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185
ABSTRACT
Akoto, B.K.A. and Singh, G., 1981. Some geotechnical properties of a lime-stabilized
laterite containing a high proportion of aluminium oxide. Eng. Geol., 17: 185--199.
The engineering properties of many soils can be improved by lime stabilization. Not all
such soils, however, show improved strength. Such non-reactive soils will show no strength
increase regardless of lime type and percentage, curing environment and duration of
treatment.
The type and amount of minerals and elements may either facilitate or inhibit increase
in strength. The strength of soils possessing high proportions of aluminium oxide could
be reduced when stabilized with lime and cured over a long period at a high temperature.
This decrease in strength is due to the type o f reaction products formed.
A Kenyan laterite with a high proportion of aluminium oxide was stabilized with
different percentages of lime and cured over periods of up to 28 days. The results show
that with a lower percentage of lime, the unconfined strength decreases with increase in
curing time. However, when the amount o f lime is increased, there is an increase in
strength with curing time. The immediate California Bearing Ratio (C.B.R.) values are
observed to be functions of density and moisture content. The higher the density, the
greater the C.B.R. values.
INTRODUCTION
186
The soil was red-brownish laterite imported from Kenya. The main constituent minerals were quartz, feldspar, kaolinite, gibbsite and mica (Fig.l).
The main elements in the soil were oxides of silica,aluminiurn and iron, which
form more than 80% by weight of the total elements in the soil.These and
other elements present in the soil are shown in Table I. The stabilizingage;~t
used was commercial-grade white calcium hydrated lime.
Legend :
K - Kaolin
F, - Oibbsife
O - oL Quartzite
F - Feldspar
"
O
/
K F
rV~
20 (CU Kcr. r a d i a t i o n l
187
TABLE I
Results from chemical analysis by x-ray fluorescence of the fraction < 5 mm
Elements
% by weight
SiO2
A1203
Fe203
TiO:
MnO
MgO
CaO
K~O
31.22
26.83
22.42
1.21
1.61
0.38
0.55
0.30
0.24
0.54
15.06
P2Os
NaO
Water loss in fusion
Total
100.33
TESTING PROCEDURES
The soil was mixed thoroughly and then air-dried at room temperature.
The soil was then sieved through 5 mm sieve. The retained component was
discarded. Such preliminary values as consistency limit, specific gravity and
pH were measured. The static tests performed on both the natural and the
stabilized soft included compaction, California Bearing Ratio (C.B.R.) and
the Unconfined Compressive Strength (U.C.). All tests were performed
according to B.S. 1377 (1975) and 1924 (1975). Homogeneous mixtures
were obtained by blending the required amount of lime with the air-dried
soil in a mechanical mixer for three minutes. Water was then added and mixing continued for about seven minutes.
188
(a) A very thin film of grease was smeared in the mould before compaction.
(b) Compaction was done in t w o stages; first, manually in four layers,
each layer b.eing tapped by a rod fifteen times, the surface of each layer
being scarified before the n e x t layer was put on, so as to obtain a good bond
between layers.
After this initial compaction, the mould with its end caps in position was
placed under a universal compression machine and the sample compacted
from both ends o f the mould at a compression rate of 1 mm per minute. The
samples were extruded from the mould, waxed and stored in an oven kept at
a temperature of 28C + 2C. At each stabilizer content, at least three specimens were tested after 1, 7, 14 and 28 days of curing.
TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The result o f the particle-size distribution tests is shown in Fig.2. The dispersing agent used was sodium hexametaphosphate, which is considered to
be the best dispersing agent for laterite (Gidigasu, 1976). Increasing the
concentration from 2.5% to 5% decreased the clay content by 6%, with
slight changes in the other particle sizes. This change may be attributed to
the fact that the higher concentration causes agglomeration of the smaller
particles.
u,'~ o
oO
100
~t~
..tt o
c o r~. o t ~
ucb
I:i
90
71
80
70
7,
X:
I/l!
60
50
z.O
30
20
10
0
00001
kfldTl 11 Ii
0.001
0 01
01
10
Porticle S~ze (ram)
A - 2 5m11
B - 5 0 m l l "Sdium HexometQphosphafe
C-Originaal Soil
i
10
100
189
A tterberg limits
Two methods, the Casagrande method and the cone penetrometer
method, were used to determine the liquid limit of the soil samples after 1 h
and 24 h o f curing. The results are shown in Fig.3. The values of the liquid
limit from the c o n e p e n e t r o m e t e r method were, at all times, lower than
those obtained by the Casagrande device. Whilst the two curing methods did
not differ much in their effects on the plastic limit, samples cured for 1 h had
liquid limits greater at all lime contents than those cured for 24 h.
Specific gravity
This was found to be 2.62 and 2.71 for samples passing through 2 m m
and 5 m m sieves, respectively. The iron concentration in the larger particle
sizes was responsible for the higher values of the specific gravity in the
bigger sizes. These and other engineering properties of the soil are shown in
Table II.
60
\\
50'
Liquid
Limff
,~/*(
._--e Plastic Limit
~- 3o
10
Cnsagr'ande
"~I hr
o Cone PenetrometerJ
c~ C a s a q r a n d e
2/, hrs.
Cone -Penefrometer
~J"
30
2C
hr curing
24 hrs curing
Lime Content
190
TABLE II
Some engineering properties of Kenyan laterite
Liquid limit (%)
Plastic limit (%)
Plasticity index
Mod.AASHO max. Dry Density (kg/m 3)
(ib./ft 3)
Optimum moisture content (%)
Specific gravity < 2 mm
< 5 mm
pH
49.2
29.7
19.5
1760
109.6
19.7
2.62
2.71
5.3
191
1800
0%
3%
5%
7%
10%
'"~"\
\
1780
Lime
Lime
Lime
Lime
Lime
\
\
1760
\"
\
\
\
17/,0
\\
-- 1720
1700
~3
\\
16
1~8
2'0
2'2
Moisture Content {%}
1680
1660
16~0
1/.
__i
21,
calcium silicate hydrates which link the clay particles together. This happens
as a result of an immediate reaction occurring between the alumina-bearing
edges of clay particles and the lime adsorbed on the faces of adjacent
particles. Diamond and Kinter, however, admit that the formation of
hydrates does not lend itself to easy demonstration. Van Ganse (1974) attributes the amelioration of the soil properties to the formation of the softs
into crumbs which retain their individuality when the lime--soil mixture is
kneaded and compacted.
It does appear that the amelioration is due to the flocculation and agglomeration of the soil when mixed with lime, resulting in the formation of
soil crumbs; and possibly the formation of calcium alumina and calcium silica
hydrates, which help to link the clay particles together. The reaction
products formed are neither stable nor complete and by themselves are not
responsible for the strength increase.
It could be concluded that the immediate CBR values are functions of
both moisture content and dry density. The higher the dry density, the
greater the CBR value o f the stabilized soil. Jan and Walker (1963) have also
observed that both the immediate CBR and the cured CBR are functions of
both density and moisture content. There are optimal moisture contents
and compactive efforts for m a x i m u m strength.
192
1800
0% Lime
mo
-= ~72o
}
16~0
= 16
16
10
20
3% L,me
,o
20
60
ao
~o ~
0o
30
so
20 m
~.0
10
30
20~f16
~7oo
'
c~
1680
18 20 2~1660'2"" ~
Molstut~ Content (%)
24
5% Lime
1001
/,'~
1720~
~ 00
1~9of
:,0
:::{
~o
:= o
Moisture Content f % l
10% Lime
7"/.t,me
1690
70~J".'~.
-- 1720
1"
80
~ 1700
50
11670 ~,
--
60~ 40t/
c~ 1660
~0 ~ 30
c~
00
16~,01
~,~.
t1080 ~_
~
1650 c~
16,0 ~
10
00 21 22 23
Hoisfur~ Content (%)
Fig.5. Relationships among moisture content, dry density and immediate California
80
'.........
6O
~ :\
L_a
~0
Lime Content
......
20
;3
o%
---
r/.
--
s%
....
105/o
'...
~\:.
,_
".,
~\ ~ \
"-.,
\,A\
........
15
1A7
19
21
Moisture Content (%)
..\\
2'3
2s
193
100
80
/60
\ \ \ ) , 0,0
\.:
s% Lime
f2::
~0
7% Lime
\
~10% Lime
20
-2
-1
OPT. +1
Moisture Confenf
*2
194
900
"~10%
800
7%
7oc
z
5%
~600
500
......---e3O/o
~oo
300
r
200
1/*
Age(days)
--0%
2=1
2'8
Fig.8. Relationship between Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) and age at various
lime contents.
8I
100
lI = ~ - "
700
90_
600
o
80
500
.
70 ocu
c~
CO
~oo
g 30o
2o
_o
(a}
UC.S.
'
(b) - - ~
CB.R.
60
~
t_,
;.
;,
LimeContent {/o)
1~
Fi~.9. Relationship between lime content and: (a) one-day UCS, and (b) immediate
195
150
J
f
J
/
I~0
/ 10% Lime
f p
130
p,-J
/
120
11o
2
loo
aJ
r~
90
80
" ' ~ 3 %
70
Age (days.)
Lime
2'1
Mitchell and Hooper (1961} have pointed o u t that if there were a "perm a n e n t " cementing reaction at an early stage of mixing lime with soil, then
delay between mixing and compaction should adversely affect the strength
of the final products as happens in the case of soil-cement. It has been
reported that the time lapse between mixing and compaction has no deleterious effect on the strength of the compacted mixture. Anday (1963) has
indicated that the strength development in lime--soil mixtures is a very slow
process, requiring very long periods of from several weeks to many months;
Harty and Thompson (1973}, for example, have observed that the strength
of 28-day cured lime-stabilized soil is a b o u t 2 to 3 times that of the 7-day
cured material.
It could, therefore, be concluded that even if more than 50% of the lime
is consumed within the first five to seven days after curing and that reaction
products are formed as early as 24 h after compaction, the strength increase
in the soil--lime mixture is n o t due to the a m o u n t of lime consumed nor to
the initial reaction products formed b u t rather to the changes that take place
in the cementitious products formed during the pozzolanic reaction. R u f f
and Ho (1966) concluded from their work that lime--clay reaction is a con-
196
900
BOO
E
700
%-J
600
>~ 500
o
L~
~0o
,,= 300
~
o
200
I00
6
Lime Content
10
(1o)
secutive reaction; the strength gain being due to the different phases of the
complete reaction:
lime + clay -~ CSH {gel) -* CSH (11) -~ CSH (1) -~ tobermorite.
They indicated that at any given time there could be more than one phase
of the reaction present, depending upon curing time and temperature; and
that the strength increases as the reaction proceeds further.
The other cementitious products formed during soil--lime reaction are the
calcium aluminate hydrates. The form generally produced at r o o m temperature has the composition -- C4AHn. At an elevated temperature, in the
region of 30C and above, a different calcium aluminate, C3AH6, is formed;
and once formed it is stable at r o o m temperature (Ruff and Ho, 1966). This
c o m p o u n d is the same as that formed in high-alumina cement at high
temperatures or with prolonged curing. This c o m p o u n d is responsible for
loss of strength in high-alumina cement and lime (or cement) stabilized soil
with high proportions o f aluminium oxide. This converted cubic c o m p o u n d ,
C3AH6 (3CaOA1203" 6H20) has a higher density than the original calcium
aluminates and under the conditions that the overall dimensions of the b o d y
are constant, this increased density in the c o m p o u n d brings a b o u t increased
197
600
300
200
100
1'o
Lime Content (%)
porosity in the stabilized soil mass and this leads to a loss of strength (Lea,
1970; Neville, 1975). Lea (1970) has emphasized that it is the volume change
on conversion, rather than the mineralogical nature or morphology of the
hydrates formed that is responsible for the fall in strength. Sherwood (1968)
indicated that the effect o f conversion of the initial calcium aluminate
hydrate to the cubic c o m p o u n d m a y be masked by the strength increases of
the other pozzolanic reaction products. He observed that there was a reduction in strength with time when bauxitic soil (47% A1203 and only 4%
$102) was stabilized with as much as 10% lime or cement.
The soil used for this study had a high proportion of both A1203 and
$102 and the clay mineral was predominantly kaolinite. Therefore the
reaction products likely to be formed are both CSH and CAH.
Fig.8 shows that the increase in strength is n o t proportional to the a m o u n t
of lime added, whereas Fig.9 shows that the shape of the curve of the oneday UCS is similar to that of the immediate CBR at various lime contents.
With time, changes take place in the reaction products which, amongst
other things, axe affected by the a m o u n t of lime used.
For smaller percentages of lime, for example 3%, there is a gradual
decrease o f strength with time. This reduction in strength m a y be due to the
conversion of the calcium aluminate hydrate to the cubic c o m p o u n d . It
should be remembered that the samples were cured at a temperature of
28C + 2C and according to R u f f and Ho (1966) cubic c o m p o u n d could be
198
formed at the upper range of the curing temperature; once formed, the
c o m p o u n d could be stable in the curing temperature range. So even though
calcium silicate hydrates might have been formed, their contribution to the
strength was not enough to overcome the reduction due to the cubic compound. The strength appeared to be picking up slightly after 21 days curing.
Fig.10 shows the strength as a percentage of the one-day strength with
increase in curing time.
There is a scatter of points for the soil stabilized with 7% lime. However,
if the best-fit line is drawn through the points, one observes that there is a
gradual increase in strength with time. The same trend occurs for the 10%
stabilized soil. At a higher lime c o n t e n t and longer curing time, the reaction
products in the tobermorite groups appear to be proceeding further, resulting
in higher strength, and thus masking the effect o f the cubic c o m p o u n d .
F i g . l l shows that the o p t i m u m lime content for maximum strength will
be a b o u t 12% (by extrapolation). This is higher than the optimum lime content obtained by the pH m e t h o d (Eades and Grim, 1960). USAID (1972)
also observed that the o p t i m u m lime content obtained by the pH m e t h o d
was always lower than the lime content that gave the maximum strength for
lime-stabilized laterite. It would, therefore, appear that the pH method is
n o t applicable to tropical soils.
MAIN CONCLUSIONS
Increase in the concentration of the dispersing agent reduced the amount
of clay fraction as measured in the laboratory.
The cone penetrometer gave lower liquid limits than the Casagrande
device and the longer mellowing time gave lower values of the plasticity
index.
Increase in lime content decreases maximum dry unit weight and increases
optimum moisture content.
For all the stabilized soil-mixtures, the highest CBR values were obtained
at the o p t i m u m moisture content, except for the 7% lime c o n t e n t where
the maximum CBR was obtained at 2% below the o p t i m u m moisture content.
The immediate CBR is a function of density, the higher the density the
higher the CBR, and it is n o t proportional to the a m o u n t of lime added.
The Unconfined compressive strength of one-day cured stabilized soil is
almost independent of the a m o u n t of lime added. After 28-days curing the
strength increases, at a decreasing rate, with an increase in the lime content.
Higher temperatures could be deleterious to lime-stabilized soil containing
high proportions of A1203. At lower lime contents there could be a decrease
in strength with time.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The help rendered by the following is acknowledged: Professor A.R. Cusens
for making available the facilities at his Department; the Director of the
199
Transport and Road Research Laboratory, U.K. and the Staff in the Overseas
Unit for providing the laterite used in the study and the Ghana Government
for sponsoring the first author for the study.
REFERENCES
Anday, M.C., 1963. Curing lime stabilized soils. Highway Res. Board, H.R.R., 29: 13--24.
B.S. 1377, 1975. Methods of Testing Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes. British Standards
Institute.
B.S. 1924, 1975. Methods o f Test for Stabilized Soils. British Standards Institute.
Bishewski, E., 1963. The effect of mixing time on the strength of clayey gravel stabilized
with hydrated lime. Proc. 3rd Reg. Conf. Africa, Soil Mech. Found. Eng., 3rd,
Salisbury, 1: 63--67.
De Graft-Johnson, J.W.S. and Bathia, H.S., 1969. Engineering properties of laterite soils.
Gen. Rep., Spec. Sess. Lateritic Soils; Proc. Int. Conf. SMFE, 7th, Mexico, 2: 13--43.
Diamond, S. and Kinter, E.R., 1965. Mechanisms o f soil-lime stabilization. Highway Res.
Rec., 92: 83--102.
Eades, J.L. and Grim, R.E., 1960. Reaction of hydrated lime with pure clay minerals in
soil stabilization. Highway Res. Board, Bul., 262: 51--63.
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Harty, J.R. and Thompson, M.R,, 1973. Lime reactivity of tropical and subtropical soils.
Highway Res. Rec., 422: 102--112.
Jan, M.A. and Walker, R.D., 1963. Effect of lime moisture and compaction on a clay soil.
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428 pp.
Lea, F.M., 1970. The Chemistry of Cement and Concrete. F_ziward Arnold, Glasgow.
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on properties of lime-stabilized expansive clay. Highway Res. Board, Bull., 304: 14--31.
Neubauer, C.H. and Thompson, M.R., 1972. Stability properties of uncured lime-treated
fine-grained soils. Highway Res. Rec., 381: 20--26.
Neville, A.M., 1975. High Alumina Cement Concrete. The Construction Press, London.
Nwakanma, C.A., 1979. The Use of Red Tropical Soils as Pozzolanas: Reaction Products
and Properties. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Leeds, U.K.
Ruff, C.G. and Ho, C., 1966. Time--temperature strength reaction product relationships in
lime--bentonite--water mixtures. Highway Res. Rec., 139: 42--60.
Sherwood, P.T., 1968. The properties of cement stabilized materials. T.R.R.L., Rep. LR
205.
Thompson, M.R., 1965. Soil-lime mixtures for construction of low-volume roads. TRB,
Spec. Rep., No.160.
Thompson, M.R., 1966. Lime reactivity of illinois soils. J. Soil Mech. Found. Eng. Div.,
ASCE, Vol.92.
USAID, 1972. Laterite and Lateritic Soils and Other Problem Soils of Africa. U.S. Agency
for Int. Development, Report AID/CSD-2146, 290 pp.
Van Ganse, R.F., 1974. Immediate amelioration of wet cohesive soils by quick lime.
Transp. Res. Rec., 501: 42--53.