World War II - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

4/6/2016
WorldWarIIWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
WorldWarII
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
WorldWarII(WWIIorWW2),alsoknownasthe
SecondWorldWar,wasaglobalwarthatlasted
from1939to1945,althoughrelatedconflictsbegan
earlier.Itinvolvedthevastmajorityoftheworld's
nationsincludingallofthegreatpowers
eventuallyformingtwoopposingmilitaryalliances:
theAlliesandtheAxis.Itwasthemostwidespread
warinhistory,anddirectlyinvolvedmorethan100
millionpeoplefromover30countries.Inastateof
"totalwar",themajorparticipantsthrewtheirentire
economic,industrial,andscientificcapabilities
behindthewareffort,erasingthedistinctionbetween
civilianandmilitaryresources.Markedbymass
deathsofcivilians,includingtheHolocaust(in
whichapproximately11millionpeoplewere
killed)[1][2]andthestrategicbombingofindustrial
andpopulationcentres(inwhichapproximatelyone
millionwerekilled,andwhichincludedtheatomic
bombingsofHiroshimaandNagasaki),[3]itresulted
inanestimated50millionto85millionfatalities.
ThesemadeWorldWarIIthedeadliestconflictin
humanhistory.[4]
TheEmpireofJapanaimedtodominateAsiaandthe
PacificandwasalreadyatwarwiththeRepublicof
Chinain1937,[5]buttheworldwarisgenerallysaid
tohavebegunon1September1939[6]withthe
invasionofPolandbyGermanyandsubsequent
declarationsofwaronGermanybyFranceandthe
UnitedKingdom.Fromlate1939toearly1941,ina
seriesofcampaignsandtreaties,Germany
conqueredorcontrolledmuchofcontinentalEurope,
andformedtheAxisalliancewithItalyandJapan.
UndertheMolotovRibbentropPactofAugust
1939,GermanyandtheSovietUnionpartitionedand
annexedterritoriesoftheirEuropeanneighbours,
Poland,Finland,RomaniaandtheBalticstates.The
warcontinuedprimarilybetweentheEuropeanAxis
powersandthecoalitionoftheUnitedKingdomand
theBritishCommonwealth,withcampaigns
includingtheNorthAfricaandEastAfrica
campaigns,theaerialBattleofBritain,theBlitz
bombingcampaign,theBalkanCampaignaswellas
thelongrunningBattleoftheAtlantic.InJune1941,
theEuropeanAxispowerslaunchedaninvasionof
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II
WorldWarII
Clockwisefromtopleft:Chineseforcesinthe
BattleofWanjialing,Australian25pounderguns
duringtheFirstBattleofElAlamein,GermanStuka
divebombersontheEasternFrontinDecember
1943,aUSnavalforceintheLingayenGulf,
WilhelmKeitelsigningtheGermanInstrumentof
Surrender,SoviettroopsintheBattleofStalingrad.
Date
1September19392September1945(
6yearsand1day)[a]
Location
Result
Europe,Pacific,Atlantic,SouthEast
Asia,China,MiddleEast,
Mediterranean,NorthAfricaandHorn
ofAfrica,brieflyNorthandSouth
America
Alliedvictory
CollapseofNaziGermany
FallofJapaneseandItalian
Empires
CreationoftheUnitedNations
EmergenceoftheUnitedStates
andtheSovietUnionas
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theEuropeanAxispowerslaunchedaninvasionof
theSovietUnion,openingthelargestlandtheatreof
warinhistory,whichtrappedthemajorpartofthe
Axis'militaryforcesintoawarofattrition.In
December1941,JapanattackedtheUnitedStates
andEuropeanterritoriesinthePacificOcean,and
quicklyconqueredmuchoftheWesternPacific.
TheAxisadvancehaltedin1942whenJapanlostthe
criticalBattleofMidway,nearHawaii,and
GermanywasdefeatedinNorthAfricaandthen,
decisively,atStalingradintheSovietUnion.In
1943,withaseriesofGermandefeatsontheEastern
Front,theAlliedinvasionofSicilyandtheAllied
invasionofItalywhichbroughtaboutItalian
surrender,andAlliedvictoriesinthePacific,the
Axislosttheinitiativeandundertookstrategicretreat
onallfronts.In1944,theWesternAlliesinvaded
GermanoccupiedFrance,whiletheSovietUnion
regainedallofitsterritoriallossesandinvaded
Germanyanditsallies.During1944and1945the
JapanesesufferedmajorreversesinmainlandAsiain
SouthCentralChinaandBurma,whiletheAllies
crippledtheJapaneseNavyandcapturedkey
WesternPacificislands.
andtheSovietUnionas
superpowers
BeginningoftheColdWar
(more...)
Participants
Allies
Axis
Commandersandleaders
MainAlliedleaders
JosephStalin
FranklinD.
Roosevelt
WinstonChurchill
ChiangKaishek
MainAxisleaders
AdolfHitler
Hirohito[b]
BenitoMussolini
Casualtiesandlosses
Militarydead:
Over16,000,000
Civiliandead:
Over45,000,000
Totaldead:
Over61,000,000 (1937
Militarydead:
Over8,000,000
Civiliandead:
Over4,000,000
Totaldead:
Over12,000,000 (1937
45)
45)
...furtherdetails
...furtherdetails
ThewarinEuropeconcludedwithaninvasionof
GermanybytheWesternAlliesandtheSoviet
Union,culminatinginthecaptureofBerlinby
SovietandPolishtroopsandthesubsequentGermanunconditionalsurrenderon8May1945.Following
thePotsdamDeclarationbytheAllieson26July1945andtherefusalofJapantosurrenderunderits
terms,theUnitedStatesdroppedatomicbombsontheJapanesecitiesofHiroshimaandNagasakion6
Augustand9Augustrespectively.WithaninvasionoftheJapanesearchipelagoimminent,thepossibility
ofadditionalatomicbombings,andtheSovietUnion'sdeclarationofwaronJapanandinvasionof
Manchuria,Japansurrenderedon15August1945.ThusendedthewarinAsia,cementingthetotal
victoryoftheAllies.
WorldWarIIalteredthepoliticalalignmentandsocialstructureoftheworld.TheUnitedNations(UN)
wasestablishedtofosterinternationalcooperationandpreventfutureconflicts.Thevictoriousgreat
powerstheUnitedStates,theSovietUnion,China,theUnitedKingdom,andFrancebecamethe
permanentmembersoftheUnitedNationsSecurityCouncil.[7]TheSovietUnionandtheUnitedStates
emergedasrivalsuperpowers,settingthestagefortheColdWar,whichlastedforthenext46years.
Meanwhile,theinfluenceofEuropeangreatpowerswaned,whilethedecolonisationofAsiaandAfrica
began.Mostcountrieswhoseindustrieshadbeendamagedmovedtowardseconomicrecovery.Political
integration,especiallyinEurope,emergedasanefforttoendprewarenmitiesandtocreateacommon
identity.[8]
Contents
1 Chronology
2 Background
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2 Background
2.1 Europe
2.2 Asia
3 Prewarevents
3.1 ItalianinvasionofEthiopia(1935)
3.2 SpanishCivilWar(193639)
3.3 JapaneseinvasionofChina(1937)
3.4 SovietJapaneseborderconflicts
3.5 Europeanoccupationsandagreements
4 Courseofthewar
4.1 WarbreaksoutinEurope(193940)
4.2 WesternEurope(194041)
4.3 Mediterranean(194041)
4.4 AxisattackontheUSSR(1941)
4.5 WarbreaksoutinthePacific(1941)
4.6 Axisadvancestalls(194243)
4.7 Alliesgainmomentum(194344)
4.8 Alliesclosein(1944)
4.9 Axiscollapse,Alliedvictory(194445)
5 Aftermath
6 Impact
6.1 Casualtiesandwarcrimes
6.2 Concentrationcamps,slavelabour,andgenocide
6.3 Occupation
6.4 Homefrontsandproduction
6.5 Advancesintechnologyandwarfare
7 Seealso
8 Notes
9 Citations
10 References
11 Externallinks
Chronology
ThestartofthewarinEuropeisgenerallyheldtobe1September1939,[9][10]beginningwiththeGerman
invasionofPolandBritainandFrancedeclaredwaronGermanytwodayslater.Thedatesforthe
beginningofwarinthePacificincludethestartoftheSecondSinoJapaneseWaron7July1937,[11]or
eventheJapaneseinvasionofManchuriaon19September1931.[12][13]
OthersfollowtheBritishhistorianA.J.P.Taylor,whoheldthattheSinoJapaneseWarandwarin
Europeanditscoloniesoccurredsimultaneouslyandthetwowarsmergedin1941.Thisarticleusesthe
conventionaldating.OtherstartingdatessometimesusedforWorldWarIIincludetheItalianinvasionof
Abyssiniaon3October1935.[14]TheBritishhistorianAntonyBeevorviewsthebeginningoftheSecond
WorldWarastheBattlesofKhalkhinGolfoughtbetweenJapanandtheforcesofMongoliaandthe
SovietUnionfromMaytoSeptember1939.[15]
Theexactdateofthewar'sendisalsonotuniversallyagreedupon.Itwasgenerallyacceptedatthetime
thatthewarendedwiththearmisticeof14August1945(VJDay),ratherthantheformalsurrenderof
Japan(2September1945).ApeacetreatywithJapanwassignedin1951toformallytieupanyloose
endssuchascompensationtobepaidtoAlliedprisonersofwarwhohadbeenvictimsofatrocities.[16]A
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endssuchascompensationtobepaidtoAlliedprisonersofwarwhohadbeenvictimsofatrocities.[16]A
treatyregardingGermany'sfutureallowedthereunificationofEastandWestGermanytotakeplacein
1990andresolvedotherpostWorldWarIIissues.[17]
Background
Europe
WorldWarIhadradicallyalteredthepoliticalEuropeanmap,withthedefeatoftheCentralPowers
includingAustriaHungary,GermanyandtheOttomanEmpireandthe1917Bolshevikseizureof
powerinRussia,whicheventuallyledtothefoundingoftheSovietUnion.Meanwhile,thevictorious
AlliesofWorldWarI,suchasFrance,Belgium,Italy,GreeceandRomania,gainedterritory,andnew
nationstateswerecreatedoutofthecollapseofAustriaHungaryandtheOttomanandRussianEmpires.
Topreventafutureworldwar,theLeagueofNationswascreatedduringthe1919ParisPeace
Conference.Theorganisation'sprimarygoalsweretopreventarmedconflictthroughcollectivesecurity,
militaryandnavaldisarmament,andsettlinginternationaldisputesthroughpeacefulnegotiationsand
arbitration.
DespitestrongpacifistsentimentafterWorldWarI,[18]its
aftermathstillcausedirredentistandrevanchistnationalismin
severalEuropeanstates.Thesesentimentswereespeciallymarked
inGermanybecauseofthesignificantterritorial,colonial,and
financiallossesincurredbytheTreatyofVersailles.Underthe
treaty,Germanylostaround13percentofitshometerritoryand
allofitsoverseascolonies,whileGermanannexationofother
stateswasprohibited,reparationswereimposed,andlimitswere
placedonthesizeandcapabilityofthecountry'sarmedforces.[19]
TheLeagueofNationsassembly,
heldinGeneva,Switzerland,1930
TheGermanEmpirewasdissolvedintheGermanRevolutionof
19181919,andademocraticgovernment,laterknownasthe
WeimarRepublic,wascreated.Theinterwarperiodsawstrifebetweensupportersofthenewrepublic
andhardlineopponentsonboththerightandleft.Italy,asanEntenteally,hadmadesomepostwar
territorialgainshowever,ItaliannationalistswereangeredthatthepromisesmadebyBritainandFrance
tosecureItalianentranceintothewarwerenotfulfilledwiththepeacesettlement.From1922to1925,
theFascistmovementledbyBenitoMussoliniseizedpowerinItalywithanationalist,totalitarian,and
classcollaborationistagendathatabolishedrepresentativedemocracy,repressedsocialist,leftwingand
liberalforces,andpursuedanaggressiveexpansionistforeignpolicyaimedatmakingItalyaworld
power,promisingthecreationofa"NewRomanEmpire".[20]
AdolfHitler,afteranunsuccessfulattempttooverthrowtheGermangovernmentin1923,eventually
becametheChancellorofGermanyin1933.Heabolisheddemocracy,espousingaradical,racially
motivatedrevisionoftheworldorder,andsoonbeganamassiverearmamentcampaign.[21]Itwasatthis
timethatpoliticalscientistsbegantopredictthatasecondGreatWarmighttakeplace.[22]Meanwhile,
France,tosecureitsalliance,allowedItalyafreehandinEthiopia,whichItalydesiredasacolonial
possession.Thesituationwasaggravatedinearly1935whentheTerritoryoftheSaarBasinwaslegally
reunitedwithGermanyandHitlerrepudiatedtheTreatyofVersailles,acceleratedhisrearmament
programme,andintroducedconscription.[23]
HopingtocontainGermany,theUnitedKingdom,Franceand
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AdolfHitlerataGermanNational
SocialistpoliticalrallyinWeimar,
October1930
ItalyformedtheStresaFronthowever,inJune1935,theUnited
KingdommadeanindependentnavalagreementwithGermany,
easingpriorrestrictions.TheSovietUnion,concernedby
Germany'sgoalsofcapturingvastareasofeasternEurope,
draftedatreatyofmutualassistancewithFrance.Beforetaking
effectthough,theFrancoSovietpactwasrequiredtogothrough
thebureaucracyoftheLeagueofNations,whichrenderedit
essentiallytoothless.[24]TheUnitedStates,concernedwithevents
inEuropeandAsia,passedtheNeutralityActinAugustofthe
sameyear.[25]
HitlerdefiedtheVersaillesandLocarnotreatiesbyremilitarising
theRhinelandinMarch1936.HeencounteredlittleoppositionfromotherEuropeanpowers.[26]In
October1936,GermanyandItalyformedtheRomeBerlinAxis.Amonthlater,GermanyandJapan
signedtheAntiCominternPact,whichItalywouldjoininthefollowingyear.
Asia
TheKuomintang(KMT)partyinChinalaunchedaunificationcampaignagainstregionalwarlordsand
nominallyunifiedChinainthemid1920s,butwassoonembroiledinacivilwaragainstitsformer
Chinesecommunistallies.[27]In1931,anincreasinglymilitaristicJapaneseEmpire,whichhadlong
soughtinfluenceinChina[28]asthefirststepofwhatitsgovernmentsawasthecountry'srighttorule
Asia,usedtheMukdenIncidentasapretexttolaunchaninvasionofManchuriaandestablishthepuppet
stateofManchukuo.[29]
TooweaktoresistJapan,ChinaappealedtotheLeagueofNationsforhelp.Japanwithdrewfromthe
LeagueofNationsafterbeingcondemnedforitsincursionintoManchuria.Thetwonationsthenfought
severalbattles,inShanghai,ReheandHebei,untiltheTangguTrucewassignedin1933.Thereafter,
ChinesevolunteerforcescontinuedtheresistancetoJapaneseaggressioninManchuria,andChaharand
Suiyuan.[30]Afterthe1936Xi'anIncident,theKuomintangandcommunistforcesagreedonaceasefire
topresentaunitedfronttoopposeJapan.[31]
Prewarevents
ItalianinvasionofEthiopia(1935)
Italiansoldiersrecruitedin1935,on
theirwaytofighttheSecondItalo
AbyssinianWar
TheSecondItaloAbyssinianWarwasabriefcolonialwarthat
beganinOctober1935andendedinMay1936.Thewarbegan
withtheinvasionoftheEthiopianEmpire(alsoknownas
Abyssinia)bythearmedforcesoftheKingdomofItaly(Regno
d'Italia),whichwaslaunchedfromItalianSomalilandand
Eritrea.[32]ThewarresultedinthemilitaryoccupationofEthiopia
anditsannexationintothenewlycreatedcolonyofItalianEast
Africa(AfricaOrientaleItaliana,orAOI)inaddition,itexposed
theweaknessoftheLeagueofNationsasaforcetopreserve
peace.BothItalyandEthiopiaweremembernations,butthe
LeaguedidnothingwhentheformerclearlyviolatedtheLeague's
ownArticleX.[33]GermanywastheonlymajorEuropeannationtosupporttheinvasion.Italy
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subsequentlydroppeditsobjectionstoGermany'sgoalofabsorbingAustria.[34]
SpanishCivilWar(193639)
WhencivilwarbrokeoutinSpain,HitlerandMussolinilent
militarysupporttotheNationalistrebels,ledbyGeneral
FranciscoFranco.TheSovietUnionsupportedtheexisting
government,theSpanishRepublic.Over30,000foreign
volunteers,knownastheInternationalBrigades,alsofought
againsttheNationalists.BothGermanyandtheUSSRusedthis
proxywarasanopportunitytotestincombattheirmostadvanced
weaponsandtactics.ThebombingofGuernicabytheGerman
CondorLegioninApril1937heightenedwidespreadconcerns
thatthenextmajorwarwouldincludeextensiveterrorbombing
attacksoncivilians.[35][36]TheNationalistswonthecivilwarin
April1939Franco,nowdictator,bargainedwithbothsides
duringtheSecondWorldWar,butneverconcludedanymajor
agreements.HedidsendvolunteerstofightontheEasternFront
underGermancommandbutSpainremainedneutralanddidnot
alloweithersidetouseitsterritory.[37]
ThebombingofGuernicain1937,
sparkedEuropewidefearsthatthe
nextwarwouldbebasedonbombing
ofcitieswithveryhighcivilian
casualties
JapaneseinvasionofChina(1937)
JapaneseImperialArmysoldiers
duringtheBattleofShanghai,1937
InJuly1937,JapancapturedtheformerChineseimperialcapital
ofBeijingafterinstigatingtheMarcoPoloBridgeIncident,which
culminatedintheJapanesecampaigntoinvadeallofChina.[38]
TheSovietsquicklysignedanonaggressionpactwithChinato
lendmaterielsupport,effectivelyendingChina'spriorco
operationwithGermany.GeneralissimoChiangKaishek
deployedhisbestarmytodefendShanghai,but,afterthree
monthsoffighting,Shanghaifell.TheJapanesecontinuedtopush
theChineseforcesback,capturingthecapitalNankingin
December1937.AfterthefallofNanking,tensofthousandsif
nothundredsofthousandsofChineseciviliansanddisarmed
combatantsweremurderedbytheJapanese.[39][40]
InMarch1938,NationalistChineseforceswontheirfirstmajorvictoryatTaierzhuangbutthenthecity
ofXuzhouwastakenbyJapaneseinMay.[41]InJune1938,ChineseforcesstalledtheJapaneseadvance
byfloodingtheYellowRiverthismanoeuvreboughttimefortheChinesetopreparetheirdefencesat
Wuhan,butthecitywastakenbyOctober.[42]Japanesemilitaryvictoriesdidnotbringaboutthecollapse
ofChineseresistancethatJapanhadhopedtoachieveinsteadtheChinesegovernmentrelocatedinland
toChongqingandcontinuedthewar.[43][44]
SovietJapaneseborderconflicts
Inthemidtolate1930s,JapaneseforcesinManchukuohadsporadicborderclasheswiththeSoviet
UnionandMongolia.TheJapanesedoctrineofHokushinron,whichemphasisedJapan'sexpansion
northward,wasfavouredbytheImperialArmyduringthistime.WiththedevastatingJapanesedefeatat
KhalkinGolin1939andallyNaziGermanypursuingneutrality
withtheSoviets,thispolicywouldprovedifficulttomaintain.
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withtheSoviets,thispolicywouldprovedifficulttomaintain.
JapanandtheSovietUnioneventuallysignedaNeutralityPactin
April1941,andJapanadoptedthedoctrineofNanshinron,
promotedbytheNavy,whichtookitsfocussouthward,
eventuallyleadingtoitswarwiththeUnitedStatesandthe
WesternAllies.[45][46]
Europeanoccupationsandagreements
Chamberlain,Daladier,Hitler,
Mussolini,andCianopicturedjust
beforesigningtheMunich
Agreement,29September1938
RedArmyartilleryunitduringthe
BattleofLakeKhasan,1938
InEurope,Germanyand
Italywerebecomingmore
aggressive.InMarch1938,GermanyannexedAustria,again
provokinglittleresponsefromotherEuropeanpowers.[47]
Encouraged,HitlerbeganpressingGermanclaimsonthe
Sudetenland,anareaofCzechoslovakiawithapredominantly
ethnicGermanpopulationandsoonBritainandFrancefollowed
thecounselofBritishPrimeMinisterNevilleChamberlainand
concededthisterritorytoGermanyintheMunichAgreement,
whichwasmadeagainstthewishesoftheCzechoslovak
government,inexchangeforapromiseofnofurtherterritorial
demands.[48]Soonafterwards,GermanyandItalyforced
CzechoslovakiatocedeadditionalterritorytoHungaryand
Poland.[49]
AlthoughallofGermany'sstateddemandshadbeensatisfiedbytheagreement,privatelyHitlerwas
furiousthatBritishinterferencehadpreventedhimfromseizingallofCzechoslovakiainoneoperation.
InsubsequentspeechesHitlerattackedBritishandJewish"warmongers"andinJanuary1939secretly
orderedamajorbuildupoftheGermannavytochallengeBritishnavalsupremacy.InMarch1939,
GermanyinvadedtheremainderofCzechoslovakiaandsubsequentlysplititintotheGerman
ProtectorateofBohemiaandMoraviaandaproGermanclientstate,theSlovakRepublic.[50]Hitleralso
deliveredanultimatumtoLithuania,forcingtheconcessionoftheKlaipdaRegion.
GreatlyalarmedandwithHitlermakingfurtherdemandsontheFreeCityofDanzig,BritainandFrance
guaranteedtheirsupportforPolishindependencewhenItalyconqueredAlbaniainApril1939,thesame
guaranteewasextendedtoRomaniaandGreece.[51]ShortlyaftertheFrancoBritishpledgetoPoland,
GermanyandItalyformalisedtheirownalliancewiththePactofSteel.[52]HitleraccusedBritainand
Polandoftryingto"encircle"GermanyandrenouncedtheAngloGermanNavalAgreementandthe
GermanPolishNonAggressionPact.
InAugust1939,GermanyandtheSovietUnionsignedtheMolotovRibbentropPact,[53]anon
aggressiontreatywithasecretprotocol.Thepartiesgaveeachotherrightsto"spheresofinfluence"
(westernPolandandLithuaniaforGermanyeasternPoland,Finland,Estonia,LatviaandBessarabiafor
theUSSR).ItalsoraisedthequestionofcontinuingPolishindependence.[54]Theagreementwascrucial
toHitlerbecauseitassuredthatGermanywouldnothavetofacetheprospectofatwofrontwar,asit
hadinWorldWarI,afteritdefeatedPoland.
ThesituationreachedageneralcrisisinlateAugustasGermantroopscontinuedtomobiliseagainstthe
Polishborder.InaprivatemeetingwiththeItalianforeignminister,CountCiano,Hitlerassertedthat
Polandwasa"doubtfulneutral"thatneededtoeitheryieldtohisdemandsorbe"liquidated"topreventit
fromdrawingoffGermantroopsinthefuture"unavoidable"warwiththe
Westerndemocracies.HedidnotbelieveBritainorFrancewould
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Westerndemocracies.HedidnotbelieveBritainorFrancewould
interveneintheconflict.[55]On23AugustHitlerorderedtheattackto
proceedon26August,butuponhearingthatBritainhadconcludeda
formalmutualassistancepactwithPolandandthatItalywouldmaintain
neutrality,hedecidedtodelayit.[56]
InresponsetoBritishrequestsfordirectnegotiationstoavoidwar,
GermanymadedemandsonPoland,whichonlyservedasapretextto
worsenrelations.[57]On29August,HitlerdemandedthataPolish
plenipotentiaryimmediatelytraveltoBerlintonegotiatethehandoverof
Danzig,andtoallowaplebisciteinthePolishCorridorinwhichthe
Germanminoritywouldvoteonsecession.[58]ThePolesrefusedto
complywiththeGermandemandsandonthenightof3031Augustina
violentmeetingwiththeBritishambassadorNevilleHenderson,
RibbentropdeclaredthatGermanyconsidereditsclaimsrejected.[59]
Courseofthewar
GermanForeignMinister
RibbentropandtheSoviet
leaderJosephStalin,after
signingtheMolotov
RibbentropPact,23August
1939
WarbreaksoutinEurope(193940)
On1September1939,GermanyinvadedPolandunderthefalse
pretextthatthePoleshadcarriedoutaseriesofsabotage
operationsagainstGermantargetsneartheborder.[60]Twodays
later,on3September,afteraBritishultimatumtoGermanyto
ceasemilitaryoperationswasignored,BritainandFrance,
followedbythefullyindependentDominions[61]oftheBritish
Commonwealth[62]Australia(3September),Canada(10
September),NewZealand(3September),andSouthAfrica(6
September)declaredwaronGermany.However,initiallythe
SoldiersoftheGermanWehrmacht
allianceprovidedlimiteddirectmilitarysupporttoPoland,
tearingdownthebordercrossing
consistingofacautious,halfheartedFrenchprobeintothe
betweenPolandandtheFreeCityof
Danzig,1September1939
Saarland.[63]TheWesternAlliesalsobegananavalblockadeof
Germany,whichaimedtodamagethecountry'seconomyandwar
effort.[64]GermanyrespondedbyorderingUboatwarfareagainstAlliedmerchantandwarships,which
wastolaterescalateintotheBattleoftheAtlantic.
On17September1939,aftersigningaceasefirewithJapan,theSovietsinvadedPolandfromtheeast.[65]
ThePolisharmywasdefeatedandWarsawsurrenderedtotheGermanson27September,withfinal
pocketsofresistancesurrenderingon6October.Poland'sterritorywasdividedbetweenGermanyandthe
SovietUnion,withLithuaniaandSlovakiaalsoreceivingsmallshares.AfterthedefeatofPoland'sarmed
forces,thePolishresistanceestablishedanUndergroundStateandapartisanHomeArmy.[66]About
100,000PolishmilitarypersonnelwereevacuatedtoRomaniaandtheBalticcountriesmanyofthese
soldierslaterfoughtagainsttheGermansinothertheatresofthewar.[67]Poland'sEnigmacodebreakers
werealsoevacuatedtoFrance.[68]
On6OctoberHitlermadeapublicpeaceoverturetoBritainand
France,butsaidthatthefutureofPolandwastobedetermined
exclusivelybyGermanyandtheSovietUnion.Chamberlain
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exclusivelybyGermanyandtheSovietUnion.Chamberlain
rejectedthison12October,saying"Pastexperiencehasshown
thatnoreliancecanbeplaceduponthepromisesofthepresent
GermanGovernment."[59]AfterthisrejectionHitlerorderedan
immediateoffensiveagainstFrance,[69]butbadweatherforced
repeatedpostponementsuntilthespringof1940.[70][71][72]
GermanPanzerItanksnearthecity
GermanandSovietarmyofficers
picturedshakinghandsafterNazi
GermanyandSovietUnionannexed
newterritoriesinEasternEurope,
1939
AftersigningtheGerman
ofBydgoszcz,duringtheInvasionof
SovietTreatyof
Poland,September1939
Friendship,Cooperation
andDemarcation,the
SovietUnionforcedtheBalticcountriesEstonia,Latviaand
LithuaniatoallowittostationSoviettroopsintheircountries
underpactsof"mutualassistance".[73][74][75]Finlandrejected
territorialdemands,promptingaSovietinvasioninNovember
1939.[76]TheresultingWinterWarendedinMarch1940with
Finnishconcessions.[77]BritainandFrance,treatingtheSoviet
attackonFinlandastantamounttoitsenteringthewarontheside
oftheGermans,respondedtotheSovietinvasionbysupporting
theUSSR'sexpulsionfromtheLeagueofNations.[75]
InJune1940,theSovietUnionforciblyannexedEstonia,Latvia
andLithuania,[74]andthedisputedRomanianregionsofBessarabia,NorthernBukovinaandHertza.
Meanwhile,NaziSovietpoliticalrapprochementandeconomiccooperation[78][79]gradually
stalled,[80][81]andbothstatesbeganpreparationsforwar.[82]
WesternEurope(194041)
InApril1940,GermanyinvadedDenmarkand
Norwaytoprotectshipmentsofironorefrom
Sweden,whichtheAllieswereattemptingtocut
offbyunilaterallyminingneutralNorwegian
waters.[83]Denmarkcapitulatedafterafew
hours,anddespiteAlliedsupport,duringwhich
theimportantharbourofNarviktemporarilywas
recapturedfromtheGermans,Norwaywas
conqueredwithintwomonths.[84]British
discontentovertheNorwegiancampaignledto
thereplacementoftheBritishPrimeMinister,
NevilleChamberlain,withWinstonChurchillon
10May1940.[85]
GermanylaunchedanoffensiveagainstFrance
MapoftheFrenchMaginotLine
and,adheringtotheMansteinPlanalsoattacked
theneutralnationsofBelgium,theNetherlands,
andLuxembourgon10May1940.[86]ThatsamedayBritishforceslandedinIcelandandtheFaroesto
preemptapossibleGermaninvasionoftheislands.[87]TheU.S.inclosecooperationwiththeDanish
envoytoWashingtonD.C.,agreedtoprotectGreenland,layingthepoliticalframeworkfortheformal
establishmentofbasesinApril1941.TheNetherlandsandBelgiumwereoverrunusingblitzkriegtactics
inafewdaysandweeks,respectively.[88]TheFrenchfortifiedMaginotLineandthemainbodythe
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inafewdaysandweeks,respectively.[88]TheFrenchfortifiedMaginotLineandthemainbodythe
AlliedforceswhichhadmovedintoBelgiumwerecircumventedbyaflankingmovementthroughthe
thicklywoodedArdennesregion,[89]mistakenlyperceivedbyAlliedplannersasanimpenetrablenatural
barrieragainstarmouredvehicles.[90][91]Asaresult,thebulkoftheAlliedarmiesfoundthemselves
trappedinanencirclementandwerebeaten.Themajorityweretakenprisoner,whilstover300,000,
mostlyBritishandFrench,wereevacuatedfromthecontinentatDunkirkbyearlyJune,although
abandoningalmostalloftheirequipment.[92]
On10June,ItalyinvadedFrance,declaringwaronbothFranceandtheUnitedKingdom.[93]Parisfellto
theGermanson14JuneandeightdayslaterFrancesignedanarmisticewithGermanyandwassoon
dividedintoGermanandItalianoccupationzones,[94]andanunoccupiedrumpstateundertheVichy
Regime,which,thoughofficiallyneutral,wasgenerallyalignedwithGermany.Francekeptitsfleetbut
theBritishfearedtheGermanswouldseizeit,soon3July,theBritishattackedit.[95]
ViewofLondonaftertheGerman
Blitz,29December1940
TheBattleofBritain[96]beganinearlyJulywithLuftwaffe
attacksonshippingandharbours.[97]On19July,Hitleragain
publiclyofferedtoendthewar,sayinghehadnodesiretodestroy
theBritishEmpire.TheUnitedKingdomrejectedthis
ultimatum.[98]ThemainGermanairsuperioritycampaignstarted
inAugustbutfailedtodefeatRAFFighterCommand,anda
proposedinvasionwaspostponedindefinitelyon17September.
TheGermanstrategicbombingoffensiveintensifiedasnight
attacksonLondonandothercitiesintheBlitz,butlargelyfailed
todisrupttheBritishwareffort.[97]
Usingnewlycaptured
Frenchports,theGerman
NavyenjoyedsuccessagainstanoverextendedRoyalNavy,
usingUboatsagainstBritishshippingintheAtlantic.[99]The
Britishscoredasignificantvictoryon27May1941bysinking
theGermanbattleshipBismarck.[100]Perhapsmostimportantly,
duringtheBattleofBritaintheRoyalAirForcehadsuccessfully
resistedtheLuftwaffe'sassault,andtheGermanbombing
campaignlargelyendedinMay1941.[101]
Throughoutthisperiod,theneutralUnitedStatestookmeasures
GermanLuftwaffe,HeinkelHe111
toassistChinaandtheWesternAllies.InNovember1939,the
bombersduringtheBattleofBritain
AmericanNeutralityActwasamendedtoallow"cashandcarry"
purchasesbytheAllies.[102]In1940,followingtheGerman
captureofParis,thesizeoftheUnitedStatesNavywassignificantlyincreased.InSeptember,theUnited
StatesfurtheragreedtoatradeofAmericandestroyersforBritishbases.[103]Still,alargemajorityofthe
Americanpubliccontinuedtoopposeanydirectmilitaryinterventionintotheconflictwellinto1941.[104]
AlthoughRoosevelthadpromisedtokeeptheUnitedStatesoutofthewar,heneverthelesstookconcrete
stepstoprepareforwar.InDecember1940heaccusedHitlerofplanningworldconquestandruledout
negotiationsasuseless,callingfortheUStobecomean"arsenalfordemocracy"andpromotedthe
passageofLendLeaseaidtosupporttheBritishwareffort.[98]InJanuary1941secrethighlevelstaff
talkswiththeBritishbeganforthepurposesofdetermininghowtodefeatGermanyshouldtheUSenter
thewar.Theydecidedonanumberofoffensivepolicies,includinganairoffensive,the"early
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thewar.Theydecidedonanumberofoffensivepolicies,includinganairoffensive,the"early
elimination"ofItaly,raids,supportofresistancegroups,andthecaptureofpositionstolaunchan
offensiveagainstGermany.[105]
AttheendofSeptember1940,theTripartitePactunitedJapan,ItalyandGermanytoformalisetheAxis
Powers.TheTripartitePactstipulatedthatanycountry,withtheexceptionoftheSovietUnion,notinthe
warwhichattackedanyAxisPowerwouldbeforcedtogotowaragainstallthree.[106]TheAxis
expandedinNovember1940whenHungary,SlovakiaandRomaniajoinedtheTripartitePact.[107]
Romaniawouldmakeamajorcontribution(asdidHungary)totheAxiswaragainsttheUSSR,partially
torecaptureterritorycededtotheUSSR,partiallytopursueitsleaderIonAntonescu'sdesiretocombat
communism.[108]
Mediterranean(194041)
ItalybeganoperationsintheMediterranean,initiatingasiegeof
MaltainJune,conqueringBritishSomalilandinAugust,and
makinganincursionintoBritishheldEgyptinSeptember1940.
InOctober1940,ItalystartedtheGrecoItalianWarbecauseof
Mussolini'sjealousyofHitler'ssuccessbutwithindayswas
repulsedandpushedbackintoAlbania,whereastalematesoon
occurred.[109]TheUnitedKingdomrespondedtoGreekrequests
forassistancebysendingtroopstoCreteandprovidingair
supporttoGreece.Hitlerdecidedthatwhentheweatherimproved
hewouldtakeactionagainstGreecetoassisttheItaliansand
preventtheBritishfromgainingafootholdintheBalkans,to
strikeagainsttheBritishnavaldominanceoftheMediterranean,
andtosecurehisholdonRomanianoil.[110]
AustraliantroopsoftheBritish
CommonwealthForcesmanafront
linetrenchduringtheSiegeof
TobrukNorthAfricanCampaign,
August1941
InDecember1940,BritishCommonwealthforcesbegancounter
offensivesagainstItalianforcesinEgyptandItalianEast
Africa.[111]TheoffensiveinNorthAfricawashighlysuccessfulandbyearlyFebruary1941Italyhadlost
controlofeasternLibyaandlargenumbersofItaliantroopshadbeentakenprisoner.TheItalianNavy
alsosufferedsignificantdefeats,withtheRoyalNavyputtingthreeItalianbattleshipsoutofcommission
byacarrierattackatTaranto,andneutralisingseveralmorewarshipsattheBattleofCapeMatapan.[112]
TheGermanssoonintervenedtoassistItaly.HitlersentGerman
forcestoLibyainFebruary,andbytheendofMarchtheyhad
launchedanoffensivewhichdrovebacktheCommonwealth
forceswhichhadbeenweakenedtosupportGreece.[113]Inunder
amonth,CommonwealthforceswerepushedbackintoEgypt
withtheexceptionofthebesiegedportofTobruk.[114]The
CommonwealthattemptedtodislodgeAxisforcesinMayand
againinJune,butfailedonbothoccasions.[115]
CapturedGermanAfrikaKorps
soldiers,December1941
BylateMarch1941,followingBulgaria'ssigningoftheTripartite
Pact,theGermanswereinpositiontointerveneinGreece.Plans
werechanged,however,becauseofdevelopmentsin
neighbouringYugoslavia.TheYugoslavgovernmenthadsignedtheTripartitePacton25March,onlyto
beoverthrowntwodayslaterbyaBritishencouragedcoup.Hitlerviewedthenewregimeashostileand
immediatelydecidedtoeliminateit.On6AprilGermanysimultaneouslyinvadedbothYugoslaviaand
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immediatelydecidedtoeliminateit.On6AprilGermanysimultaneouslyinvadedbothYugoslaviaand
Greece,makingrapidprogressandforcingbothnationstosurrenderwithinthemonth.TheBritishwere
drivenfromtheBalkansafterGermanyconqueredtheGreekislandofCretebytheendofMay.[116]
AlthoughtheAxisvictorywasswift,bitterpartisanwarfaresubsequentlybrokeoutagainsttheAxis
occupationofYugoslavia,whichcontinueduntiltheendofthewar.
TheAlliesdidhavesomesuccessesduringthistime.IntheMiddleEast,Commonwealthforcesfirst
quashedanuprisinginIraqwhichhadbeensupportedbyGermanaircraftfrombaseswithinVichy
controlledSyria,[117]then,withtheassistanceoftheFreeFrench,invadedSyriaandLebanontoprevent
furthersuchoccurrences.[118]
AxisattackontheUSSR(1941)
WiththesituationinEuropeandAsiarelativelystable,
Germany,Japan,andtheSovietUnionmadepreparations.
WiththeSovietswaryofmountingtensionswithGermany
andtheJapaneseplanningtotakeadvantageoftheEuropean
WarbyseizingresourcerichEuropeanpossessionsin
SoutheastAsia,thetwopowerssignedtheSovietJapanese
NeutralityPactinApril1941.[119]Bycontrast,theGermans
weresteadilymakingpreparationsforanattackontheSoviet
Union,massingforcesontheSovietborder.[120]
HitlerbelievedthatBritain'srefusaltoendthewarwasbased
onthehopethattheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion
wouldenterthewaragainstGermanysoonerorlater.[121]He
thereforedecidedtotrytostrengthenGermany'srelations
withtheSoviets,orfailingthat,toattackandeliminatethem
asafactor.InNovember1940,negotiationstookplaceto
determineiftheSovietUnionwouldjointheTripartitePact.
TheSovietsshowedsomeinterest,butaskedforconcessions
fromFinland,Bulgaria,Turkey,andJapanthatGermany
consideredunacceptable.On18December1940,Hitler
issuedthedirectivetoprepareforaninvasionoftheSoviet
Union.
EuropeantheatreofWorldWarII
animationmap,19391945Red:
WesternAlliesandSovietUnionafter
1941Green:SovietUnionbefore1941
Blue:AxisPowers
On22June1941,Germany,supportedbyItalyandRomania,
invadedtheSovietUnioninOperationBarbarossa,withGermany
accusingtheSovietsofplottingagainstthem.Theywerejoined
shortlybyFinlandandHungary.[122]Theprimarytargetsofthis
surpriseoffensive[123]weretheBalticregion,Moscowand
SovietciviliansinLeningradleaving
Ukraine,withtheultimategoalofendingthe1941campaignnear
destroyedhouses,afteraGerman
theArkhangelskAstrakhanline,fromtheCaspiantotheWhite
bombardmentofthecityBattleof
Seas.Hitler'sobjectivesweretoeliminatetheSovietUnionasa
Leningrad,10December1942
militarypower,exterminateCommunism,generateLebensraum
("livingspace")[124]bydispossessingthenativepopulation[125]
andguaranteeaccesstothestrategicresourcesneededtodefeatGermany'sremainingrivals.[126]
AlthoughtheRedArmywaspreparingforstrategiccounteroffensivesbeforethewar,[127]Barbarossa
forcedtheSovietsupremecommandtoadoptastrategicdefence.Duringthesummer,theAxismade
significantgainsintoSovietterritory,inflictingimmenselossesinbothpersonnelandmateriel.Bythe
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significantgainsintoSovietterritory,inflictingimmenselossesinbothpersonnelandmateriel.Bythe
middleofAugust,however,theGermanArmyHighCommanddecidedtosuspendtheoffensiveofa
considerablydepletedArmyGroupCentre,andtodivertthe2ndPanzerGrouptoreinforcetroops
advancingtowardscentralUkraineandLeningrad.[128]TheKievoffensivewasoverwhelmingly
successful,resultinginencirclementandeliminationoffourSovietarmies,andmadefurtheradvance
intoCrimeaandindustriallydevelopedEasternUkraine(theFirstBattleofKharkov)possible.[129]
ThediversionofthreequartersoftheAxistroopsandthemajorityoftheirairforcesfromFranceandthe
centralMediterraneantotheEasternFront[130]promptedBritaintoreconsideritsgrandstrategy.[131]In
July,theUKandtheSovietUnionformedamilitaryallianceagainstGermany[132]TheBritishand
SovietsinvadedIrantosecurethePersianCorridorandIran'soilfields.[133]InAugust,theUnited
KingdomandtheUnitedStatesjointlyissuedtheAtlanticCharter.[134]
ByOctoberAxisoperationalobjectivesinUkraineandtheBalticregionwereachieved,withonlythe
siegesofLeningrad[135]andSevastopolcontinuing.[136]AmajoroffensiveagainstMoscowwasrenewed
aftertwomonthsoffiercebattlesinincreasinglyharshweathertheGermanarmyalmostreachedthe
outersuburbsofMoscow,wheretheexhaustedtroops[137]wereforcedtosuspendtheiroffensive.[138]
LargeterritorialgainsweremadebyAxisforces,buttheircampaignhadfailedtoachieveitsmain
objectives:twokeycitiesremainedinSoviethands,theSovietcapabilitytoresistwasnotbroken,and
theSovietUnionretainedaconsiderablepartofitsmilitarypotential.Theblitzkriegphaseofthewarin
Europehadended.[139]
ByearlyDecember,freshlymobilisedreserves[140]allowedtheSovietstoachievenumericalparitywith
Axistroops.[141]This,aswellasintelligencedatawhichestablishedthataminimalnumberofSoviet
troopsintheEastwouldbesufficienttodeteranyattackbytheJapaneseKwantungArmy,[142]allowed
theSovietstobeginamassivecounteroffensivethatstartedon5Decemberallalongthefrontand
pushedGermantroops100250kilometres(62155mi)west.[143]
WarbreaksoutinthePacific(1941)
In1939theUnitedStateshadrenounceditstradetreatywith
JapanandbeginningwithanaviationgasolinebaninJuly1940
Japanhadbecomesubjecttoincreasingeconomicpressure.[98]
Duringthistime,JapanlauncheditsfirstattackagainstChangsha,
astrategicallyimportantChinesecity,butwasrepulsedbylate
September.[144]Despiteseveraloffensivesbybothsides,thewar
betweenChinaandJapanwasstalematedby1940.Toincrease
pressureonChinabyblockingsupplyroutes,andtobetter
positionJapaneseforcesintheeventofawarwiththeWestern
powers,JapaninvadedandoccupiednorthernIndochina.[145]
Afterwards,theUnitedStatesembargoediron,steeland
mechanicalpartsagainstJapan.[146]Othersanctionssoon
followed.
MitsubishiA6M2"Zero"fighterson
theImperialJapaneseNavyaircraft
carrierShkaku,justbeforetheattack
onPearlHarbor
InAugustofthatyear,ChinesecommunistslaunchedanoffensiveinCentralChinainretaliation,Japan
institutedharshmeasuresinoccupiedareastoreducehumanandmaterialresourcesforthe
communists.[147]ContinuedantipathybetweenChinesecommunistandnationalistforcesculminatedin
armedclashesinJanuary1941,effectivelyendingtheircooperation.[148]InMarch,theJapanese11th 13/47
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armedclashesinJanuary1941,effectivelyendingtheircooperation.[148]InMarch,theJapanese11th
armyattackedtheheadquartersoftheChinese19tharmybutwasrepulsedduringBattleofShanggao.[149]
InSeptember,JapanattemptedtotakethecityofChangshaagainandclashedwithChinesenationalist
forces.[150]
GermansuccessesinEuropeencouragedJapantoincreasepressureonEuropeangovernmentsin
SoutheastAsia.TheDutchgovernmentagreedtoprovideJapansomeoilsuppliesfromtheDutchEast
Indies,butnegotiationsforadditionalaccesstotheirresourcesendedinfailureinJune1941.[151]InJuly
1941JapansenttroopstosouthernIndochina,thusthreateningBritishandDutchpossessionsintheFar
East.TheUnitedStates,UnitedKingdomandotherWesterngovernmentsreactedtothismovewitha
freezeonJapaneseassetsandatotaloilembargo.[152][153]
Sinceearly1941theUnitedStatesandJapanhadbeenengagedinnegotiationsinanattempttoimprove
theirstrainedrelationsandendthewarinChina.DuringthesenegotiationsJapanadvancedanumberof
proposalswhichweredismissedbytheAmericansasinadequate.[154]AtthesametimetheUS,Britain,
andtheNetherlandsengagedinsecretdiscussionsforthejointdefenceoftheirterritories,intheeventof
aJapaneseattackagainstanyofthem.[155]RooseveltreinforcedthePhilippines(anAmerican
protectoratescheduledforindependencein1946)andwarnedJapanthattheUSwouldreacttoJapanese
attacksagainstany"neighboringcountries".[155]
Frustratedatthelackofprogressandfeelingthepinchofthe
AmericanBritishDutchsanctions,Japanpreparedforwar.On20
Novemberitpresentedaninterimproposalasitsfinaloffer.It
calledfortheendofAmericanaidtoChinaandtosupplyoiland
otherresourcestoJapan.Inexchangetheypromisednottolaunch
anyattacksinSoutheastAsiaandtowithdrawtheirforcesfrom
theirthreateningpositionsinsouthernIndochina.[154]The
Americancounterproposalof26NovemberrequiredthatJapan
evacuateallofChinawithoutconditionsandconcludenon
aggressionpactswithallPacificpowers.[156]ThatmeantJapan
USSArizonaduringtheJapanese
wasessentiallyforcedtochoosebetweenabandoningits
surpriseairattackontheAmerican
ambitionsinChina,orseizingthenaturalresourcesitneededin
pacificfleet,7December1941
theDutchEastIndiesbyforce[157]theJapanesemilitarydidnot
considertheformeranoption,andmanyofficersconsideredthe
oilembargoanunspokendeclarationofwar.[158]
JapanplannedtorapidlyseizeEuropeancoloniesinAsiatocreatealargedefensiveperimeterstretching
intotheCentralPacifictheJapanesewouldthenbefreetoexploittheresourcesofSoutheastAsiawhile
exhaustingtheoverstretchedAlliesbyfightingadefensivewar.[159]TopreventAmericanintervention
whilesecuringtheperimeteritwasfurtherplannedtoneutralisetheUnitedStatesPacificFleetandthe
AmericanmilitarypresenceinthePhilippinesfromtheoutset.[160]On7December1941(8Decemberin
Asiantimezones),JapanattackedBritishandAmericanholdingswithnearsimultaneousoffensives
againstSoutheastAsiaandtheCentralPacific.[161]TheseincludedanattackontheAmericanfleetat
PearlHarbor,thePhilippines,landingsinThailandandMalaya[161]andthebattleofHongKong.
TheseattacksledtheUnitedStates,Britain,China,Australiaandseveralotherstatestoformallydeclare
waronJapan,whereastheSovietUnion,beingheavilyinvolvedinlargescalehostilitieswithEuropean
Axiscountries,maintaineditsneutralityagreementwithJapan.[162]Germany,followedbytheotherAxis
states,declaredwarontheUnitedStates[163]insolidaritywithJapan,citingasjustificationtheAmerican
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states,declaredwarontheUnitedStates[163]insolidaritywithJapan,citingasjustificationtheAmerican
attacksonGermanwarvesselsthathadbeenorderedbyRoosevelt.[122][164]
Axisadvancestalls(194243)
InJanuary1942,theBigFour(theUnitedStates,Britain,Soviet
Union,China)and22smallerorexiledgovernmentsissuedthe
DeclarationbyUnitedNations,therebyaffirmingtheAtlantic
Charter,[165]andagreeingtonottosignaseparatepeacewiththe
Axispowers.
During1942,Alliedofficialsdebatedontheappropriategrand
strategytopursue.AllagreedthatdefeatingGermanywasthe
primaryobjective.TheAmericansfavouredastraightforward,
largescaleattackonGermanythroughFrance.TheSovietswere
alsodemandingasecondfront.TheBritish,ontheotherhand,
arguedthatmilitaryoperationsshouldtargetperipheralareasto
SeatedattheCasablancaConference
wearoutGermanstrength,leadtoincreasingdemoralisation,and
USPresidentFranklinD.Roosevelt
bolsterresistanceforces.Germanyitselfwouldbesubjecttoa
andBritishPMWinstonChurchill,
heavybombingcampaign.AnoffensiveagainstGermanywould
January1943
thenbelaunchedprimarilybyAlliedarmourwithoutusinglarge
scalearmies.[166]Eventually,theBritishpersuadedtheAmericans
thatalandinginFrancewasinfeasiblein1942andtheyshouldinsteadfocusondrivingtheAxisoutof
NorthAfrica.[167]
AttheCasablancaConferenceinearly1943,theAlliesreiteratedthestatementsissuedinthe1942
DeclarationbytheUnitedNations,anddemandedtheunconditionalsurrenderoftheirenemies.The
BritishandAmericansagreedtocontinuetopresstheinitiativeintheMediterraneanbyinvadingSicily
tofullysecuretheMediterraneansupplyroutes.[168]AlthoughtheBritisharguedforfurtheroperationsin
theBalkanstobringTurkeyintothewar,inMay1943,theAmericansextractedaBritishcommitmentto
limitAlliedoperationsintheMediterraneantoaninvasionoftheItalianmainlandandtoinvadeFrance
in1944.[169]
Pacific(194243)
BytheendofApril1942,JapananditsallyThailandhadalmostfullyconqueredBurma,Malaya,the
DutchEastIndies,Singapore,andRabaul,inflictingseverelossesonAlliedtroopsandtakingalarge
numberofprisoners.[170]DespitestubbornresistancebyFilipinoandUSforces,thePhilippine
CommonwealthwaseventuallycapturedinMay1942,forcingitsgovernmentintoexile.[171]On16
April,inBurma,7,000BritishsoldierswereencircledbytheJapanese33rdDivisionduringtheBattleof
YenangyaungandrescuedbytheChinese38thDivision.[172]Japaneseforcesalsoachievednaval
victoriesintheSouthChinaSea,JavaSeaandIndianOcean,[173]andbombedtheAlliednavalbaseat
Darwin,Australia.InJanuary1942,theonlyAlliedsuccessagainstJapanwasaChinesevictoryat
Changsha.[174]TheseeasyvictoriesoverunpreparedUSandEuropeanopponentsleftJapan
overconfident,aswellasoverextended.[175]
InearlyMay1942,Japaninitiatedoperations
tocapturePortMoresbybyamphibious
assaultandthussevercommunicationsand
supplylinesbetweentheUnitedStatesand
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supplylinesbetweentheUnitedStatesand
Australia.Theplannedinvasionwasthwarted
whenanAlliedtaskforcecenteredontwo
AmericanfleetcarriersfoughtJapanesenaval
forcestoadrawintheBattleoftheCoral
Sea.[176]Japan'snextplan,motivatedbythe
earlierDoolittleRaid,wastoseizeMidway
AtollandlureAmericancarriersintobattleto
beeliminatedasadiversion,Japanwould
alsosendforcestooccupytheAleutian
IslandsinAlaska.[177]InearlyJune,Japan
putitsoperationsintoactionbutthe
MapofJapanesemilitaryadvances,untilmid1942
Americans,havingbrokenJapanesenaval
codesinlateMay,werefullyawareofthe
plansandforcedispositionsandusedthisknowledgetoachieveadecisivevictoryatMidwayoverthe
ImperialJapaneseNavy.[178]
Withitscapacityforaggressiveactiongreatlydiminishedasa
resultoftheMidwaybattle,Japanchosetofocusonabelated
attempttocapturePortMoresbybyanoverlandcampaigninthe
TerritoryofPapua.[179]TheAmericansplannedacounterattack
againstJapanesepositionsinthesouthernSolomonIslands,
primarilyGuadalcanal,asafirststeptowardscapturingRabaul,
themainJapanesebaseinSoutheastAsia.[180]
BothplansstartedinJuly,butbymidSeptember,theBattlefor
GuadalcanaltookpriorityfortheJapanese,andtroopsinNew
USMarinesduringtheGuadalcanal
GuineawereorderedtowithdrawfromthePortMoresbyareato
Campaign,inthePacifictheatre,
thenorthernpartoftheisland,wheretheyfacedAustralianand
1942
UnitedStatestroopsintheBattleofBunaGona.[181]Guadalcanal
soonbecameafocalpointforbothsideswithheavycommitments
oftroopsandshipsinthebattleforGuadalcanal.Bythestartof1943,theJapaneseweredefeatedonthe
islandandwithdrewtheirtroops.[182]InBurma,Commonwealthforcesmountedtwooperations.The
first,anoffensiveintotheArakanregioninlate1942,wentdisastrously,forcingaretreatbacktoIndiaby
May1943.[183]ThesecondwastheinsertionofirregularforcesbehindJapanesefrontlinesinFebruary
which,bytheendofApril,hadachievedmixedresults.[184]
EasternFront(194243)
Despiteconsiderablelosses,inearly1942GermanyanditsalliesstoppedamajorSovietoffensivein
centralandsouthernRussia,keepingmostterritorialgainstheyhadachievedduringtheprevious
year.[185]InMaytheGermansdefeatedSovietoffensivesintheKerchPeninsulaandatKharkiv,[186]and
thenlaunchedtheirmainsummeroffensiveagainstsouthernRussiainJune1942,toseizetheoilfieldsof
theCaucasusandoccupyKubansteppe,whilemaintainingpositionsonthenorthernandcentralareasof
thefront.TheGermanssplitArmyGroupSouthintotwogroups:ArmyGroupAadvancedtothelower
DonRiverandstrucksoutheasttotheCaucasus,
whileArmyGroupBheadedtowardstheVolga
River.TheSovietsdecidedtomaketheirstandat
StalingradontheVolga.[187]
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BymidNovember,theGermanshadnearlytaken
StalingradinbitterstreetfightingwhentheSoviets
begantheirsecondwintercounteroffensive,starting
withanencirclementofGermanforcesat
RedArmysoldiersonthecounterattack,duringthe
Stalingrad[188]andanassaultontheRzhevsalient
BattleofStalingrad,February1943
nearMoscow,thoughthelatterfailed
disastrously.[189]ByearlyFebruary1943,the
GermanArmyhadtakentremendouslossesGermantroopsatStalingradhadbeenforcedto
surrender,[190]andthefrontlinehadbeenpushedbackbeyonditspositionbeforethesummeroffensive.
InmidFebruary,aftertheSovietpushhadtaperedoff,theGermanslaunchedanotherattackonKharkiv,
creatingasalientintheirfrontlinearoundtheRussiancityofKursk.[191]
WesternEurope/Atlantic&Mediterranean(194243)
ExploitingpoorAmericannavalcommanddecisions,theGerman
navyravagedAlliedshippingofftheAmericanAtlanticcoast.[192]
ByNovember1941,Commonwealthforceshadlauncheda
counteroffensive,OperationCrusader,inNorthAfrica,and
reclaimedallthegainstheGermansandItalianshadmade.[193]In
NorthAfrica,theGermanslaunchedanoffensiveinJanuary,
pushingtheBritishbacktopositionsattheGazalaLinebyearly
February,[194]followedbyatemporarylullincombatwhich
Germanyusedtopreparefortheirupcomingoffensives.[195]
ConcernstheJapanesemightusebasesinVichyheldMadagascar
American8thAirForceBoeingB17
causedtheBritishtoinvadetheislandinearlyMay1942.[196]An
FlyingFortressbombingraidonthe
AxisoffensiveinLibyaforcedanAlliedretreatdeepinsideEgypt
FockeWulffactoryinGermany,9
[197]
October1943
untilAxisforceswerestoppedatElAlamein.
Onthe
Continent,raidsofAlliedcommandosonstrategictargets,
culminatinginthedisastrousDieppeRaid,[198]demonstratedtheWesternAllies'inabilitytolaunchan
invasionofcontinentalEuropewithoutmuchbetterpreparation,equipment,andoperationalsecurity.[199]
InAugust1942,theAlliessucceededinrepellingasecondattackagainstElAlamein[200]and,atahigh
cost,managedtodeliverdesperatelyneededsuppliestothebesiegedMalta.[201]Afewmonthslater,the
AlliescommencedanattackoftheirowninEgypt,dislodgingtheAxisforcesandbeginningadrivewest
acrossLibya.[202]ThisattackwasfollowedupshortlyafterbyAngloAmericanlandingsinFrenchNorth
Africa,whichresultedintheregionjoiningtheAllies.[203]HitlerrespondedtotheFrenchcolony's
defectionbyorderingtheoccupationofVichyFrance[203]althoughVichyforcesdidnotresistthis
violationofthearmistice,theymanagedtoscuttletheirfleettopreventitscapturebyGermanforces.[204]
ThenowpinceredAxisforcesinAfricawithdrewintoTunisia,whichwasconqueredbytheAlliesin
May1943.[205]
Inearly1943theBritishandAmericansbegantheCombinedBomberOffensive,astrategicbombing
campaignagainstGermany.ThegoalsweretodisrupttheGermanwareconomy,reduceGermanmorale,
and"dehouse"thecivilianpopulation.[206]
Alliesgainmomentum(194344)
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Alliesgainmomentum(194344)
USNavyDouglasSBDDauntless
fliespatrolovertheUSSWashington
andUSSLexingtonduringtheGilbert
andMarshallIslandscampaign,1943
AftertheGuadalcanalCampaign,theAlliesinitiatedseveral
operationsagainstJapaninthePacific.InMay1943,Canadian
andU.S.forcesweresenttoeliminateJapaneseforcesfromthe
Aleutians.[207]Soonafter,theU.S.withsupportfromAustralian
andNewZealandforcesbeganmajoroperationstoisolateRabaul
bycapturingsurroundingislands,andtobreachtheJapanese
CentralPacificperimeterattheGilbertandMarshallIslands.[208]
BytheendofMarch1944,theAllieshadcompletedbothofthese
objectives,andadditionallyneutralisedthemajorJapanesebaseat
TrukintheCarolineIslands.InApril,theAllieslaunchedan
operationtoretakeWesternNewGuinea.[209]
IntheSovietUnion,both
theGermansandthe
Sovietsspentthespring
andearlysummerof1943preparingforlargeoffensivesin
centralRussia.On4July1943,GermanyattackedSovietforces
aroundtheKurskBulge.Withinaweek,Germanforceshad
exhaustedthemselvesagainsttheSoviets'deeplyechelonedand
wellconstructeddefences[210]and,forthefirsttimeinthewar,
RedArmytroopsfollowingT34
Hitlercancelledtheoperationbeforeithadachievedtacticalor
tanks,inacounteroffensiveon
[211]
Germanpositions,attheBattleof
operationalsuccess.
Thisdecisionwaspartiallyaffectedby
Kursk,August1943
theWesternAllies'invasionofSicilylaunchedon9Julywhich,
combinedwithpreviousItalianfailures,resultedintheousting
andarrestofMussolinilaterthatmonth.[212]Also,inJuly1943theBritishfirebombedHamburgkilling
over40,000people.
On12July1943,theSovietslaunchedtheirowncounteroffensives,therebydispellinganychanceof
Germanvictoryorevenstalemateintheeast.TheSovietvictoryatKurskmarkedtheendofGerman
superiority,[213]givingtheSovietUniontheinitiativeontheEasternFront.[214][215]TheGermanstriedto
stabilisetheireasternfrontalongthehastilyfortifiedPantherWotanline,buttheSovietsbrokethroughit
atSmolenskandbytheLowerDnieperOffensives.[216]
On3September1943,theWesternAlliesinvadedtheItalianmainland,followingItaly'sarmisticewith
theAllies.[217]GermanyrespondedbydisarmingItalianforces,seizingmilitarycontrolofItalian
areas,[218]andcreatingaseriesofdefensivelines.[219]GermanspecialforcesthenrescuedMussolini,
whothensoonestablishedanewclientstateinGermanoccupiedItalynamedtheItalianSocial
Republic,[220]causinganItaliancivilwar.TheWesternAlliesfoughtthroughseverallinesuntilreaching
themainGermandefensivelineinmidNovember.[221]
GermanoperationsintheAtlanticalsosuffered.ByMay1943,asAlliedcountermeasuresbecame
increasinglyeffective,theresultingsizeableGermansubmarinelossesforcedatemporaryhaltofthe
GermanAtlanticnavalcampaign.[222]InNovember1943,FranklinD.RooseveltandWinstonChurchill
metwithChiangKaishekinCairoandthenwithJosephStalinin
Tehran.[223]Theformerconferencedeterminedthepostwar
returnofJapaneseterritory,[224]whilethelatterincluded
agreementthattheWesternAllieswouldinvadeEuropein1944
andthattheSovietUnionwoulddeclarewaronJapanwithin 18/47
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andthattheSovietUnionwoulddeclarewaronJapanwithin
threemonthsofGermany'sdefeat.[225]
FromNovember1943,
duringthesevenweek
BattleofChangde,the
TheAlliedleadersoftheAsianand
ChineseforcedJapanto
PacificTheater:Generalissimo
fightacostlywarof
ChiangKaishek,FranklinD.
attrition,whileawaiting
Roosevelt,andWinstonChurchill
meetingattheCairoConference,25
Alliedrelief.[226][227][228]
November1943
InJanuary1944,the
Allieslaunchedaseriesof
attacksinItalyagainstthe
lineatMonteCassinoandtriedtooutflankitwithlandingsat
Anzio.[229]BytheendofJanuary,amajorSovietoffensive
expelledGermanforcesfromtheLeningradregion,[230]ending
thelongestandmostlethalsiegeinhistory.
RuinsoftheBenedictinemonastery,
duringtheBattleofMonteCassino
ItalianCampaign,May1944
ThefollowingSovietoffensivewashaltedontheprewarEstonianborderbytheGermanArmyGroup
NorthaidedbyEstonianshopingtoreestablishnationalindependence.Thisdelayslowedsubsequent
SovietoperationsintheBalticSearegion.[231]BylateMay1944,theSovietshadliberatedCrimea,
largelyexpelledAxisforcesfromUkraine,andmadeincursionsintoRomania,whichwererepulsedby
theAxistroops.[232]TheAlliedoffensivesinItalyhadsucceededand,attheexpenseofallowingseveral
Germandivisionstoretreat,on4June,Romewascaptured.[233]
TheAllieshadmixedsuccessinmainlandAsia.InMarch1944,theJapaneselaunchedthefirstoftwo
invasions,anoperationagainstBritishpositionsinAssam,India,[234]andsoonbesiegedCommonwealth
positionsatImphalandKohima.[235]InMay1944,Britishforcesmountedacounteroffensivethatdrove
JapanesetroopsbacktoBurma,[235]andChineseforcesthathadinvadednorthernBurmainlate1943
besiegedJapanesetroopsinMyitkyina.[236]ThesecondJapaneseinvasionofChinaaimedtodestroy
China'smainfightingforces,securerailwaysbetweenJapaneseheldterritoryandcaptureAllied
airfields.[237]ByJune,theJapanesehadconqueredtheprovinceofHenanandbegunanewattackon
ChangshaintheHunanprovince.[238]
Alliesclosein(1944)
On6June1944(knownasDDay),afterthreeyearsofSovietpressure,[239]theWesternAlliesinvaded
northernFrance.AfterreassigningseveralAllieddivisionsfromItaly,theyalsoattackedsouthern
France.[240]Theselandingsweresuccessful,andledtothedefeatoftheGermanArmyunitsinFrance.
PariswasliberatedbythelocalresistanceassistedbytheFreeFrenchForces,bothledbyGeneral
CharlesdeGaulle,on25August[241]andtheWesternAlliescontinuedtopushbackGermanforcesin
westernEuropeduringthelatterpartoftheyear.AnattempttoadvanceintonorthernGermany
spearheadedbyamajorairborneoperationintheNetherlands
failed.[242]Afterthat,theWesternAlliesslowlypushedinto
Germany,butfailedtocrosstheRurriverinalargeoffensive.In
Italy,AlliedadvancealsoslowedduetothelastmajorGerman
defensiveline.[243]
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defensiveline.[243]
On22June,theSovietslaunchedastrategicoffensiveinBelarus
("OperationBagration")thatdestroyedtheGermanArmyGroup
Centrealmostcompletely.[244]SoonafterthatanotherSoviet
AmericantroopsapproachingOmaha
strategicoffensiveforcedGermantroopsfromWesternUkraine
Beach,duringtheInvasionof
andEasternPoland.TheSovietadvancepromptedresistance
NormandyonDDay,6June1944
forcesinPolandtoinitiateseveraluprisingsagainsttheGerman
occupation.However,thelargestoftheseinWarsawwhere
Germansoldiersmassacred200,000civiliansandanationaluprisinginSlovakiadidnotreceiveSoviet
supportandweresubsequentlysuppressedbytheGermans.[245]TheRedArmy'sstrategicoffensivein
easternRomaniacutoffanddestroyedtheconsiderableGermantroopsthereandtriggeredasuccessful
coupd'tatinRomaniaandinBulgaria,followedbythosecountries'shifttotheAlliedside.[246]
InSeptember1944,SoviettroopsadvancedintoYugoslaviaand
forcedtherapidwithdrawalofGermanArmyGroupsEandFin
Greece,AlbaniaandYugoslaviatorescuethemfrombeingcut
off.[247]Bythispoint,theCommunistledPartisansunder
MarshalJosipBrozTito,whohadledanincreasinglysuccessful
guerrillacampaignagainsttheoccupationsince1941,controlled
muchoftheterritoryofYugoslaviaandengagedindelaying
effortsagainstGermanforcesfurthersouth.InnorthernSerbia,
theRedArmy,withlimitedsupportfromBulgarianforces,
GermanSSsoldiersfromthe
assistedthePartisansinajointliberationofthecapitalcityof
DirlewangerBrigade,taskedwith
Belgradeon20October.Afewdayslater,theSovietslauncheda
suppressingtheWarsawUprising
massiveassaultagainstGermanoccupiedHungarythatlasted
againstNazioccupation,August1944
untilthefallofBudapestinFebruary1945.[248]Unlikeimpressive
SovietvictoriesintheBalkans,bitterFinnishresistancetothe
SovietoffensiveintheKarelianIsthmusdeniedtheSovietsoccupationofFinlandandledtoaSoviet
Finnisharmisticeonrelativelymildconditions,[249][250]althoughFinlandlatershiftedtotheAlliedside.
BythestartofJuly1944,CommonwealthforcesinSoutheastAsiahadrepelledtheJapanesesiegesin
Assam,pushingtheJapanesebacktotheChindwinRiver[251]whiletheChinesecapturedMyitkyina.In
China,theJapanesehadmoresuccesses,havingfinallycapturedChangshainmidJuneandthecityof
HengyangbyearlyAugust.[252]Soonafter,theyinvadedtheprovinceofGuangxi,winningmajor
engagementsagainstChineseforcesatGuilinandLiuzhoubytheendofNovember[253]andsuccessfully
linkinguptheirforcesinChinaandIndochinabymidDecember.[254]
InthePacific,USforcescontinuedtopressbacktheJapaneseperimeter.InmidJune1944,theybegan
theiroffensiveagainsttheMarianaandPalauislands,anddecisivelydefeatedJapaneseforcesinthe
BattleofthePhilippineSea.ThesedefeatsledtotheresignationoftheJapanesePrimeMinister,Hideki
Tojo,andprovidedtheUnitedStateswithairbasestolaunchintensiveheavybomberattacksonthe
Japanesehomeislands.InlateOctober,AmericanforcesinvadedtheFilipinoislandofLeytesoonafter,
AlliednavalforcesscoredanotherlargevictoryintheBattleofLeyteGulf,oneofthelargestnaval
battlesinhistory.[255]
Axiscollapse,Alliedvictory(194445)
On16December1944,Germanymadealastattemptonthe
WesternFrontbyusingmostofitsremainingreservestolauncha
massivecounteroffensiveintheArdennestosplittheWestern
Allies,encirclelargeportionsofWesternAlliedtroopsand
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Allies,encirclelargeportionsofWesternAlliedtroopsand
capturetheirprimarysupplyportatAntwerptopromptapolitical
settlement.[256]ByJanuary,theoffensivehadbeenrepulsedwith
nostrategicobjectivesfulfilled.[256]InItaly,theWesternAllies
remainedstalematedattheGermandefensiveline.Inmid
January1945,theSovietsandPolesattackedinPoland,pushing
fromtheVistulatotheOderriverinGermany,andoverranEast
Prussia.[257]On4February,US,British,andSovietleadersmet
fortheYaltaConference.Theyagreedontheoccupationofpost
warGermany,andonwhentheSovietUnionwouldjointhewar
againstJapan.[258]
YaltaConferenceheldinFebruary
1945,withWinstonChurchill,
FranklinD.RooseveltandJoseph
Stalin
InFebruary,theSovietsenteredSilesiaandPomerania,whileWesternAlliesenteredwesternGermany
andclosedtotheRhineriver.ByMarch,theWesternAlliescrossedtheRhinenorthandsouthofthe
Ruhr,encirclingtheGermanArmyGroupB,[259]whiletheSovietsadvancedtoVienna.InearlyApril,
theWesternAlliesfinallypushedforwardinItalyandsweptacrosswesternGermany,whileSovietand
PolishforcesstormedBerlininlateApril.AmericanandSovietforcesjoinedonElberiveron25April.
On30April1945,theReichstagwascaptured,signallingthemilitarydefeatofNaziGermany.[260]
Severalchangesinleadershipoccurredduringthisperiod.On12April,PresidentRooseveltdiedandwas
succeededbyHarryTruman.BenitoMussoliniwaskilledbyItalianpartisanson28April.[261]Twodays
later,Hitlercommittedsuicide,andwassucceededbyGrandAdmiralKarlDnitz.[262]
GermanforcessurrenderedinItalyon29April.Totaland
unconditionalsurrenderwassignedon7May,tobeeffectiveby
theendof8May.[263]GermanArmyGroupCentreresistedin
Pragueuntil11May.[264]
InthePacifictheatre,Americanforcesaccompaniedbytheforces
ofthePhilippineCommonwealthadvancedinthePhilippines,
clearingLeytebytheendofApril1945.TheylandedonLuzonin
January1945andrecapturedManilainMarchfollowingabattle
whichreducedthecitytoruins.FightingcontinuedonLuzon,
Mindanao,andotherislandsofthePhilippinesuntiltheendofthe
war.[265]Onthenightof910March,B29bombersoftheUS
ArmyAirForcesstruckTokyowithincendiarybombs,which
TheGermanReichstagafterits
killed100,000peoplewithinafewhours.Overthenextfive
capturebytheAllies,3June1945
months,Americanbombersfirebombed66otherJapanesecities,
causingthedestructionofuntoldnumbersofbuildingsandthe
deathsofbetween350,000500,000Japanesecivilians.[266]
InMay1945,AustraliantroopslandedinBorneo,overrunningtheoilfieldsthere.British,American,and
ChineseforcesdefeatedtheJapaneseinnorthernBurmainMarch,andtheBritishpushedontoreach
Rangoonby3May.[267]ChineseforcesstartedtocounterattackinBattleofWestHunanthatoccurred
between6Apriland7June1945.Americannavaland
amphibiousforcesalsomovedtowardsJapan,takingIwoJimaby
March,andOkinawabytheendofJune.[268]Atthesametime
AmericanbombersweredestroyingJapanesecities,American
submarinescutoffJapaneseimports,drasticallyreducingJapan's
abilitytosupplyitsoverseasforces.[269]
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abilitytosupplyitsoverseasforces.[269]
On11July,AlliedleadersmetinPotsdam,Germany.They
confirmedearlieragreementsaboutGermany,[270]andreiterated
thedemandforunconditionalsurrenderofallJapaneseforcesby
Japan,specificallystatingthat"thealternativeforJapanisprompt
andutterdestruction".[271]Duringthisconference,theUnited
Kingdomhelditsgeneralelection,andClementAttleereplaced
ChurchillasPrimeMinister.[272]
Japaneseforeignaffairsminister
MamoruShigemitsusignsthe
JapaneseInstrumentofSurrenderon
boardtheUSSMissouri,2September
1945
TheAlliescalledforunconditionalJapanesesurrenderinthe
Potsdamdeclarationof27July,buttheJapanesegovernmentwasinternallydividedonwhethertomake
peaceanddidnotrespond.InearlyAugust,theUnitedStatesdroppedatomicbombsontheJapanese
citiesofHiroshimaandNagasaki.LiketheJapanesecitiespreviouslybombedbyAmericanairmen,the
USanditsalliesjustifiedtheatomicbombingsasmilitarynecessitytoavoidinvadingtheJapanesehome
islandswhichwouldcostthelivesofbetween250,000500,000AlliedtroopsandmillionsofJapanese
troopsandcivilians.[273]Betweenthetwobombings,theSoviets,pursuanttotheYaltaagreement,
invadedJapaneseheldManchuria,andquicklydefeatedtheKwantungArmy,whichwasthelargest
Japanesefightingforce.[274][275]TheRedArmyalsocapturedSakhalinIslandandtheKurilIslands.On
15August1945,Japansurrendered,withthesurrenderdocumentsfinallysignedaboardthedeckofthe
AmericanbattleshipUSSMissourion2September1945,endingthewar.[276]
Aftermath
TheAlliesestablishedoccupationadministrationsinAustriaand
Germany.Theformerbecameaneutralstate,nonalignedwith
anypoliticalbloc.Thelatterwasdividedintowesternandeastern
occupationzonescontrolledbytheWesternAlliesandtheUSSR,
accordingly.AdenazificationprograminGermanyledtothe
prosecutionofNaziwarcriminalsandtheremovalofexNazis
frompower,althoughthispolicymovedtowardsamnestyandre
integrationofexNazisintoWestGermansociety.[277]
Germanylostaquarterofitsprewar(1937)territory.Amongthe
easternterritories,Silesia,NeumarkandmostofPomeraniawere
RuinsofWarsawinJanuary1945,
takenoverbyPoland,EastPrussiawasdividedbetweenPoland
afterthedeliberatedestructionofthe
andtheUSSR,followedbytheexpulsionofthe9million
citybytheoccupyingGermanforces
Germansfromtheseprovinces,aswellastheexpulsionof3
millionGermansfromtheSudetenlandinCzechoslovakiato
Germany.Bythe1950s,everyfifthWestGermanwasarefugeefromtheeast.TheSovietUnionalso
tookoverthePolishprovinceseastoftheCurzonline,fromwhich2millionPoleswereexpelled[278]
northeastRomania,[279][280]partsofeasternFinland,[281]andthethreeBalticstateswerealso
incorporatedintotheUSSR.[282][283]
Inanefforttomaintainpeace,[284]theAlliesformedtheUnitedNations,
whichofficiallycameintoexistenceon24October1945,[285]and
adoptedtheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsin1948,asa
commonstandardforallmembernations.[286]Thegreatpowersthat
werethevictorsofthewartheUnitedStates,SovietUnion,China,
Britain,andFranceformedthepermanentmembersoftheUN's
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Britain,andFranceformedthepermanentmembersoftheUN's
SecurityCouncil.[7]Thefivepermanentmembersremainsotothe
present,althoughtherehavebeentwoseatchanges,betweenthe
RepublicofChinaandthePeople'sRepublicofChinain1971,and
betweentheSovietUnionanditssuccessorstate,theRussian
Federation,followingthedissolutionoftheSovietUnion.Thealliance
betweentheWesternAlliesandtheSovietUnionhadbegunto
deteriorateevenbeforethewarwasover.[287]
Germanyhadbeendefactodivided,andtwoindependentstates,the
FederalRepublicofGermanyandtheGermanDemocraticRepublic[288]
PostwarSovietterritorial
werecreatedwithinthebordersofAlliedandSovietoccupationzones,
expansionresultedinCentral
accordingly.TherestofEuropewasalsodividedintoWesternand
Europeanborderchanges,the
[289]
creationofaCommunistBloc
Sovietspheresofinfluence.
MosteasternandcentralEuropean
andstartoftheColdWar
countriesfellintotheSovietsphere,whichledtoestablishmentof
Communistledregimes,withfullorpartialsupportoftheSoviet
occupationauthorities.Asaresult,Poland,Hungary,EastGermany,[290]Czechoslovakia,Romania,and
Albania[291]becameSovietsatellitestates.CommunistYugoslaviaconductedafullyindependentpolicy,
causingtensionwiththeUSSR.[292]
Postwardivisionoftheworldwasformalisedbytwointernationalmilitaryalliances,theUnitedStates
ledNATOandtheSovietledWarsawPact[293]thelongperiodofpoliticaltensionsandmilitary
competitionbetweenthem,theColdWar,wouldbeaccompaniedbyanunprecedentedarmsraceand
proxywars.[294]
InAsia,theUnitedStatesledtheoccupationofJapanandadministratedJapan'sformerislandsinthe
WesternPacific,whiletheSovietsannexedSakhalinandtheKurilIslands.[295]Korea,formerlyunder
Japaneserule,wasdividedandoccupiedbytheUSintheSouthandtheSovietUnionintheNorth
between1945and1948.Separaterepublicsemergedonbothsidesofthe38thparallelin1948,each
claimingtobethelegitimategovernmentforallofKorea,whichledultimatelytotheKoreanWar.[296]
InChina,nationalistandcommunistforcesresumedthecivilwarinJune1946.Communistforceswere
victoriousandestablishedthePeople'sRepublicofChinaonthemainland,whilenationalistforces
retreatedtoTaiwanin1949.[297]IntheMiddleEast,theArabrejectionoftheUnitedNationsPartition
PlanforPalestineandthecreationofIsraelmarkedtheescalationoftheArabIsraeliconflict.While
Europeancolonialpowersattemptedtoretainsomeoralloftheircolonialempires,theirlossesof
prestigeandresourcesduringthewarrenderedthisunsuccessful,leadingtodecolonisation.[298][299]
Theglobaleconomysufferedheavilyfromthewar,althoughparticipatingnationswereaffected
differently.TheUSemergedmuchricherthananyothernationithadababyboomandby1950itsgross
domesticproductperpersonwasmuchhigherthanthatofanyoftheotherpowersanditdominatedthe
worldeconomy.[300]TheUKandUSpursuedapolicyofindustrialdisarmamentinWesternGermanyin
theyears19451948.[301]BecauseofinternationaltradeinterdependenciesthisledtoEuropeaneconomic
stagnationanddelayedEuropeanrecoveryforseveralyears.[302][303]
Recoverybeganwiththemid1948currencyreforminWesternGermany,andwasspedupbythe
liberalisationofEuropeaneconomicpolicythattheMarshallPlan(19481951)bothdirectlyand
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liberalisationofEuropeaneconomicpolicythattheMarshallPlan(19481951)bothdirectlyand
indirectlycaused.[304][305]Thepost1948WestGermanrecoveryhasbeencalledtheGermaneconomic
miracle.[306]Italyalsoexperiencedaneconomicboom[307]andtheFrencheconomyrebounded.[308]By
contrast,theUnitedKingdomwasinastateofeconomicruin,[309]andalthoughitreceivedaquarterof
thetotalMarshallPlanassistance,morethananyotherEuropeancountry,[310]continuedrelative
economicdeclinefordecades.[311]
TheSovietUnion,despiteenormoushumanandmateriallosses,alsoexperiencedrapidincreasein
productionintheimmediatepostwarera.[312]Japanexperiencedincrediblyrapideconomicgrowth,
becomingoneofthemostpowerfuleconomiesintheworldbythe1980s.[313]Chinareturnedtoitspre
warindustrialproductionby1952.[314]
Impact
Casualtiesandwarcrimes
Estimatesforthetotalnumberof
casualtiesinthewarvary,
becausemanydeathswent
unrecorded.Mostsuggestthat
some75millionpeoplediedin
thewar,includingabout20
millionmilitarypersonneland40
millioncivilians.[315][316][317]
Manyoftheciviliansdied
becauseofdeliberategenocide,
massacres,massbombings,
disease,andstarvation.
TheSovietUnionlostaround27
millionpeopleduringthewar,[318]
including8.7millionmilitaryand
WorldWarIIdeaths
19millionciviliandeaths.The
largestportionofmilitarydead
were5.7millionethnicRussians,followedby1.3millionethnicUkrainians.[319]Aquarterofthepeople
intheSovietUnionwerewoundedorkilled.[320]Germanysustained5.3millionmilitarylosses,mostly
ontheEasternFrontandduringthefinalbattlesinGermany.[321]
OfthetotalnumberofdeathsinWorldWarII,approximately85percentmostlySovietandChinese
wereontheAlliedsideand15percentwereontheAxisside.Manyofthesedeathswerecausedbywar
crimescommittedbyGermanandJapaneseforcesinoccupiedterritories.Anestimated11[322]to17
million[323]civiliansdiedeitherasadirectorasanindirectresultofNaziideologicalpolicies,including
thesystematicgenocideofaround6millionJewsduringtheHolocaust,alongwithafurther5to6
millionethnicPolesandotherSlavs(includingUkrainiansandBelarusians)[324]Roma,homosexuals,
andotherethnicandminoritygroups.[323]Hundredsofthousands(varyingestimates)ofethnicSerbs,
alongwithgypsiesandJews,weremurderedbytheAxisalignedCroatianUstaeinYugoslavia,[325]and
retributionrelatedkillingswerecommittedjustafterthewarended.
InAsiaandthePacific,between3millionandmorethan10
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InAsiaandthePacific,between3millionandmorethan10
millioncivilians,mostlyChinese(estimatedat7.5million[326]),
werekilledbytheJapaneseoccupationforces.[327]Thebest
knownJapaneseatrocitywastheNankingMassacre,inwhich
fiftytothreehundredthousandChinesecivilianswererapedand
murdered.[328]MitsuyoshiHimetareportedthat2.7million
casualtiesoccurredduringtheSankSakusen.GeneralYasuji
OkamuraimplementedthepolicyinHeipeiandShantung.[329]
Axisforcesemployedbiologicalandchemicalweapons.The
ImperialJapaneseArmyusedavarietyofsuchweaponsduring
itsinvasionandoccupationofChina(seeUnit731)[330][331]and
inearlyconflictsagainsttheSoviets.[332]BoththeGermansand
Japanesetestedsuchweaponsagainstcivilians[333]and,
sometimesonprisonersofwar.[334]
Chineseciviliansbeingburiedalive
bysoldiersoftheImperialJapanese
Army,duringtheNankingMassacre,
December1937
TheSovietUnionwasresponsiblefortheKatynmassacreof22,000Polishofficers,[335]andthe
imprisonmentorexecutionofthousandsofpoliticalprisonersbytheNKVD,[336]intheBalticstates,and
easternPolandannexedbytheRedArmy.
Themassbombingofcivilianareas,notablythecitiesofWarsaw,RotterdamandLondonincludingthe
aerialtargetingofhospitalsandfleeingrefugees[337]bytheGermanLuftwaffe,alongwiththebombing
ofTokyo,andGermancitiesofDresden,HamburgandColognebytheWesternAlliesmaybeconsidered
aswarcrimes.Thelatterresultedinthedestructionofmorethan160citiesandthedeathofmorethan
600,000Germancivilians.[338]However,nopositiveorspecificcustomaryinternationalhumanitarian
lawwithrespecttoaerialwarfareexistedbeforeorduringWorldWarII.[339]
Concentrationcamps,slavelabour,andgenocide
TheGermangovernmentledbyAdolfHitlerandtheNaziPartywasresponsiblefortheHolocaust,the
killingofapproximately6millionJews,aswellas2.7millionethnicPoles,[340]and4millionotherswho
weredeemed"unworthyoflife"(includingthedisabledandmentallyill,Sovietprisonersofwar,
homosexuals,Freemasons,Jehovah'sWitnesses,andRomani)aspartofaprogrammeofdeliberate
extermination.About12million,mostofwhomwereEasternEuropeans,wereemployedintheGerman
wareconomyasforcedlabourers.[341]
InadditiontoNaziconcentrationcamps,theSovietgulags(labourcamps)ledtothedeathofcitizensof
occupiedcountriessuchasPoland,Lithuania,Latvia,andEstonia,aswellasGermanprisonersofwar
(POWs)andevenSovietcitizenswhohadbeenorwerethoughttobesupportersoftheNazis.[342]Sixty
percentofSovietPOWsoftheGermansdiedduringthewar.[343]RichardOverygivesthenumberof5.7
millionSovietPOWs.Ofthose,57percentdiedorwerekilled,atotalof3.6million.[344]Sovietex
POWsandrepatriatedciviliansweretreatedwithgreatsuspicion
aspotentialNazicollaborators,andsomeofthemweresenttothe
GulaguponbeingcheckedbytheNKVD.[345]
Japaneseprisonerofwar
camps,manyofwhich
wereusedaslabour
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wereusedaslabour
camps,alsohadhigh
deathrates.The
InternationalMilitary
Prisoneridentityphotographtakenby
TribunalfortheFarEast
theGermanSSofafourteenyearold
foundthedeathrateof
Polishgirl,deportedasforcedlabour
Westernprisonerswas
SSfemalecampguardsremove
toAuschwitz,December1942
27.1percent(for
prisoners'bodiesfromlorriesand
AmericanPOWs,37
carrythemtoamassgrave,insidethe
percent),[346]seventimes
GermanBergenBelsenconcentration
camp,1945
thatofPOWsundertheGermansandItalians.[347]While37,583
prisonersfromtheUK,28,500fromtheNetherlands,and14,473
fromtheUnitedStateswerereleasedafterthesurrenderofJapan,thenumberofChinesereleasedwas
only56.[348]
AccordingtohistorianZhifenJu,atleastfivemillionChineseciviliansfromnorthernChinaand
Manchukuowereenslavedbetween1935and1941bytheEastAsiaDevelopmentBoard,orKain,for
workinminesandwarindustries.After1942,thenumberreached10million.[349]TheUSLibraryof
CongressestimatesthatinJava,between4and10millionromusha(Japanese:"manuallaborers"),were
forcedtoworkbytheJapanesemilitary.About270,000oftheseJavaneselabourersweresenttoother
JapaneseheldareasinSouthEastAsia,andonly52,000wererepatriatedtoJava.[350]
On19February1942,RooseveltsignedExecutiveOrder9066,interningabout100,000Japaneseliving
ontheWestCoast.Canadahadasimilarprogram.[351][352]Inaddition,14,000GermanandItalian
citizenswhohadbeenassessedasbeingsecurityriskswerealsointerned.[353]
InaccordancewiththeAlliedagreementmadeattheYaltaConferencemillionsofPOWsandcivilians
wereusedasforcedlabourbytheSovietUnion.[354]InHungary'scase,Hungarianswereforcedtowork
fortheSovietUnionuntil1955.[355]
Occupation
InEurope,occupationcameundertwoforms.InWestern,NorthernandCentralEurope(France,Norway,
Denmark,theLowCountries,andtheannexedportionsofCzechoslovakia)Germanyestablished
economicpoliciesthroughwhichitcollectedroughly69.5billionreichmarks(27.8billionUSDollars)
bytheendofthewar,thisfiguredoesnotincludethesizeableplunderofindustrialproducts,military
equipment,rawmaterialsandothergoods.[356]Thus,theincomefromoccupiednationswasover40
percentoftheincomeGermanycollectedfromtaxation,afigurewhichincreasedtonearly40percentof
totalGermanincomeasthewarwenton.[357]
IntheEast,themuchhopedforbountiesofLebensraumwereneverattainedasfluctuatingfrontlines
andSovietscorchedearthpoliciesdeniedresourcestotheGermaninvaders.[358]UnlikeintheWest,the
Naziracialpolicyencouragedexcessivebrutalityagainstwhatitconsideredtobethe"inferiorpeople"of
Slavicdescentmost
Germanadvanceswere
thusfollowedbymass
executions.[359]Although
resistancegroupsformed
inmostoccupied
territories,theydidnot
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RussianAcademyofSciencesin1995
reportedcivilianvictimsintheUSSR
atGermanhandstotaled13.7million
dead,20%ofthe68millionpersons
intheoccupiedUSSR
territories,theydidnot
significantlyhamper
Germanoperationsin
eithertheEast[360]orthe
West[361]untillate1943.
Polishcivilianswearingblindfolds
photographedjustbeforetheir
executionbyGermansoldiersin
Palmiryforest,1940
InAsia,Japantermed
nationsunderitsoccupationasbeingpartoftheGreaterEastAsia
CoProsperitySphere,essentiallyaJapanesehegemonywhichitclaimedwasforpurposesofliberating
colonisedpeoples.[362]AlthoughJapaneseforceswereoriginallywelcomedasliberatorsfromEuropean
dominationinsometerritories,theirexcessivebrutalityturnedlocalpublicopinionagainstthemwithin
weeks.[363]DuringJapan'sinitialconquestitcaptured4,000,000barrels(640,000m3)ofoil(~5.5105
tonnes)leftbehindbyretreatingAlliedforces,andby1943wasabletogetproductionintheDutchEast
Indiesupto50millionbarrels(~6.8 106t),76percentofits1940outputrate.[363]
Homefrontsandproduction
InEurope,beforetheoutbreakofthewar,the
Allieshadsignificantadvantagesinboth
populationandeconomics.In1938,theWestern
Allies(UnitedKingdom,France,Polandand
BritishDominions)hada30percentlarger
populationanda30percenthighergross
domesticproductthantheEuropeanAxis
(GermanyandItaly)ifcoloniesareincluded,it
thengivestheAlliesmorethana5:1advantage
inpopulationandnearly2:1advantagein
GDP.[364]InAsiaatthesametime,Chinahad
roughlysixtimesthepopulationofJapan,but
onlyan89percenthigherGDPthisisreduced
tothreetimesthepopulationandonlya38
percenthigherGDPifJapanesecoloniesare
included.[364]
AlliedtoAxisGDPratio
ThoughtheAllies'economicandpopulationadvantageswerelargelymitigatedduringtheinitialrapid
blitzkriegattacksofGermanyandJapan,theybecamethedecisivefactorby1942,aftertheUnitedStates
andSovietUnionjoinedtheAllies,asthewarlargelysettledintooneofattrition.[365]WhiletheAllies'
abilitytooutproducetheAxisisoftenattributedtotheAllieshavingmoreaccesstonaturalresources,
otherfactors,suchasGermanyandJapan'sreluctancetoemploywomeninthelabourforce,[366]Allied
strategicbombing,[367]andGermany'slateshifttoawareconomy[368]contributedsignificantly.
Additionally,neitherGermanynorJapanplannedtofightaprotractedwar,andwerenotequippedtodo
so.[369]Toimprovetheirproduction,GermanyandJapanusedmillionsofslavelabourers[370]Germany
usedabout12millionpeople,mostlyfromEasternEurope,[341]whileJapanusedmorethan18million
peopleinFarEastAsia.[349][350]
Advancesintechnologyandwarfare
Aircraftwereusedforreconnaissance,asfighters,bombers,and
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Aircraftwereusedforreconnaissance,asfighters,bombers,and
groundsupport,andeachrolewasadvancedconsiderably.
Innovationincludedairlift(thecapabilitytoquicklymove
limitedhighprioritysupplies,equipment,andpersonnel)[371]
andofstrategicbombing(thebombingofenemyindustrialand
populationcentrestodestroytheenemy'sabilitytowage
war).[372]Antiaircraftweaponryalsoadvanced,including
defencessuchasradarandsurfacetoairartillery,suchasthe
German88mmgun.Theuseofthejetaircraftwaspioneered
and,thoughlateintroductionmeantithadlittleimpact,itledto
jetsbecomingstandardinairforcesworldwide.[373]
B29Superfortressstrategicbombers
ontheBoeingassemblylinein
Wichita,Kansas,1944
Advancesweremadeinnearlyeveryaspectofnavalwarfare,
mostnotablywithaircraftcarriersandsubmarines.Although
aeronauticalwarfarehadrelativelylittlesuccessatthestartofthewar,actionsatTaranto,PearlHarbor,
andtheCoralSeaestablishedthecarrierasthedominantcapitalshipinplaceofthe
battleship.[374][375][376]
IntheAtlantic,escortcarriersprovedtobeavitalpartofAlliedconvoys,increasingtheeffective
protectionradiusandhelpingtoclosetheMidAtlanticgap.[377]Carrierswerealsomoreeconomicalthan
battleshipsbecauseoftherelativelylowcostofaircraft[378]andtheirnotrequiringtobeasheavily
armoured.[379]Submarines,whichhadprovedtobeaneffectiveweaponduringtheFirstWorldWar,[380]
wereanticipatedbyallsidestobeimportantinthesecond.TheBritishfocuseddevelopmentonanti
submarineweaponryandtactics,suchassonarandconvoys,whileGermanyfocusedonimprovingits
offensivecapability,withdesignssuchastheTypeVIIsubmarineandwolfpacktactics.[381]Gradually,
improvingAlliedtechnologiessuchastheLeighlight,hedgehog,squid,andhomingtorpedoesproved
victorious.
LandwarfarechangedfromthestaticfrontlinesofWorldWarItoincreasedmobilityandcombined
arms.Thetank,whichhadbeenusedpredominantlyforinfantrysupportintheFirstWorldWar,had
evolvedintotheprimaryweapon.[382]Inthelate1930s,tankdesignwasconsiderablymoreadvanced
thanithadbeenduringWorldWarI,[383]andadvancescontinuedthroughoutthewarwithincreasesin
speed,armourandfirepower.
Atthestartofthewar,mostcommandersthoughtenemytanksshouldbemetbytankswithsuperior
specifications.[384]Thisideawaschallengedbythepoorperformanceoftherelativelylightearlytank
gunsagainstarmour,andGermandoctrineofavoidingtankversustankcombat.This,alongwith
Germany'suseofcombinedarms,wereamongthekeyelementsoftheirhighlysuccessfulblitzkrieg
tacticsacrossPolandandFrance.[382]Manymeansofdestroyingtanks,includingindirectartillery,anti
tankguns(bothtowedandselfpropelled),mines,shortrangedinfantryantitankweapons,andother
tankswereutilised.[384]Evenwithlargescalemechanisation,infantryremainedthebackboneofall
forces,[385]andthroughoutthewar,mostinfantrywereequippedsimilarlytoWorldWarI.[386]
Theportablemachinegun
spread,anotableexample
beingtheGermanMG34,
andvarioussubmachine
gunswhichweresuitedto
closecombatinurbanand
junglesettings.[386]The
assaultrifle,alatewar
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assaultrifle,alatewar
developmentincorporating
manyfeaturesoftherifle
andsubmachinegun,
becamethestandardpostwar
infantryweaponformost
armedforces.[387][388]
NuclearGadgetbeingraisedtothetop
ofthedetonationtower,at
AlamogordoBombingRangeTrinity
nucleartest,July1945
AV2rocketlaunchedfroma
fixedsiteinPeenemnde,1943
Mostmajorbelligerentsattemptedtosolvetheproblemsof
complexityandsecurityinvolvedinusinglargecodebooksfor
cryptographybydesigningcipheringmachines,themostwellknown
[389]
beingtheGermanEnigmamachine.
DevelopmentofSIGINT(signalsintelligence)andcryptanalysis
enabledthecounteringprocessofdecryption.NotableexamplesweretheAllieddecryptionofJapanese
navalcodes[390]andBritishUltra,apioneeringmethodfordecodingEnigmabenefitingfrominformation
giventoBritainbythePolishCipherBureau,whichhadbeendecodingearlyversionsofEnigmabefore
thewar.[391]Anotheraspectofmilitaryintelligencewastheuseofdeception,whichtheAlliesusedto
greateffect,suchasinoperationsMincemeatandBodyguard.[390][392]Othertechnologicaland
engineeringfeatsachievedduring,orasaresultof,thewarincludetheworld'sfirstprogrammable
computers(Z3,Colossus,andENIAC),guidedmissilesandmodernrockets,theManhattanProject's
developmentofnuclearweapons,operationsresearchandthedevelopmentofartificialharboursandoil
pipelinesundertheEnglishChannel.[393]
Seealso
AirwarfareofWorldWarII
BibliographyofWorldWarII
DeclarationsofwarduringWorldWarII
HistoriographyofWorldWarII
HomefrontduringWorldWarII
ListofWorldWarIIbattles
ListofWorldWarIIconferences
ListofWorldWarIImilitaryoperations
WomeninWorldWarII
WorldWarIIinpopularculture
ListofWorldWarIIfilms
Documentaries
SeealsoListofWorldWarIIdocumentaryfilms
TheWorldWars(miniseries)TheWorldWarsisathreepart,sixhoureventminiseriesbythe
HistoryChannelthatpremieredonMonday,May26,2014,(MemorialDay)airingforthree
consecutivenights.Anextendedversionoftheserieswithneverbeforeseenfootagewas
subsequentlybroadcastonH2andinmorethan160countriesonJune22,2014
Apocalypse:TheSecondWorldWar(2009),asixpartFrenchdocumentarybyDanielCostelleand
IsabelleClarkeaboutWorldWarII
Battlefield,adocumentarytelevisionseriesinitiallyissuedin19945,thatexploresmany
importantWorldWarIIbattles
BBCHistoryofWorldWarII,atelevisionseries,initiallyissuedfrom1989to2005.
TheWorldatWar(1974),a26partThamesTelevisionseriesthatcoversmostaspectsofWorld
WarIIfrommanypointsofview.ItincludesinterviewswithmanykeyfiguresincludingKarl
Dnitz,AlbertSpeer,andAnthonyEden.
29/47
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Notes
a.VariousotherdateshavebeenproposedasthedateonwhichWorldWarIIbeganorended.
b.Uponhisdeathin1989,EmperorHirohitowasposthumouslyproclaimedEmperorShwa.Whileeitheruseis
consideredacceptable,hisEnglishname(Hirohito)isusedhereasitisthisnamebywhichhewasknownto
mostoftheWestduringWorldWarII.
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4.Sommerville2011,p.5.
5.Barrett&Shyu2001,p.6.
6.Axelrod,Alan(2007)EncyclopediaofWorldWar
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7.TheUNSecurityCouncil,retrieved15May2012
8.HermanVanRompuy,PresidentoftheEuropean
CouncilJosManuelDuroBarroso,Presidentof
theEuropeanCommission(10December2012).
"FromWartoPeace:AEuropeanTale".Nobel
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9.Weinberg,GerhardL.(2005)AWorldatArms:A
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10.Wells,AnneSharp(2014)HistoricalDictionary
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11.Frster&Gessler2005,p.64.
12.Ghuhl,Wernar(2007)ImperialJapan'sWorld
WarTwoTransactionPublisherspg7,pg.30
13.Polmar,NormanThomasB.Allen(1991)World
WarII:Americaatwar,19411945ISBN978
0394585307
14.BenHorin1943,p.169Taylor1979,p.124
Yisreelit,HevrahMizrahit(1965).Asianand
AfricanStudies,p.191.
For1941seeTaylor1961,p.viiKellogg,
WilliamO(2003).AmericanHistorytheEasy
Way.Barron'sEducationalSeries.p.236ISBN0
764119737.
ThereisalsotheviewpointthatbothWorldWarI
andWorldWarIIarepartofthesame"European
CivilWar"or"SecondThirtyYearsWar":
Canfora2006,p.155Prins2002,p.11.
15.Beevor2012,p.10.
16.Masaya1990,p.4.
17."HistoryofGermanAmericanRelations1989
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usa.usembassy.de.Retrieved6May2012.
18.Ingram2006,pp.768(https://books.google.com/
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20.Shaw2000,p.35.
21.Brody1999,p.4.
22.Dawood&Mitra2012.
23.Zalampas1989,p.62.
24.Mandelbaum1988,p.96Record2005,p.50.
25.Schmitz2000,p.124.
26.Adamthwaite1992,p.52.
27.Preston1998,p.104.
28.Myers&Peattie1987,p.458.
29.Smith&Steadman2004,p.28.
30.Coogan1993:"AlthoughsomeChinesetroopsin
theNortheastmanagedtoretreatsouth,others
weretrappedbytheadvancingJapaneseArmyand
werefacedwiththechoiceofresistancein
defianceoforders,orsurrender.Afew
commanderssubmitted,receivinghighofficein
thepuppetgovernment,butotherstookuparms
againsttheinvader.Theforcestheycommanded
werethefirstofthevolunteerarmies."
59."Majorinternationaleventsof1939,with
explanation".ibiblio.org.Retrieved15May2013.
60.Evans2008,pp.12.
61.Jackson2006,p.58.
62.Weinberg2005,pp.645.
63.Keegan1997,p.35.
Cienciala2010,p.128,observesthat,whileitis
truethatPolandwasfaraway,makingitdifficult
fortheFrenchandBritishtoprovidesupport,"
30/47
4/6/2016
werethefirstofthevolunteerarmies."
31.Busky2002,p.10.
32.AndreaL.Stanton,EdwardRamsamy,PeterJ.
Seybolt.CulturalSociologyoftheMiddleEast,
Asia,andAfrica:AnEncyclopedia.p.308.
Retrieved20140406.
33.Barker1971,pp.1312.
34.Kitson2001,p.231.
35.Beevor2006,pp.25860.
TonyJudtsaidthatthe"communiststrategyin
Spainturnsouttohavebeenadryrunforthe
seizureofpowerinEasternEuropeafter1945."
SeeJudt&Snyder2012,p.190.
36.Budiansky2004,pp.20911.
37.Payne2008.
38.Eastman1986,pp.54751.
39.Levene,MarkandRoberts,Penny.TheMassacre
inHistory.1999,page2234
40.Totten,Samuel.DictionaryofGenocide.2008,
2989.
41.Hsu&Chang1971,pp.221230.
42.Eastman1986,p.566.
43.Taylor2009,pp.1502.
44.Sella1983,pp.65187.
45.Goldman,StuartD.(28August2012)."The
ForgottenSovietJapaneseWarof1939".The
Diplomat.Retrieved26June2015.
46.TimothyNeeno."Nomonhan:TheSecondRusso
JapaneseWar".MilitaryHistoryOnline.com.
Retrieved26June2015.
47.Collier&Pedley2000,p.144.
48.Kershaw2001,pp.1212.
49.Kershaw2001,p.157.
50.Davies2008,pp.1434.
51.Lowe&Marzari2002,p.330.
52.Dear&Foot2001,p.234.
53.Shore2003,p.108.
54.Dear&Foot2001,p.608.
55.MinutesoftheconferencebetweentheFuehrer
andtheItalianMinisterforForeignAffairs,Count
Ciano,inthepresenceoftheReichForeign
MinisterofObersalzbergon12August1939(htt
p://avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/1871ps.asp)inNazi
ConspiracyandAggressionVolumeIVDocument
No.1871PS
56."TheGermanCampaignInPoland(1939)".
Retrieved29October2014.
57.http://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=162
58.http://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=162
94.Umbreit1991,p.311.
95.Brown2004,p.xxx.
96.Keegan1997,p.72(https://books.google.com/boo
ks?id=TF8kcx9hTssC&pg=PA72)
97.Murray1983,TheBattleofBritain(http://www.ib
iblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/AAFLuftwaffe/AAFLuf
twaffe2.html#cn70)
98."Majorinternationaleventsof1940,with
explanation".ibiblio.org.Retrieved15May2013.
99.Goldstein2004,p.35.
fortheFrenchandBritishtoprovidesupport,"
[f]ewWesternhistoriansofWorldWarII...know
thattheBritishhadcommittedtobombGermany
ifitattackedPoland,butdidnotdosoexceptfor
oneraidonthebaseofWilhelmshafen.The
French,whocommittedtoattackGermanyinthe
west,hadnointentionofdoingso."
64.Beevor2012,p.32Dear&Foot2001,pp.2489
Roskill1954,p.64.
65.Zaloga2002,pp.80,83.
66.Hempel2005,p.24.
67.Zaloga2002,pp.889.
68.Budiansky2001,pp.1201.
69.NurembergDocumentsC62/GB86,adirective
fromHitlerinOctober1939whichconcludes:
"Theattack[onFrance]istobelaunchedthis
Autumnifconditionsareatallpossible."
70.LiddellHart1977,pp.3940
71.Hitler:aStudyinTyranny,ABullock,Penguin,
1983,p5634,566,5689,5745
72.Blitzkrieg:FromtheRiseofHitlertotheFallof
Dunkirk,LDeighton,JonathanCape,1993,p186
7.Deightonstatesthat"theoffensivewas
postponedtwentyninetimesbeforeitfinallytook
place."
73.Smithetal.2002,p.24
74.Bilinsky1999,p.9.
75.Murray&Millett2001,pp.556.
76.Spring1986.
77.Hanhimki1997,p.12.
78.Ferguson2006,pp.367,376,379,417
79.Snyder2010,p.118ff.
80.Koch1983.
81.Roberts2006,p.56.
82.Roberts2006,p.59.
84.Commager2004,p.9.
85.Reynolds2006,p.76.
86.Evans2008,pp.1223.
87.Dear&Foot2001,p.436.
TheAmericanslaterrelievedtheBritish,with
marinesarrivinginReykjavikon7July1941
(Schofield1981,p.122).
88.Shirer1990,pp.7213.
89.Keegan1997,pp.5960.
90.Regan2004,p.152.
91.LiddellHart1977,p.48
92.Keegan1997,pp.667.
93.Overy&Wheatcroft1999,p.207.
129.Erickson2003,pp.11437.
130.Glantz2001,p.9.
131.Farrell1993.
132.Keeble1990,p.29.
133.BuenodeMesquitaetal.2003,p.425
134.Beevor2012,p.220.
135.Kleinfeld1983.
136.Jukes2001,p.113.
137.Glantz2001,p.26:"By1November[the
Wehrmacht]hadlostfully20%ofitscommitted31/47
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99.Goldstein2004,p.35.
Aircraftplayedahighlyimportantrolein
defeatingtheGermanUboats(Schofield1981,
p.122).
100.Steury1987,p.209Zetterling&Tamelander
2009,p.282.
101.Dear&Foot2001,pp.1089.
102.Overy&Wheatcroft1999,pp.32830.
103.Maingot1994,p.52.
104.Cantril1940,p.390.
105.CoordinationWithBritain(http://www.ibiblio.org/
hyperwar/USA/USAWDPlans/USAWDPlans1
2.html)ChiefofStaff:PrewarPlansand
Operations
106.Bilhartz&Elliott2007,p.179.
107.Dear&Foot2001,p.877.
108.Dear&Foot2001,pp.7456.
109.Clogg2002,p.118.
110.Evans2008,pp.146,152USArmy1986,pp.4
6(http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/balka
n/20_260_1.htm)
111.Jowett2001,pp.910.
112.Jackson2006,p.106.
113.Laurier2001,pp.78.
115.Macksey1997,pp.613.
116.Weinberg2005,p.229.
117.Watson2003,p.80.
118.Jackson2006,p.154.
119.Garver1988,p.114.
120.Weinberg2005,p.195
121.Murray1983,p.69(http://www.ibiblio.org/hyper
war/AAF/AAFLuftwaffe/AAFLuftwaffe3.html)
122.Klooz,MarleWiley,Evelyn(1944),"1941",
EventsleadinguptoWorldWarII:Chronological
historyofcertainmajorinternationalevents
leadinguptoandduringWorldWarIIwiththe
ostensiblereasonsadvancedfortheiroccurrence
19311944,78thCongress,2dSession,
Humphrey,RichardA,Washington:UnitedStates
GovernmentPrintingOffice,HouseDocumentNo.
541
123.Sella1978.
124.Kershaw2007,pp.669.
125.Steinberg1995.
126.Hauner1978.
127.Roberts1995.
128.Wilt1981.
Wehrmacht]hadlostfully20%ofitscommitted
strength(686,000men),upto2/3ofitsmillion
motorvehicles,and65percentofitstanks.The
GermanArmyHighCommand(OKH)ratedits
136divisionsasequivalentto83fullstrength
divisions."
138.Reinhardt1992,p.227.
139.Milward1964.
140.Rotundo1986.
141.Glantz2001,p.26.
142.Garthoff1969.
143.Beevor1998,pp.412.
Evans2008,pp.2134,notesthat"Zhukovhad
pushedtheGermansbacktothepointfromwhich
theyhadlaunchedOperationTyphoontwomonths
before....OnlyStalin'sdecisiontoattackallalong
thefrontinsteadofpushinghometheadvantage
byconcentratinghisforcesinanalloutassault
againsttheretreatingGermanyArmyGroup
Centrepreventedthedisasterfrombeingeven
worse."
144.Jowett&Andrew2002,p.14.
145.Overy&Wheatcroft1999,p.289
146.Morison2002,p.60.
147.Joes2004,p.224.
148.Fairbank&Goldman2006,p.320.
149.Hsu&Chang1971,p.30.
150.Hsu&Chang1971,p.33.
151.JapanesePolicyandStrategy,1931July1941(ht
tp://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USAPStrate
gy/Strategy2.html)StrategyandCommand:The
FirstTwoYears
152.Anderson1975,p.201.
153.Evans&Peattie2012,p.456.
154.TheDecisionforWar(http://www.ibiblio.org/hyp
erwar/USA/USAPStrategy/Strategy5.html)
StrategyandCommand:TheFirstTwoYears
155.TheShowdownWithJapanAugustDecember
1941(http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA
WDStrategic1/USAWDStrategic14.html)
StrategicPlanningforCoalitionWarfare,1941
1942
156.THEUNITEDSTATESREPLIES(http://www.ib
iblio.org/pha/pha/congress/appd.html#363)
InvestigationofthePearlHarborattack
157.Painter2012,p.26:"TheUnitedStatescutoffoil
exportstoJapaninthesummerof1941,forcing
Japaneseleaderstochoosebetweengoingtowar
toseizetheoilfieldsoftheNetherlandsEast
IndiesorgivingintoU.S.pressure."
Wood2007,p.9,listingvariousmilitaryand
diplomaticdevelopments,observesthat"thethreat
toJapanwasnotpurelyeconomic."
158.Lightbody2004,p.125.
159.Weinberg2005,p.310.
170.Beevor2012,pp.247267,345.
171.Lewis1953,p.529(Table11).
172.Slim1956,pp.7174.
173.Grove1995,p.362.
174.Ch'i1992,p.158.
175.Perez1998,p.145.
176.Maddox1992,pp.1112.
177.Salecker2001,p.186.
178.Ropp2000,p.368.
179.Weinberg2005,p.339.
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159.Weinberg2005,p.310.
Dower1986,p.5,callsattentiontothefactthat
"theAlliedstruggleagainstJapanexposedthe
racistunderpinningsoftheEuropeanand
Americancolonialstructure.Japandidnotinvade
independentcountriesinsouthernAsia.Itinvaded
colonialoutpostswhichtheWesternershad
dominatedforgenerations,takingabsolutelyfor
grantedtheirracialandculturalsuperiorityover
theirAsiansubjects."Dowergoesontonotethat,
beforethehorrorsofJapaneseoccupationmade
themselvesfelt,manyAsiansresponded
favourablytothevictoriesoftheImperial
Japaneseforces.
160.Wood2007,pp.112.
161.Wohlstetter1962,pp.3413.
162.Dunn1998,p.157.
AccordingtoMay1955,p.155,Churchillstated:
"RussiandeclarationofwaronJapanwouldbe
greatlytoouradvantage,provided,butonly
provided,thatRussiansareconfidentthatwillnot
impairtheirWesternFront."
163.AdolfHitler'sDeclarationofWaragainstthe
UnitedStatesinWikisource.
164.78Congress,2ndSession,HouseDocument541.
"EventsLeadingUptoWorldWarII...".United
StatesPrintingOffice.p.310.Retrieved
19October2015.
165.Mingst&Karns2007,p.22.
166.TheFirstFullDressDebateoverStrategic
DeploymentDecember1941January1942(htt
p://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USAWDStra
tegic1/USAWDStrategic15.html)Strategic
PlanningforCoalitionWarfare,19411942
167.TheEliminationoftheAlternativesJulyAugust
1942
168.CasablancaBeginningofanEra:January1943
(http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USAWD
Strategic2/USAWDStrategic21.html)Strategic
PlanningforCoalitionWarfare,19431944
169.TheTRIDENTConferenceNewPatterns:May
1944
179.Weinberg2005,p.339.
180.Gilbert,Adrian(2003).TheEncyclopediaof
Warfare:FromEarliestTimestothePresentDay.
GlobePequot.p.259.ISBN1592280277.
181.Swain2001,p.197.
182.Hane2001,p.340.
183.Marston2005,p.111.
184.Brayley2002,p.9.
185.Glantz2001,p.31.
186.Read2004,p.764.
187.Davies2008,p.100.
188.Beevor1998,pp.23965.
189.Black2003,p.119.
190.Beevor1998,pp.38391.
191.Erickson2001,p.142.
192.Milner1990,p.52.
193.Beevor2012,pp.2248.
194.Molinari2007,p.91.
195.Mitcham2007,p.31.
196.Beevor2012,pp.3801.
197.Rich1992,p.178.
198.Gordon2004,p.129.
199.Neillands2005,p.??.
200.Keegan1997,p.277.
201.Smith2002.
202.Thomas&Andrew1998,p.8.
203.Ross1997,p.38.
204.Bonner&Bonner2001,p.24.
205.Collier2003,p.11.
206."TheCivilians(http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/
AAF/USSBS/ETOSummary.html#tc)United
StatesStrategicBombingSurveySummaryReport
(EuropeanWar)
207.Thompson&Randall2008,p.164
208.Kennedy2001,p.610.
209.Rottman2002,p.228.
210.Glantz1986Glantz1989,pp.14959.
211.Kershaw2001,p.592.
212.O'Reilly2001,p.32.
213.Bellamy2007,p.595.
214.O'Reilly2001,p.35.
215.Healy1992,p.90.
216.Glantz2001,pp.5055.
217.Kolko1990,p.45:"OnSeptember3,asAllied
forceslandedinItaly,Badoglioagreedtoasecret
armisticeinthehopetheAllieswouldlanda
majorforcenorthofRomeandsavehis
governmentandtheking.Whenhelearnedsucha
rescuewouldnotoccurhedesperatelyattemptedto
calloffhisbargainwithEisenhower,whocut
shortthematteronSeptember8byannouncing
newsofitsexistence.Thenextdaytheheroof
Abyssinia,hisking,andasmallretinuedeserted
246."ArmisticeNegotiationsandSovietOccupation".
USLibraryofCongress.Retrieved14November
2009."ThecoupspeededtheRedArmy'sadvance,
andtheSovietUnionlaterawardedMichaelthe
OrderofVictoryforhispersonalcouragein
overthrowingAntonescuandputtinganendto
Romania'swaragainsttheAllies.Western
historiansuniformlypointoutthatthe
Communistsplayedonlyasupportingroleinthe
couppostwarRomanianhistorians,however,
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Abyssinia,hisking,andasmallretinuedeserted
RomeforthesoutheasttipofItaly,leavingmost
ofItalytotheNazis."
218.Mazower2008,p.362.
219.Hart,Hart&Hughes2000,p.151.
220.Blinkhorn2006,p.52.
221.Read&Fisher2002,p.129.
222.Padfield1998,pp.3356.
223.Kolko1990,pp.211,235,2678.
224.Iriye1981,p.154.
225.Polley2000,p.148.
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Despitemechanicalengineeringproblemsithadall
36/47
4/6/2016
Despitemechanicalengineeringproblemsithadall
thebasicingredientsofmodernmachines,using
thebinarysystemandtoday'sstandardseparation
ofstorageandcontrol.Zuse's1936patent
application(Z23139/GMDNr.005/021)also
suggestsavonNeumannarchitecture(reinvented
in1945)withprogrammeanddatamodifiablein
storage"
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