energy transfer rate are equal
The hotter object loses energy while the colder object
There is not net gain or net loss of energy by
gains energy
either object.
Thw hotter object colls down while the colder object
Both of the objects remain at the same
heats up
temperature
Energy is transferred between the two objects.

Applications of thermal equilibrium

Situation

Explanation
Mom puts a piece of wet towel on Davids forehead
One of the ways to bring down fever is by wiping his body and forehead
using a wet towel.
Heat energy from the body will be transferred to the wet towel until
thermal equilibrium is reached.
The wet towel is then rinsed under tap water so that the heat energy from
the towel is transferred to tap water. The process is repeated until the right
amount of heat is transferred out of the body to bring fever down.

The spoon is hot!!!

Mom: The milk is too cold for my baby!

Its just too hot! Lets have a cold drink

SPM 2003

SPM 2005

Liquid in glass thermometer

The liquid used in glass thermometer should

(a) Be easily seen
(b) Expand and contract rapidly over a wide range of temperature
(c) Not stick to the glass wall of the capillary tube
The characteristic of mercury
Characteristics
Opaque
Expands uniformly with heat
High cohesive force
High boiling point

Explanation
Easy to take a reading
Uniform scale
Does not wet the tube and does not stick to the glass wall
Can measure high temperature

Disadvantages
o Freeze at -39OC
o Poisonous
o Expensive
The sensitivity of the thermometer can be increased by:
Modification

Narrow
capillary tube

Explanation

At a fixed temperature, a narrow capillary tube will produce a longer

mercury column that of a wide capillary tube as the expansion of
mercury is constant.
Thin glass wall The heat transfer from the surrounding to the mercury is faster.
bulb
A smaller bulb will absorb heat energy in a shorter time and responds
Small bulb
faster to temperature change.

Calibration of thermometer

The thermometric property of an object is important in the construction of a thermometer. It is a

physical quantity which is sensitive to and changes linearly with the change in temperature of the
object.
Lower fixed point (l0 )/ ice point : the temperature of pure melting ice/0C
Upper fixed point( l100)/steam point: the temperature of steam from water that is boiling under
standard atmospheric pressure /100C

Example 1

Example 2

Exercise
The figure shows two metal blocks. Which the
2. When does the energy go when a cup of hot tea
following statement is false?
cools? A. It warms the surroundings
A. P and Q are in thermal contact
B. It warms the water of the tea
B. P and Q are in thermal equilibrium
C. It turns into heat energy and disappears.
C. Energy is transferred from P to Q
D. Energy is transferred from Q to P
3. Which of the following temperature corresponds to 4. How can the sensitivity of a liquid- in glass
zero on the Kelvin scale?
thermometer be increased?
O
A. 273 C
A. Using a liquid which is a better conductor of heat
O
B. 0 C
B. Using a capillary tube with a narrower bore.
C. -273 OC
C. Using a longer capillary tube
O
D. 100 C
D. Using a thinner-walked bulb
5. Which instrument is most suitable for measuring a
6. When shaking hands with Anwar, Kent Hui noticed
rapidly changing temperature?
that Anwars hand was cold. However, Anwar felt that
A. Alcohol-in glass thermometer
Kent Hui hand was warm. Why did Anwar and Kent
B. Thermocouple
Hui not feel the same sensation?
C. Mercury-in-glass thermometer
A. Both hands in contact are in thermal equilibrium.
D. Platinum resistance thermometer
B. Heat is flowing from Kent Huis hand to Anwars
hand.
C. Heat is following from Anwars hand to Kent Hui
hand.
7. The length of the mercury column at the ice point and steam point are 5.0 cm and 40.0cm respectively. When the
thermometer is immersed in the liquid P, the length of the mercury column is 23.0 cm. What is the temperature of
the liquid P?

8. The length of the mercury column at the steam point and ice point and are 65.0 cm and 5.0cm respectively. When
the thermometer is immersed in the liquid Q, the length of the mercury column is 27.0 cm. What is the
temperature of the liquid Q?

9. The distance between 0OC and 100 OC is 28.0 cm. When the thermometer is put into a beaker of water, the length
of mercury column is 24.5cm above the lower fixed point. What is the temperature of the water?

10. The distance between 0 OC and 100 OC is 25 cm. When the thermometer is put into a beaker of water, the length of
mercury column is 16cm above the lower fixed point. What is the temperature of the water? What is the length of
mercury column from the bulb at temperatures 30 OC?

4.2 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

The heat capacity of a body is the amount of heat that must be supplied to the body to increase its
temperature by 10OC.
The heat capacity of an object depends on the
Temperature of the body
Mass of the body
Type of material
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of heat that must be supplied to increase the
temperature by 1 OC for a mass of 1 kg of the substance. Unit Jkg-1 OC -1
The heat energy absorbed or given out by an object is given by Q = mc.
High specific heat capacity absorb a large amount of heat with only a small temperature increase such
as plastics.
Some substances have low specific heat capacities while some have high specific heat capacities.

Figure 1 shows three objects with different heat capacities because different amounts of heat are required
to raise their temperature by 1 OC. Note that although A and B are both made of aluminium. They have
different heat capacities because the masses are different.

Figure 2 shows the amounts of heat required to raise the temperature by 1 OC for equal masses of the
objects. Note that although B and C have equal masses, different amounts of heat are required to raise the
temperature by 1 OC because they are made of different materials. Different are said to have different
specific heat capacities

Example 1
The bulb of thermometer contains 3.4g of
mercury. What amount of heat is required to
raise the temperature of mercury from 30 OC
to 100 OC?

Example 2
320 g of hot water at 80 OC is poured into an
aluminium can of mass 35g and temperature
of 20 OC. Calculate the final temperature.

Solution
Mass of mercury, m = 3.4 x 10 3 kg,
Specific heat capacity, c = 139Jkg 1 OC 1,
Change of temperature, = 100 30 =70
O
C.
Amount of heat required, Q
= mc
3
1 O 1
= 3.4 x 10 kg x 139Jkg
C x 70 OC.
= 33J

Solution
Let the final temperature be T
Assuming no heat loss to the surroundings,
Heat lost by water = heat gained by the
aluminium can
m1c1 1 = m2 c2 2
0.320 x 4200 x (80 T) = 0.035 x 900 x (T 20)
T = 78.63 OC.

Exercise
1. Calculate the total heat that is observed by a
copper block of mass 500 g and which has been
heated from 31 OC to 80 OC
(Specific heat capacity of copper = 390 J kg-1 OC-1)
2. A metal of mass 2000 g is heated to 85OC and
placed in 500 g of water which is at temperature of
30OC. When a steady state is achieved, the
temperature of the mixture is 40OC. Find the
specific heat capacity of the metal. (specific heat
capacity of water is 4200 J kg-1 OC-1)
3. An electric kettle of power 2500 W contains of
mass 3 kg and which is at a temperature of 25 OC.
What is the time required to heat the water until it
reaches its boiling limit at 100 OC.
4. 300 g of water at temperature 40OC is mixed with
900 g of water at temperature 80OC. If there is no
heat loss to the surroundings, what is the final
temperature when thermal equilibrium is achieved
by the mixture of water?
5. An electric heater is installed in the bathroom of
Ramlis house. It can increase the temperature of
the tap water from 15 OC to 45 OC.The heater can
provide 3 kg of hot water every minute.
Find the energy supplied to the water every
minute.
(specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg-1 OC-1)

Experiment: To determine the specific heat capasity of a solid and a liquid

Aim
List of
apparatus
and materials

To determine the specific heat capacity of

aluminium.
Aluminium block, tissue paper,
polystyrene sheet, oil, immersion heater,
thermometer, power supply, triple beam
balance and stopwatch.

To determine the specific heat capacity of

Water.
Polystyrene cup, water, immersion heater,
thermometer, power supply, stirrer, triple
beam balance or electronic balance and
stopwatch.

Arrangement
of
the apparatus

Procedure

1. The mass of the aluminium block, m is

determined using the triple beam
balance.
2. The initial temperature of the
aluminium block, 1, is recorded.
3. The heater is switched on and the
stopwatch is started simultaneously.
4. The heater is switched off after 10
minutes.
5. The highest temperature, 2, is
recorded.
Tabulate the
Power of the heater, P= ______W
data
Mass of aluminium block, m= ______g
Initial temperature, 1= _______C
Final temperature, 2= _______C
Analysis of the Calculation of specific heat capacity of
data
aluminium,c:
Q = mc
Pt = mc(2 1)
Pt
c =m(2 1)

1. The cup is filled with water of mass, m

(example, m = 150 g).
2. The initial temperature of the water, 1,
is recorded.
3. The heater is switched on and the
stopwatch is started simultaneously.
4. The water is stirred continuously.
5. The heater is switched off after 10
minutes.
6. The highest temperature, 2, is
recorded.
Power of the heater, P = ________W
Mass of water, m= _______g
Initial temperature, 1=_______ C
Final temperature, 2= _______C
Calculation of specific heat capacity of
water, c:
Q = mc
Pt = mc(2 1)
Pt
c =m(2 1)

The purpose of wrapping the aluminium blok

with wool heat loss to or absorption of heat
from the surrounding.
Oil in the holes for housing thermometer and
the immersion heater is to improve the
conduction of heat from the heater to the
thermometer throughthe aluminium block.
Specific heat capacity calculated is usually
larger than the standard value because some
heat is lost to the surroundings.

Aim
Hypothesis
Manipulated variable
Responding variable
Fixed variable
Apparatus
Setup

Procedure

Analysis

Conclusion

To investigate the relationship between temperature rise and mass of

water
When the mass of water increase the temperature rise will decrease.
Mass of water
Rise in temperature
Heating duration, water, weighing scale, power rating of heater used
Thermometer, water, beaker water, weighing scale

1. 100 ml of water is placed in a 500 ml beaker.

2. A heater is placed in the water.
3. Heating process is carried out for 1minute.
4. Highest temperature achieved is recorded.
5. Step 2 to 4 is repeated for 200ml, 300ml, 400ml and 500ml of water.

Applications of Specific Heat Capacity

Water has a large specific heat capacity.

It can absorb a large amount of heat but the increase in temperature is small.
It can cool down internal combustion engines such as the car engine.

Part of a cooking pot

Characteristic

Copper base
Wooden handle
Aluminium body
Claypot
Clay has a higher specific heat capacity than metals.
It is also a poor conductor of heat.
During cooking, heat is conducted slowly from the fire
to the food inside the pot.
The longer cooking time brings out the taste in the
food. After the flame is switched off, the claypot is at a
higher temperature than the food inside it.
A considerable amount of heat continues to be
transferred into the food. The food remains hot for a
longer period of time.

Sea Breeze
Land (solid) has a low specific heat capacity compared
to the sea (liquid).
In the day time, land gets hot faster than the sea.
Therefore, hot air on the land that has low density will
rise up and produces low pressure region on the land.
The cool air on the sea that has high density and high
pressure will blow towards the land.
Land Breeze
Land (solid) has a low specific heat capacity compared
to the sea (liquid).
In the night time, land cools down faster than the sea.
The hot air on the sea that has low density will rise up
and produce a low pressure region.
The cool air on the land that has high density and high
pressure will blow towards the sea.

Exercise
In figure below, block A of mass 5kg at temperature 100C is in contact with
another block B of mass 2.25kg at temperature 20C.

Assume that there is no energy loss to the surroundings.

a) Find the final temperature of A and B if they are in thermal equilibrium.
Given the specific heat capacity of A and B are 900 Jkg-1C-1 and 400 Jkg-1 C-1
respectively.
b) Find the energy given by A during the process.
c) Suggest one method to reduce the energy loss to the surroundings.

4.3 SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT

Latent Heat is the total energy absorbed or released when a substance changes its
physical state completely at a constant temperature.
Latent Heat of fusion is heat absorbed when solid changes into liquid or heat released
when liquid changes into solid at constant temperature.
Latent Heat of vaporization is heat absorbed when liquid changes into vapour or heat
released when vapour changes into liquid at constant temperature.
Unit for latent heat is Joule (J).
Temperature-time Heating Graph

At QR and ST, the physical states change but the temperature is constant:
The heat absorbed is used to break the bonds between the atoms/molecules.
The physical state changes.
The kinetic energy of the atoms/molecules remains unchanged.
The temperature is constant.
At PQ, RS and TU, the temperature increases but the physical states are unchanged:
The heat absorbed is used to increase the kinetic energy of the atoms/molecules.
The temperature increases.
The bonds between atoms/molecules do not break.
The physical state is unchanged.

Specific Latent Heat

Specific Latent Heat of fusion is heat absorbed when1 kg solid changes into liquid or
heat released when liquid changes into solid at constant temperature.
Specific Latent Heat of vaporization is heat absorbed when1 kg liquid changes into
vapour or heat released when vapour changes into liquid at constant temperature.
Unit for latent heat is Jkg-1.
When temperature remains constant, kinetic energy of the molecules remain constant.
However energy absorbed is used to overcome forces of attraction and atmospheric
pressure.
Calculation of specific latent heat of fusion
Mass of water collected in
Set A = 49.2 g
Mass of water collected in
Set B = 6.4 g
Power of heater = 80 W
Time interval of switching
on the heater = 3 minutes

1. Calculate energy supplied by the heater.

Q = Pt = (80)(3x60) = 14400 J
2. What is the mass of ice melted due to the heat absorbed from the surroundings? 6.4 g
3. Determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice.

14400
=
=
= 3.364 1051
(49.2 6.4)103

Application of Specific Latent Heat

a) Cooling of beverage
When ice melts, its large latent heat is absorbed from surroundings. This property
makes ice a suitable substance for use as a coolant to maintain other substance at a
low temperature. Beverage can be cooled by adding in several cubes of ice. When
the ice melts a large amount of heat (latent heat) is absorbed and this lowers the
temperature of the drink.
b) Preservation of Food
The freshness of foodstuff such as fish and meat can be maintained by placing them
in contact with ice. With its large latent heat, ice is able to absorb a large quantity of
heat from the foodstuff as its melts. Thus food can be kept at a low temperature for
an extended period of time.
c) Steaming Food
Food is cooked faster if steamed. When food is steamed, the condensed water
vapour releases a quantity of latent heat and heat capacity. This heat flows to the
food. This is more efficient than boiling the food.
d) Killing of Germs and Bacteria
Steam that releases a large quantity of heat is used in the autoclave to kill germs and
bacteria on surgery equipment in hospitals.

Experiment: To determine the specific latent of fusion of ice and specific latent vaporisation
of water.
Aim
Variables

To determine the specific latent heat of

fusion of ice.
Manipulated variable: Heat supplied, Q
Responding variable: Mass of ice that
melts, m
Fixed variable: Period of heating, t

To determine the specific latent heat of

vaporisation of water.
Manipulated variable: Heat supplied, Q
Responding variable: Mass of water
which has vaporised, m
Fixed variable: Period of heating, t

Arrangement
of
the
apparatus

Procedure

Tabulate the
data

Analysis of
the
data

1. Apparatus B is used as a control.

2. The heater is set up and

connected as shown in the

diagram.
3. The circuit is closed and the
stopwatch is started
simultaneously.
4. Water which drips from the filter
funnels is collected in beakers A
and B.
5. The heater and the stopwatch are
switched off simultaneously after
t = 3 minutes
6. The mass of the water in both
beakers is measured.
Power of the heater, P =_____ W
Time of heating, t = _____s
Mass of water in beaker A, mA =____ g
Mass of water in beaker B, mB = ____g
Mass of water from the ice melted by
the heater, m = mA mB =_____ g
Calculation of specific latent heat of
fusion of ice, Lf :
Q = mLf
Pt = mLf
Lf =

The unit of Lf is J kg1

1. A heater with power, P is

2.
3.
4.

5.

connected to the power supply.

Pour water into a beaker until it is
almost full.
The circuit is closed.
When the water starts to boil, the
reading on the lever balance, m1,
is recorded and the stopwatch is
started simultaneously.
After t = 4 minutes, the stopwatch
is stopped and final mass of the
water, m2 is recorded.

Power of the heater, P =_____ W

Time of heating, t = _____s
Mass of water in beaker A, m1 =____ g
Mass of water in beaker B, m2 = ____g
Mass of water that has vaporised,
m = m1 m2 =_____ g
Calculation of specific latent heat of
vaporisation of water, LV:
Q
= mLv
Pt = mLv
Lv =

The unit of Lv is J kg1

Example 1

Example 3

Example 4

Example2

Example 5

Example 6

4.4 THE GAS LAWS

The 4 physical quantities involved are:

I. Mass (m) always kept constant by
using a closed container
II. Pressure (P)
III. Volume (V)
can
change
IV. Absolute temperature (T)

Boyles
Law

Gas
Law
Charles
Law

Pressure
Law

Explanation Using Kinetic Theory of Matter

Quantity
Explanation
Mass (m)
Amount of matter is in a closed container, the amount of matter is constant.
The mass is constant.
Volume (V)
Volume of gas is equal to the volume of container.
Pressure (P)
Rate of collision between the gas molecules and the walls of the container.
When the rate of collisions between gas molecules and the walls of the
container increases, the gas pressure also increases.
Temperature Kinetic energy of the gas molecules. When the gas moves at a higher speed,
(T)
the kinetic energy increases; so the gas temperature also increases.

Boyles Law: (m&T -constant: P )

Charles Law: (m P -constant: VT)

Pressure Law: (m&V -constant:P T)

Boyle's Law states that for a fixed

mass of gas, the gas pressure is
inversely proportional to the volume
of the gas if the temperature is kept
constant.
When the volume of the container
decreases, the volume of the gas
also decreases. (V2<V1)
The rate of collision between the
gas molecules and the walls of the
container increases.
The gas pressure increases.
The kinetic energy of the gas is
constant, so the temperature of the
gas is constant.
V2 < V1 and P2 > P1
Relationship:
Gas pressure (P) is inversely
proportional to the gas volume (V)
1
P

Charles' Law states that for a fixed

mass of gas, the volume of the gas is
directly proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas if the pressure
is kept constant.
When the gas is heated,
temperature increases. (T2 > T1)
The volume of the gas also increases
to keep the rate of collision between
the gas molecules and the walls of
the container is constant.
The gas pressure is constant.
T2> T1 and V2 > V1

Pressure Law states that for a fixed

mass of gas, the pressure of gas is
directly proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas if the volume
of the gas is kept constant.
When the gas is heated, its
temperature
increases. (T2 > T1)
The volume of the container is kept
constant, so the volume of the gas
is constant.
The rate of collision between the
gas molecules and the walls of the
container increases.
The gas pressure increases.
T2> T1 and P2 > P1
Relationship:
Pressure of gas (P) is directly
proportional to the absolute
temperature of gas (T). P T

Relationship:
Volume of gas (V) is directly
proportional to the absolute
temperature of gas (T)V T

1
Equation: V = k (T) ; k is a constant
Equation: P = k ( ) ; k is a constant
V
V
V
V
k = = constant
1= 2
k = P V = constant
P 1 V1 = P 2 V2
T
T1
T2

Equation: P = k (T) ; k is a constant

P
P
P
k = = constant
1= 2
T

T1

T2

Boyles Law

Charles Law

Pressure Law

P is inversely
proportional
to V

P is constant

P is directly
proportiona
l to T

P is directly
proportional

to

V is directly
proportional
to T

P varies
linearly
with

P is constant

V varies
linearly with

P is
constant

Boyles Law
1. An air bubble of capacity 15 cm3 at a pressure
of 320 cm Hg is released from the sea.
Determine the volume of the bubble when it
reaches the surface of the water, if the
atmospheric pressure is 76 cm Hg. Assume
that the temperature of the water is
constant.
Solution
Initial volume, V1 = 15 cm3
Initial pressure, P1 = 320 cm Hg
Final volume, V2 = ?
Final pressure, P2 = 76 cm Hg
P1V1 = P2V2
V2 = P1V1/P2
= (320)(15)/(76)
= 63 cm3

3.

Figure 1 shows trapped air inside a thin

glass tube in three different positions.
Determine the value of x and y.
[Atmospheric pressure = 76 cm Hg]
Solution
Position (a) P1

2.
Position (b)P2

A rod of tube with one end closed has a

strip of mercury 3 cm long. When the tube
is held vertically, the length of air trapped
is 8 cm as in figure (a) above. Atmospheric
pressure is taken as 76 cm Hg.
(a) Calculate the length, x of air which is
trapped when the tube is placed
horizontally as in figure (b) above.
(b) Calculate the length, y of air which is
trapped when the tube is inverted as
shown in figure (c) above.

Solution
(a) P1V1 = P2V2
(76 + 3)8
= 76 (x)
x
= 632/76
= 8.3 cm
(b) P1V1 = P2V2
(76 + 3) 8
= (76 3) y
y
= 632/73
= 8.7 cm

Position (c)P3
Compare (a) and (b)
P1V1 = P2V2
80 (12) =(72)
= 13.3 cm

= (76 + 4) cm Hg
= 80 cm Hg
= (76 4) cm Hg
= 72 cm Hg
= 76 cm Hg
Compare (a) and (c)
P1V1
= P2V2
80(12) = (76)
= 12.6 cm

Pressure Law
1. An iron cylinder containing gas has a
pressure of 360 kPa when it is kept in a
store at temperature 27OC. What is the
pressure of the gas when the cylinder is
moved outdoors where the temperature is
40 OC.
Solution
P1 = 360 kPa
T1 = (27 + 273) = 300 K
P2 = Final pressure
T2 = (40 + 273) = 313 K
Using the pressure law,
P1/T1 = P2/T2
360/300 = P2/313
P2 = (360 x 313)/300
P2 = 375.6 kPa

2. Before a journey from Alor Setar to Ipoh,

the air in a car tyre has a pressure of 200
kPa and a temperature of 27OC. After the
journey, the air pressure in the tyre is 240
kPa. What is the temperature of the air in
the tyre after the journey? [Assume the
volume of a tyre is constant]

fixed, what is the surrounding temperature

if the tyre is found to possess a pressure of
2.8 atmospheric?
Solution
P1/T1 = P2/T2
3.2/300 = 3.5/T2
T2 = 328 K
The surrounding temp.
= (328 273)
= 55OC

Solution
P1/T1
200/(27 + 273)
T2
T2
T2

= P2/T2
= 240/T2
= (300 x 240)/200
= 360 K
= 360 273
= 87OC

3. The pressure of nitrogen gas in a light bulb

is 60 kPa at 20OC. Calculate the
temperature of the gas when the Pressure
inside the bulb rises to 90 kPa after the
bulb is lighted up.
Solution
P1/T1 = P2/T2
60/293 = 90/T2
T2 = (90 x 293)/60
T2 = 439.5 K
Final T
= 439.5 273
= 166.5 OC
4. A closed flask contains gas at a
temperature of 95 OC and pressure of 152
kPa. If the temperature is reduced to -17
O
C, what is the new pressure of the gas?
Solution
P1/T1 = P2/T2
P2 = (152)(256)/368
P2 = 106 kPa
5. A motorcycle tyre is found to possess a
pressure of 3.2 atmospheric when it was
tested in a garage at a temperature of 27
O
C. By assuming that the volume of the air
in the tyre is fixed, what is the
surrounding temperature if the tyre is

Charles Law
1. A syringe in a refrigerator contains 4.5 ml
of air at -3OC. When the syringe was taken
out and placed in a room where the
temperature was 27OC, the air in it
expands. Calculate the final volume of the
air in the syringe.
Solution
V1/T1
4.5/270
V2
V2

= V2/T2
= V2/300
= (4.5 x 300)/270
= 5.0 ml

2.

The figure above shows a glass tube

containing some trapped air inside it. At 27
O
C, the horizontal column of trapped air is
9 cm. If the atmospheric pressure does not
vary, how much is the horizontal column of
air at a temperature of 45 OC?
Solution
V1/T1 = V2/T2
9A/300 = xA/318
V2
= 9.54 cm3

Experiment (i) To investigate the relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas
(ii) To investigate the relationship between the volume and temperature of a gas
Aim
To investigate the relationship
To investigate the relationship
between the pressure and volume for between the volume and temperature
a fixed mass of gas at constant
for a fixed mass of gas at constant
temperature.
pressure.
Variables
Manipulated: Pressure of air, P
Manipulated:Temperature of air, T
Responding: Volume of air, V
Responding: Volume of air, V
Fixed: Mass and temperature of air
Fixed: Mass and pressure of air
Apparatus
Bicycle pump, capillary tube, rubber
Capillary tube, sulphuric acid, half
and
tube and Bourdon gauge.
metre rule, retort stand, beaker,
materials
tripod stand, rubber tube,
thermometer and Bunsen burner.
Arrangement
of
the apparatus

Procedure

1. The apparatus is set up as shown

2.

3.
4.
5.

6.
7.

in the diagram above.

The initial pressure and volume of
the air in the capillary tube are
recorded.
Push the pump until the pressure
of air is 100 kPa.
Record the volume of the air in
the capillary tube.
Repeat the experiment with
different pressures of air that is,
P = 120 kPa, 140 kPa, 160 kPa and
180 kPa.
The values of pressure, P, volume,
1
V, and are tabulated.

Plot a graph P against V and a

1
graph of P against .

1. The apparatus is set up as shown

2.

3.

4.

5.

in the diagram above.

The water in the beaker is heated
slowly and stirred uniformly and
gently. When the reading of the
thermometer is 30 C, the length
of the trapped air, l cm is
recorded.
Repeat the experiment with
different temperatures of water
that is = 40 C, 50 C, 60 C and
70 C.
The values of temperature,
absolute temperature, T, and
length of air trapped, l, are
tabulated.
Plot a graph l against T (in Kelvin).

Tabulate the
data

Analysis of the
data

Pressure of Volume of air/cm3

air, P/kPa
V1
V2
Vavg
100
120
140
160
180

/ cm3 Temperature Absolute

of air, /C
30
40
50
60
70

temperature,
T/K

Length of
trapped air,
l/cm
l1
l2
lavg

Aim
Manipulated variable
Responding variable
Fixed variable
Apparatus

To investigate the relationship between the pressure and temperature

for a fixed mass of gas at constant volume.
Temperature of air, T
Pressure of air, P
Mass and volume of air
Round-bottomed flask, thermometer, retort stand, Bourdon gauge,
stirrer, ice, rubber tube, tripod stand, wire gauze and Bunsen burner.

Setup

Procedure

Analysis

Conclusion

1. The apparatus is set up as shown in the diagram above.

2. The round-bottomed flask is immersed in a beaker of water
containing ice.
3. The mixture of water and ice is stirred so that the air in the flask
has the same temperature as the water.
4. When the reading of the thermometer is 30 C, record the
reading of the pressure, P on Bourdon gauge.
5. Repeat the experiment with different temperatures of water,
that is = 40 C, 50 C, 60 C and 70 C.
6. The values of temperature, , absolute temperature, T and
pressure of the air trapped, P are tabulated.
7. Plot a graph P against T (in Kelvin).
Temperature of air, /C
30
40
50
60
70

Absolute temperature, T/K

Air pressure,P/kPa

1.

2.

3.

Exercise
A 5kg iron sphere of temperature 500C is put in
contact with a 1kg copper sphere of temperature
273K and they are put inside an insulated box.
Which of the following statements is correct when
they reach thermal equilibrium?
A. A iron sphere will have a temperature of 273K
B. The copper sphere will have a temperature of
500C.
C. Both the sphere have the same temperature.
D. The temperature of the iron sphere will be
lower than 500C
In the process to transfer heat from one object to
another object, which of the following processes
does not involve a transfer to material?
A. Convection
B. Vaporisation
C. Radiation
D. Evaporation
When we use a microwave oven to heat up some
food in a lunch box, we should open the lid slightly.
Which of the following explanations is correct?
A. To allow microwave to go inside the lunch box
B. To allow the water vapors to go out, otherwise
the box will explode
C. To allow microwave to reflect more times
inside the lunch box
D. To allow microwave to penetrate deeper into
the lunch box.

4.

Water is generally used to put out fire. Which of

the following explanation is not correct?
A. Water has a high specific heat capacity
B. Steam can cut off the supply of oxygen
C. Water is easily available
D. Water can react with some material

5.

Given that the heat capacity of a certain sample is

5000 J0C-1. Which of the following is correct?
A. The mass of this sample is 1kg.
B. The energy needed to increase the
temperature of 1 kg of this sample is 5000 J.
C. The energy needed to increase the
temperature of 0.5kg of this sample is 2500J.
D. The temperature of this sample will increase
10C when 5 000 J energy is absorbed by this
sample.

6.

Which of the following statement is correct?

A. The total mass of the object is kept constant
when fusion occurs.
B. The internal energy of the object is increased
when condensation occurs
C. Energy is absorbed when condensation occurs.
D. Energy is absorbed when vaporization occurs.

7.

Water molecules change their states between the

liquid and gaseous states
A. only when water vapour is saturated
B. at all times because evaporation and
condensation occur any time
C. only when the vapour molecules produce a
pressure as the same as the atmospheric
pressure
D. only when the water is boiling

8.

Based on the kinetic theory of gas which one of the

following does not explain the behaviour of gas
molecules in a container?
A. Gas molecules move randomly
B. Gas molecules collide elastically with the walls
of the container
C. Gas molecules move faster as temperature
increases
D. Gas molecules collide inelastically with each
other

9.

A cylinder which contains gas is compressed at

constant temperature of the gas increase because
A. the average speed of gas molecules increases
B. the number of gas molecules increases
C. the average distance between the gas
molecules increases
D. the rate of collision between the gas molecules
and the walls increases

10.

A plastic bag is filled with air. It is immersed in the

boiling water as shown in diagram below.

Which of the following statements is

A.
B.
C.
D.

false?

The volume of the plastic bag increases.

The pressure of air molecules increases
The air molecules in the bag move faster
The repulsive force of boiling water slows
down the movement of air molecule

1. Research student wishes to carry out an investigation on the temperature change of the substance in
the temperature range -500C to 500C. The instrument used to measure the temperature is a liquid in
glass thermometer.
Thermometer
Liquid
Freezing point of liquid (0C)
Boiling point of liquid (0C)
Diameter of capillary tube
Cross section

A
Mercury
-39
360
Large

B
Mercury
-39
360
Small

C
Alcohol
-112
360
Large

D
Alcohol
-112
360
Small

Table 1
(i) State the principle used in a liquid- in glass thermometer.(1m)
.........................................................................................................................................................................

(ii) Briefly explain the principle stated in (a)(i) (3m)

.
....
.
(iii) Table 1 shows the characteristic of 4 types of thermometer: A, B C and D. On the basis of the
information given in Table 1, explain the characteristics of, and suggest a suitable thermometer
for the experiment.(5 m)
...
......
....
....
....
....
(iv) The length of the mercury column in uncalibrated thermometer is 6.0cm and 18.5 cm at 00C
and 1000C respectively. When the thermometer is placed in a liquid, the length of the mercury
column is 14.0cm
Calculate the temperature of the liquid.

(v) State two thermometric properties which can be used to calibrate a thermometer. (6m)
.
..

2. A metal block P of mass 500 g is heated is boiling water at a temperature of 100C. Block P is then
transferred into the water at a temperature of 30C in a polystyrene cup. The mass of water in the
polystyrene cup is 250 g. After 2 minutes, the water temperature rises to 42C.

Figure 2

Assuming that the heat absorbed by the polystyrene cup and heat loss to the surroundings are
negligible. (Specific heat capacity of water 4 200 j kg-1 C-1)
Calculate
(i) the quantity of heat gained by water the polystyrene cup

(ii) the rate of heat supplied to the water

(iii) the specific heat capacity of the metal block P

3. A student performs an experiment to investigate the energy change in a system. He prepares a

cardboard tube 50.0 cm long closed by a stopper at one end. Lead shot of mass 500 g is placed in the
tube and the other end of the tube is also closed by a stopper. The height of the lead shot in the tube is
5.0 cm as shown in Figure 3.1. The student then holds both ends of the tube and inverts it 100 times
(Figure 3.2).

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2

a)

State the energy change each time the tube is inverted.

b)

.
.
What is the average distance taken by the lead shot each time the tube is inverted?

c)

.
.
Calculate the time taken by the lead shot to fall from the top to the bottom of the tube.

d)

After inverting the tube 100 times, the temperature of the lead shot is found to have increased
by 30C.
i. Calculate the work done on the lead shot.

ii. Calculate the specific heat capacity of lead.

iii. State the assumption used in your calculation in (d)ii

.
.

4.

Heat produced in an engine block of car needs to be transferred out promptly to prevent overheating. This is
done by circulating a suitable cooling liquid through the engine block.
a) What is meant by specific heat capacity of water is 4200 Jkg-1oC-1 ?
.
.
b) Based on the table above,
(i) Explain the suitable characteristics of the cooling liquid to extract heat out of an engine
block.
...
......
....
....
....
....
(ii) Decide which liquid is the most suitable and give reasons for your choice.
....
....
c) Total energy released by an engine in 1 hour = 9.0 x 107 J
Energy breakdown : mechanical 40% and heat 60%
Mass of cooling liquid circulating in 1 hour = 150 kg
Temperature of water entering the engine = 30oC
Temperature of water exiting the engine = 60oC
Based on the information above,
(i) Calculate the power of the engine

(ii) Calculate the amount of heat produced by the engine in one hour.

(iii) Calculate the specific heat capacity of the cooling liquid.